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5006 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
Chapter 1: Introduction
1. A Brief History of Magnetism
2. Magnetism and Hysteresis
3. Magnet Applications
4. Magnetism, Physics and Technology
Comments and corrections please: jcoey@tcd.ie
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Some introductory texts:
David Jiles Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Chapman and Hall 1991; 1997
A detailed introduction, written in a question and answer format.
Stephen Blundell Magnetism in Condensed Matter, Oxford 2001
A new book providing a good treatment of the basics
History:
A. Kloss Geschichte des Magnetismus, VDE, Berlin 1994
Light reading:
J. D. Livingstone. Driving Force, Harvard University Press 1996.
Alberto Guimaraes, From Lodestone to Supermagnets, Wiley 2005
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1. A Brief History of Magnetism
-1000 0 1500 1820 1900 1935 1960 1995
A
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t
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a
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l
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s
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a
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g
H
i
g
h
-
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
S
p
i
n

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c
s
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High-density
recording, MRAM?
Multilayers
Thin lm devices
Consumers
Fert, Parkin .
1995 to ?? Spin electronics
Consumer
electronics
Sm-Co, Nd-Fe-B
New materials,
miniaturization
Consumers
Gorter, Sagawa,
Croat
1960 to 1995 Applications
Radar, television
Ferrites
Microwaves, epr,
fmr, nmr
Military
Bloch,, Pound,
Purcell
1935 to 1960 High-frequency
[Alnico]
Spin, Exchange
interactions
Academy
Weiss, Bohr,
Dirac,
Heisenberg,
Pauli, Landau
1900 to 1935 Understanding
Motors
generators,
telegraph,
wireless, magnetic
recording
Electrical steel
E-M induction,
Maxwells =ns
Industry/infra-
structure
Oersted,
Ampere, Faraday,
Maxwell
1820 to 1900 Electromagnetic
Dip circle, Horse-
shoe magnet
Iron, lodestone
Earths eld
Navy
Gilbert,
Descartes
D.Bernouilli
1500 to 1820 Early scientic
South pointer,
Compass
Iron, lodestone
Force eld,
induced magntism,
TRM
State
Shen Kua, Petrus
Peregrinus
-1000 to 1500 Ancient
Applications Materials Achievements Driver Names Date Age
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The Ancient Age
-1000 to 1500
Applications
South-Pointer
Compass
Driver
The State
Scientific achievements
Force field
Induced magnetism
Thermoremanence
Key names
Shen Kua
Petrus Peregrinus
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1820
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The Electromagnetic Age
1820 - 1900
Applications
Motors, Generators
Telegraph, Wireless
Magnetic recording
Driver
Industry
(Infrastructure)
Scientific Achievements
Electromagnetic Induction
Maxwells Equations
Key names
Oersted, Ampere
Faraday, Maxwell
Hertz
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Maxwells equations
V . B = 0
r
0
V . E = p
(1/
0
)V B = j + r
0
oE/ot
V E = -oB/ot
Written in terms of two elds B (kg C
-1
s
-1
) and E (V m
-1
), they are valid
in free space.
They relate these elds to the charge density p (C m
-3
) and the current
density j (A m
-2
) at a point.
c = (r
0

0
)
1/2
c = 2.998 10
8
m s
-1
c = v
Also, the force on a moving charge q, velocity v
F = q(E + v B)
From a long view of the history of
mankind, there can be little doubt that
the most signicant event of the 19th
century will be judged as Maxwells
discovery of the laws of electrodynamics.
Richard Feynmann
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The Age of Understanding
1900 - 1935
Applications
Driver
Academy
Scientific Achievements
Mean Field Theory, Spin,
Exchange Interactions
Key Players
Weiss, Bohr
Heisenberg
Dirac, Pauli
Landau
H = -2JS
i
S
j
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The m-J paradigm:
m represents the
magnetic moment,
mainly localized on
the atoms
J represents the
exchange coupling
of electron spins.
At this point it seems that the whole of chemistry and much of physics is understood in principle. The problem is
that the equations are much to difcult to solve.. P. A. M. Dirac
1930 Solvay Conference
Dirac Heisenberg
The 1930 Solvay conference consecrated our physical understand-ing of
magnetism in terms of quantum mechanics (exchange) and relativity (spin)
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The Age of Applications
1960 - 1995
Key Players
Gorter,
Sagawa,
Croat
Driver
Industry
(Consumer)
Scientific Achievements
New materials
Miniaturisation of Magnetic Circuits
Applications
Consumer
Electronics
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How many magnets do you own?
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The Age of Spin Electronics
1995 - ?
Albert Fert
Peter Gruneberg
Stuart Parkin
Driver
Industry
(Consumer)
Scientific Achievements
Thin film devices
Applications
High-density
recording
MRAM ?
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The hysteresis loop shows the irreversible, nonlinear response of a ferromagnet to a
magnetic eld . It reects the arrangement of the magnetization in ferromagnetic domains.
The magnet cannot be in thermodynamic equilibrium anywhere around the open part of
the curve! M and H have the same units (A m
-1
).
coercivity
spontaneous magnetization
remanence
major loop
virgin curve
initial susceptibility
2. Magnetism and Hysteresis
2.1 The hysteresis loop
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Soft and hard magnets.
The area of the hysteresis loop represents the energy loss per cycle. For efcient soft
magnetic materials, this needs to be as small as possible.
M (MA m
-1
)
-1 0 1 H (MA m
-1
)
1
-1
M (MA m
-1
)
-50 0 50 H (A m
-1
)
1
-1
For a useful hard magnet.
H
c
> M
r
/2
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2.2 Curie temperature
M(T)/M(0)
Ferromagnetic materials possess a spontaneous magnetization M, which
falls to zero at the Curie point T
C
- a phase transition.
293
631
1390
1043
T
C
(K)
Gd
Ni
Co
Fe
2.0
0.5
1.3
1.8
M(0) MA m
-1
A specic heat anomaly appears at T
C
AS
mag
= j(C/T)dT R ln 2
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2.3 Coercivity
The progress in magnetism in the
20th century which has spawned so
many magnet applications has been
due to mastery of coercivity.

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Daniel Bernouilli
1743
S N
Gowind Knight 1760
Shen Kwa 1060
N < 0.1
The shape barrier.
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2.4 Anisotropy
The direction of magnetization M(r) in a macoscopic ferromagnetic
domain lies along one or other easy axes.
E
a
= K
1
sin
2
0
M
0
1 kJm
-3
< K
1
< 10 MJm
-3
10 mK

< K
1
< 10 K

Easy axis
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2.5 Susceptibility
Above T
C
the ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. The susceptibility is dened in
small elds as
= M/H.
Note that has no units. It is known as the relative or dimensionless susceptibility. It is a
number which is characteristic of a particular material.
At temperatures above T
C
, the susceptibility often follows a Curie-Weiss Law
= C/(T-T
c
).
The Curie constant is of order 1 K.
Solids that do not order magnetically are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic. Their
susceptibility is small and positive or negative, repectively. (magnitude 10
-3
- 10
-7
).

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2.6 Other Types of Magnetic Order
Ordered
T < T
C
Disordered
T > T
C
M 0 M = 0
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2.7 Magnetic elements
Eight elements (blue) and many compounds are ferromagnetic. They possess a
spontaneous magnetization - eleven elements (purple) are antiferromagnetic
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Ni-Fe/Fe-Co (heads)
Fe-Si
Fe-Si (oriented)
Ni-Fe/Fe-Co
Amorphous
Others
Others
Alnico
Sm-Co
Nd-Fe-B
Hard ferrite
Co- Fe 2 O 3
(tapes, floppy discs)
CrO2 (tapes)
Iron (tapes)
Co-Cr (hard discs)
Soft ferrite
Others
Iron
Soft
Magnets
Hard
Magnets
Magnetic
Recording
Magnet applications; A 30 B market
3. Magnet Applications
3.1 The world market
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Global domestic product 2000
Continent GDP Population GDP/person
(T$) (millions)($)
Asia (incl. Australia) 14.6 3716 3930
Europe (incl. Russia) 10.9 728 14970
North America 10.5 316 33200
South & Cent America 3.4 525 6100
Africa 0.2 819 1730
39.6 6104 6488
Average production per person (approximate):
30 g hard ferrite, 2 g rare earth magnet, 1 m
2
exible medium, 1/10 hard disc, 1/10 read/write head, 0.25 m
2
electrical sheet steel, 30 g soft ferrite, 0.1 g metallic glass.
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Abundances of magnetic ions in the
Earths crust
Price scales roughly inversely with abundance.
O
Si
Al
Fe
Mg
Ca
K
Na
H
Others
O
2-
Si
4+
Al
3+
Fe
Iron (Fe
2+
/Fe
3+
) is most abundant
magnetic element. It is 40 times as
abundant as all other magnetic
elements together.
Composition in atomic % of the
Earths crust. Iron (Fe
2+
/Fe
3+
) is the
fourth most abundant element.
Cr Mn
3.2 Economics
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A useful magnetic material needs to
be able to operate from -50 C to 120
C.
The Curie temperature needs to be >
500 K
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Core losses in electrical machinery

Global energy production 18 10
12
kW hr
Efficiency of transformers > 99%
yet losses cost > 10 B$ per year.
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A permanent magnet is useful because of the stray eld it produces.
A useful gure of merit is the maximum energy product (BH)
max
. This is twice the
maximum energy in the stray eld produced by unit volume of magnet.






H (A m
-1
)
B

(
T
)
Working point
(BH)
maz
Energy Product of Permanent Magnets
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New icon for permanent magnets! =
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Magnetic recording density
40 Mb
160 Gb
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3. Magnetism, Physics and Technology

30,000 people worldwide
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Typical values of B
Human brain 1 fT
Magnetar 10
12
T
Superconducting magnet 10 T
Electromagnet 1 T
Helmholtz coils 0.01

Am
-
Earth 50

T