Chapter 22 INTRODUCTION OT DARWINIAN EVOLUTION

Evolution is the cumulative changes of inheritable characteristics over time.

Population is a group of individuals of the same species living in an area.
Heritable traits are those that can be passed on to offspring.
IDEAS ABOUT EVOLUTION BEORE DARWIN
1. Aristotle! 384-322 B. C. Greek philosopher.
ristotle proposed that the last stage of development! the adult form! e"plains the changes that
occur in the immature forms #teleological e"planation$% the advanced stages influence the earlier
stages.
&e also proposed that all living forms are linked in a progression from imperfect to most perfect.
&e called this the S"ale o# Nature.
$% Natural t&eolo'(%
'he Creator made the individual species.
(n the 1)**+s! biolog, -as dominated b, natural theolog,. philosoph, dedicated to discovering
the plan of the creator b, stud,ing nature.
.atural theologians sa- the adaptations of organisms as evidence that the Creator had
designed each and ever, species for a particular purpose.
)% Hutton! *a+es% 1)2/-0)! 1cottish geologist.
&utton formulated controversial theories of the origin of the earth in 1)82. &e -as of the opinion
that the earth must be ver, old.
Uni#or+itarianis+, the doctrine that past geological changes in the earth -ere brought
about b, the same causes as those no- taking place. (t stressed the slo-ness and
gradualness of rates of change.
-% Cuvier! .eor'es L/opol0 C&r/tien r/0/ri" Da'obert! Baron% 1)/0-1832! 3rench
naturalist.
Cuvier originated a s,stem of 4oological classification based on structural differences of the
skeleton and organs.
Catastrop&is+, the geological doctrine that the ph,sical features of the earth+s surface!
e.g.! mountains and valle,s! -ere formed during violent -orld-ide catacl,sms! e.g.!
earth5uakes and floods. &e argued that all living things -ere destro,ed and replaced
-ith -holl, different forms during these catacl,smic events.
1% L(ell! Sir C&arles% 1)0)-18)2! 6nglish geologist.
7,ell argued in this book that! at the time! presentl, observable geological processes -ere
ade5uate to e"plain geological histor,. &e thought the action of the rain! sea! volcanoes and
earth5uakes e"plained the geological histor, of more ancient times. 7,ell conclusivel, sho-ed
that the earth -as ver, old and had changed its form slo-l,! mainl, from conditions such as
erosion. 7,ell -as able to date the ages of rocks b, using fossils embedded in the stone as time
indicators. 7,ell helped -in acceptance of 8ames &utton+s theor, of uniformitarianism and of
Charles 9ar-in+s theor, of evolution.
2% La+ar"3! *ean Baptiste Pierre Antoine 0e 4onet! C&evalier 0e!
1)44-1820! 3rench naturalist.
7amarck proposed that organisms evolve into ne- species.
&e thought that all organisms are tied together b, intermediate evolutionar, forms and that
species distinctions are man-made and arbitrar,.
&e thought that all organisms -ere endo-ed -ith a vital force that drove them to change to-ard
greater comple"it, over time.
7amarck thought that organisms could pass ac5uired characteristics to their offspring.
C&arles Dar5in! 18*0-1882.
Charles :obert 9ar-in -as born in 1hre-sbur,! 6ngland in 18*0. 'he son of an eminent
local doctor! 9r :obert 9ar-in! Charles -as born into a modestl, -ealth, famil,.
&e -as the grandson of 6rasmus 9ar-in! 6nglish naturalist! and promoter of the idea of
evolution.
9ar-in studied medicine at 6dinburgh ;niversit, from 1822 to 182).
&e transferred to Christ+s College! Cambridge in 1828 -ith the intention of becoming a
minister in the Church of 6ngland.
&e -as a mediocre student and did not like classical education. &is interests -ere in natural
histor,! botan,! geolog,! collecting and hunting.
(n 1831! -ith the help of his botan, professor 8ohn &enslo- and his uncle 8osiah
<edge-ood! he took the post of naturalist on board the H%4%S% Bea'le on a scientific
mission to 1outh merica.
B, the time of his return in 183/! he had become an authorit, on man, forms of life.
Bet-een 1842 and 1844 he developed his t&eor( o# natural sele"tion! although he did not
announce his -ork until 1828.
(n 1820 he published a considerabl, e"panded version of his researches in the controversial
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
&e published The Descent of Man in 18)1.
THE VO6A.E O THE BEA.LE
&.=.1. Beagle! under the command of Captain :obert 3it4ro,! left for >atagonia! 1outh
merica! in 1831 -ith Charles 9ar-in on board.
t this time Charles did not believe in evolution! including his grandfather?s theor,! as an,
evidence presented so far could not convince him.
'he Beagle reached 1outh merica in 1832 and Charles took care to observe the flora and
fauna.
Charles -ent then to Buenos ries -here he sa- fossils of more ancient animals! including a
mastodon.
&e e"perience a violent earth5uake in Chile that raised the land in some places bet-een 2 and
1* feet.
9ar-in -as most interested in the plants and animals on the Gal@pagos! a group of 1/ large
islands #and man, smaller$ off the coast of 6cuador.
Giant tortoises inhabit ever, one of the islands! -hich gave the island chain its name!
from the 1panish Gal@pagos! meaning tortoise.
6ach island has its o-n t,pe of tortoise! distinguishable b, the shape and pattern of
its shell.
9ar-in -as astonished that the islanders felt that this -as due to the difference in
environment on each island.
9ar-in also observed the finches! -hich varied in si4e and shape from island to
island.
'heir beaks also varied depending on -hich food the, ate and some even had e"tra
long tongues for grabbing certain t,pes of foods such as insects! nuts or seeds.
(sland animals and plants -ere different to those on the mainland but a relationship could be
seen. <hat -as even stranger though! to 9ar-in! -as the fact that organisms on different
islands varied! but still seemed related.
THE 4ECHANIS4 O NATURAL SELECTION%
Charles 9ar-in and lfred <allace independentl, proposed a mechanism that brings about the
evolution of populations.
'he mechanism b, -hich the organisms best suited to survival pass on their traits to the ne"t
generation.
'he mechanism is based on the follo-ing observations and inferencesA
1% Overpro0u"tion o# o##sprin'.
ll species have great potential fertilit,. <ithout constraints! populations -ill gro-
e"ponentiall,! producing an ever more rapidl, gro-ing number of organisms.
2. Population re+ain stable%
(n spite of this prediction! the numbers of individuals in a population remains near
e5uilibrium! fluctuating above and belo- some mean value.
3. Resour"es are li+ite0%
>roduction of more individuals that the environment can support.
:esources are limited. 'his results in a struggle for e"istence.
Brganisms compete for these limited resources. 'here is a struggle for e"istence.
1urvival of a fraction each generation.
INERENCE, >roduction of more individuals that the environment can support results in a
struggle for e"istence resulting in a fraction of the population surviving each generation.
4. Variation.
(ndividuals are uni5ue. 'here is individual variation. 'his came from observing animal
breeding.
2. 4u"& o# t&is variation is in&eritable%
=uch! but not all! of the individual variation is heritable. 'his observation also came from
animal breeders.
'he ne"t generation obtains the parents? heritable traits.
Best adapted individuals reproduce most successfull,.
1ome of the observed variation is environmental! some is genetic.
9ar-in and <allace did not kno- the mechanism of inheritance. 'he, had not read
=endel?s paper.
INERENCE, :eproductive successA 1ome individuals are better e5uipped to survive and
reproduce. 'he, have inherited traits that make them best fit to survive in their environment.
INERENCE, 'his une5ual abilit, to reproduce -ill lead to a gradual change of the population!
-ith favorable characteristics accumulating over time.
(t is useful to distinguish 9ar-in+s mechanism of natural selection from evolution generall,.
9ar-in and <allace?s contribution -as not the h,pothesis of evolution! but a description of the
mechanism b, -hich evolution takes place.
Bther naturalists such as 7amarck and 9ar-in+s grandfather 6rasmus 9ar-in anticipated him in
this respect.
.atural selection is often described as Csurvival of the fittestC% it maintains that the organisms
best suited to survive in their environment are more likel, to reproduce and pass their genetic
material to the ne"t generation! -hile those -ith less advantageous traits are less likel, to
survive long enough to reproduce.
9ar-in used 70es"ent 5it& +o0i#i"ation%7
ccording to 9ar-in! the diversit, of life forms have arisen b, descent -ith modification from
ancestral species.
9ar-in illustrated the po-er of selection as a force in evolution -ith e"amples from artificial
selection! the breeding of domesticated animals and plants.
&umans have modified man, species b, the selective breeding of individuals -ith preferred
traits.
'he evolution of insecticide resistant insects! antibiotic resistant bacteria! and herbicide resistant
-eeds illustrate the process of selection and the gradual change in a population.
Dar5in8s +ain i0eas,
1. .atural selection is differential success in reproduction.
2. .atural selection occurs through the interaction bet-een the environment and the variabilit,
found in a population.
3. 'he product of natural selection is the adaptation of populations of organisms to their
environment.
SUPPORTIN. EVIDENCE
CO4PARATIVE ANATO46
1tructures -ith a similar underl,ing plan can be e"plained b, relationship through common
ancestr,.
1. Ho+olo'ous vs. analo'ous.
&omologous features are variations of the same basic structural pattern! even though the
structure ma, be used differentl,.
&omologous structures are considered to indicate evolutionar, affinit, among organisms
possessing them.
Ho+oplasti" or analogous features have similar function but lack the basic pattern of
homologous structures! e.g. -ings of birds and insects.
&omoplastic features sho-n -hat is called "onver'ent evolution.
(t is due to the selection for similar habitats in different evolutionar, lineages.
dapting organisms carr, structures that are no longer necessar,.
'hese structures are non-functional and degenerate remnants of structures that -ere functional
in ancestral organisms. 'hese reduced structures are called vesti'ial.

$% E+br(olo'i"al &o+olo'ies
&omologies e"ist bet-een developing embr,os.
1ometimes homologies are evident in the developing embr,o but not in the adult organism.
'here is a remarkable similarit, bet-een vertebrate embr,osA e+br(olo'i"al &o+olo'ies.
6mbr,os begin -ith similar gill arches #or pouches$ and a similar vertebral column that becomes
modified in later stages to ,ield the various different forms characteristic of the organisms.
)% 4ole"ular &o+olo'ies
'here are +ole"ular &o+olo'ies! e.g. the structure of 9. and :.! the process of
replication! transcription and translation! path-a, of cellular respiration! and the genetic code.
7ines of descent based on molecular characters closel, resemble lines of descent based on
structural and fossil evidence.
'he universalit, of the genetic code is considered to be an evidence that all organisms have a
common ancestor.
mino acid se5uence in common proteins reveals greater similarities in closel, related species.
greater proportion of nucleotide se5uence in 9. is identical in closel, related organisms.
'he universal genetic code and man, path-a,s #gl,col,sis! Drebs c,cle! photos,nthesis! etc$
support a common origin.
THE TREE O LIE
&omologies that arose recentl, are shared b, a smaller branch of the tree of life. 'hose that
arose ver, earl, are shared b, man, and more diverse groups of organisms.
4. Bio'eo'rap&( or 'eo'rap&i"al 0istribution
Closel, related species tend to be found in the same geographic area.
1ame ecological niches found in distant lands are occupied b, ver, different! though
superficiall, looking species! e. g. ustralian marsupials and 6urasian placental mammals.
Geographical barriers lead to great differences bet-een organisms! e.g. a0aptive ra0iation of
ustralian marsupials
(solation tends to produce en0e+i" species.
En0e+ic! en0e+is+ refer to species native and restricted to a geographical
region.
1% ossils
'he fossil record sho-s a general progression from the earliest! single-celled organisms to
organisms living toda,.
1ome fossils appear to be intermediates bet-een living groups! e. g. rchaeopter,"! evolution
of the horse! a Coelacanth.
'he fossil record is incomplete.
:adioactive isotopes found in fossils and rocks provide a means of measuring the age of the
fossil or rock la,er.
E9PERI4ENTAL DATA%
1ome e"periments sho- that populations change over time due to some environmental
pressure.
:e4nick and 6ndler have studied the evolution of gupp, populations in streams -here predation
-as high and in others -here predation -as lo-.
'he, designed an e"periment -here similar gupp, populations -ere subEected to high and lo-
predation.
>redation e"erted a selective pressure on the gupp, population.
7 T&ere is 'ran0eur in t&is vie5 o# li#e%7 9ar-in! closing line of the Brigin of the 1pecies.