INTRODUCTION

The increasing use of non-linear loads more and more frequently in residential users has, in
recent years, led to greater dedication among electrical engineering researchers to the
problem of voltage wave distortion in distribution systems. Currently, in a typical residential
home, a significant number of non-linear loads can be found: televisions, personal
computers, VCRs, audio equipment, microwave ovens, compact fluorescent lamps, etc.,
which introduce a high harmonic content into the distribution network . Many of these
devices use AC to DC converter sources, which essentially consist of full-wave rectifying
diodes that supply a capacitor connected in parallel with the load.
Nonlinear loads cause harmonic currents that propagate in electrical transmission and
distribution networks, affecting supply quality indices. This can be dangerous for some
sensitive equipment and loads (eg protection devices, capacitor banks, motors,
computers, etc.), in addition to the heating problems caused by distribution lines and
transformers.

Harmonics in the electrical distribution system are the by-products of modern electronics.
They are especially prevalent where there are large numbers of personal computers,
printers, copiers, medical test equipment, fluorescent lighting and adjustable speed drives.
Harmonics do no useful work; they degrade the level of power quality and efficiency in a
commercial building or industrial facility.
Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer (whole number)
multiples of the fundamental power frequency. If the fundamental frequency is 60Hz, the
third harmonic is 180Hz, the fifth 300Hz, etc. Harmonics are created by non-linear loads,
so-called because the current is not drawn as a smooth sine wave. When electronic
equipment turns AC to DC, it draws current in pulses. These pulses cause distorted current
wave shapes that are rich in harmonics. Electronic equipment will act as harmonic current
generators. When these harmonic currents flow back into other parts of the power system
they can also distort the voltage waveform which becomes non-sinusoidal. The distorted
voltage can than effect other loads that share a transformer or branch circuit with the
original harmonic load.

BACKGROUND

In probability theory and statistics, the harmonic distribution is

a continuous probability distribution. It was discovered by Étienne
Halphen, who had become interested in the statistical modeling of
natural events. His practical experience in data analysis
motivated him to pioneer a new system of distributions that
provided sufficient flexibility to fit a large variety of data sets.
Halphen restricted his search to distributions whose parameters
could be estimated using simple statistical approaches. Then,
Halphen introduced for the first time what he called the harmonic
distribution or harmonic law. The harmonic law is a special case
of the generalized inverse Gaussian distribution family when ℽ=0 

The power industry has recognized the problem of power system

harmonics since the 1920s when distorted voltage and current
waveforms were observed on power lines. However, the levels of
harmonics on distribution systems have generally been insignificant in
the past.
Today, it is obvious that the levels of harmonic voltages and currents on
distribution systems are becoming a serious problem. Some of the most
important power system operational problems caused by harmonics have
been reported to include the following :
1. Capacitor-bank failure from dielectric breakdown or reactive power
overload
2. Interference with ripple control and power-line carrier systems,
causing misoperation of systems that accomplish remote switching, load
control, and metering
3. Excessive losses in—and heating of—induction and synchronous
machines
4. Overvoltages and excessive currents on the system from resonance to
harmonic voltages or currents on the network
5. Dielectric instability of insulated cables resulting from harmonic
overvoltages on the system
6. Inductive interference with telecommunication systems
7. Errors in induction watthour meters
8. Signal interference and relay malfunction, particularly in solid-state
and microprocessorcontrolled systems
9. Interference with large motor controllers and power plant excitation
systems (reported to cause motor problems as well as nonuniform
output)
These effects depend, of course, on the harmonic source, its location on
the power system, and the network characteristics that promote
propagation of harmonics

Harmonics definition
To define this concept it is important to first define the quality of the voltage wave which must
have constant amplitude and frequency as well as a sinusoidal shape.
Figure 1 represents the waveform without harmonic content, with a constant frequency of 60Hz
and a constant amplitude of 1pu

Fig1. Wave without harmonic content

When a periodic wave does not have this sinusoidal shape, it is said to have harmonic content,  which can
alter its peak value and / or RMS value, causing alterations in the normal operation of equipment that is
subjected to this voltage. The frequency of the periodic wave is called the fundamental frequency and the
harmonics are signals whose frequency is an integer multiple of this frequency.
 Fig2. Wave with harmonic content

Effects of harmonics in electrical distribution systems

- Effects on cables

The distribution of current through the cross section of a conductor is only uniform when it
comes to direct current. In alternating current, as the frequency increases, the non-uniformity of
the current distribution is more pronounced. In circular conductors the current density increases
from the center to the surface. The external layers are less bound by the magnetic flux than the
internal ones, this means that with alternating current more voltage is induced longitudinally
inside the conductor than on the surface, therefore the current density increases from the interior
to the outer layers of the conductor, this phenomenon is called the skin effect .
Figure 5 shows the variation of the rac / rdc ratio with the frequency for some wire gauges used
in electrical installations. The graph shows how the higher the caliber (lower rdc) the skin effect
becomes more accentuated.
 Figure 5. Value of the XS relation as a function of frequency

- Effects on transformers
Most transformers are designed to operate with alternating current at a fundamental frequency
(50 or 60 Hz), which implies that operating under conditions of nominal load and with a
temperature no higher than the specified ambient temperature, the transformer must be capable to
dissipate the heat produced by its losses without overheating or deteriorating its useful life.
Transformer losses consist of no-load or core losses and on-load losses, which include I2R
losses, eddy current losses, and additional losses to the tank, fasteners, or other iron
parts. Individually, the effect of harmonics on these losses is explained below:
 · No-load or core losses: produced by the excitation voltage in the core. The voltage
waveform in the primary is considered sinusoidal regardless of the load current, so it is not
considered to increase for non-sinusoidal load currents. Although the magnetizing current
consists of harmonics, they are very small compared to those of the load current, so their effect
on total losses is minimal.
 I2R losses:  If the load current contains harmonics, then these losses will also increase
due to the skin effect.
 Eddy current  losses : These fundamental frequency losses are proportional to the
square of the load current and the square of the frequency, which is why there can be an
excessive increase in these in the windings that carry non-sinusoidal load currents ( and therefore
also in its temperature).
 Additional losses: These losses increase the temperature in the structural parts of the
transformer, and depending on the type of transformer, they will contribute or not to the warmer
temperature of the winding. They are considered to vary with the square of the current and the
frequency.

Neutral conductor overheating

In a balanced three-phase system, with distributed neutral, that is, four conductors and with
linear loads, the fundamental 50 Hz component of the current, which runs through each of the
three phases, is canceled out in the neutral conductor because these currents are out of time in a
third of the period (120º) and therefore the sum of these three currents is worth zero.
However, in the case of non-linear single-phase loads, certain odd-order harmonics called
“triplens” - odd multiples of the third harmonic: 3rd, 9th, 15th, etc. - are not canceled out in the
neutral but, on the contrary, they are added in said conductor.

Figure 4.  The currents of the third harmonic accumulate in the neutral.

In systems with many non-linear single-phase loads, the neutral current can, in practice, be
greater than the current of each of the phases. The danger presented in these circumstances is
excessive overheating of the neutral, since there is no automatic circuit breaker in the conductor,
which limits the current, as occurs with phase conductors. Excessive current in the neutral can
also cause an excessive voltage difference between the neutral conductor and ground.

Solution:
Overloading of the neutral conductors can be avoided by dimensioning said neutrals by adopting
a section sufficient to take into account the possible presence of an electrical environment rich in
harmonics. It may be an advisable practice to provide a neutral with a section 1.7 times greater
than that of the phase conductors or simply to double the neutral (figure 5) when the final circuit
must supply computer systems. A separate neutral conductor can also be used for each
phase. Another alternative to prevent the passage of the “triplens” harmonics, upstream of the
alternating current supply systems, may be the use of circuit separation transformers with a
triangle-star connection.

Figure 5: The neutral conductor section has been doubled

Harmonic distortion
harmonic distortion Harmonics is blamed for many power quality
disturbances that are actually transients. Even though transient
disturbances may also have high-frequency components (not associated
with the system fundamental frequency), transients and harmonics are
distinctly different phenomena and are analyzed differently. Transients
are usually dissipated within a few cycles, for example, transients that
result from switching a capacitor bank.

In contrast, harmonics take place in steady state and are integer

multiples of the fundamental frequency. Also, the waveform distortion
that produces the harmonics is continuously present or at least for
several seconds. Usually, harmonics are associated with the continuous
operation of a load. However, transformer energization is a transient
case but can result in a significant waveform distortion for many
seconds. Furthermore, this is known to cause system resonance,
especially when an underground cabled system is being fed by the
transformer. Harmonic distortion is caused by nonlinear devices in the
distribution system. Here, a nonlinear device is defined as the one in
which the current is not proportional to the applied voltage, that is, while
the applied voltage is perfectly sinusoidal, the resulting current is
distorted. Increasing the voltage by a small amount may cause the
current to double and take on a different wave shape.
FIgure 12.1  Various types of disturbances: (a) harmonic distortion,
(b) noise, (c) notches, (d) sag, (e) swell, and (f) surge.
Any periodic and distorted waveform can be expressed as a sum of
sinusoids with different
frequencies. When the waveform is identical from one cycle to the next,
it can be represented by the sum of pure sine waves in which the
frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency of the distorted wave. This multiple is called a harmonic of
the fundamental. The sum of sinusoids is referred to as a Fourier series.
In this way, it is much easier to determine the system resonance to an
input that is sinusoidal. For example, the system is analyzed separately
at each harmonic using the conventional steadystate analysis techniques.
The outputs at each frequency are then combined to form a new Fourier
series, from which the output waveform may be determined, if
necessary. Usually, only the magnitudes of the harmonics are needed.
When both the positive and negative half cycles of a waveform have
identical shapes, the Fourier series has only odd harmonics

Definition of harmonics
 The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current and
voltage are distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.

Harmonic currents are caused by non-linear loads connected to the

distribution system. A load is said to be non-linear when the current it
draws does not have the same waveform as the supply voltage. The flow
of harmonic currents through system impedances in turn creates voltage
harmonics, which distort the supply voltage.

On Figure M1 are presented typical current waveforms for single-phase

(top) and three-phase non-linear loads (bottom).

The Fourier theorem states that all non-sinusoidal periodic functions can be represented as the sum
of terms (i.e. a series) made up of:

 A sinusoidal term at the fundamental frequency,

 Sinusoidal terms (harmonics) whose frequencies are whole multiples of the fundamental
frequency,
 A DC component, where applicable.
The harmonic of order h (commonly referred to as simply the hth harmonic) in a signal is the
sinusoidal component with a frequency that is h times the fundamental frequency.
The equation for the harmonic expansion of a periodic function y (t) is presented below:
where:

 Y0: value of the DC component, generally zero and considered as such hereinafter,
 Yh: r.m.s. value of the harmonic of order h,
 ω: angular frequency of the fundamental frequency,
 φh: displacement of the harmonic component at t = 0.
Figure M2 shows an example of a current wave affected by harmonic distortion on a 50Hz electrical
distribution system. The distorted signal is the sum of a number of superimposed harmonics:

 The value of the fundamental frequency (or first order harmonic) is 50 Hz,
 The 3rd order harmonic has a frequency of 150 Hz,
 The 5thorder harmonic has a frequency of 250 Hz,
 Etc…
Fig. M2 – Example of a current containing harmonics and expansion of the overall current
into its harmonic orders 1 (fundamental), 3, 5, 7 and 9

Effects of Harmonics on Power Distribution

System

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is an indicator of the distortion of a signal. It is widely used in
Electrical Engineering and Harmonic management in particular.
For a signal y, the THD is defined as:

THD is the ratio of the r.m.s. value of all the harmonic components of the signal y, to the
fundamental Y1.
H is generally taken equal to 50, but can be limited in most cases to 25.
Note that THD can exceed 1 and is generally expressed as a percentage.

The trouble with harmonics in modern power systems

Harmonics are a distortion of the normal electrical current waveform,

generally transmitted by nonlinear loads. Switch-mode power supplies
(SMPS), variable speed motors and drives, photocopiers, personal
computers, laser printers, fax machines, battery chargers and UPSs are
examples of nonlinear loads. Single-phase non-linear loads are
prevalent in modern office buildings, while three-phase, non-linear loads
are widespread in factories and industrial plants. A large portion of the
non-linear electrical load on most electrical distribution systems comes
from SMPS equipment. For example, all computer systems use SMPS
that convert utility AC voltage to regulated low-voltage DC for internal
electronics. These non-linear power supplies draw current in high-
amplitude short pulses that create significant distortion in the electrical
current and voltage wave shape—harmonic distortion, measured as total
harmonic distortion (THD). The distortion travels back into the power
source and can affect other equipment connected to the same source.
Most power systems can accommodate a certain level of harmonic
currents but will experience problems when harmonics become a
significant component of the overall load. As these higher frequency
harmonic currents flow through the power system, they can cause
communication errors, overheating and hardware damage, such as:
• Overheating of electrical distribution equipment, cables, transformers,
standby generators, etc.
• High voltages and circulating currents caused by harmonic resonance
• Equipment malfunctions due to excessive voltage distortion
• Increased internal energy losses in connected equipment, causing
component failure and shortened life span
• False tripping of branch circuit breakers
• Metering errors
• Fires in wiring and distribution systems
• Generator failures
• Crest factors and related problems
• Lower system power factor, resulting in penalties on monthly utility
bills
SOURCES OF HARMONICS
The Electrical Machine Lab where the tests are carried out is very close
to the main distribution transformer of the building. We had collected
data in Electrical Machine Lab, which consists of many machines and
equipments such as UPS, Rectifier, Induction Motor, D.C Shunt Motor,
Fluorescent light, Fan, Computers, Printer, Air conditioner etc. The
analyses are carried out on several inspections taken at various timings
through out the year including different loading conditions. .Table 8.1
Total number and types of the loads Type of the loads No of the loads
Fluorescent light 56 Fan 30 Computers 10 UPS 1 Rectifier 1 Induction
motor 6 D.C Shunt motor 4 Printer 1 Air Conditioner 1

Sources of Harmonics Distribution Systems with Single-phase Nonlinear

Loads:

Three-wire Distribution Systems

Three-wire, distribution systems (i.e., IT power systems with insulated
neutrals) are one of the common types of systems used on vessels for
distribution due to the ease of locating and rectifying ground faults and
for security of supply of essential equipment during ground faults. In
three-wire systems, unlike the four-wire system detailed below, no “zero
sequence harmonics” should exist. If they do exist, however, their phase
sequence is determined by the phase angle of the 3rd harmonic current
(and other triplens) and its current magnitude in each of the three phases.
In a three-wire balanced system, therefore, the 3rd harmonics usually
cancel out. However, depending on the type and nature of the nonlinear
loads(s), other harmonic currents will be present in the system, usually
in the order 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th… and perhaps some uncharacteristic
harmonics, including DC and even orders. These harmonics will be very
similar to those described for four-wire systems but with no 3rd
harmonic present

Four-wire Distribution Systems

On large passenger liners, it is now relatively common to use four-wire
systems [i.e., three-phase and neutral (grounded or insulated)] for
“domestic” supplies, including lighting, in order to minimize
inconvenience to passengers in the event of a ground fault. Large or
multiple single-phase nonlinear loads can be problematic on four-wire
systems due to significant triplen harmonics caused by their cumulative
addition in the neutral conductor, resulting in:
 Overloaded and overheating neutral conductors
 Overheated delta winding in distribution transformers
 High ground-to-neutral voltages
 Distortion of voltage waveform (flat topping)
 Poor power factor

As can be seen in Section 4, Figure 1, the phase current’s return path is

via the neutral conductor. In a four-wire distribution system with only
linear loads, the 120-degree phase shift between linear load currents
results in their balanced portions canceling out in the neutral.

However, in distribution systems with nonlinear or mixed linear and

nonlinear loads, the current on one phase will not have a “pulse” on
either of the two other phases with which to cancel with (see Section 4,
Figure 2). These current pulses add together in the neutral conductor,
which can carry up to 173% of phase current, even if all phases are
completely balanced. The frequency of the neutral current is
predominately 180 Hz (for 60 Hz supplies) and mainly 3rd harmonic and
other triplens

Who generates the harmonics?

Harmonics are produced by non-linear loads that absorb non-sinusoidal current. The
The most common loads, both in industrial and domestic environments, are the following:
• Variable speed / frequency
• Discharge lamps (Mercury, sodium vapor, low consumption, fluorescent, etc.)
• Rectifiers
• AC / DC converters
• Arc welding
• Induction furnaces
• UPS
• Computers
• Etc.
by arch
induction
it is
SUMMARY Distribution systems have a high
harmonic content due to the presence of loads
nonlinear such as electronic equipment and items
ferromagnetic in saturation. The analysis of this type of
systems is the goal of harmonic load flow. In
this article shows a load flow methodology
harmonic adapted to distribution systems given the
peculiarities of these systems such as toV
radial pology. An implementation is also shown
computational developed under the program scheme
object-oriented mation using the operating system
Windows. IEEE test examples are presented

CONCLUSIONS
Harmonics is an issue that has only come to the forefront in general
electrical distribution design in the last few years. Because harmonics
are present in all distribution systems, the quick method of measurement
with two different types of multimeters and simple calculations outlined
in this paper help the engineer to identify where high levels of harmonic
voltages or currents may be present. The engineer can then use a more
expensive and time-consuming power analyzer to examine the spectrum
of harmonics present and to determine their source. The engineer must
then decide whether the harmonics pose a potential hazard to the
electrical system and what steps should be taken to suppress the
harmonics.
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Harmonic currents can have a significant impact on electrical
distribution systems and the facilities that they feed. It is important to
consider their impact when contemplating additions or changes to a
system. In addition, identifying the size and location of non-linear loads
should be an important part of any maintenance, troubleshooting and
repair program.This article was intended to provide an introduction to
the basic principles of power system distribution harmonics.

Problems Caused by Harmonics in Electrical distribution systems

Harmonics are popular power quality distortion of recent years that is being spoken more and more
everyday and has different distorting impacts in many different facilities. Within scope of this article,
distortion affects caused by harmonics on various basic electrical equipments shall be examined.

Harmonics are not available in an electrical system having linear elements fed by a source having
purse sinusoidal wave shape at fixed amplitude and frequency. However, non-linear loads such as
power electronic elements increasing parallel to advanced technology withdraw harmonic currents
over the source and pollute the source. Electrical systems with intense harmonics experience various
problems arising from harmonics. 

Problems caused by harmonics have many impacts on facilities both in technical and commercial
aspects. Correctly analyzing and understanding these impacts has critical importance regarding
operation sustainability in facilities and compliance of facilities to national and international
directives. 

Current and voltage wave shapes expected to be in pure sinusoidal form under normal conditions are distorted
in systems with harmonics. Problems generally caused by the wave shape distortion are;
  Source voltage wave shape distortion
 Efficiency loss in transmission and distribution depending on RMS current increase on lines
 Failures in compensation systems
 Overheating in electrical engines and transformers
 Failures in sensitive electronic devices, PLC and CNC devices
 Difficulties and abrasions in insulation levels of equipments
 Increased losses in the system
 Having faulty works in protection and control systems
 Increased voltage reductions
 Resonance risks at high frequencies in systems
Frequency and magnitude of the problem varies depending on factors such as facility type, facility operation
voltage, load type / intensity and grid short circuit power.

REFERENCES
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[3] International Electrotechnical Vocabulary—Chapter 131: Electric
and
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[4] IEEE Working group in Nonsinusoidal Situations, “Practical
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3072.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Rukhin, A.L. (1978). "Strongly symmetrical families and statistical analysis of their
parameters".  Journal of Soviet Mathematics. 9: 886–910.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Puig, Pere (2008). "A note on the harmonic law: A two-parameter family of
distributions for ratios".  Statistics and Probability Letters.  78: 320–326.
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attenuation and diversity in residential areas".
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