Metal Forming Fundamentals

Fundamentals of Metal Forming Outline
Mechanical Properties - Example Overview of Metal Forming Cold working - Strain Hardening Annealing - Recrystallization Temperature in Metal Forming Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/1
Example
A metal obeys the Hollomon relationship and has a UTS of 300 MPa. To reach maximum load requires an elongation of 35%. Find K and n.
True stress-strain curve plotted on log-log scale
Dr. M. Medraj
Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University
Dr. M. Medraj
Overview of Metal Forming

Rolling
Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
Bulk Deformation
Bulk Deformation
Forging Extrusion
rolling
Metal Forming
Mainly cold working
Wire and bar drawing
extrusion
Large group of mfg processes in which plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal workpieces
Bending Sheet Metalworking Shearing

Deep and cup drawing
Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/3 Dr. M. Medraj
Wire/bar drawing forging

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/4
Dr. M. Medraj
Sheet Metalworking
Formability (workability)
Formability of the material depends on: (1) process variables Desirable material properties in metal - forming: - Low yield strength and high ductility -
bending
Deep/cup drawing
(2) Metallurgical changes during deformation - formation of voids, composition, inclusions, precipitation, .... etc.
Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is raised Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and power at elevated temperature
shearing
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/5 Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/6
Homologous Temp. Ranges for Various Processes

T: working temperature Tm: melting point of metal (based on absolute temperature scale) Process Cold working Warm working Hot working T/Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6
Strain or Work Hardening

Strain hardening (work hardening) is where a material becomes less ductile, harder and stronger with plastic deformation Encountered during cold working percentage cold work can be expressed as:
Ao = original cross-sectional area Ao Ad % CW = 100 A = deformed cross-sectional area d Ao
e.g. lead Tm = 327 C Formed at room temperature (20 C), .

Most metals strain harden at room temperature according to the flow curve (n > 0) But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and deformed, strain hardening does not occur - Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain - The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is, n = .
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/7
Ductility .... with cold work yield and tensile strength
Dr. M. Medraj
Strain or Work Hardening

Yield strength (y) increases. Tensile strength (UTS) increases. Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Stress
Example: Cold Work Analysis

What is the tensile strength & ductility after cold working?
Copper Cold work
col d
wo
rk
Strain
The influence of cold work on the stressstrain behavior for a lowcarbon steel.
Dr. M. Medraj
dislocation density increases with CW motion of dislocations is hindered as their density increases stress required to cause further deformation is increased strain hardening is used commercially to improve the yield and tensile properties cold-rolled low-carbon steel sheet aluminum sheet strain hardening exponent n indicates the response to cold work (i.e. larger n means greater strain hardening for a given amount of plastic strain)
Do =15.2mm
Dd =12.2mm
y (MPa)
700 500 300 100 0 20 40 800 600
UTS (MPa)
60 40 20
ductility (%EL)
Cu
% Cold Work
400 200 0 20 40
Cu
20 40 60
Cu
% Cold Work
60
60
00
% Cold Work
Dr. M. Medraj
Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly above Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations Minimum or no machining usually required These operations are near net shape or net shape processes
Cold Working
Disadvantages of Cold Forming: Equipment of higher forces and power required Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be done
In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked
Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working:

Better accuracy, closer tolerances Better surface finish Strain hardening increases strength and hardness Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties in product No heating of work required (less total energy)
Purposes of annealing: - .. - - ..
Involves three steps
Dr. M. Medraj
Annealing-Recrystallization in Metals
Residual Stresses
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Recovery occurs during heating at elevated temperatures below the recrystallization temperature dislocations reconfigure due to diffusion and relieve the lattice strain energy electrical and thermal properties are recovered to their precold worked state Recrystallization recrystallization results in the nucleation and growth of new strain-free, equiaxed grains contain low dislocation density equivalent to the pre-cold worked condition annealed state restoration of mechanical properties softening
Formation of new strain-free grains is called recrystallization Recrystallization takes time the recrystallization temperature is specified as the temperature at which new grains are formed in about Recrystallization can be exploited in manufacturing Heating a metal to its recrystallization temperature prior to deformation allows a greater amount of straining, and lower forces and power are required to perform the process
Strength
Ductility
Grain growth
Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical properties and on the shape and size of grains.
Dr. M. Medraj
Dr. M. Medraj
Recrystallization in Metals
Recrystallization in Metals
Rate of recrystallization increases with amount of cold work require a critical amount of coldwork to cause recrystallization (220%) recrystallization is easier in pure metals than alloys and occurs at lower temperature 0.3Tm versus ~0.7Tm hot-working involves deformation The variation of recrystallization temperature and concurrent recrystallization at with percent cold work for iron. For deformations less than the critical (about high temperature
5%CW), recrystallization will not occur.
Cold-worked (33%CW)
Initial stage of rec. after heating 3 s at 580oC
Partial replacement of cw grains by rec. ones 4 s.
Complete recrystallization (8 s at 580oC).

Dr. M. Medraj
Grain growth after 15 min at 580oC

Grain growth after 10 min at 700oC

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/15 Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/16
Grain Growth
Growth of new grains will continue at high temperature does not require recovery and recrystallization occurs in both metals and ceramics at elevated temperature involves the migration of grain boundaries large grains grow at expense of small ones reduction of grain boundary area (driving force)
Grain Growth Kinetics

Variation of grain size (d) with time is:
d n d on = Kt
where do = initial grain size at t = 0, and K and n are time-independent constants, n is 2 log d versus log t plots give linearity at low temperatures
The logarithm of grain diameter versus the logarithm of time for grain growth in brass at several temperatures.
Schematic representation of grain growth via atomic diffusion.
grain size increases with temperature toughness and strength are superior in fine grained materials
Dr. M. Medraj
Dr. M. Medraj
Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below recrystallization temperature Warm working: T/Tm from 0.3 to 0.5
Advantages of Warm Working: Lower forces and power than in cold working More intricate work geometries possible Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization temperature In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this level
Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far more than possible with cold working or warm working Why?
Strength coefficient is substantially less than at room temp. Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically) Ductility is significantly increased
Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/19 Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/20
Dr. M. Medraj
Dr. M. Medraj
Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working

Workpart shape can be significantly altered Lower forces and power required (equipment) Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed Strength properties of product are generally isotropic No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed by cold forming
Friction in Metal Forming

In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
Metal flow is retarded Forces and power are increased Wears tooling faster
Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction Benefits:
Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear Better surface finish Removes heat from the tooling
Disadvantages of Hot Working:

Lower dimensional accuracy Higher total energy required
- due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:

Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.) Hot working or cold working Work material Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals Ease of application Cost
Work surface oxidation (scale), surface finish tool life

Dr. M. Medraj
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Rolling
Dr. M. Medraj

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Fundamentals of Metal Forming Outline

True stress-strain curve plotted on log-log scale

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/2

Overview of Metal Forming

Wire and bar drawing

Bending Sheet Metalworking Shearing

Wire/bar drawing forging

Homologous Temp. Ranges for Various Processes

Strain or Work Hardening

e.g. lead Tm = 327 C Formed at room temperature (20 C), .

Ductility .... with cold work yield and tensile strength

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/8

Strain or Work Hardening

Example: Cold Work Analysis

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/10

Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working:

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/11

Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/13

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Initial stage of rec. after heating 3 s at 580oC

Partial replacement of cw grains by rec. ones 4 s.

Complete recrystallization (8 s at 580oC).

Grain growth after 15 min at 580oC

Grain growth after 10 min at 700oC

Grain Growth Kinetics

Schematic representation of grain growth via atomic diffusion.

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/17

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/18

Why Hot Working?

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working

Friction in Metal Forming

Disadvantages of Hot Working:

Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:

Work surface oxidation (scale), surface finish tool life

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/22

Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University

Mech 421/6511 lecture 3/23

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