Basic Concepts in Electrochemistry

Electrochemical Cell

Electrons Current

+
Voltage Source

Current ANODE CATHODE

Fuel Cell

Electrons (2 e) Current

Electrical Load

Current ANODE CATHODE

H2

2H + + 2e

O2 + 2H + + 2e

H2 O
3

Electrolysis Cell

Electrons (2 e) Current

+
Voltage Source

Current ANODE 2 H+ ; SO4 2H2 O O2 + 2H + + 2e 2H + + 2e H2

4

CATHODE

What is electrochemistry?

Electrochemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that examines the phenomena resulting from combined chemical and electrical effects.

Types of processes
This field covers: - Electrolytic processes: Reactions in which chemical changes occur on the passage of an electrical current - Galvanic or Voltaic processes: Chemical reactions that result in the production of electrical energy
6

Electrochemical cell
An electrochemical cell typically consists of: - Two electronic conductors (also called electrodes) - An ionic conductor (called an electrolyte)

Modes of charge transport

Charge transport in the electrodes occurs via the motion of electrons (or holes), Charge transport in the electrolyte occurs via the motion of ions (positive and negative)

Reactions half cell and overall

At each electrode, an electrochemical reaction occurs. This reaction is called a half cell reaction (since there are two electrodes in a typical cell at which reactions occur) The overall chemical reaction of the cell is given by combining the two individual half cell reactions
9

Half cell reaction types

There are two fundamental types of half cell reactions: - Oxidation reactions - Reduction reactions A reaction is classified as oxidation or reduction depending on the direction of electron transfer

10

Oxidation and reduction energetics

11

Oxidation
Involves the loss of an electron Involves the transfer of electrons from the species to the electrode

R = O + ne (1)
Oxidation is an energetic process, and occurs when the energy of the electrode dips below the highest occupied molecular orbital of the compound see figure part b
12

Reduction
Involves the gain of an electron Involves the transfer of electrons from the electrode to the species

O + ne = R (2)
Reduction is also an energetic process, and occurs when the energy of the electrode increases above the lowest vacant molecular orbital of the compound see figure part a
13

Example of electrochemical cell

Zinc and copper metals placed in a solution of their respective sulfates, and separated by a semi permeable membrane

14

Reactions
Zinc metal gets oxidized - goes into solution: Zn = Zn 2+ + 2e (3) Copper ions in solution reduced; copper metal deposited on the copper electrode Cu2+ + 2e = Cu (4) Electrons for reduction obtained from the zinc electrode - external wire Sulfate ions [reaction (4)] migrate through the membrane, - react with the zinc ions [from (3)] zinc sulfate
15

Convention
Electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs is called the anode Electrode at which the reduction reaction occurs is called the cathode Thus in the above example, the zinc electrode was the anode and the copper electrode was the cathode
16

Working and counter electrodes

The electrode at which the reaction of interest occurs is called the working electrode The electrode at which the other (coupled) reaction occurs is called the counter electrode A third electrode, called the reference electrode may also be used
17

What gets oxidized?

In previous example: - Zn was oxidized - Cu was reduced For a given set of two reversible redox reactions, Thermodynamics predicts which reaction proceeds as an oxidation and which proceeds as a reduction

18

Electrode potential
The electrode potential for a reaction is derived directly from the free energy change for that reaction G = - NFE The standard oxidation potential is equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign to the std. reduction potential
19

Competing reactions
For a set of 2 competing reactions: The reaction with the lower standard reduction potential gets oxidized - the other reaction proceeds as a reduction

Zn = Zn 2+ + 2e (3) Ered = --0.7618 V Cu2+ + 2e = Cu (4) Ered = 0.341 V Thus, in the above example, Zn is oxidized, and Cu is reduced
20

Rationale
Gcell = - NFEcell Ecell = Ecathode E anode For a feasible reaction: Ecell must be positive (so that Gcell is negative recall thermodynamic criterion for feasibility) Therefore: Ecathode E anode > 0 or Ecathode > E anode
21

 Since oxidation occurs at the anode the species with the lower reduction potential will get oxidized This is to ensure that Gcell is negative This is why Zn got oxidized (and Cu reduced) in the above example. In this case: Ecell = 1.102. If the reverse were to occur, Ecell would be: -1.102, leading to a positive Gcell
22

Sources of Ered values

Comprehensive listings of Ered values for most half cell reactions are available in: - The Langes Handbook of chemistry - The CRC Handbook of chemistry and physics

23

Faradays law

Relationship between the quantity of current (charge) passed through a system, and the quantity of (electro) chemical change that occurs due to the passage of the current

24

Mathematical statement
m = M I t /n F (5) m - mass of substance M - molecular weight of the substance I - current passed (A) t - time for which the current is passed (s) n - number of electrons transferred F - Faraday constant (96475 C / eqv)
25

Key concept

The amount of chemical change is proportional to the amount of current passed

26

Faradays second law

Restatement of the first law for a fixed quantity of charge passing through the system

27

Faradaic processes
All processes that obey Faradays law are termed faradaic processes All these processes involve electron transfer at an electrode / electrolyte interface These reactions are also called electron / charge transfer reactions Electrodes at which these processes occur are called charge transfer electrodes
28

Nonfaradaic processes
Sometimes changes exist in the electrode / electrolyte interface without charge transfer taking place These changes are due to processes such as adsorption and desorption Such processes are called nonfaradaic processes
29

No electrons flow through the electrode / electrolyte interface during nonfaradaic processes

However, transient external currents can be generated by nonfaradaic processes

30

More on nonfaradaic processes

Faradaic processes interest us the most! Therefore, care must be taken to ensure that the effects of the nonfaradaic processes are understood and quantified. Some examples of nonfaradaic processes are discussed in the following slides

31

Ideally polarized electrodes

An electrode at which there is no charge transfer across the electrode / electrolyte interface over all potential ranges is called an ideally polarized electrode (IPE)

32

Examples of IPEs
None exist that can cover the entire potential range in solution A mercury electrode in contact with deaerated KCl behaves as an IPE over a potential range of ~ 2V Other electrodes are ideally polarized over much smaller ranges
33

Behaviour of an IPE
Recall no charge transfer possible at IPE / electrolyte interface The behaviour of such an interface when the potential across the electrode is changed resembles that of a plain capacitor An IPE follows the standard capacitor equation
34

Mathematical treatment
Q = CdE (6) capacitor equation Q - charge stored in coloumbs (C) Cd - capacitance in farads (F) E - potential across the capacitor /IPE (V) When voltage is applied across an IPE, the electrical double layer is charged until eqn. 6 is obeyed During charging a charging current flows through the system
35

Significance of charging currents

Contributes to total current measured Cannot be ignored especially for low faradaic currents may exceed faradaic currents in such cases To better understand the effect of charging, we need to examine mathematically the responses of an IPE to various electrochemical stimuli
36

Model representation of an IPE

Cd

Rs

The IPE system can be represented as a capacitance (Cd) in series with the electrolyte resistance (Rs)
37

Application of a potential step

38

Input
A potential step is applied i.e. the potential is raised from an initial value to a higher value, and held at the higher value See previous fig. , bottom graph

39

Result of potential step application

The double layer is charged Q = Cd E (6)

NOTE: The applied voltage must equal the sum of the voltage drops across the resistor (Er) and capacitor (Ec), we have
40

E = Er + Ec (7) Applying Ohms law, Er = I Rs (8) from (6), Ec = Q/Cd (9) Therefore: E = IRs + Q/Cd (10)

41

By definition, current is the rate of flow of charge Therefore: I = dQ/dt (11) Equation 10 can be rewritten as: I = dQ/dt = -Q/RsCd + E/Rs
42

Solution
Initial condition: that the capacitor is initially uncharged (Q = 0 at t = 0) solution of eqn. 2 is: Q = E Cd [1 e (-t/RsCd)] (13)

43

Time dependence of charging current

Differentiating eqn. 13 w.r.t. time, we get: I = (E/Rs) * e (-t/RsCd) (14) Equation 14 describes the time dependence of the charging current in response to a potential step also see following figure, top graph
44

Graphical representation

45

Practical significance
Product of Rs and Cd has units of time called time constant () For typical values of Rs and Cd, the charging current dies down to an insignificant level in a few hundred microseconds Any faradaic current must be measured after this time period to avoid the influence of the charging current
46

Back to faradaic processes

47

Investigation of electrochemical behaviour

Involves holding certain variables constant while observing the trends in others Typical variable shown in diagram

48

Variables to be considered
V
Load / Power Supply

49

Main aspects of interest

From a fuel cell point of view, the main aspects of interest are: - Electrochemical kinetics - Ionic and electronic resistances a. In electrolyte b. In electrodes - Mass transport through the electrodes These processes are illustrated in the following schematic
50

51

Current
Current may be written as the rate of change of charge: I = dQ/dt (15) The number of moles (N) participating in an n electron electrochemical reaction is given by N = Q/nF (16)

52

Reaction rate
The electrochemical reaction rate can be written as: Rate (mol/s) = dN/dt From 16, Rate = (1/nF) dQ/dt From 15, Rate = I/nF (17) Thus the current is a direct measure of the rate of electrochemical reaction
53

Reaction flux
Sometimes, it is convenient to express quantities as a flux: Dividing the rate (17) by the active area of the electrode (A, cm2), we get: Flux (J, mol/cm2.s) = I/nFA Replacing I/A by i (current density A/cm2), we get: Flux (J, mol/cm2.s) = I/nFA = i/nF (18)

54

Polarization and overpotential

Faradaic reactions have an equilibrium potential based upon reaction free energy On passing faradaic current - the potential shifts from this equilibrium potential This shift is termed polarization Extent of shift - measured by the overpotential ()

= E Eeq, (19)

55

Polarization curves
Information about the faradaic reaction is gained by determining current as a function of potential or vice versa. The resulting curves (see following figure) are called polarization curves (or V-I curves or E-I curves). Obtaining such curves is a critical part of fuel cell research.
56

Typical fuel cell polarization curve

57

Ideal Potential

Region of Activation Polarization (Reaction Rate Loss)

Cell Voltage (V)

Region of Ohmic Polarization (Resistance Loss) 0.5

oss Cathode L

Region of Concentration Polarization (Gas Transport Loss) 0.5

oss esistance L R l a n r te n I Membrane Anode Loss

0.0

10

Current Density (mA/cm )

15

20

25

30

35

0.0

Polarization (V)
58

1.0

Total Loss

1.0

Resistance in electrochemical cells

59

Types of resistance
Electronic resistance due to electronic current through electrodes and external circuit can be minimized by using electron conducting materials Ionic resistance - due to ionic current through electrolyte needs to be considered seriously as it leads to losses
60

Ion transport
At the anode - excess of positive ions build up of positive charge At the cathode excess of negative ions build up of negative charge Buildup of ionic charge - released by the ion transport Positive ions move from anode to cathode and vice versa

61

Transport numbers
The fractions of current carried by the positive and negative ions are given by their transport numbers t+ + t- respectively Each mole of current passed corresponds to 1 mole of electrochemical change at each electrode. Therefore the amount of ions transported in the electrolyte also equals 1 mol. Thus:

t+ + t- = 1 (20).
62

For multiple species

More generally, ti = 1 (21) This equation is valid when more than one type of ion is in solution. The transport numbers of ions are determined by the conductance (L) of the electrolyte

63

Conductance and conductivity

. The conductance of an electrolyte is given by: L = A / l (22)
A - active area of contact l - length (thickness) of electrolyte matrix conductivity - intrinsic property of the electrolyte

Conductance has units of Seimens (S), and conductivity of S/cm

64

Conductivity
The conductivity of the electrolyte has a contribution from every ion in solution Conductivity is proportional to: - concentration of the ion (C) - charge of ion (z) - a property that determines its migration velocity also called mobility

65

Mobility
Mobility is defined as the limiting velocity of the ion in an electric field of unit strength Now, force exerted by an electric field of strength E is given by: F = eE*z (23) Where e is the electronic charge
66

Opposing force
An opposing force exists due to frictional drag. This is represented by the Stokes equation: Fopp = 6rv (24) - viscosity of the solution r - ionic radius v - velocity of the ion in solution
67

Terminal velocity of ion

When the forces exactly counterbalance each other, the ion attains a steady state velocity called the terminal velocity This terminal velocity is termed the mobility (u) when the electric field strength is unity: u = z e / 6r (25)
68

Back to conductivity
With the above expression for mobility, we write the following expression for = F zi ui Ci (26) Now recall transport no. (t) - contribution made by each individual ion to the total current carried in solution.

69

Expression for transport no.

The transport no. may be represented as the ratio of the contribution to conductivity made by a particular ion to the total conductivity of the solution Thus: ti = zi ui Ci / zi ui Ci (27)

70

 Resistance is defined as: R = l/ A (28) The ionic resistance is an inherent property of the ion in motion and the electrolyte Effect of resistance in electrochemical cells - Ohms law: V = I R (29 - a) R will introduce a potential drop V which will increase with current
71

Resistance

Ohms Law
More appropriately Ohms law is expressed as: I = (d/dx) (29-b)
where (x)/x - potential gradient

72

Minimizing R, IR Compensation
R can be minimized by: - minimizing distance between electrodes - increasing area of contact (not preferred this is governed by many other factors) Need to realize some portion of R will always remain. So realistically: If the value of R is known, one can compensate for ohmic drop the compensated E is a closer representation of the actual E:

Emeasured = Ecathode E anode IR (30)

Ecompensated /actual = Emeasured + IR (31)

73

Sources of IR in the fuel cell

IR compensation is critical while analyzing fuel cell data for kinetic and transport parameters. Ohmic drops occur due to IR in the electrolyte and the electrodes the IR in the electrode should not be neglected! IR compensation in both the electrolyte and the electrode shall be discussed in future lectures

74

Typical fuel cell polarization curve

75

Ideal Potential

Region of Activation Polarization (Reaction Rate Loss)

Cell Voltage (V)

Region of Ohmic Polarization (Resistance Loss) 0.5

oss Cathode L

Region of Concentration Polarization (Gas Transport Loss) 0.5

oss esistance L R l a n r te n I Membrane Anode Loss

0.0

10

Current Density (mA/cm )

15

20

25

30

35

0.0

Polarization (V)
76

1.0

Total Loss

1.0

Mass transport in electrochemical cells

77

Modes of mass transport

There are 3 fundamental modes of mass transport in solution. They are: - Migration this is the motion of a charge body (such as an ion) under the influence of an electrical potential gradient - Diffusion this is the motion of a species under the influence of a chemical potential gradient - Convection this is hydrodynamic transport either due to density gradients (natural convection) or due to external means such as stirring (forced convection)
78

Governing equation
The governing equation for mass transfer is the Nernst Plank equation. For one (x) dimension (and one species): J (x) = -D [C(x)/x] [z F/RT][D*C (x)/x] + C*v(x) (32)
J - flux in mol / cm2.s D - diffusion coefficient (cm2/s) C(x)/x - concentration gradient (x)/x - potential gradient v - velocity with which an element of solution moves in the x dimension
79

Current vs. flux

Faradays law - current produced proportional to the number of moles of reactant in solution m = M I t /n F (5) Can rewrite as: I / nFA = m/MtA = N/tA = J (33) Where N = no. of moles Do not confuse N with n, the no. of electrons transferred
80

The mass transport limit

81

The mass transport limit

Recall also see previous diagram that reactants are consumed at the electrode The larger the current, the faster the rate of consumption Faradays law The reactants arrive at the electrode via transport from the bulk

82

Mathematically
If maximum transport flux = reaction flux (current), the reaction is mass transport limited J = I /nFA (34) Reactant concentration at electrode = 0, all reactant - immediately consumed The reaction cannot proceed at a rate faster than the mass transport limited rate

83

 Assume - no convective mass transport, negligible transport due to migration Flux at the electrode may be written as: J = - D(dC/dx)x=0 (35) D is the diffusion coefficient of the reactant

84

The Nernst diffusion layer

Thin layer that lies intermediate bounds the electrodes and the bulk)

85

Nernst diffusion theory

A thin layer of electrolyte (thickness ) in contact with the electrode surface - ion transfer controlled solely by diffusion. Concentration of species - maintained constant outside this layer (in the bulk) by convective transfer.

86

 Assume - linear conc. gradient in the Nernst diffusion layer Eqn. 35 can be rewritten as: J = [D/][C* -C(x=0)] (36) - thickness of the Nernst diffusion layer C* - bulk concentration of the reactant
87

The mass transfer coefficient

Difficult to obtain precisely values of Therefore is grouped along with D to yield a new constant km = D/ (37) km is called the mass transfer coefficient (units: cm/s)

88

 Now: J = I /nFA (34) Combining eqns. 34, 36 and 37, we have: I/nFA = km[C* -C(x=0)] (38) Current dependence on reactant concentration
89

The limiting current

As reaction proceeds faster- at some point all the reactant that reaches the electrode - consumed immediately At this point [C(x=0)] is zero, and the current levels off. Can be written as:

Il = nFAkmC* (39) Il is called the limiting current

90

 Relationship between surface and bulk concentrations from equations 38 and 39: C(x=0)/C* = [1 (I/Il)] (40) Substituting for C* (39), C(x=0)= [(Il I)/(nFAkm)] (41) Both equations reiterate that surface concentration = 0 at the limiting current

91

Significance of Il
Maximum current obtainable for given set of conditions Very important in fuel cell operation Generally, higher Il implies lower mass transport losses higher efficiency Significant research efforts devoted to enhancing Il in PEM systems

92

Typical fuel cell polarization curve

93

Ideal Potential

Region of Activation Polarization (Reaction Rate Loss)

Cell Voltage (V)

Region of Ohmic Polarization (Resistance Loss) 0.5

oss Cathode L

Region of Concentration Polarization (Gas Transport Loss) 0.5

oss esistance L R l a n r te n I Membrane Anode Loss

0.0

10

Current Density (mA/cm )

15

20

25

30

35

0.0

Polarization (V)
94

1.0

Total Loss

1.0

Common electrochemical experiments

95

Potentiostat

POTENTIAL MONITOR

Feedback Control Signal

E Reference Electrode

Counter Electrode

Working Electrode
96

Reference electrodes - SHE

An ideal reference electrode is one that maintains a constant potential irrespective of the amount of current (if any) that is passed through it Standard hydrogen electrode (NHE) simplest reference electrodes This electrodes potential (by definition) is 0 V

97

 Electrode process in SHE: e H+ (aq, a=1) H2 (g, 1atm) Consists of a platinum electrode immersed in a solution with a hydrogen ion concentration of 1M. The platinum electrode is made of a small square of platinum foil which is Hydrogen gas, at a pressure of 1 atmosphere, is bubbled around the electrode
98

SHE

Very difficult to obtain unit activity in practice

http://www.owlnet.rice.edu

99

Other reference electrodes

The SHE not widely used difficult to obtain solution of 1M activity. Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) very popular:
- Electrode is mercury coated with calomel (Hg2Cl2) - Electrolyte is a solution of potassium chloride and saturated calomel

Hg2Cl2(s)

2 e

2 Hg (l) +2 Cl- (aq)

100

SCE

l
http://everyscience.com/Chemistry 101

Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV)

Hydrogen gas passed through counter / reference electrode (anode) nitrogen passed through cathode Working electrode fuel cell cathode subjected to a potential sweep from an initial to a final voltage (typically 1 800 mV) Sweep done using a potentiostat Fixed sweep rate 4 mV/s Faradaic current monitored
102

Input Function
E2 = 800 mV V E1 = 1 mV t Hydrogen only species present crosses over from anode to cathode through the membrane gets oxidized at the cathode at positive potentials (above 0 V)
103

4 mV/s

Output
Data obtained in a PEM fuel cell at room temperature
20 0

Current Density (mA/cm2)

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Working Electrode Potential (V)

104

Response
When the potential is 0 V
- no net faradaic current

When the potential exceeds 0V

- faradaic oxidation H2 = H+ + e

As potential moves to more positive values

- overpotential / electrochemical driving force for oxidation increases - reaction proceeds faster until it hits the mass transport limit since hydrogen oxidation kinetics are fast, this limit is quickly attained

105

Mass transport limit

Above a certain E, reaction becomes mass transport limited see output figure

In the case of limiting current behaviour, the current can be converted into a reactant flux using Faradays law J (H2) [mols/cm2-s] = * i /n F Where i = 1 mA/cm2 (from voltammogram)
106

Additional details
The experiment is typically done at a low sweep rate ( 1- 4 mV/s or even lower) This is to ensure that the Nernst diffusion layer has the time required to grow out from the electrode This results in true limiting current behaviour In practice, it is better to start the sweep at higher potentials to avoid effects of hydrogen evolution The utility of LSV in fuel cell research will be further discussed in future lectures
107

Internal short circuit

Crossover Current Density of NTPA MEAs (4 mv/s)
5

1/R=1/Rm+1/Rs Current Density (mA/cm )

4

short

normal
2

0 0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Potential (V)
108

Cyclic voltammetry
Potential sweep experiment (similar to LSV) Additional reverse sweep incorporated Input function: - start from E = E1 - sweep up to E = E2 - sweep down, back to E = E1 Done using a potentiostat Fixed sweep rate Faradaic current monitored
109

E2

Typical voltammogram in electrochemical systems Input

E1

O + ne

Redox Reaction : O + ne R Output O + ne

E R

http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/marco

110

Typical CV at a fuel cell cathode

E
0.8 V

Overall Reaction: 2H+ + 2 e

H2

H2

0V

0s

t
Current (A)

0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.10 0.0

2H+ + 2 e; Oxidation as E becomes more positive

Input Function

2H+ + 2 e H2; Reduction as E becomes more negative

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Working Electrode Potential (V)

Output (Response)

111

Response Fuel cell cathode CV

Resultant current behaviour on the forward sweep - same as discussed for LSV H2 gets oxidized to give H+ and electrons Behaviour on the reverse sweep the opposite redox phenomenon occurs H+ gets reduced (gaining electrons in the process) to give H2 Peak symmetry indication of reaction reversibility
112

Additional details
Sweep rates (v) employed are typically higher than those in LSV (~ 20-30mV/s as opposed to 1-4 mV/s) peak height scales as v 0.5 Thus larger v better defined peaks Need to ensure sweep rate is not too high system tends to become quasi-reversible or irreversible
113

Applications
Studying the reversibility of reactions and redox behaviour of compounds Used to obtain quantitative information about the extent of reaction occurring on a surface In fuel cells used to determine electrochemically active surface area of catalyst

114