06EE82: Power System Operation and Control

Con t rol of Vo lt a ge a nd R e acti v e P ow e r

Reactive power is an odd topic in C !lternating C"rrent# power systems$ and it%s
"s"ally e&plained wit' vector mat'ematics or p'ase(s'ift sine wave grap's)
*owever$ a non(mat' ver+al e&planation is possi+le)
,ote t'at Reactive power only +ecomes important w'en an -electrical load- or a
'ome appliance contains coils or capacitors) .f t'e electrical load +e'aves p"rely as
a resistor$ !s"c' as a 'eater or incandescent +"l+ for e&ample$# t'en t'e device
cons"mes -real power- only) Reactive power and -power factor- can +e ignored$
and it can +e analysed "sing an C version of O'm%s law)
Reactive power is simply t'is: w'en a coil or capacitor is connected to an C
power s"pply$ t'e coil or capacitor stores electrical energy d"ring one(fo"rt' of an
C cycle) /"t t'en d"ring t'e ne&t 0"arter(cycle$ t'e coil or capacitor d"mps all t'e
stored energy +ac1 into t'e distant C power s"pply) Ideal coils and capacitors
consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant electric current. 2'is is
very different from a resistor w'ic' gen"inely cons"mes electrical energy$ and
w'ere t'e electrical energy flows contin"o"sly in one direction3 moving from
so"rce to load)
.n ot'er words$ if yo"r electrical appliance contains ind"ctance or capacitance$ t'en
electrical energy will periodically ret"rn to t'e power plant$ and it will flow +ac1
and fort' across t'e power lines) 2'is leads to an e&tra c"rrent in t'e power lines$ a
c"rrent w'ic' 'eats t'e power lines$ +"t w'ic' isn%t "sed to provide energy to t'e
appliance) 2'e coil or capacitor ca"ses electrical energy to +egin -slos'ing- +ac1
and fort' +etween t'e appliance and t'e distant C generator) Electric companies
m"st install 'eavier wires to tolerate t'e e&cess c"rrent$ and t'ey will c'arge e&tra
for t'is -"n"sed- energy)
2'is "ndesired -energy slos'ing- effect can +e eliminated) .f an electrical load
contains +ot' a coil and capacitor$ and if t'eir resonant fre0"ency is ad4"sted to
e&actly 60*5$ t'en t'e coil and capacitor li1e magic will +egin to +e'ave li1e a p"re
resistor) 2'e -energy slos'ing- still occ"rs$ +"t now it%s all 'appening +etween t'e
coil and capacitor$ and not in t'e C power lines) So$ if yo"r appliance contains a
large coil ind"ction motor$ yo" can ma1e t'e motor +e'ave as a p"re resistor$ and
red"ce t'e c"rrent in t'e power lines +y connecting t'e rig't val"e of capacitance
across t'e motor coil)
6'y is reactive power so conf"sing7 6ell$ t'e mat' is da"nting if not entirely
o+sc"re) nd t'e concept of -imaginary power- p"ts many people off) /"t t'is is
not t'e only pro+lem) 8nfort"nately most of "s are ta"g't in grade sc'ool t'at an
electric c"rrent is a flow of energy$ and t'at energy flows +ac1 and fort' in C
power lines) 2'is is completely wrong) .n fact t'e energy flows constantly forward$
going from so"rce to load) .t%s only t'e c'arges of t'e metal wires w'ic' flow +ac1
and fort')
.magine t'at we connect a +attery to a lig't +"l+) Electric c'arges already present
inside t'e wires will +egin to flow in t'e circle$ and t'en electrical energy moves
almost instantly to t'e lig't +"l+) 2'e c'arge flow is circ"lar li1e a +elt$ +"t t'e
energy flow is one(way) ,ow imagine t'at we s"ddenly reverse t'e connections to
t'e +attery) 2'e voltage and c"rrent will reverse))) +"t t'e energy still flows in t'e
same direction as +efore) .t still goes from +attery to +"l+) .f we 1eep reversing t'e
+attery connections over and over$ we%d 'ave an C system) So$ in an C system$
only t'e voltage and c"rrent are -alternating$- w'ile t'e electrical energy flows one(
way$ going from so"rce to load) 6'ere C resistive loads are concerned$ electrical
energy does not -alternate)- 2o "nderstand energy flow in C systems$ it%s critically
important t'at we "nderstand t'e difference +etween c'arge flow !c"rrent$ amperes#
and energy flow !power$ watts)#
6'at is imaginary power7 Simple: it%s t'e "n"sed power w'ic' flows +ac1wards
and forwards in t'e power lines$ going +ac1 and fort' +etween t'e load%s coil or
capacitor and t'e distant C generator) .f yo"r appliance was a p"re capacitor or
ind"ctor$ t'en it wo"ld cons"me no electrical energy at all$ +"t instead all t'e
flowing energy wo"ld ta1e t'e form of -slos'ing energy$- and we%d call it
-imaginary power)- Of co"rse it%s not act"ally imaginary) .nstead it%s reflected +y
t'e load)
6'at is real power7 Even more simple: it%s t'e energy flow w'ic' goes
contin"o"sly from t'e C generator and into t'e appliance$ wit'o"t any of it
ret"rning +ac1 to t'e distant generator)
9inally$ w'at is -reactive- power7 .t%s 4"st t'e com+ination of t'e a+ove two ideas:
it is t'e contin"o"s(forward(moving or -real- energy flow$ com+ined wit' t'e
slos'ing or -imaginary- energy flow)
Power in )C) ,etwor1s
ctive Power
Reactive Power
pparent Power
Power 9actor !p)f)#
Power 9actor Correction

.nstantaneo"s power$ p!t# : v!t#i!t#
Power$ p!t# val"e
positive ; power transmit<dissipate +y load
negative ; power ret"rn from t'e load
Since p!t# is power transmits +y load$ t'en it is t'e average power$ P at load
Sometimes P is also 1nown as active power, real power or true power meas"red in "nit of 6atts)
ACTIVE POWER
Z : R !p"rely resistive#
2 2
P = VI = I R = V /R (Watt)
REACTIVE POWER
Z : 4X
=
!ind"ctive#
Instantaneous power p(t) = v(t)i(t) = VI sin 2t
Average power is zero
The product of VI is caed reactive power (Q
!
) with unit Vot"A#p
Reactive (VAR)
2
Reactive power (inductive) Q
!
= VI = I $
!
= V
2
/X
!
(VAR)
Z : ; 4X
C
!capacitive#
Reactive power !capacitive# Q
C
: VI : I
2 2
>
C
: V <X
C
!VR#
%ote&
2o disting"is' +etween ind"ctive reactive power !Q
=
# and capacitive
reactive power !Q
C
#$ we "se two different signs !? or ;# depending on o"r
reference !i or v#$ for e&ample 4Q
=
and ; 4Q
C
or ot'erwise)
ACTIVE/REACTIVE POWER Example
!a# I = '(( V/2) = * A+ P = VI = ('(( V)(* A) = *(( W+
Q = ( VAR
!+# I = '(( V/2( = ) A+ P = (+ Q
!
= VI = ('(( V)() A) =
)(( VAR (inductive)
!c# I = '(( V/*( = 2,) A+ P = (+ Q
-
= VI = ('(( V)(2,))
=
2)( VAR (capacitive) = . 2)( VAR
N o te: "se t'e magnit"de of . and V
@etermine t'e total P
2
and Q
2
for t'e circ"it) S1etc' t'e series e0"ivalent circ"it)
2
R : P <I
2
2
: A200<20 : B
> : X
e0 =
2
: Q <I
2
2
: A600<20 : C
APPARENT POWER
9or load consisting of series resistance and reactance$ Z : R 4X : Z < $
t'e power prod"ced is called Apparent Power or omple! Power#$ " or P
S
wit'
"nit
Volt(mp !V#
S = V
*
I
S = V
*
I
S : P ? 4Q
L
positive$ ind"ctive load
negative$ capacitive load
" : VI !V#
S : P ; 4Q
C
P : VI cos : I
2
R : V
R
2
<R !6#
: " cos !6#
2 2
Q : VI sin : I
# " sin
X : V
&
<X !VR#
2
" :
!P
2 *
? Q # : V I V/ 0
Power Triangle
POWER TRIANGLE Example
/0etch the power triange,
,ote t'at Reactive power only +ecomes important w'en an -electrical load- or a
'ome appliance contains coils or capacitors) .f t'e electrical load +e'aves p"rely as
a resistor$ !s"c' as a 'eater or incandescent +"l+ for e&ample$# t'en t'e device
cons"mes -real power- only) Reactive power and -power factor- can +e ignored$
D Reactive power is simply t'is: w'en a coil or capacitor is connected to an C
power s"pply$ t'e coil or capacitor stores electrical energy d"ring one(fo"rt'
of an C cycle) /"t t'en d"ring t'e ne&t 0"arter(cycle$ t'e coil or capacitor
d"mps all t'e stored energy +ac1 into t'e distant C power s"pply) Ideal coils
and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant
electric current. 2'is is very different from a resistor w'ic' gen"inely
cons"mes electrical energy$ and w'ere t'e electrical energy flows
contin"o"sly in one direction3 moving from so"rce to load)

POWER FACTOR
Power factor$ p)f) : cos : P<" : R<Z
p)f) depends on t'e load type:
P"rely resistive load$ R $ p)f) : A
.nd"ctive load$ R$$ p)f) EA !lagging# and
Capacitive load$ R$ p)f) E A !leading#
Fost of t'e loads are ind"ctive !lagging p)f)# and m"st +e corrected "ntil p)f)
appro&imately +ecome "nity !p)f) : A# "sing capacitor)
S!G#
H!>#

P!R#
POWER FACTOR Corret!o"
R
C 4X
V
" Q
C
Q

I
Q
I
P
s
!
I
!
!
I
- !
Z
!
!
!
!
-
c
=eading p)f) !final# : cos 1 Q
: P tan
Q : Q ; Q
C I
2
I I I
2
Q : V
C
<X 3 X
C C
: A< 4 : V < Q
C
POWER FACTOR Example
9ind t'e comple& power for t'e circ"it) Correct t'e circ"it power factor to
p)f) : A "sing parallel reactance)
G!#e": V = ''2( V+ R = )( +
3X
= 45,2 + = 622
rad/s
= )( 7 345,2 = '((5(
= V /Z = (''2( )/('((5() = ','2.5( A
8
S = V = '62 5() = 54,) 7 3''4,5) VA
2
Q = .''4,5) VAR X = V /''4,5) = . 3'')
C =
'/X
= 26,' 9
.mportance of Reactive Power
Refers to t'e circ"lating power in t'e grid t'at does no "sef"l wor1
Res"lts from energy storage elements in t'e power grid !mainly ind"ctors
and capacitors#
*as a strong effect on system voltages
.t m"st +alance in t'e grid to prevent voltage Pro+lems
Reactive power levels 'ave an effect on voltage collapse
Significant @ifferences +etween Real and Reactive Services
Real power can +e delivered over m"c' greater distances)
Reactive reso"rces m"st +e distri+"ted t'ro"g'o"t t'e system)
Jeneration of real power re0"ires conversion from some energy so"rces
li1e t'ermal$ n"clear$ wind$ 'ydrogen)
Reactive power re0"ires almost no energy to prod"ce
Reactive Power is a /yprod"ct of lternating C"rrent !C#
Systems
D Tra"$%ormer$& tra"$m!$$!o" l!"e$& a"' motor$ re()!re reat!#e
po*er
D Tra"$%ormer$ a"' tra"$m!$$!o" l!"e$ !"tro')e !"')ta"e a$
*ell a$ re$!$ta"e +,ot- oppo$e t-e %lo* o% )rre"t.
D /)$t ra!$e t-e #olta0e -!0-er to p)$- t-e po*er t-ro)0- t-e
!"')ta"e o% t-e l!"e$ +1"le$$ apa!ta"e !$ !"tro')e' to o%%$et
!"')ta"e.
D T-e %art-er t-e tra"$m!$$!o" o% po*er& t-e -!0-er t-e #olta0e
"ee'$ to 2e ra!$e'
D Eletr! motor$ "ee' reat!#e po*er to pro')e ma0"et! %!el'$
%or t-e!r operat!o"
Ge"erat!o" a"' A2$orpt!o" o% Reat!#e Po*er
S3"-ro"o)$ Ge"erator$ ( Sync'rono"s mac'ines can +e made to
generate or a+sor+ reactive power depending "pon t'e e&citation !a form
of generator control# applied) 2'e a+ility to s"pply reactive power is
determined +y t'e s'ort circ"it ratio)
S3"-ro"o)$ Compe"$ator$ ( Certain smaller generators$ once r"n "p to
speed and sync'roni5ed to t'e system$ can +e decl"tc'ed from t'eir
t"r+ine and provide reactive power wit'o"t prod"cing real power)
Capa!t!#e a"' I"')t!#e Compe"$ator$ ( 2'ese are devices t'at can +e
connected to t'e system to ad4"st voltage levels)
capacitive compensator prod"ces an electric field t'ere+y generating
reactive power
n ind"ctive compensator prod"ces a magnetic field to a+sor+ reactive
power)
Compensation devices are availa+le as eit'er capacitive or ind"ctive alone
or as a 'y+rid to provide +ot' generation and a+sorption of reactive power)
O O# #er er- -e ea a' ' L L! !" "e e$ $& & 1 1"' "'e er r0 0r ro o)" )"' ' Ca Ca2 2le le$ $ a a" "' ' T Tr ra a"$ "$%o %ormer rmer$ $4 4
D Over'ead lines and "ndergro"nd ca+les$ w'en operating at t'e
normal system voltage$ +ot' prod"ce strong electric fields and so
generate reactive power)
D 6'en c"rrent flows t'ro"g' a line or ca+le it prod"ces a magnetic
field w'ic' a+sor+s reactive power)
D lig'tly loaded over'ead line is a net generator of reactive power
w'ile a 'eavily loaded line is a net a 2$ o r 2 e r o% r e a t ! # e p o * e r )
.n t'e case of ca+les designed for "se at 2KL or C001V t'e reactive
power generated +y t'e electric field is always greater t'an t'e
reactive power a+sor+ed +y t'e magnetic field and so a 2 le $ a r e
al* a3 $ "e t 0e "er ator $ o% re a t!#e po* e r4
D 2ransformers always a+sor+ reactive power)
R el at ! o" 2 e t * e e " #o l ta0 e & P o * e r a " ' R e a t ! # e P o * e r
at a " o ' e
2'e p'ase voltage V at a node is a f"nction of P and H at t'at node)
i) e V : f !P$H#
2'e voltage is also independent of ad4acent nodes and ass"me t'at t'ese
are infinite +"sses)
t'e total differential of V$
dV : ! v< p# ) dp ? ! v< H# ) dH
and "sing t'e relation ! p< v# ) ! v< p# : A and
! H< v# ) ! v< H# : A
dv : dp <! p< v# ? dH < ! H< v# (((((((((!A#
9rom t'e a+ove e0"ation it is seen t'at t'e c'ange in voltage at a node
is defined +y two 0"antities$
! p< v# and ! H< v#
,ormally ! H< v # is t'e 0"antity of greater interest and can +e
e&perimentally determined "sing ,etwor1 nalyser +y in4ecting
1nown 0"antity of VRs at t'e node in 0"estion and meas"ring t'e
difference in voltage prod"ced)
/ e t - o ' $ o % # o lta 0 e o " t r o l
D /y Reactive Power .n4ection
D /y 2ap C'anging 2ransformers
D Com+ined "se of 2ap C'anging 2ransformers and Reactive Power
.n4ection
D /ooster 2ransformers)
Re a t ! # e P o *er I " 5 et ! o "
2'is is t'e most f"ndamental met'od and is "sed only in places
w'ere t'e transformer alone is not s"fficient to control t'e
voltage)
since many years we "se capacitors to improve t'e power
factors of ind"strial loads) 2'e in4ection of reactive power
re0"ired for t'e power factor improvement is determined li1e
t'is)
load of P
A
1w at a lagging power factor of cos
A
'as a MV
of P < cos
A
A)
.f t'is power factor is improved to cos
6$
t'e new
MV is P < cos
A
64
2'e reactive power re0"ired from t'e capacitors is
!P tan ( P
A A A
tan
6
. 7VAr
,ow t'e 0"estion is w'y t'e power factor is to +e improved)
6'at if t'e power is transmitted at non "nity power factor)
6e all 1now very well t'at t'e voltage drop depends on
reactive power !H# w'ile t'e load angle !or# power
transmission angle ! # depends on real power !P#
t non "nity power factors if t'e power is transmitted t'en it
2
res"lts in 'ig'er line c"rrents w'ic' increases t'e .
and 'ence red"ces t'e t'ermal capa+ility)
R losses
one of t'e ideal place for t'e in4ection of reactive power is at
t'e loads itself)
Jenerally reactive power in4ections are of t'e following types)
D Stat! $-)"t apa!tor$
D Stat! $er!e$ apa!tor$
D S3"-ro"o)$ ompe"$ator$
S -) " t a p a !t o r$ a " ' R e a t o r $ :
s'"nt capacitors are "sed for lagging power factor circ"its
w'ereas s'"nt reactors are "sed for leading power factors t'at
are created +y lig'tly loaded ca+les) .n +ot' t'e cases t'e effect
is to s"pply t'e re0"ired amo"nt of reactive power to maintain
t'e voltage)
Capacitors are connected eit'er directly to t'e +"s +ar or to
t'e tertiary winding of t'e main transformer and are distri+"ted
along t'e line to minimise t'e losses and t'e voltage drops)
,ow w'en t'e voltage drops$ t'e vars prod"ced +y s'"nt
capacitor or reactor falls$ so w'en re0"ired most$ t'e
effectiveness of t'ese capacitors or t'e reactors also falls)
On t'e ot'er 'and$ on lig't loads w'en t'e voltage is 'ig'$ t'e
capacitor o"tp"t is large and t'e voltage tends to rise to
e&cessive level$ so some of t'e capacitors or reactors are to +e
switc'ed o"t +y over voltage relays)
9or fast control of voltages in power systems$ switc'ed
capacitors in parallel wit' semicond"ctor controlled reactors
are generally "sed to provide var compensation
D S er i es cap ac it o rs:
*ere t'e capacitors are connected in series wit' t'e line) 2'e
main aim is to red"ce t'e ind"ctive reactance +etween s"pply
point and t'e load)
2'e ma4or disadvantage of t'e met'od is$ w'enever a s'ort
circ"it c"rrent flows t'ro"g' t'e capacitor$ protective devices
li1e spar1 gaps and non linear resistors are to +e incorporated)
P'asor diagram for a line wit' series capacitor is s'own in t'e
fig"re !+#)
Relative merits +etween s'"nt and series capacitors)
D .f t'e load var re0"irement is small$ series capacitors are of
little 'elp)
D .f t'e voltage drop is t'e limiting factor$ series capacitors are
effective$ also to some e&tent t'e voltage fl"ct"ations can +e
evened)
D .f t'e total line reactance is 'ig'$ series capacitors are very
effective and sta+ility is improved)
D 6it' series capacitors t'e red"ction in line c"rrent is small$
'ence if t'e t'ermal considerations limits t'e c"rrent$ little
advantage is from t'is$ so s'"nt compensation is to +e "sed)
Sync'rono"s compensators)
sync'rono"s compensator is a sync'rono"s motor r"nning
wit'o"t a mec'anical load and depending on t'e e&citation
level$ it can eit'er a+sor+ or generate reactive power)
w'en "sed wit' a voltage reg"lator t'e compensator can
a"tomatically r"n overe&cited at times of 'ig' loads and "nder
e&cited at lig't loads)
typical connection of a compensator is s'own in t'e fig"re
along wit' t'e associated voltage ; var o"tp"t c'aracteristics)
9ig: 2ypical .nstallation wit' sync'rono"s compensator connected
to tertiary !delta# winding of main transformer)

9ig: Voltage(reactive power o"tp"t of a typical C0FVr
sync'rono"s compensator

D great advantage of t'e met'od is t'e fle&i+le operation for
all load conditions)
D /eing a rotating mac'ine$ its stored energy is "sef"l for riding
t'ro"g' transient dist"r+ances$ incl"ding voltage drops)
S"+ Sync'rono"s Resonance
Series capacitors are installed in series wit' long lines for
providing compensation of reactive power and giving 'ig'er
power transfer a+ility)
Series compensated lines 'ave a tendency to prod"ce series
resonance at fre0"encies lower t'an power fre0"encies) 2'is is
called S)2 S3"-ro"o)$ Re$o"a"e +SSR.
2'e s"+ sync'rono"s resonance c"rrents prod"ce mec'anical
resonance in 2"r+o generator s'afts$ w'ic' ca"ses t'e
following in t'e generator s'aft(
!i#.nd"ction generator effect
!ii# torsional tor0"es and !iii# transient tor0"es)
2'ese pro+lems 'ave res"lted in damage to rotor s'afts of
t"r+ine generators)
2'erefore t'e s"+ sync'rono"s resonance is analysed in t'e
design of series compensated lines)
,ow let "s derive a relations'ip +etween t'e normal fre0"ency
and t'e s"+ sync'rono"s resonance fre0"ency)
=et f
let f
r
line)
+e t'e normal fre0"ency ! sync'rono"s#
n
+e t'e s"+ sync'rono"s fre0"ency of series compensated
2 f
= +e t'e series ind"ctive reactance of E*V line at normal
n
fre0"ency)
A<2 f C +e t'e series capacitive reactance of series
n
compensation at normal fre0"ency)
M : > <>
c =
+e t'e degree of compensation)
> : !>
=
; > # : >
c =
!A ; M# is t'e e0"ivalent
reactance of t'e compensated line)
=et t'e SSR occ"r at a fre0"ency f ) 2'en
r
2
f : !A< 2 = # N !A< 2 C#
r
2
!OR# !f < f #
r n
or
: > <> : M
c =
% 8 %
r "
*$(rt+7.
2'"s SSR occ"rs at a fre0"ency fr w'ic' is t'e prod"ct of
normal fre0"ency and t'e root of t'e degree of compensation
M)
2'e condition of SSR can occ"r d"ring t'e fa"lts on t'e power
system$ d"ring switc'ing operations and c'anging system
config"rations)
/oution to //R pro:e#s
A) 8se of filters: 9or eliminating<damping t'e 'armonics)
2'e vario"s filters incl"de: static +loc1ing filters$ +ypass
damping filters$ dynamic filters)
2) /ypassing t'e series capacitor +an1 "nder resonance
condition
B) 2ripping of generator "nits "nder conditions of SSR
Reactive Power and Voltage Collapse
Voltage collapse is a system insta+ility and it involves many
power system components and t'eir varia+les at once) .ndeed$
voltage collapse involves an entire power system alt'o"g' it
"s"ally 'as a relatively larger involvement in one partic"lar
section of t'e power system)
Voltage collapse occ"rs in power systems w'ic' are "s"ally
9ea#!l3 loa'e'& fa"lted and<or 'ave reactive power s'ortages)
Voltage collapses can occ"r in a transient time scale or in a
long term time scale) Voltage collapse in a long term time scale
can incl"de effects from t'e transient time scale3 for e&ample$ a
slow voltage collapse ta1ing several min"tes may end in a fast
voltage collapse in t'e transient time scale)
C'anges in power system contri+"ting to voltage collapse
2'ere are several power system dist"r+ances w'ic' contri+"te
to t'e voltage collapse)
i) increase in ind"ctive loading
ii) Reactive power limits attained +y reactive
power compensators and generators)
iii) On =oad 2ap C'anging operation
iv) =oad recovery dynamics)
v) Jenerator o"tage
vi) =ine tripping)
most of t'ese factors 'ave significant effects on reactive power
prod"ction$ transmission and cons"mption)
Switc'ing of s'"nt capacitors$ +loc1ing of O=2C operation$
generation resc'ed"ling$ +"s voltage control$ strategic load
s'edding and allowing temporary reactive power over loading
of generators may +e "sed as some of t'e effective
co"ntermeas"res against voltage collapse)
Vo lta ge S t a + il it y
2'e voltage sta+ility may +e defined as t'e a+ility of a power
system to maintain steady accepta+le voltage at all +"sses in t'e
system at normal operating conditions and after +eing s"+4ected
to dist"r+ances< pert"r+ations)
OR
Voltage sta+ility is t'e a+ility of a system to maintain voltage
so t'at w'en load admittance is increased$ load power will
increase$ and so t'at +ot' power and voltage are controlla+le)
Power system is OVoltage Sta+le Oif voltages at respective
+"sses after a dist"r+ance are close to t'e voltages at normal
operating conditions)
So voltage insta+ility is t'at appears w'en t'e attempt of load
dynamics to restore power cons"mption is 4"st +eyond t'e
capa+ility of t'e com+ined transmission and generator system)
2'o"g' voltage insta+ility may +e a local pro+lem$ its
conse0"ences may 'ave a widespread effect)
Voltage collapse is t'e catastrop'ic res"lt of a se0"ence of
events leading to a s"dden low(voltage profile in a ma4or part
of t'e system$ i)e) in a significant part of t'e system)
Voltage Sta+ility can also +e called =oad Sta+ility) Power
system lac1s t'e capa+ility to transfer an infinite amo"nt of
electrical power to t'e loads) 2'e main factor ca"sing voltage
insta+ility is t'e ina+ility of t'e power system to meet t'e
demands for reactive power in t'e 'eavily stressed system
1eeping desired voltages) Ot'er factors contri+"ting to voltage
insta+ility are t'e generator reactive power limits)
2ransfer of reactive power is diffic"lt d"e to e&tremely 'ig'
reactive power losses$ w'ic' is w'y t'e reactive power re0"ired
for voltage control is generated and cons"med at t'e control
area)
classification of power system sta+ility is s'own in t'e ta+le
+elow) 2'e driving forces for insta+ility are named 0e"erator
'r!#e" a"' loa':'r!#e"4 .t is to +e noted t'at t'ese terms do
not e&cl"de t'e effect of ot'er components to t'e mec'anism)
T-e t!me $ale !$ '!#!'e' !"to $-ort a"' lo"0:term t!me
$ale4
,ow let "s analyse voltage sta+ility "sing H(V c"rves)
Consider a simple system as s'own +elow and its P(V c"rves)
9ig: ,ormalised P(V c"rves for fi&ed !infinite# so"rce)
,ow map t'e normalised P(V c"rves onto V(H c"rves)
for constant val"e of P$ note t'e val"es of H and V and t'en re
plot to get H(V c"rves as s'own +elow)
from P(V c"rves it is o+served t'at t'e critical voltage is very
'ig' for 'ig' loadings) V is a+ove A)0p)" for P : A)0p)"
2'e rig't side represents normal conditions w'ere applying a
capacitor +an1 raises voltage)
9ig : ,ormalised H(V c"rves for fi&ed !infinite# so"rce)
9ig : H ; V C"rves
9ig"re s'ows t'e H(V diagram of a +"s in a partic"lar power
system at fo"r different loads: P $ P $ P
A 2
$ P ) t'e H a&is s'ows
B C
t'e amo"nt of additional reactive power t'at m"st +e in4ected
into t'e +"s to operate at a given voltage) 2'e operating point is
t'e intersection of t'e power c"rve wit' t'e voltage a&is$ w'ere
no reactive power is re0"ired to +e in4ected or a+sor+ed) .f t'e
slope of t'e c"rve at t'e intersection point is po$!t!#e$ t'e
system is $ta2le& +eca"se any additional reactive power will
raise t'e voltage and vice(versa)
*ence for P
A
load$ t'ere is a reserve of reactive power t'at can
+e "sed to maintain sta+ility even if t'e load increases)
9or load P
2
t'e system is marginally sta+le)
9or 'ig'er load PB and PC t'e system is not sta+le
!Since a certain amo"nt of reactive power m"st +e in4ected into
t'e +"s to ca"se an intersection wit' t'e voltage a&is)#
2'"s t'e meas"re of H reserve gives an indication of t'e
margin +etween sta+ility and insta+ility)
2'e slope of t'e H(V c"rve represents t'e stiffness of t'e test
+"s)
w'en near+y generators reac' t'eir Var limits$ t'e slope of t'e
H(V c"rve +ecomes less steep and t'e +ottom of t'e c"rve is
approac'ed)
V(H c"rves are presently t'e wor1'orse met'od of voltage
sta+ility analysis at many "tilities) Since t'e met'od artificially
stresses a single +"s$ concl"sions s'o"ld +e confirmed +y more
realistic met'ods)
9ig: Reactive Power Fargins