1.

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

 BIOGRAPHY
 CONTRIBUTIONS
 NOTATIONS
2. GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ
 BIOGRAPHY
 CONTRIBUTIONS
 NOTATIONS
3. THE CALCULUS CONTROVERSY
___________________________________________________________________

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 Sir Isaac Newton

Born [OS: 25 December 1642]

Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth,Lincolnshire, England
31 March 1727 (aged 84)
Died [OS: 20 March 1727]
Kensington, Middlesex, England
Residence England
Citizenship English
Nationality English (British from 1707)
physics, mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy,
Fields
alchemy, theology
University of Cambridge
Institutions Royal Society
Royal Mint
Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge
Academic Isaac Barrow
advisors Benjamin Pulleyn
Notable Roger Cotes
students William Whiston
Newtonian mechanics
Universal gravitation
Known for
Calculus
Optics
Influences Henry More
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
Influenced
John Keill

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 1) BIOGRAPHY OF ISAAC NEWTON

Isaac was born on Christmas day in a village in Lincolnshire, England on 31

March 1727. He was prematurely born, and, was so small at his birth. Newton's father
had died several months before his birth. Isaac barely maintained average grades and
often lacked attention in school. However, the first hints of Newton's brilliance could be
found in his boyhood inventions. He was responsible for creating sundials, an accurate
wooden clock and water wheels. One of his most practical adolescent inventions was a
mill, which mechanically ground wheat into flour via mouse power. Newton's uncle saw
the potential of his nephew's scientific talents, and enrolled him in Cambridge
University. It was here that Newton was first exposed to the world of mathematics.
Having come across Euclid's Elements in a bookstore, Newton was able to follow
quickly the work, although he had little mathematical background to begin with. Having
found the work easy reading, Newton becomes fascinated by mathematics and he
quickly mastered Descartes' difficult work, Geometry. Newton quickly earned the
respect of his peers and professors at Cambridge. For instance, at the end of his
second year, Newton had taken the place of his professor, Dr. Isaac Barrow, who
resigned in recognition of Newton's superior mathematical skills. According to Newton's
inner circle, Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, yet he published
almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704. Isaac
Newton died on 20 March 1727, in Kensington, Middlesex, England.

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 1.1) ISAAC NEWTON’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Mathematics

In mathematics, early brilliance appeared in Newton's student notes. He may

have learnt geometry at school, though he always spoke of himself as self-taught;
certainly he advanced through studying the writings of his compatriots William Oughtred
and John Wallis, and of Descartes and the Dutch school. Newton made contributions to
all branches of mathematics then studied, but is especially famous for his solutions to
the contemporary problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves
(differentiation) and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did
Newton discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered
general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method of
fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to Leibniz's later
differential and integral calculus. Newton used the term "fluxion" (from Latin meaning
"flow") because he imagined a quantity "flowing" from one magnitude to another.
Fluxions were expressed algebraically, as Leibniz's differentials were, but Newton made
extensive use also (especially in the Principia) of analogous geometrical arguments.
Late in life, Newton expressed regret for the algebraic style of recent mathematical
progress, preferring the geometrical method of the Classical Greeks, which he regarded
as clearer and more rigorous.Newton's work on pure mathematics was virtually hidden
from all but his correspondents until 1704, when he published, with Opticks, a tract on
the quadrature of curves (integration) and another on the classification of the cubic
curves. His Cambridge lectures, delivered from about 1673 to 1683, were published in
1707.

Calculus

Newton had made his first important contribution by advancing the binomial
theorem, which he had extended to include fractional and negative exponents. He
succeeded in expanding the applicability of the binomial theorem by applying the
algebra of finite quantities in an analysis of infinite series. He showed a willingness to

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view infinite series not only as approximate devices, but also as alternative forms of
expressing a term.

Many of Newton’s critical insights occurred during his plague-induced isolation

that the first written conception of Fluxionary Calculus was recorded in the unpublished
De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas. In this paper, Newton
determined the area under a curve by first calculating a momentary rate of change and
then extrapolating the total area. He began by reasoning about an indefinitely small
triangle whose area is a function of x and y. He then reasoned that the infinitesimal
increase in the abscissa will create a new formula where x = x + o (importantly, o is the
letter, not the digit 0). He then recalculated the area with the aid of the binomial
theorem, removed all quantities containing the letter o and re-formed an algebraic
expression for the area. Significantly, Newton would then “blot out” the quantities
containing o because terms “multiplied by it will be nothing in respect to the rest”.

At this point Newton had begun to realize the central property of inversion. He
had created an expression for the area under a curve by considering a momentary
increase at a point. In effect, the fundamental theorem of calculus was built into his
calculations. While his new formulation offered incredible potential, Newton was well
aware of its logical limitations. He attempted to avoid the use of the infinitesimal by
forming calculations based on ratios of changes. In the Methodus Fluxionum he defined
the rate of generated change as a fluxion, which he represented by a dotted letter, and
the quantity generated he defined as a fluent.

1.2) NOTATION,

For example, if x and y are fluent, then and are their respective fluxions. Essentially,
the ultimate ratio is the ratio as the increments vanish into nothingness. Importantly,
Newton explained the existence of the ultimate ratio by appealing to motion.Newton's
name for it was "the science of fluent and fluxions".The work of both Newton and

Leibniz is reflected in the notation used today. Newton introduced the notation for the

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derivative of a function f. Leibniz introduced the symbol for the integral and wrote the
derivative of a function y of the variable x as

both of which are still in use.

Western Philosophy
17th-century philosophy

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Full name Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
1 July 1646
Born
Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony
14 November 1716
Died
Hanover, Electorate of Hanover
Main interest Metaphysics, Mathematics, Theodicy
Notable ideas Infinitesimal calculus, Calculus, Monadology, Theodicy,
Optimism
Leibniz formula for pi
Leibniz harmonic triangle
Leibniz formula for determinants
Leibniz integral rule
Principle of sufficient reason
Leibniz differential
Diagrammatic reasoning
Notation for differentiation
Differential calculus
Proof of Fermat's little theorem

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 Kinetic energy
Entscheidungsproblem

2) BIOGRAPHY OF GOTTFRIED LEIBNIZ

Gottfried Leibniz was born on 1 July 1646 in Leipzig to Friedrich Leibniz and
Catherina Schmuck. The Leibniz family was of Slavonic origin, but had been
established in the Leipzig area for more than two hundred years. His father died when
he was six, so he learned his religious and moral values from his mother. When Leibniz
was six years old, his father, a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of
Leipzig, died, leaving a personal library to which Leibniz was granted free access from
age seven onwards. While his schoolwork focused on a small canon of authorities, his
father's library enabled him to study a wide variety of advanced philosophical and
theological works that he would not have otherwise been able to read until his university
studies. He entered his father's university at age 14 and completed a Bachelor's degree
in philosophy on 2 December 1662. He soon after took a Master's degree in philosophy
on 7 February 1664. After two years of legal studies, he was awarded a Bachelor's
degree in law on 28 September 1665. He was died in Hanover on November 14, 1716.

According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on 11 November

1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under a
function y = ƒ(x). He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the
integral sign ∫ representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa and the d used
for differentials, from the Latin word differentia. This ingenious and suggestive notation
for the calculus is probably his most enduring mathematical legacy. Leibniz did not
publish anything about his calculus until 1684. The product rule of differential calculus
is still called "Leibniz's law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to
differentiate under the integral sign is called the Leibniz integral rule.

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 2.1) GOTTFRIED LEIBNITZ’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Mathematician

Although the mathematical notion of function was implicit in trigonometric and

logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to
employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve,
such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular. In the 18th century,
"function" lost these geometrical associations.

Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of linear equations
could be arranged into an array, now called a matrix, which can be manipulated to find
the solution of the system, if any. This method was later called Gaussian elimination.
Leibniz's discoveries of Boolean algebra and of symbolic logic, also relevant to
mathematics, are discussed in the preceding section. A comprehensive scholarly
treatment of Leibniz's mathematical writings has yet to be written.

Calculus

Leibniz is credited, along with Isaac Newton, with the discovery of infinitesimal
calculus. According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on 11
November 1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area
under a function y = ƒ(x). He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance
the integral sign ∫ representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa and the d
used for differentials, from the Latin word differentia. This ingenious and suggestive
notation for the calculus is probably his most enduring mathematical legacy. Leibniz did
not publish anything about his calculus until 1684. The product rule of differential
calculus is still called "Leibniz's law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to
differentiate under the integral sign is called the Leibniz integral rule.

Leibniz's approach to the calculus fell well short of later standards of rigor (the
same can be said of Newton's). We now see a Leibniz "proof" as being in truth mostly a
heuristic hodgepodge mainly grounded in geometric intuition. Leibniz also freely invoked

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mathematical entities he called infinitesimals, manipulating them in ways suggesting
that they had paradoxical algebraic properties. George Berkeley, in a tract called The
Analyst and elsewhere, [citation needed] ridiculed this and other aspects of the early
calculus, pointing out that natural science grounded in the calculus required just as big
of a leap of faith as theology grounded in Christian revelation.

From 1711 until his death, Leibniz's life was envenomed by a long dispute with
John Keill, Newton, and others, over whether Leibniz had invented the calculus
independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another notation for ideas
that were fundamentally Newton's.

Modern, rigorous calculus emerged in the 19th century, thanks to the efforts of
Augustin Louis Cauchy, Bernhard Riemann, Karl Weierstrass, and others, who based
their work on the definition of a limit and on a precise understanding of real numbers.
Their work discredited the use of infinitesimals to justify calculus. Yet, infinitesimals
survived in science and engineering, and even in rigorous mathematics, via the
fundamental computational device known as the differential. Beginning in 1960,
Abraham Robinson worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals, using
model theory. The resulting nonstandard analysis can be seen as a belated vindication
of Leibniz's mathematical reasoning.

1.2) NOTATIONS, dy/dx & ∫

Very interested in Sums and Differences. Basis for FTC. Calculus discovered while
looking at infinite series
Sum of consecutive differences = (the last term – the first term)
d= the difference between two consecutive numbers
a= a number in the series
d1 + d2 + …+ dn= an – a1
Led to integration. Integration to differentiation (dy & dx differences in consecutive
values

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NEWTON VS LEIBNIZ; THE CALCULUS CONTROVERSY

Like most discoveries, calculus was the culmination of centuries of work rather
than an instant epiphany. Mathematicians all over the world contributed to its
development, but the two most recognized discoverers of calculus are Isaac Newton
and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Although the credit is currently given to both men, there
was a time when the debate over which of them truly deserved the recognition was both
heated and widespread.

As the renowned author of Principia (1687) as well as a host of equally esteemed

published works, it appears that Newton not only went much further in exploring the
applications of calculus than Leibniz did, but he also ventured down a different road.
Leibniz and Newton had very different views of calculus in that Newton’s was based on
limits and concrete reality, while Leibniz focused more on the infinite and the abstract
(Struik, 1948). However, regardless of the divergent paths these two scholars chose to
venture down, the question of who took the first step remained the primary issue of
debate.

Unaware that Newton was reported to have discovered similar methods, Leibniz
discovered “his” calculus in Paris between 1673 and 1676 (Ball, 1908). By 1676, Leibniz
realized that he was onto something “big”; he just didn’t realize that Newton was on to
the same big discovery because Newton was remaining somewhat tight lipped about his
breakthroughs. In fact, it was actually the delayed publication of Newton’s findings that
caused the entire controversy. Leibniz published the first account of differential calculus
in 1684 and then published the explanation of integral calculus in 1686 (Boyer, 1968).

Newton did not publish his findings until 1687. Yet evidence shows that Newton
discovered his theories of fluxional calculus in 1665 and 1666, after having studied the
work of other mathematicians such as Barrows and Wallis (Struik, 1948).. Evidence also
shows that Newton was the first to establish the general method called the "theory of
fluxions" was the first to state the fundamental theorem of calculus and was also the first
to explore applications of both integration and differentiation in a single work (Struik,
1948). However, since Leibniz was the first to publish a dissertation on calculus, he was

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given the total credit for the discovery for a number of years. This later led, of course, to
accusations of plagiarism being hurled relentlessly in the direction of Leibniz.

There was speculation that Leibniz may have gleaned some of his insights from
two of Newton's manuscripts on fluxions, and that that is what sparked his
understanding of calculus. Many believed that Leibniz used Newton's unpublished
ideas, created a new notation and then published it as his own, which would obviously
constitute plagiarism. The rumor that Leibniz may have seen some of Newton's
manuscripts left little doubt in most people’s minds as to whether or not Leibniz arrived
at his conclusions independently. The rumor was, after all, believable because Newton
had admittedly bounced his ideas off a handful of colleagues, some of who were also in
close contact with Leibniz (Boyer, 1968).

It is also known that Leibniz and Newton corresponded by letter quite regularly,
and they most often discussed the subject of mathematics (Boyer, 1968). In fact,
Newton first described his methods, formulas and concepts of calculus, including his
binomial theorem, fluxions and tangents, in letters he wrote to Leibniz (Ball, 1908).
However an examination of Leibniz' unpublished manuscripts provided evidence that
despite his correspondence with Newton, he had come to his own conclusions about
calculus already. The letters may then, have merely helped Leibniz to expand upon his
own initial ideas.

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1. FUNCTION 1
2. GRAPH 1
3. FUNCTION 2
4. GRAPH 2
5. FUNCTION 3
6. GRAPH 3

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1. DISCUSSION
2. CONCLUSION

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20
Given the function is

f(x) = 2x6 + 3x5 + 3x3 – 2x2

Therefore,

f’(x) = 12x5 + 15x4 + 9x2 – 4x

From Graph 2, we get the coordinate of turning points are

(0.20, - 0.34) and (- 1.2, 19)

Next,

f’’(x) = 60x4 + 60x3 + 18x – 4

When x = 0.20,

f’’(x) = 0.176 > 0

 (0.20, - 0.34) is a local minimum point.

When x = -1.2

f’’(x) = - 4.864 < 0

 (- 1.2, 19) is a local maximum point.

Since the point is not located in the graph, we assume that the maximum point is
infinity.

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From the second derivative, we can know that the graph has maximum and minimum
point, by substitute the value of x into second derivative. If we get the positive value, the
point is minimum and if we get the negative value, the point is maximum. From our
graph, (0.20, - 0.34) is minimum point while (- 1.2, 19) is maximum point.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://mally.stanford.edu/leibniz.html Access on 21 August 2009

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus Access on 7 September 2009

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz Access on 21 August 2009

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton Access on 21 August 2009

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_and_Newton_calculus_controversy Access on 7
September 2009

http://www.angelfire.com/md/byme/mathsample.html Access on 21 August 2009

http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Science/Newton.htm Access on 25
August 2009

http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Gottfried:Leibniz.html Access on 8 September 2009

http://www-groups.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html Access on 8
September 2009

http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Leibniz/RouseBall/RB_Leibnitz.html
Access on 25 August 2009

http://www.mathematicianspictures.com/Mathematicians/Leibniz.htm Access on 25
August 2009

http://www.mtsd.k12.wi.us/MTSD/Homestead/ordinans/Leibniz.htm Access on 25
August 2009

http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/gottfried-leibniz/the-calculus.html Access on 7
September 2009

http://www.stewartcalculus.com/data/ESSENTIAL
%20CALCULUS/upfiles/projects/eclt_wp_0404_stu.pdf Access on 7 September 2009

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http://www1.umn.edu/ships/9-1/calculus.htm Access on 8 September 2009

Ong Beng Sim (2005), Mathematics for STPM Pure Mathematics, Penerbitan Fajar
Bakti Sdn Bhd, Selangor Darul Ehsan

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 INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION

Prepared by: Nur Afifah bt Mohamed Salleh

We are given an assignment to do for the subject Mathematics in this semester.

With my partner Siti Khirnie Kasbolah, we have to do 3 tasks. Task 1 search the
biography and contribution of Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, task 2
isbfind the maximum and minimum points using Geometry Sketchpad and last task is
solving the question of function.

For the first discussion, we divide the work. I have to find information about
Leibniz while Khirnie has to find about Sir Isaac Newton. Then we discuss together to
complete the second and third questions which are find the maximum and minimum
point and solving the question of function

Our strength of our group is, before we start this task, we planning the draft first.
After that we divide the work with my partner so that our task is done on time. We also
have a good discussion. My partner gave full commitment in doing this task.

Besides, our group also has some weaknesses where we do not have so much
time because there are a lot of works to do. So we overcome this weakness by dividing
the works. We also has problem to do a group discussion because everyone busy with
their own works. We overcome this problem by find the suitable time to discuss and use
our time properly.

And thank God, after face so many problems , we can submit the task on time.
We also enjoy doing this task because we can fully use our idea to create a creative
brochure. We also learn how to conduct a campaign by our own. I hope with this
experience, we can apply it in our daily life.

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 INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION

Prepared by: Siti Khirnie binti Kasbolah

The task had given on 14 August 2009 by our lecturer, Pn Farida bt Mohamad
Dahari. As my class have been learned Basic Calculus for this semester, we were
asked to work in pair so that we can have a lot of discussion and sharing lot of ideas. I
had chosen to work with Nur Afifah. There are three parts in our assignment. The first
part was about to make a research on calculus, which developed by Isaac Newton and
Gottfried Leibniz. The second part is about to manage the function by using Graph
Skecth Pad (GSP) software. And the third part was about to relate the graph with the
calculus.

Actually this task was interesting because it need my friend and I to explore the
one of the main chapter Mathematics which is we know it is really an interesting topic.
Besides that, I also learned how to create graphs by explore the GSP software by
myself. After that, I taught my partner and some other friends. It is really enjoying
because I do not have to draw or make a draft to draw the graph. I had just inserted the
function and with a single click, the graph is there. GSP Software is helpful in making
graph for the second part of this assignment.

The strength that I can found in my work is I have no problem with my partner.
Besides that, we can share our opinion because we were respecting each other. I was
also satisfied with the cooperation from my partner because she knew what she should
do especially when we had divided the work. She managed to complete her part
successfully. Furthermore, we have no problem to make research through the internet
because we can online during our class. We have so many materials from the websites.

Despite of strength, I was also detected some weaknesses in myself while doing
this work. The main problem is time. My partner and I have to do this assignment
separately since we do not have enough time to make a lot of discussion. This is
because we have other assignment to be completed and actually, this problem is the

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routine problem for every time we had to complete our assignment. I thought maybe I
have problem with my own time management. Therefore, I will try to work on it and
improve myself by making a timetable to make sure this problem does not occur again.

As the conclusion, even this assignment is quite difficult, I enjoyed doing this
assignment because from this assignment I knew Isaac Newton is also a Mathematician
because I had only knew that he is a scientist before. Besides that, I realize that it is not
easy for the ancient people to make research to create their own theory or formula.
They need to do so many research and experiments. There was also controversy in
order to stand with their idea. I feel so grateful because I have chance to learn
Mathematics without any difficulty to quarrel or to find something new. Everything
(theories, formulas) is there. All I need to do is just learn and maybe I can manipulate
the theory for other necessary.

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