Archaeobotanical Study of Ancient Food and Cereal

Remains at the Astana Cemeteries, Xinjiang, China

Tao Chen
1,2
, Yan Wu
1,2
, Yongbing Zhang
3
, Bo Wang
4
, Yaowu Hu
1,2
, Changsui Wang
1,2
, Hongen Jiang
1,2
*
1The Lab of Human Evolution, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, 2Department of Scientific
History and Archaeometry, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, 3Academia Turfanica of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Turpan,
China, 4Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Museum, Urumchi, China
Abstract
Starch grain, phytolith and cereal bran fragments were analyzed in order to identify the food remains including cakes,
dumplings, as well as porridge unearthed at the Astana Cemeteries in Turpan of Xinjiang, China. The results suggest that the
cakes were made from Triticum aestivum while the dumplings were made from Triticum aestivum, along with Setaria italica.
The ingredients of the porridge remains emanated from Panicum miliaceum. Moreover, direct macrobotantical evidence of
the utilization of six cereal crops, such as Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste, Panicum miliaceum, Setaria italica,
Cannabis sativa, and Oryza sativa in the Turpan region during the Jin and Tang dynasties (about 3
rd
to 9
th
centuries) is also
presented. All of these cereal crops not only provided food for the survival of the indigenous people, but also spiced up
their daily life.
Citation: Chen T, Wu Y, Zhang Y, Wang B, Hu Y, et al. (2012) Archaeobotanical Study of Ancient Food and Cereal Remains at the Astana Cemeteries, Xinjiang,
China. PLoS ONE 7(9): e45137. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137
Editor: Patrick Degryse, KULeuven, Belgium
Received April 28, 2012; Accepted August 14, 2012; Published September 20, 2012
Copyright: 2012 Chen et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program - Climate Change: Carbon Budget and Relevant Issues of the Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Grant No. XDA05130501, the NSFC (41102114), and the NSFC(41002057). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis,
decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: jianghongen@gucas.ac.cn
Introduction
Revealing what our ancestors ingested has been and is still such
a fascinating quest for both archaeologists and the general public.
In most cases, animal remains, plant macrofossils, and food
residues are often regular materials for palaeodietary investigation
[13]. In addition, stable isotope and trace element analysis of
human bone can also enhance our understanding of ancient foods
[4,5]. Unlike other materials, the information gleaned by food
remains is far more straightforward. Nevertheless, due to poor
conditions of preservation, food remains are rarely encountered in
archaeological excavations. The Turpan Basin of Xinjiang, China,
is characterized by a dry climate, which has favored the
preservation and prevented the decay of numerous mummies as
well as plant and food remains. For example, a number of
significant plant remains, e.g., Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare var.
coeleste, Panicum miliaceum, Cannabis sativa, Lithospermum officinale,
Capparis spinosa, Vitis vinifera, etc., have been well studied over the
past several years [610]. Processed food like noodles and cakes
have been occasionally discovered at archaeological sites, such as
the Subeixi Site [11], and the Sampula and Yingpan Cemeteries
[12,13]. This kind of physical evidence provides opportunities to
trace the vegetation patterns, palaeodiet and plant utilization
among the ancient indigenous people of Xinjiang. However, aside
from the ancient noodles and cakes unearthed at the Subeixi site
[14], to date, the overwhelming majority of food remains have not
been scientifically analyzed.
As is known by many, the human diet experienced a change:
from a simpler to more complicated one; from a more primitive to
a more developed one. In view of different natural environments
and cultural backgrounds, people who lived in different places and
ages had different characteristics of dietary culture. Turpan is
located in the eastern part of Central Asia, an important
communication center between the East and the West. Due to
its unique natural geographical environment, its location on
important routes of exchange, and patterns of historical develop-
ment, the indigenous people in Turpan have had their own unique
food culture since ancient times. Previous studies have revealed
only part of the cereals processed during the period 1000-100BC
in Turpan [14]. However, the diet which characterized this region
during the later times has not yet well been investigated. The
primary objective of the present study is to reveal the burial ritual,
dietary and food culture of the people of ancient Turpan during
the period 200900AD. Concurrently, the cultural information
exchanged underlying these food and cereal crops remains are
further explored.
Site description
Previous studies have shown that the Turpan Basin was
occupied by the Gushi people from 1000 to 100BC. The Gushi
Kingdom was later defeated by the armies of the Western Han
dynasty (202 BC-9 AD), and large numbers of Han Chinese
migrated to the region. Afterwards, Turpan was successively
dominated by kingdoms consisting of the Han people, especially
the Gaochang Kingdom, until the 9
th
century [15]. The Astana
Cemeteries were the public graveyards of the ancient Gaochang
people, covering an area of 10 km
2
. The cemeteries are located in
front of the Flaming Mountains (Huoyan Shan) and lie on the
delta plain of the Mutougou River (Fig. 1). They consist of
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 September 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 9 | e45137
thousands of tombs dating from the 3
rd
to the 9
th
centuries, and
are well known today as an underground museum. As Turpan is
famous for its hot and dry climate, as previously published [610],
the mummies, together with the funerary objects, have been well
preserved without decay. From 1959 to 1975, more than 500
tombs were excavated by the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region Museum and other institutions. According to the structure
and unearthed cultural relics, all the tombs can be divided into
three chronological phases. The first phase existed between the Jin
Dynasty and middle of the Southern and Northern dynasties
(middle 3
rd
to early 6
th
centuries AD). According to their shape,
the tombs belonging to this period can be categorized into two
different types: the first is a cave-cum-shaft grave with a slope,
most of which are square, with four straight walls, while some have
side chambers; The second is a cave-cum-shaft grave with a silo.
The second phase dates from between the middle of the Southern
and Northern dynasties and the early Tang dynasty (early 6
th
to
middle 7
th
centuries AD), namely the time of Gaochang Kingdom.
During this period, the walls of tombs became slightly curved, with
flat and round tops. Wooden coffins were no longer used. The last
phase dates to the early-middle Tang dynasty (middle 7
th
to the 9
th
centuries AD). During this period, the surfaces of tombs gradually
evolved from flat to circular. Additionally, the dual-chamber tomb
began to appear [16].
Materials and Methods
Ethics Statement
All necessary permits were obtained from the Academia
Turfanica of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Xinjiang
Uygur Autonomous Region Museum for the described field
studies.
In the past, plant materials were an important constituent of
funerary objects. In fact, some cereals were carefully packaged or
stored in earthen pots or small bags (Fig. 2D), and buried in the
tombs for further use by the deceased; some plant materials were
discovered in objects of daily use, e.g., stalks of Triticum aestivum
used for the filling of pillows (Fig. 2E). In view of the very large
number of tombs, we adopted the method of random sampling.
Judging from the structure of tombs and unearthed cultural relics,
the deceased were mainly from high-status part of the ancient
society of Turpan. Samples were chosen for micro-botanical
analyses, including cakes of different shapes from tomb No. 64-
TAM37:11, porridge from tomb No. 64TAM13:15, as well as
dumplings from tomb No. 73TAM514:5 (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
Some cereal remains unearthed from some tombs in the Astana
Cemeteries were also identified (Table 1). The specimens were
subsequently deposited in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region Museum as were modern reference collection samples
deposited in the Department of Scientific History and Archaeo-
metry, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Macrofossil analysis
Length, width and thickness of the cereals were measured with a
vernier caliper. The mean values, ranges and standard deviations
for each sample population were also calculated (Table 2). All the
macroremains were observed and photographed under a stereo-
microscope. Samples of Oryza sativa were also examined and
photographed using a JSM-6610LA scanning electron microscope
(SEM) at an accelerated voltage of 20 kV to observe the more
detailed morphology of the samples epidermal cells.
Microfossil analysis
To determine which plant taxa used during the preparation of
the ancient dumplings, cakes, and porridge, impossible to identify
with the naked eyes, the samples starch grains, phytoliths, and
bran fragments were extracted and then analyzed under a
microscope. In order to identify the ancient starch grains,
phytoliths, and bran fragments, one-to-one comparisons with
modern samples from economic plants, especially cereals, native to
the study region and the published cross-references were
performed [1722].
The extraction of starch grains and phytoliths followed well-
established methods from published references, e.g. [14]. One
hundred grains of each sample were measured to obtain data on
the length of the starch grains. Previous work has demonstrated
that starch grains below 5 mm in size are rarely used in the
diagnosis of taxa; therefore, only those exceeding 5 mm in size
were counted and calculated [23].
Extraction of bran fragments was conducted. First, about
1.5 cm
3
of materials were first scraped into a 20 ml beaker. Next,
five ml of nitric acid were added to the beaker which was then
placed in an electrically heated thermostatic for 10 minutes.
During the heating process, the beaker contents were occasionally
stirred from which the liquid was then removed and put into a
15 ml labeled snap-cap centrifuge tube. Deionized water was
added to the tube which was subsequently centrifuged at
3000 rpm for 5 minutes. The supernatant was then discarded
Figure 1. Map of the location of the Astana Cemeteries (adapted from [14], modified).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g001
Ancient Food and Cereal Remains of Xinjiang
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Table 1. Data regarding unearthed cereal and food remains from tombs.
Tomb number
Identified cereal taxa
or food remain Storage condition Age Origin of age Quantity
04TAM409:10 Panicum miliaceum,
Oryza sativa
Grain with husk 304439 AD Structure of tomb and
unearthed cultural relics
P. miliaceum mixed with
small amout of O. sativa
stored in a pot basin
73TAM514:5 Dumpling made from T.
aestivum and S. italica
499640AD Structure of tomb and
unearthed cultural relics
2
60TAM319:10 P. miliaceum Grain with husk 531640 AD Structure of tomb and
unearthed cultural relics
A small bag
64TAM10:6 T. aestivum Straw and chaff 617661AD Unearthed nine
documents with dating
texts from 617 AD to
661 AD
Stored in a
earthen pot
64TAM10:6 Panicum miliaceum Leaf sheath ibid ibid ibid
64TAM13:15 Porridge made from P.
miliaceum
During the Tang Dynasty
(618907 AD)
Structure of tomb and
unearthed cultural relics
A lump
73TAM532:1 P. miliaceum and
S. italica
Grain with husk During the Tang Dynasty
(618907 AD)
Structure of tomb A small bag
73TAM519:18 T. aestivum Straw and chaff 640642AD Unearthed document with
a dating text 640 AD and
epitaph dated 642 AD
Used as filling of
pillow
73TAM519:18 H. vulgare var. coeleste Chaff ibid ibid ibid
72TAM209:64 S. italica Grain with husk 658AD Unearthed epitaph
dated 658 AD
Unclear in the
original record
72TAM209:66 T. aestivum, H. vulgare
var. coeleste
Grain ibid ibid ibid
72TAM209:68 Cannabis sativa Achene ibid ibid ibid
64TAM5:37 S. italica Grain with husk 665668 AD 19 unearthed documents
with dating texts from
665 AD to 668 AD
A small bag
64TAM37:11 Cakes made from T.
aestivum
768 AD Unearthed document with
a dating text 768 AD
5
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.t001
Figure 2. Materials chosen for microfossil analysis. (A) Five cakes labeled 15 chosen for microfossil analysis. Scale bar =2 cm; (B) Dumping
chosen for microfossil analysis. Scale bar =2 cm; (C) Desiccated porridge chosen for microfossil analysis. Scale bar =2 cm; (D) A small bag of Setaria
italica from tomb No. 64TAM5:37. Scale bar =2 cm; (E) A pillow from tomb No. 73TAM519:18 using stalks of Triticum aestivum and H. vulgare var.
coeleste as filling. Scale bar =5 cm.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g002
Ancient Food and Cereal Remains of Xinjiang
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without disturbing the residues at the bottom of the centrifuge
tube. Deionized water was again added to the tube. These 3 steps
were repeated 3 times. Finally, most of the supernatant was
discarded, but allowed to dry at room temperature. An aliquot of
the centrifuged residue was then placed on a glass slide in glycerin,
mixed with a plastic rod, to which a cover slip was affixed. Slides
were then observed and photographed under a light microscope.
Results
Macrofossil analysis
In the present study, seven cereal plant species were identified
from the Astana Cemeteries, including Setaria italica, Panicum
miliaceum, Cannabis sativa, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum
vulgare var. coeleste, and Oryza sativa (Fig. 3). Among them, only one
grain of Hordeum vulgare with husk was discovered. In view of the
fact that plants of Hordeum vulgare and H. vulgare var. coeleste share
similar growth conditions, it is probable that a few plants of barley
grew together with those of Triticum aestivum and/or Hordeum vulgare
var. coeleste in the same field.
Starch grain analysis
The starch grains extracted could be divided into two distinctive
types. Type 1 were large simple grains (1040 mm) (Table 3)
(Figs. 4, 5), circular/oval in outline, with centric and faint hilum.
When rotated into side view, they assumed a lenticular form.
Some had demonstrable lamellae (Fig. 6A, B). All cakes and
dumplings possessed this type of starch grain. According to
modern reference collections and published references
[17,21,24,25] (Fig. 4AC), this type of starch grain could be
interpreted as one of the crops belonging to Triticeae. It is most
likely that they were derived from Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare,
or H. vulgare var. coeleste. Type 2 was smaller (410 mm) (Table 3)
(Figs. 4, 5), sub-rounded and polygonal overall in shape, with a
central and faint hilum, and occasional fissures, with no lamellae.
Most of the extinction crosses were bilaterally symmetrical. Starch
grains extracted from the ancient porridge fell into this type, which
could be identified as belonging to Panicum miliaceum (Fig. 6C)
(compared with Fig. 4D, [22,26])
Phytolith analysis
All husk phytoliths extracted from porridge had smooth surfaces
without any papillae; the epidermal long cell walls were g-
undulated. Moreover, the ending structures of the epidermal long
cells were of the cross-finger type (Fig. 6E). In addition, the
average R value (ratio of the width of endings interdigitation to the
amplitude of undulations) was 0.82, which is in accordance with
that of Panicum miliaceum (0.7960.12) [20] (Table 4). In this case
the husk phytoliths extracted from the porridge belonged to
Panicum miliaceum. This scenario agrees well with the results of the
starch grain analysis. However, the phytolith morphology of the
ancient dumpling revealed that the epidermal long cell walls were
V-undulated and the ending structures of epidermal long cells
were of the cross-wavy type (Fig. 6F). Fifty phytoliths extracted
from the dumpling were also measured and statistically analyzed
and found to have an average R value of 0.38, which fit quite well
with that of S. italica (0.3360.11) [20] (Table 4). The phytoliths
from the dumpling were consequently identified to be from S.
italica.
Bran fragments analysis
As listed in Fig. 6G and H, the extracted transverse cells of bran
fragments were of a hexagonal or pentagonal shape. The long side
walls of these transverse cells were extremely thick, with attached
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Ancient Food and Cereal Remains of Xinjiang
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 4 September 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 9 | e45137
and exceedingly large pits. In contrast, the end walls were
sometimes pitted, but not usually thickened. In addition, each side
presented a narrow curvature and exhibited a zig-zag pattern, the
most prominent characteristic of T. aestivum [19,27]. Accordingly,
the transverse cells from the dumpling and cakes were identified as
belonging to T. aestivum.
According to these observations, the components of the ancient
cakes, porridge, and dumpling became increasingly clear. The
bran analysis together with the starch grain analysis showed that
the ancient cakes were made from T. aestivum. Accordingly, the
bran analysis together with the phytolith analysis suggested that
the ancient dumping could have been made from the flour of T.
aestivum and S. italica. However, the phytolith analysis combined
with starch grain analysis showed that the ancient porridge was
most likely constituted of P. miliaceum.
Figure 3. Materials chosen for macrofossil analysis. (A), (B) caryopses of Setaria italica; (C) grains with palea and lemma of Setaria italica; (D)
grains with palea and lemma of Panicum miliaceum; (E), (F) caryopses of Panicum miliaceum; (G) a leaf sheath of Panicum miliaceum; (H) fruits of
Cannabis sativa; (I), (J) caryopses of Triticum aestivum; (K) rachis segment of Triticum aestivum; (L), (M) one grain with palea and lemma of Hordeum
vulgare; (N), (O) caryopses of Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste; (P) grains with palea and lemma of Oryza sativa. (Scale bar: 2 mm).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g003
Figure 4. Starch grains from modern plants. The upper row photographs showing starch grains under transmitted light; and the lower row
showing corresponding ones under polarized light. (A) starch grains from wheat (Triticum aestivum); (B) starch grains from barley (Hordeum vulgare);
(C) starch grains from naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste); (D) starch grains from modern common millet (Panicum miliaceum). (Scale bar:
20 mm).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g004
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Discussion
To date, a series of agricultural products together with
processed food remains have been discovered in Turpan. For
instance, plant remains of Triticum aestivum, Panicum miliaceum, as
well as H. vulgare var. coeleste have been unearthed in the Yanghai
tombs of the Gushi Culture (also called Subeixi Culture) [8].
Ancient foodstuffs, including caryopses of Panicum miliaceum,
together with noodles, cakes, made from the same, have been
discovered in the Subeixi site [14]. There have also been cereal
remains unearthed in the other sites belonging to this period. As
stated in the site description, the main part of the Turpan Basin
consists of the Gobi Desert, and its climate is dry and hot. Thus, it
is not strange that all the relative sites are located and found on the
secondary mesa of an ancient river or wetland, where it was
possible to conduct agricultural activities. Due to water limitation
and low productive capability, individuals that inhabited this area
were only able to grow a few species of cereal over the past
approximate 1000 years (3000-2100 BP). Nomadic peoples still led
a pastoral life, and cereals occupied only a small part of their diet.
However, during the period of the Western Han dynasty (202
BC-9 AD), the Han people began migrating to Turpan and
witnessed an extremely important stage of development. With the
further smoothing of the Silk Road and the migration of people
from the eastern part of China, the constant collision and
exchange of diverse cultures brought a high degree of development
and prosperity in many aspects [28]. This is fully reflected in the
development of plant cultivation and agricultural techniques. The
present study demonstrates that varieties of cereal crops had
greatly improved the lifestyle of the ancient Turpan people during
this period. Not only T. aestivum, H. vulgare, H. vulgare var. coeleste,
and P. miliaceum, which had previously been unearthed at
archaeological sites belonging to the Subeixi culture, but S. italica,
O. sativa and Cannabis sativa were also unearthed. To date, this
represents the largest collection of S. italica ever uncovered in this
region. Even O. sativa was uncovered among these plant remains.
Although there is possibility that these rice remains were imported
from other regions, they might also have been cultivated locally,
like their modern counterparts. Agricultural techniques also
improved during this period. Previous studies have shown that
after the period of the Western Han dynasty, various advanced
implements of production spread into Turpan, especially iron
tools, having a great impact on local agricultural production [29].
In addition, it is known that water resources were very scarce in
the extremely dry environment of Turpan. However, according to
ancient written records preserved in the Astana Cemeteries, water
from adjacent areas, including the Mutougou Valley and the
Tuyugou Valley, were efficiently utilized by the local people with
an irrigation system well-managed by the local government. As the
people that migrated from the eastern part of ancient China
brought advanced agricultural techniques together with a modu-
lation by political means, such as tax collection, much progress was
made in Turpan during this period. The more advanced
Figure 5. Comparison of starch size ranges (maximum length) between archaeological samples and modern references.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g005
Ancient Food and Cereal Remains of Xinjiang
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Figure 6. Microfossils extracted from ancient processed food. (A) starch grains from dumpling. Scale bar =20 mm; (B) starch grains from
cakes. Scale bar =20 mm; (C) starch grains from porridge. Scale bar =20 mm; (D) silicified epidermis from rice glume. Scale bar =200 mm; (E) phytoliths
from porridge. Scale bar =20 mm; (F), (G) phytoliths from dumpling. Scale bar =20 mm; (H) bran fragments from dumpling. Scale bar =20 mm; (I) bran
fragments from cakes. Scale bar =20 mm.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g006
Table 3. Starch grain size of modern and archaeological samples.
Material Maximum length (mm) Range of maximum length (mm) Count number
Modern wheat 18.8564.53 8.5930.74 100
Modern barley 18.6564.51 9.3335.42 100
Modern naked barley 18.4867.66 7.4835.41 100
Ancient dumpling 19.1768.80 8.4038.46 100
Ancient cake 1 17.2268.29 7.0336.73 100
Ancient cake 2 18.0268.98 8.1241.29 100
Ancient cake 3 18.4468.28 7.2137.38 100
Ancient cake 4 19.2969.26 7.4339.78 100
Ancient cake 5 19.61610.29 6.1140.03 100
Modern common millet 7.2961.03 5.159.90 100
Ancient porridge 7.0861.16 5.069.77 100
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.t003
Ancient Food and Cereal Remains of Xinjiang
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 7 September 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 9 | e45137
agriculture not only improved the quality of lifestyle of the local
people, but also helped the development of commerce [15].
Ancient written records unearthed from the Astana Cemeteries
also provide invaluable information about ancient agricultural
practices in this region. In accordance with archaeological
excavations, written records show that vegetation food played an
important role in the daily life of local inhabitants, and that the
main cereals of the ancient Astana peoples were T. aestivum, P.
miliaceum, S. italica, as well as, H. vulgare var. coeleste, with the first
three more likely important than the latter, which was also
consumed as fodder. Furthermore, it is believed that T. aestivum
flour was processed into fast food for long distance use by travelers,
while some fine flour was made into cakes with meat for the
consumption of the upper echelons of the society. T. aestivum flour
was also made into cakes of different styles. Written records also
indicate that porridge was usually made from P. miliaceum or S.
italica, with meat sometimes added into the mixture for those of
higher status. However, ordinary porridge made from only P.
miliaceum or S. italica was usually consumed by monks, wage
earners, as well as poor people [15]. In contrast to the above
cereals, fruits of O. sativa and C. sativa were consumed only in small
amounts, also in accordance with archaeological excavations, as
only 18 fruits of C. sativa as well as a few pieces of O. sativa were
discovered. In addition, painted figurines were also unearthed
from the Astana Cemeteries, including the vivid figurines of
working women processing cereal (Fig. 7). In conclusion, such a
rich variety of food crops as well as their by-products no doubt
greatly improved the living standards of the regions indigenous
people and also provided the impetus for a cultural prosperity. In
addition, these food remains, particularly the elaborate cakes,
reflect that diet was not just for food but also for a higher spiritual
enjoyment for certain Turpan ancestors.
As a crossroad of cultures between the East and West, Turpan
played an important role in ancient times. An abundance of
Persian-style textiles as well as Sassanid silver coins and Roman
golden coins have been discovered in the Astana Cemeteries [16].
However, the local food culture was hugely impacted by the
eastern region, that is to say, that of the inland areas of ancient
China. Until the Tang dynasty (618907 AD), the manners and
customs of the Turpan region were similar to those of Central
China. Concurrently, dietary customs of the inland areas also
spread there. Large amounts of typical Chinese traditional food
remains, especially the dumpling and cakes previously described,
have been discovered in the Astana Cemeteries. Observing these
ancient dumplings of a thin skin and stuffing, it is surprisingly
difficult to distinguish them from their modern counterpart.
Written records show that dumplings became popular during the
Southern and Northern dynasties (420589 AD). However, as the
components of a dumping are soft and easily perishable, no
physical evidence has ever been reported, except for those of the
Astana Cemeteries. The Astana Cemeteries contain the earliest
physical evidence of dumplings. Even now, dumplings still prevail
in most areas of China and the primary cereal ingredient is T.
aestivum. Compared with its modern counterpart, this study
demonstrates that the ancient dumpling unearthed in Turpan
was made from a compound flour of T. aestivum and S. italica. This
type of dumpling might have been more suitable to the taste of the
ancient Turpan people, but also might indicate an extinct
production technology. To resolve this question, more dumplings
from the Astana Cemeteries need to be sampled and analyzed.
Conclusion
Through the study of the food remains and cereal macrofossils
unearthed at the Astana Cemeteries, this study provides a fuller
insight into the burial ritual, vegetation diet and dietary culture of
the Turpan region during the Jin and Tang dynasties (3
rd
to 9
th
centuries). This research indicates that with the migration of the
Han people to Turpan, the food culture of central China began to
play a primary role in the diet of the local people. Furthermore, as
an important exchange center and a crucial transport hub on the
ancient Silk Road, Turpans key role in the cultural exchange
between East and West became more significant during this
period.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Dawei Tao and Ms. Yiwen Gong for their invaluable
suggestions for the experiments. Thanks are also due to Ms. Jade dAlpoim
Guedes for helpful suggestions to improve the manuscript.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: TC CW HJ. Performed the
experiments: TC HJ. Analyzed the data: TC YW YZ BW YH CW HJ.
Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: TC YZ BW YH CW HJ.
Wrote the paper: TC YH CW HJ.
Table 4. Measured data of dendriform epidermal long cells
and the R value of samples.
Material W (mm) (H1+H2)/2 (mm) R value
Count
number
Dumpling 4.7261.04 13.2863.90 0.3860.10 50
Porridge 10.7861.71 13.1561.72 0.8260.10 50
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.t004
Figure 7. Painted figurines of working women excavated from
the Astana Cemteries. They are 9.716 cm in height, with vivid
expressions and gestures. All of them are deposited in the Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomious Region Museum. (A) dehusking rice with mortar
and pestle. (B) winnowing cereal crop. (C) milling flour. (D) baking pan
cake (provided by Prof. Yongbing Zhang).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045137.g007
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