Special Relativity by David W Hogg
Special Relativity by David W Hogg
Special Relativity by David W Hogg
David W. Hogg
School of Natural Sciences
Institute for Advanced Study
Olden Lane
Princeton NJ 08540
hogg@ias.edu
1 December 1997
Contents
1 Principles of relativity
1.1 What is a principle of relativity? . . .
1.2 Einsteins principle of relativity . . . .
1.3 The Michelson-Morley experiment . .
1.4 The specialness of special relativity
2 Time dilation and length contraction
2.1 Time dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Observing time dilation . . . . . . .
2.3 Length contraction . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Magnitude of the effects . . . . . . .
2.5 Experimental confirmation . . . . . .
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1
1
2
3
5
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7
7
8
9
10
10
3 The
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
geometry of spacetime
Spacetime diagrams . . . . . . . . .
Boosting: changing reference frames
The ladder and barn paradox . . .
Relativity of simultaneity . . . . . .
The boost transformation . . . . . .
Transforming space and time axes .
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13
13
13
15
16
16
17
4 The
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Lorentz transformation
Proper time and the invariant interval . .
Derivation of the Lorentz transformation .
The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . .
Velocity addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The twin paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
19
20
20
21
22
25
25
26
26
6 Relativistic mechanics
6.1 Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 4-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 4-velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 4-momentum, rest mass and conservation laws . .
6.5 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Photons and Compton scattering . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Mass transport by photons . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 Particle production and decay . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Velocity addition (revisited) and the Doppler shift
6.10 4-force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
29
29
30
30
31
32
33
34
34
34
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to astronomy
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37
37
38
38
39
40
40
References
43
Index
45
ii
Preface
Acknowledgments
For me, the wonder of special relativity lies in its successful prediction of interesting and very nonintuitive phenomena from simple arguments with simple premises.
These notes have three (perhaps ambitious) aims:
(a) to introduce undergraduates to special relativity from
its founding principle to its varied consequences, (b) to
serve as a reference for those of us who need to use special relativity regularly but have no long-term memory,
and (c) to provide an illustration of the methods of theoretical physics for which the elegance and simplicity of
special relativity are ideally suited. History is a part of
all scienceI will mention some of the relevant events
in the development of special relativitybut there is no
attempt to present the material in a historical way.
A common confusion for students of special relativity
is between that which is real and that which is apparent. For instance, length contraction is often mistakenly
thought to be some optical illusion. But moving things
do not appear shortened, they actually are shortened.
How they appear depends on the particulars of the observation, including distance to the observer, viewing angles,
times, etc. The observer finds that they are shortened
only after correcting for these non-fundamental details of
the observational procedure. I attempt to emphasize this
distinction: All apparent effects, including the Doppler
Shift, stellar aberration, and superluminal motion, are
relegated to Chapter 7. I think these are very important aspects of special relativity, but from a pedagogical
standpoint it is preferable to separate them from the basics, which are not dependent on the properties of the
observer.
I love the description of special relativity in terms of
frame-independent, geometric objects, such as scalars and
4-vectors. These are introduced in Chapter 6 and used
thereafter. But even before this, the geometric properties of spacetime are emphasized. Most problems can be
solved with a minimum of algebra; this is one of the many
beautiful aspects of the subject.
These notes, first written while teaching sections of
first-year physics at Caltech, truly represent a work in
progress. I strongly encourage all readers to give me comments on any aspect of the text ; all input is greatly appreciated. Thank you very much.
email:
David W. Hogg
Princeton, New Jersey
November 1997
hogg@ias.edu
iii
iv
Chapter 1
Principles of relativity
These notes are devoted to the consequences of Einsteins (1905) principle of special relativity, which states
that all the fundamental laws of physics are the same
for all uniformly moving (non-accelerating) observers. In
particular, all of them measure precisely the same value
for the speed of light in vacuum, no matter what their
relative velocities. Before Einstein wrote, several principles of relativity had been proposed, but Einstein was
the first to state it clearly and hammer out all the counterintuitive consequences. In this Chapter the concept of
a principle of relativity is introduced, Einsteins is presented, and some of the experimental evidence prompting
it is discussed.
1.1
Problem 11:
You are driving at a steady
100 km h1 . At noon you pass a parked police car. At
twenty minutes past noon, the police car passes you, travelling at 120 km h1 . (a) How fast is the police car moving
relative to you? (b) When did the police car start driving,
assuming that it accelerated from rest to 120 km h1 instantaneously? (c) How far away from you was the police
car when it started?
Problem 12: You are walking at 2 m s1 down a
straight road, which is aligned with the x-axis. At time
t = 0 s you sneeze. At time t = 5 s a dog barks, and
at the moment he barks he is x = 10 m ahead of you
in the road. At time t = 10 s a car which is just then
15 m behind you (x = 15 m) backfires. (a) Plot the
Actually,
A and B to measure the same speed of light in the above two beams are recombined and the interference pattern
example? Consider how speeds are measured: with rulers is observed through a telescope at the output. The whole
and clocks.
apparatus is mounted on a stone platform which is floated
on mercury to stabilize it and allow it to be easily rotated.
Figure 1.1 shows the apparatus, and Figure 1.2 shows a
1.3 The Michelson-Morley experiment
simplified version.
In the late nineteenth century, most physicists were convinced, contra Newton (1730), that light is a wave and not
a particle phenomenon. They were convinced by interference experiments whose results can be explained (classically) only in the context of wave optics. The fact that
light is a wave implied, to the physicists of the nineteenth
century, that there must be a medium in which the waves
propagatethere must be something to waveand the
speed of light should be measured relative to this medium,
called the aether. (If all this is not obvious to you, you
probably were not brought up in the scientific atmosphere
of the nineteenth century!) The Earth orbits the Sun, so
it cannot be at rest with respect to the medium, at least
not on every day of the year, and probably not on any
day. The motion of the Earth through the aether can
be measured with a simple experiment that compares the
speed of light in perpendicular directions. This is known
as the Michelson-Morley experiment and its surprising result was a crucial hint for Einstein and his contemporaries
in developing special relativity.
Imagine that the hypothesis of the aether is correct,
that is, there is a medium in the rest frame of which
light travels at speed c, and Einsteins principle of relativity does not hold. Imagine further that we are performing an experiment to measure the speed of light c Figure 1.1: The Michelson-Morley apparatus (from Michelon the Earth, which is moving at velocity v (a vector son & Morley 1887). The light enters the apparatus at a, is
with magnitude v ) with respect to this medium. If we split by the beam splitter at b, bounces back and forth bemeasure the speed of light in the direction parallel to the tween mirrors d and e, d1 and e1 , with mirror e1 adjustable
Earths velocity v , we get c = c v because the to make both paths of equal length, the light is recombined
Earth is chasing the light. If we measure the speed of again at b and observed through the telescope at f. A plate
light in the opposite directionantiparallel to the Earths of glass c compensates, in the direct beam, for the extra
velocitywe get c = c + v . If we measure in q
the direc- light travel time of the reflected beam travelling through
2
the beam splitter an extra pair of times. See Figure 1.2 for
tion perpendicular to the motion, we get c = c2 v
because the speed of light is the hypotenuse of a right a simplified version.
triangle with sides of length c and v . If the aether
hypothesis is correct, these arguments show that the motion of the Earth through the aether can be detected with
a laboratory experiment.
The Michelson-Morley experiment was designed to
perform this determination, by comparing directly the
speed of light in perpendicular directions. Because it is
very difficult to make a direct measurement of the speed
of light, the device was very cleverly designed to make an
accurate relative determination. Light entering the apparatus from a lamp is split into two at a half-silvered
mirror. One half of the light bounces back and forth 14
times in one direction and the other half bounces back
and forth 14 times in the perpendicular direction; the
total distance travelled is about 11 m per beam. The
The
`
`
`c
+
= 2
2
2 (c + v ) 2 (c v )
c v
(1.1)
`
2
c2 v
(1.2)
(1.4)
2c
Problem 17: Show that under the hypothesis of a
Since the apparatus will be rotated, the device will swing stationary aether, the speed of light as observed from a
from having one arm parallel to the motion of the Earth platform moving at speed v, in the
direction perpendicuand the other perpendicular to having the one perpendic- lar to the platforms motion, is c2 v2 . For a greater
ular and the other parallel. So as the device is rotated challenge: what is the observed speed for an arbitrary anthrough a half turn, the time delay between arms will gle between the direction of motion and the direction in
which the speed of light is measured? Your answer should
change by twice the above t.
The lateral position of the interference fringes as mea- reduce to c + v and c v for = 0 and .
sured in the telescope is a function of the relative travel
It is worthy of note that when Michelson and Morley
times of the light beams along the two paths. When the
first designed their experiment and predicted the fringe
travel times are equal, the central fringe lies exactly in the
shift, they did not realize that the speed of light perpencenter of the telescope field. If the paths differ by one-half
dicular to the direction of motion of the platform would
a period (one-half a wavelength in distance units), the
be other than c. This correction was pointed out to them
fringes shift by one-half of the fringe separation, which
by Potier in 1881 (Michelson & Morley, 1887).
is well resolved in the telescope. As the apparatus is
rotated with respect to the Earths motion through the
aether, the relative travel times of the light along the two
k It was also Poincar
paths was expected to change by 0.4 periods, because (in
es (1900) explanation. Forshadowing Einthe aether model) the speed of light depends on direc- stein, he said that the Michelson-Morley experiment shows that
tion. The expected shift of the interference fringes was absolute motion cannot be detected to second order in v/c and so
perhaps it cannot be detected to any order. Poincare is also al0.4 fringe spacings, but no shift at all was observed as legedly the first person to have named this proposal a principle of
the experimenters rotated the apparatus. Michelson and relativity.
The fractional error that the Earths gravity introduces into the
experiments we describe must depend only on the acceleration due
to gravity g, the parameters of each experiment, and fundamental
constants. Fractional error is dimensionless, and the most obvious
fundamental constant to use is c. The ratio g/c has dimensions
of inverse time. This suggests that an experiment which has a
characteristic time or length ` will not agree with the predictions
of special relativity to better than a fractional error of about g/c
or ` g/c2 if it is performed on the surface of the Earth.
Chapter 2
prove that it is not possible for D to observe both timepieces to tick at the same rate while E observes them to
tick at different rates.
The reader might object that we have already violated relativity: if D and E are in symmetric situations,
how come E measures longer time intervals? We must be
y
y
careful. E measures longer time intervals for Ds clock
2
2
than D does. By relativity, it must be that D also measures longer time intervals for Es clock than E does. Indeed this is true; after all, all of the above arguments are
equally applicable if we swap D and E. This is the fundamentally counterintuitive aspect of relativity. How it
can be that both observers measure slower rates on the
x=0
x
others clock? The fact is, there is no contradiction, as
long as we are willing to give up on a concept of absoFigure 2.2: The trajectory of the light in Ds light-clock, as lute time, agreed-upon by all observers. The next two
observed by (a) D and (b) E. Note that the light follows Chapters explore this and attempt to help develop a new
a longer path in Es frame, so E measures a longer time intuition.
interval t0 .
Problem 21: Your wristwatch ticks once per second. What is the time interval between ticks when your
x0 = u t0 and the light in Ds clock must go a to- wristwatch is hurled past you at half the speed of light?
tal distance `0 = c t0 . By the Pythagorean theorem
(`0 )2 = (x0 )2 + (y)2 , where y is the total round- Problem 22: How fast does a clock have to move
trip length of the clock (1 m in this case) in its rest frame to be ticking at one tenth of its rest tick rate? One oneand for now it has been assumed that y = y0 (this will hundredth? One one-thousandth? Express your answers
be shown in Section 2.3). Since y = ` = c t, we find in terms of the difference 1 , where of course
v/c.
t
0
(2.1) Problem 23: Consider the limit in which 1, so
t = q
2
its inverse 1/ is a small number. Derive an approxima1 uc2
tion for of the form 1 which is correct to second
The time intervals between flashes of Ds clock are longer order in 1/.
as measured by E than as measured by D. This effect is
Problem 24: Consider the low-speed limit, in which
called time dilation. Moving clocks go slow.
1. Derive an expression for of the form 1 +
It is customary to define the dimensionless speed
which is correct to second order in .
and the Lorentz factor by
Problem 25: Prove (by thought experiment) that
u
(a) Ds frame
(b) Es frame
verses in getting to E. The path lengths are changing because D is moving with respect to E (see Figure 2.3). In
order to correctly measure the rate of Ds clock, E must
subtract the light-travel time of each pulse (which she
can compute by comparing the direction from which the
light comes with the trajectory that was agreed upon in
advance). It is only when she subtracts these time delays
that she measures the time between ticks correctly, and
when she does this, she will find that the time between
ticks is indeed t0 , the dilated time.
F4
F3
F2
F1
S2
S3
S4
S1
E
Figure 2.3: Observing the time delay. Because D is moving with respect to E, the flashes (F1 through F4 ) from his
clock travel along paths (S1 through S4 ) of different lengths
in getting to E. Hence different flashes take different times
to get to E. E must correct for this before making any statements about time dilation. It is after the correction is made
that E observes the predicted time dilation.
Problem 26: Consider a clock, which when at rest
produces a flash of light every second, moving away from
you at (4/5)c. (a) How frequently does it flash when
it is moving at (4/5)c? (b) By how much does distance between you and the clock increase between flashes?
(c) How much longer does it take each flash to get to your
eye than the previous one? (d) What, therefore, is the interval between the flashes you see?
You will find that the time interval between the flashes
you see is much longer than merely what time-dilation
predicts, because successive flashes come from further and
further away. This effect is known as the Doppler shift
and is covered in much more detail in Chapter 7
2.3
Length contraction
10
in one year) from the Earth. At what speed u must a 25year-old astronaut travel there and back if he or she is
to return before reaching age 45? By how much will the
astronauts siblings age over the same time?
This is the famous twin paradox, which we will cover
in
gory
detail in Section 4.5. For now, let us be simplistic
2.4 Magnitude of the effects
and answer the questions without thinking.
We want the elapsed time T 0 in the astronauts frame
As these example problems show, the effects of time dito
be
20 years as he or she goes a distance 2`0 , the dislation and length contraction are extremely small in everyday life, but large for high-energy particles and any tance from the Earth to Alpha Centauri and back in the
astronauts frame. The time and distance are related by
practical means of interstellar travel.
T 0 = 2`0 /u = 2`/(u). So we need u = 2`/T 0 . Dividing
Problem 210: In the rest frame of the Earth, the
by c, squaring and expanding we need
distance ` between New York and Los Angeles is roughly
2
4000 km. By how much is the distance shortened when
2
2`
observed from a jetliner flying between the cities? From
=
= (0.434)2
(2.7)
2
0
1
c
T
the Space Shuttle? From a cosmic ray proton traveling
at 0.9c?
This is a linear equation for 2 ; we find = 0.398. So the
In the rest frame, the distance is `; to an observer
astronaut must travel at u = 0.398c, and from the point
traveling at speed u along the line joining the cities, it is
of view of the siblings, the trip takes T = 2`/u = 21.8 yr.
`0 = `/. The difference is
p
2.5 Experimental confirmation
1
0
`` = 1
` = 1 1 2 `
(2.4)
The information in this section comes from Rossi & Hall (1941),
their extremely readable, original paper.
For those who care, muons are leptons, most analogous to electrons, with the same charge but considerably more mass. They are
unstable and typically decay into electrons and neutrinos.
11
down the tube there would be only N (x) = N0 ex/L . would be measured in their own rest frame? (From French
As the speed of the muons approaches c, the mean range 1966.)
would approach c0 , or 750 m. Since the muons are created at high altitude, very few of them could reach the
ground.
However, we expect that time dilation does occur, and
so the mean life and range L of the moving muons
will be increased by the Lorentz factor (1 2 )1/2
to = 0 and L = v 0 . Although all the muons
will be moving at speeds close to c ( nearly 1), they
will have different particular values of and therefore
decay with different mean ranges. Bruno & Rossi measure the fluxes (number of muons falling on a detector
of a certain area per minute) of muons of two different
kinetic energies at observing stations in Denver and Echo
Lake, Colorado, separated in altitude by h = 1624 m
(Denver below Echo Lake). The higher-energy muons in
their experiment have Lorentz factor 1 18.8 (speed
v1 0.9986c) while the lower-energy muons have 2 6.3
(v2 0.987c). Because we expect the mean range L
of a muon to be L = v 0 , we expect the ratio of
ranges L1 /L2 for the two populations of muons to be
(1 v1 )/(2 v2 ) 3.0. The flux of higher-energy muons
at Denver is lower by a factor of 0.883 0.005 than it
is at Echo Lake, meaning that if they have mean range
L1 , eh/L1 = 0.883. The flux of lower-energy muons decreases by a factor of 0.698 0.002, so eh/L2 = 0.698.
Taking logarithms and ratios, we find that L1 /L2 = 2.89
as predicted. The results do not make sense if the time
dilation factor (the Lorentz factor) is ignored.
Problem 213: Consider a muon traveling straight
down towards the surface of the Earth at Lorentz factor 1 18.8. (a) What is the vertical distance between
Denver and Echo Lake, according to the muon? (b) How
long does it take the muon to traverse this distance, according to the muon? (c) What is the muons mean lifetime, according to the muon? (d) Answer the above parts
again but now for a muon traveling at Lorentz factor
2 6.3.
Problem 214: Charged pions are produced in highenergy collisions between protons and neutrons. They
decay in their own rest frame according to the law
N (t) = N0 2t/T
(2.8)
12
Chapter 3
Spacetime diagrams
13
Heather (H) and Juan (J) are two more residents of planets A and B respectively. (A and B are separated by
` = 6 1011 m in the x-direction.) Early in the morning
(at event P ) H sends J a radio message. At event Q, J
receives the message. A time later in the day, H sends J
One could say 4-dimensional, but it is customary among relativists to separate the numbers of space and time dimensions by a
plus sign. The reason for this will be touched upon later.
As we will see in Chapter 6, neutrinos travel at the speed of
light only if they are massless; this is currently a subject of debate.
14
ct
ct
3l
2
G
l
es
sa
g
3l
2
5l
2
G
5l
2
15
ct
ct
J
H
l
x
P
l
Figure 3.4: Spacetime diagram with worldlines of H, J, and
the radio messages along with the sending and receiving
events, now drawn in Ks rest frame. Note the time dilation
and length contraction.
ct
(b) Ps frame
J
3.3
C
l
ladder
C
G
K
l
barn
H
x
2l
l
2
ladder
D
x
barn
16
3.4
Relativity of simultaneity
ct
ct
H
x
F
Figure 3.7: The clocks as observed in frame S 0 along with
events F , G, H, and the subsequent ticks. Although the
clocks are synchronized in S they are not in S 0 . Note that
the lines of simultaneity (horizontal in S) are slanted in S 0 .
lines of simultaneity
H
x
F
Figure 3.6: Synchronizing clocks at rest in frame S by flashing a lightbulb halfway between them at event F and having
each clock start when it detects the flash (events G and H).
After the two clocks receive the flashes, they tick as shown.
Lines of simultaneity connect corresponding ticks and are
horizontal.
diagram, because they occur at the same value of the time
coordinate. In fact, the horizontal lines can be drawn in;
they are lines of simultaneity.
Now consider a new frame S 0 which is moving at speed
+u = c in the x-direction with respect to S. In this new
frame, the worldlines of the clocks are no longer vertical
because they are moving at speed u, but by Einsteins
principle of relativity the flashes of light must still travel
on 45 worldlines. So the spacetime diagram in S 0 looks
like Figure 3.7. Note that in S 0 the lines of simultaneity
joining the corresponding ticks of the two clocks are no
longer horizontal. What does this mean? It means that
two events which are simultaneous in S will not in general
be simultaneous in S 0 .
3.5
Figure 3.8: Clocks at rest and synchronized in frame S exchanging photons. They emit photons simultaneously at
events A and B, the photons cross paths at event C, and
then are received simultaneously at events D and E.
S they emit photons simultaneously at events A and B;
the photons cross paths at event C; and then are received
simultaneously at events D and E. In S 0 events A and
B are no longer simultaneous, nor are events D and E.
However, light must still travel on 45 worldlines and the
photons must still cross at an event C halfway between
the clocks. So the spacetime diagram in S 0 must look like
Figure 3.9, with the square ABED in S sheared into a
parallelogram, preserving the diagonals as 45 lines. We
know that the slope of the lines of constant position transform to lines of slope 1/; in order to have the diagonals
be 45 lines, we need the lines of simultaneity to transform to lines of slope .
This is really the essence of the boost transformation, the transformation from one frame to another moving with respect to it: the transformation is a shear or
17
(a)
ct
(b)
ct
ct
ct
x
x
x
x
Figure 3.10: Spacetime diagrams in frames (a) S 0 and (b) S,
each showing the time and space axes of both frames.
One extremely useful way of representing the boost transformation between two frames on spacetime diagrams is
to plot the space and time axes of both frames on both
diagrams. This requires us to utilize two trivial facts:
(a) the spatial axis of a frame is just the line of simultaneity of that frame which passes through the origin event
(x, ct) = (0, 0) and (b) the time axis is just the line of constant position which passes through (0, 0). So if we (arbitrarily) identify origin events in the two frames, we can
plot, in frame S 0 , in addition to the x0 and ct0 axes, the
locations of the x and ct axes of frame S (Figure 3.10(a)).
We can also plot both sets of axes in frame S. This requires boosting not by speed +c but rather by c and,
as you have undoubtedly figured out, this slopes the lines
in the opposite way, and we get Figure 3.10(b). Again
we see that the transformation is a shear. Note that the
boost transformation is not a rotation, at least not in the
traditional sense of the word!
The directions along which the squash and expansion take place
are the eigenvectors of the transformation. The ambitious reader is
invited to calculate the two corresponding eigenvalues.
The zero of time and space are arbitrary, so, with no loss of generality, we can assign these values so that the origin events coincide.
18
ct
ct
Chapter 4
(4.1)
(c t)2 (r)2
(c t)2 (x)2 (y)2 (z)2 , (4.2)
20
We also know that between any two events, the interval s2 is the same in all frames. When y = z = 0,
(s)2 = (c t)2 (x)2 . Combined with the above two
matrix elements, the requirement that (s)2 = (s)02
implies
Lt0 x =
Lx0 x =
(4.7)
0 0
ct
ct
x0
0 0
x (4.8)
0 =
y 0
0
1 0 y
z0
0
0
0 1
z
4.3
The Lorentz transformation (hereafter LT) is very important and deserves some discussion. The LT really
transforms differences (c t, x, y, z) between the
coordinates of two events in one frame to differences
0
y = y
(c t0 , x0, y0 , z 0 ) in another frame. This means that
z0 = z
(4.3) if one is going to apply the LT directly to event coorLinearity requires that the x0 and t0 components must dinates, one must be very careful that a single event is
at the origin (0, 0, 0, 0) of both frames. In the previous
be given by
section, we placed event P at the origin of both frames.
c t0 = Lt0 t c t + Lt0 x x
A simple consistency check we could apply to the LT
0
is
the
following: If we boost to a frame moving at u, and
x = Lx0 t c t + Lx0 x x
(4.4)
then boost back by a speed u, we should get what we
where the Li0 j are constants; or, in matrix form,
started with. In other words, LTs with equal and opposite
0
speeds should be the inverses of one another. If we change
ct
Lt0 t Lt0 x
ct
u u, we have and , so boosting the
=
(4.5)
x0
Lx0 t Lx0 x
x
coordinates (ct0 , x0) in frame K back to H and giving the
From the previous chapter, we know that two events new coordinates double-primes, we have
that occur in F at the same place (so x = 0) but
ct00 = ct0 + x0
separated by time c t occur in G separated by time
= ( ct x) + ( ct + x)
c t0 = c t and therefore separated in space by x0 =
= 2 (ct x 2 ct + x)
c t0 = c t, where, as usual (1 2 )1/2 .
This implies
= 2 (1 2 ) ct
Lt0 t
Lx0 t
=
=
(4.6)
y1
y2
y3
y4
a11
a21
a31
a41
a12
a22
a32
a42
a13
a23
a33
a43
a14
a24
a34
a44
x1
x2
x3
x4
00
=
=
=
=
ct
(4.9)
0
0
ct + x
( ct x) + ( ct + x)
2 ( ct 2 x ct + x)
= 2 (1 2 ) x
= x,
(4.10)
21
The group of all LTs includes all linear transformations that preserve the interval . This means that LTs
include space rotations with no boost, for example
1
0
0
0
0 cos sin 0
(4.11)
0 sin cos 0
0
0
0
1
x
y
z
(1) x y
(1) x z
1 + (1) x2
x
2
2
2
2
(1)
(1) y z
(1) x y
y
1 + 2
y
2
2
(1) y z
(1) z2
(1) x z
z
1
+
2
2
2
(4.12)
where we define
Velocity addition
fact, the astute reader will notice that there are linear transformations which preserve the interval but involve reversing the direction of time or reflecting space through a plane. These do indeed
satisfy the criteria to be LTs but they are known as improper LTs
because they do not correspond to physically realizable boosts. On
the other hand, they do have some theoretical meaning in relativistic quantum mechanics, apparently.
A
C
T
(a)
(b)
T
x
Figure 4.1: Spacetime diagrams of the throw T and explosion E of C by A, as observed by (a) A and (b) B for the
purposes of computing the velocity addition law.
22
ct
R
L
M
Lin (L) and Ming (M) are twins, born at the same time,
but with very different genes: L is an astronaut who likes
to explore outer space, and M is a homebody who likes
to stay at home on Earth and read novels. When both
L and M turn 20, L leaves on a journey to a nearby star.
The star is ` = 30 light years away and L chooses to travel
out at speed u = 0.99c and then immediately turn around
and come back. From Ms point of view, the journey will
take time T = 2`/u 60 yr, so L will return when M is
80. How much will L have aged over the same period?
In Section 2.1 we learned that moving clocks go slow,
so L will have aged by T 0 = T /, where (1 2 )1/2
and u/c. For u = 0.99c, = 7, so L will have
aged less than 9 yr. That is, on Ls arrival home, M will
be 80, but L will only be 28! Strange, but in this special
relativistic world, we are learning to live with strangeness.
During his journey, Ming starts to get confused about
this argument. After all, there is no preferred reference
frame. If one looks at the Earth from the point of view
of Mings rocket, one sees the Earth travel out at speed u
and come back. So isnt Ls clock the one that runs slow,
and wont L the one who will be younger upon return?
How can this be resolved?
In Figure 4.2, the worldlines of L and M are plotted in the rest frame of the Earth (frame S), with Ls
departure marked as event D, Ls turnaround at the distant star as T and her return home as R. You will recall that in Section 4.1 we saw that along a worldline,
the proper time, or time elapsed for an observer travelling along the worldline, is the square root of the interval
(s)2 = (c t)2 (x)2 . M does not move, so x = 0
and the proper time for him is just tDR . L moves very
quickly, so (x) is not zero, so her proper time out to
event T and back again will be much smaller than simply
tDR . Smaller, of course, by a factor 1/.
Lets draw this now in Ls frame. But we have a problem: just what frame do we choose? Do we choose the
Do not regard this statement as a position on the nature/nurture debate.
23
24
Chapter 5
Recall the ladder and barn paradox discussed in Section 3.3, in which N is at rest with respect to a barn, and
P is carrying a long ladder but running so that it will be
length contracted and therefore fit.
Confused by the discussion of relativity of simultaneity in Chapter 3, N decides to prove that ladder does
indeed fit into the barn by replacing the back door with
an incredibly strong, rigid, and heavy back wall that does
not open. Now when P enters the barn, he cannot leave,
and the question is: does the front door ever close at all?
If it closes, the ladder must be really inside the barn in
all frames because there is no back door through which
it can be exiting. Thus instead of asking whether event
C happens before or after D, a frame-dependent question, we are asking whether C happens at all. This is a
frame-independent question.
In Ns frame, event C, the closing of the front door,
must happen because the front of the ladder does not hit
the back wall until event C has occurred. That is, the
ladder does not even know that the back door has been
replaced by a brick wall until event C has occurred, so
if event C, the closing of the front door, happened when
the back door was open, it must still happen now that
the back door is no longer there.
In Ps frame the front of the ladder hits the back of
the barn before the back of the ladder enters, as we saw
in Section 3.3. But does this mean that the ladder will
stop and event C will no longer happen? To answer this
question, we will have to actually do some Physics for the
Events are frame-independent entities in the sense that if an
event occurs in one frame, it must occur in all. One cannot
undo the fact that one sneezed by changing frames! On the other
hand, relationships between events such as simultaneity are framedependent or relative.
25
26
ct (a) Ns frame
ct
G
J
E
C
l
C
G
K
l
(b) Ps frame
H
x
2l
l
2
D
x
5.3
27
28
Chapter 6
Relativistic mechanics
6.1
Scalars
4-vectors
30
be multiplied or divided by a scalar to give a new fourcomponent object which also transforms according to the
Lorentz transformation. In other words, a 4-vector multiplied or divided by a scalar is another 4-vector.
Problem 61: Show that the 3+1-dimensional dot
product obeys associativity over addition, i.e., that
~a (~b + ~c) = ~a ~b + ~a ~c
(6.5)
4-velocity
6.5. Collisions
31
and we will make use of the fact that for small , (1+)n
1 + n . At low speed,
(6.10)
m c2
mv
(6.11)
p c2
E
(6.12)
p = m v (1 2 )1/2
1 v2
mv + m 2 v
2 c
mv
E
c
2
p2
(6.13)
= m c2 (1 2 )1/2
1
m c2 + m v2
2
(6.15)
i.e., the momentum has the classical form, and the energy
is just Einsteins famous m c2 plus the classical kinetic
energy m v2 /2. But remember, these formulae only apply
when v c.
Conservation of 4-momentum is just like conservation
of 3-momentum in non-relativistic mechanics. All the 4momenta of all the components of the whole system under study are summed before the interaction, and they
are summed afterwards. No matter what the interaction,
as long as the whole system has been taken into account
(i.e. the system is isolated), the total 4-momentum ~p before must equal the total 4-momentum ~q after. In effect
this single conservation law ~p = ~q summarizes four individual conservation laws, one for each component of the
4-momentum.
6.5
Collisions
32
(a)
(b)
m
a tourist becomes less massive as he or she burns calories climbing the steps of the Eiffel Tower. Or, a spinning football hits a football player with more force than
a non-spinning one. All these statements are true, but
it is important to remember that the effect is very very
small unless the internal energy of the object in question
is on the same order as m c2 . For a brick of 1 kg, that
energy is 1020 Joules, or 3 1013 kWh, or my household
energy consumption over about ten billion years (roughly
the age of the Universe). For this reason, macroscopic
objects (like bricks or balls of putty) cannot possibly be
put into states of relativistic motion in Earth-bound experiments. Only subatomic and atomic particles can be
accelerated to relativistic speeds, and even these require
huge machines (accelerators) with huge power supplies.
33
6.7
Q
before
after
Q
but there is a trick. We can move both the photon 4momenta to one side and both the electron momenta to
the other and square (where ~a2 is just ~a ~a):
(~p ~q )2 = (~qe ~pe )2
xb = v t =
E
t
mc
(6.26)
(6.31)
xp = c t = L
E
t
mc
(6.32)
For all photons ~p ~p = 0 and for all electrons ~p ~p = m2 c2 . and then gets absorbed. Because the forces associated
Also, in this case, p~ ~q = Q Q0 Q Q0 cos and ~pe ~qe = with the emission and absorption of the photon are to m2 c2 , so
tally internal to be box, we do not expect them to be
2 Q Q0 (1 cos ) = 2 (1 ) m2 c2
(6.28) able to transport the center of mass of the box (see, e.g.,
Frautschi et al., 1986, Chapter 11 for a non-relativistic
0
But by conservation of energy, ( 1) m c is just Q Q , discussion of thisit is a consequence of conservation
and (a b)/ab is just 1/b 1/a, so we have what we are of momentum). But because the box moved, the center of mass can only have remained at rest if the photon
looking for:
transported some mass from one end of the box to the
1
1
1
=
(1 cos )
(6.29) other. To preserve the center of mass, the ratio of masses,
Q0
Q
mc
/m must be equal to the ratio of their displacements
This prediction of special relativity was confirmed in a xb/xp , so
xb
E
beautiful experiment by Compton (1923) and has been re=m
= 2
(6.33)
xp
c
confirmed many times since by undergraduates in physics
lab courses. In addition to providing quantitative con- The transmission of the photon thus transports a mass
firmation of relativistic mechanics, this experimental re- = E/c2 .
sult is a beautiful demonstration of the fact that photons,
This does not mean that the photon is massive. The
though massless, carry momentum and energy.
rest mass of a photon is zero. It only shows that when
Quantum mechanics tells us that the energy E of a
a photon of energy E is emitted, the emitter loses mass
photon is related to its frequency by E = h , and we
m = E/c2 and when it is absorbed the absorber gains
know that for waves travelling at speed c, the frequency
mass m = E/c2 .
and wavelength are related by = c/, so we can rewrite the Compton scattering equation in its traditional Problem 66: In Chapter 5 we learned that no signal
can travel through a solid body at a speed faster than that
form:
h
of light. The part of the box which absorbs the photon,
0
=
(1 cos )
(6.30)
mc
therefore, wont know that a photon has been emitted
34
from the other end until the photon actually arrives ! Recast this argument for mass transport by photons into a
form which does not rely on having a box at all.
6.8
v0
c
v0
2 1 m v1 + 2 1 m v2
2 1 m c + 2 1 m v1 v2 /c
v1 + v2
1 + v1 v2 /c2
(6.37)
v2
v2
2 Q, 2 Q +
2 Q, 0, 0)
c
c
(6.38)
(6.39)
Velocity addition
Doppler shift
(revisited)
and
d~u
d
d~
p
d
(6.40)
The fact that the 4-momentum transforms according to
the Lorentz transformation makes it very useful for de~
K
(6.41)
riving the velocity addition law we found in Section 4.4.
In frame S, a particle of mass m moves in the x-direction
Because ~p = (E, p), we have
at speed v1 , so its 4-momentum is
~ = dE , dp .
p~ = (1 m c, 1 m v1 , 0, 0)
(6.35)
K
(6.42)
d d
where 1 (1 v12 /c2 )1/2 . Now switch to a new frame
S 0 moving at speed v2 in the x-direction. In this frame Because t = (where, as usual, (1
v2 /c2 )1/2 ), the spatial part of the 4-force is related to
the 4-momentum is
Newtons
force F , defined as F dp/dt, by
v2
~p0 =
2 1 m v1 ,
2 1 m c +
c
dp
v2
=F
(6.43)
2 1 m v1 +
2 1 m c, 0, 0
(6.36)
d
c
I acknowledge French (1966) for pointing out this problem with
Also, if the rest mass m of the object in question is a
the above argument.
constant (not true if the object in question is doing work,
~a
6.10. 4-force
35
= 0
= 0
(6.44)
~ are
i.e., if the rest mass is not changing then ~p and K
orthogonal. In 3+1-dimensional spacetime, orthogonality
is something quite different from orthogonality in 3-space:
it has nothing to do with 90 angles.
The 4-force is only brought up here to whet the
readers appetite. We will actually have to make use of it
in the (currently non-existent) Chapter on electricity.
36
Chapter 7
v
te cos
c
= (1 + cos ) e .
= te +
(7.1)
38
it has been observed in extremely precise timing of highvelocity pulsars in the Galaxy. Of course all of these redshift effects are observed and have to be corrected-for in
tracking and communication between artificial satellites.
Interestingly, the Doppler shift computed here, for the
ratio of time intervals between photon arrivals in two different frames, is just the reciprocal of the Doppler shift
formula computed in Section 6.9, for the ratio of photon
energies in two different frames. In quantum mechanics,
the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of
light, which is the reciprocal of the time interval between
arrivals of successive wave crests. Quantum mechanics
and special relativity would be inconsistent if we did not
find the same formula for these two ratios. Does this mean
that special relativity requires that a photons energy be
proportional to its frequency?
(7.9)
Solving for 0 ,
cos 0 =
cos +
1 + cos
(7.10)
i.e., V observes the star to be at a different angular position than that at which U does, and the new position
does not depend on the distance to the star.
This effect is stellar aberration and it causes the positions on the sky of celestial bodies to change as the
Earth orbits the Sun. The Earths orbital velocity is
1
4
Problem 71:
The [O ii] emission line with rest- 30 km s ( = 10 ), so the displacement of an obframe wavelength 0 = 3727
A is observed in a distant ject along a line of sight perpendicular to the plane of the
4
galaxy to be at = 9500
A. What is the redshift z and orbit (i.e., cos = 0) is on the order of 10 radians or
20 arcseconds, a small angle even in todays telescopes.
recession speed of the galaxy?
Light travels at speed c, so the observed wavelength Despite this, the effect was first observed in a beautiful
=
;
(7.5) with respect to them, V will see a non-uniform distribu(1 + z)
=
0
3727
A
tion, with a higher density of stars in the direction of her
motion relative to the star cloud and a lower density in
z = 1.55. Assuming the velocity is radial,
s
the opposite direction.
1+
(1 + z) =
1
7.3 Superluminal motion
(1 + z)2 (1 + z)2
= 1+
(1 + z)2 1
,
=
(1 + z)2 + 1
happens before observation. We apply the Lorentz transformation to get the components in Vs frame
~x = (ct0 , x0, y0 , z 0 )
= ( r r cos , r cos + r, r sin , 0)
(7.8)
Do not confuse this effect with parallax, which also causes the
positions to change, but in a manner which depends on distance.
The paper is Bradley (1729); an excellent description and history of the experiment is Shankland (1964).
In cosmology, there are many different ways of defining the distance betweeen two objects, reviewed by Weinberg (1972, Chapter 14). The proper motion distance is used in this context.
39
A
D
(7.11)
y
sin
=
c,
tr
1 + cos
(7.12)
(angular area, measured in square arcseconds, square degrees, or steradians) occupied by the object. The dimensions of brightness are energy per unit time per unit solid
angle. Thus if two objects emit the same amount of light,
the more compact one is brighter. Brightness is a useful
quantity in astronomy because it is independent of distance: as a lightbulb is moved away from an observer,
the amount of light from the bulb entering the observers
eye or telescope goes down as the inverse square of the
distance, but the solid angular size of the bulb also goes
down as the inverse square of the distance. The brightness is constant.
Okay, the brightness of an object is independent of distance, but how does it depend on how the object is moving relative to the observer? Doppler shift (Sections 6.9
and 7.1) affects both the energy E (or momentum Q) of
the photons and the rate of production of the photons
(i.e., number of photons emitted per unit time). In addition, the photon directions are different for the observer
than for someone in the rest frame of the object (as in
stellar aberation, Section 7.2), so the fraction of emitted photons entering the observers eye or telescope will
also be affected by the objects speed and direction. For
the same reason that in stellar aberration (Section 7.2)
observed star positions are shifted into the direction of
motion of the observer, emitted photons are beamed
into the direction of motion of the emitter.
Say the emitting object is at rest in frame S 0 , the
rest frame, but moving at speed v = c in the positive
x-direction in frame S, the frame of the observer. In its
rest frame, the object emits photons of energy E 0 = Q0 c
at rate 0 (photons per unit time). A photon emitted
in a direction 0 relative to the x-axis in frame S 0 has
4-momentum
~p = (Q0 , Q0 cos 0 , Q0 sin 0 , 0)
(7.13)
(7.14)
= Q Q cos
= Q cos Q
(7.15)
Problem 72: What is the minimum possible value The first equation is just the Doppler shift (Sections 4.4
of that could account for the observed proper motion and 7.1); the ratio gives
in 3C 273? Assume that one component is not moving
cos
cos 0 =
(7.16)
tangentially with respect to the Earth and the other is.
1 cos
which is exactly the same as the stellar aberration equation (Section 7.2).
In the rest frame S 0 the object emits isotropically, so
Consider an object emitting photons in all directions
isotropically. The brightness of the object is proportional the rate per unit solid angle (measured in steradians,
2
to the amount of radiation (energy per unit time) which or radians ) is just
the object emits into the pupil of the observers eye or
d0
0
=
(7.17)
telescope, and inversely proportional to the solid angle
0
d
4
7.4
Relativistic beaming
40
which is independent of . In the observer frame S, however, this will no longer be true. Consider the solidangular ring of angular width d at angle . This ring
has solid angle
d = sin d
(7.18)
D
X
to observer
(7.19)
sin d
sin d
(cos )( sin d)
+
=
1 cos
(1 cos )2
2
1
= sin d
(1 cos )2
sin d
=
(7.20)
2 (1 cos )2
(7.22)
Y
Figure 7.3: A plank of rest dimensions X Y moves at speed
perpendicular to the line of sight to a distant observer.
Problem 74: What is the apparent position of corner C to the observer in Figure 7.3 at the time that the
light from corners A and B reach the observer? From this
information, as well as length contraction, compute the
apparent locations of all four corners.
Problem 75:
(7.21) D?
7.6
A simpleminded cosmology
41
ct
ct o O
re
ct e
2z + z 2
2(1 + z)2
(7.23)
re
x
B
re
42
References
Binney J. & Tremaine S., 1987. Galactic Dynamics.
Princeton University Press, Princeton.
44
References
Index
compressibility, 5.1
compression waves, 5.1
Compton, 6.6
Compton scattering, 6.6
confirmation, experimental, 2.5, 6.5
conservation of 4-momentum, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8
constant position, lines of, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
contraction of length, 2.3, 2.5, 3.5, 3.2, 3.6
coordinates of events, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
coordinate transformations, 4.2
cosmic background radiation, 1.1
cosmology, 7.3, 7.6
decay, of particle, 6.8
Declaration of Independence, 3.1
Denver, 2.5
diagrams, spacetime, 3.1, 3.5, 3.6
dilation of time, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6
displacement, 6.2
distances between events, 4.1
distances, in cosmology, 7.3, 7.6
Doppler shift, 2.2, 6.9, 7.1, 7.4
dot product, 6.2
dynamics, 6.10
E = m c2 , 6.4, 6.7
Earth, gravitational field of, 1.4
Earth, motion of, 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 7.2
Echo Lake, 2.5
Eiffel Tower, 6.5
eigenvectors of boost transformation, 3.5
Einstein, 1.2, 1.3
elastic collisions, 6.5
electromagnetism, 1.2
electrons, 6.6
elevators, 1.4
emission line, 7.1
empiricism, 1.1
energy, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.10
events, 3.1, 4.1, 5.2
events, order of, 5.2, 5.3
exercise, physical, 6.5
expansion, of the Universe, 7.6
experiments, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5
experimental confirmation, 2.5, 6.5, 6.6, 7.2
flashlights, 1.2
force, 6.10
frame-independent vs frame-dependent, 3.3, 4.1, 6.1,
6.2, 6.3
free-fall, 1.4
French, 6.7, 7.5
46
frequency of light, 6.6, 7.1
galaxies, radio, 7.3, 7.5
Galaxy, 1.1, 1.3
Galileo, 1.1, 1.2
geodesic, 4.5
gravitational lensing, 7.3
gravity, 1.4
h (Plancks constant), 6.6
Hall, 2.5
heat, 6.5
high school, 6.1
Hjellming, 7.3
Hubble, 7.6
Hubble flow, 7.6
hyperbolae of constant interval, 4.3
incompressibility, 5.1
inelastic collisions, 6.5
inner product, 6.2
interference (of light), 1.3
internal energy, 6.5
International Standards Organization, 2.1
interval, invariant, 4.1, 4.2
invariant interval, 4.1, 4.2
invariant quantities, 4.1
inverse Lorentz transformation, 4.3
isolated system, 6.4
K-mesons, 2.5
kinetic energy, 6.5
ladder and barn paradox, 3.3, 5.1
law, civil, 1.1
law, physical, 1.2
length contraction, 2.3, 2.5, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6
length, of 4-vector, 6.2
leptons, 2.5
life, mean, 2.4, 2.5
light as particles, 1.2, 6.6, 6.7
light as waves, 1.2, 1.3
light-clock, 2.1
light year, 7.3
lightlike interval, 4.1, 5.2
limits, low and high-speed, 2.1, 6.4
Lind, 7.5
linearity of the boost transformation, 4.2, 4.3
lines of constant position, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
lines of simultaneity, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
Local Group of galaxies, 1.1
Lorentz, 1.2, 1.3
Lorentz contraction, 2.3
Lorentz factor , 2.1
Lorentz transformation, 4.2, 4.3, 6.9
Lorentz transformation, in definition of 4-vector, 6.2
Los Angeles, 2.4
magnitude, of 4-vector, 6.2
mass, 6.4
matrix algebra, 4.2
media (for waves), 1.2, 1.3
meter sticks, 2.3
Michelson, 1.3
Index
Michelson experiment, 1.3
Michelson-Morley experiment, 1.3
Milne, 7.6
Milne cosmology, 7.6
mirror, 1.3
mean life, 2.4, 2.5
mean range, 2.5
momentum, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
Morley, 1.3
motion, relative and absolute, 1.1, 1.2
muons, 2.4, 2.5
nature/nurture debate, 4.5
neutrinos, 3.1
neutron stars, 5.1
New York, 2.4
Newton, 1.3, 6.10
null interval, 4.1, 5.2
[O II] emission line, 7.1
order of events, 5.2, 5.3
orthogonality, in 3+1 dimensions, 6.10
paradox of the ladder and barn, 3.3, 5.1
paradox of the twins, 2.4, 4.5
parallax, 7.2
particle decay, 6.8
Pearson, 7.3
Philadelphia, 3.1
photons, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 7.1
physics, 5.1, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5
pions, 2.5
pipe, 2.3
Pittsburgh, 6.2
Plancks constant h, 6.6
Poincare, 1.2
police officer, 1.1
Potier, 1.3
primed frame, 4.3
principle of relativity, see relativity
proper distance, 4.1
proper motion, 7.3
proper time, 4.1
putty, 6.5
quantum mechanics, 6.6, 7.1
Queens, 6.2
radio galaxies, 7.3, 7.5
range, mean, 2.5
redshift, 7.1, 7.6
reference frame, 2.1, 3.2
reflections of space axes, 4.3
relative motion, 1.1
relativistic beaming, 7.4
relativistic mass, 6.4
relativity, galilean, 1.1, 1.2
relativity of simultaneity, 3.3, 3.4
relativity, principle of, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4
rest frame, 3.2, 6.4
rest mass, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
reversal of time axis, 4.3
Richmond, 6.2
Index
rigidity, 5.1
Rossi, 2.5
rotation, apparent, of passing objects, 7.5
rotational energy, 6.5
rotations of space axes, 4.3
ruler stick, 2.3
Rupen, 7.3
sailors, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
scalars, 6.1, 6.2
scattering, 6.6
seeing vs observing or measuring, 2.2, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
Shankland, 7.2
shear, boost transformation as, 3.5, 3.6, 4.2
siblings, 2.4
simultaneity, lines of, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
simultaneity, relativity of, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5
slinkies, 5.1
sneezes, 1.1
sound, speed of, 5.1
soup, 1.2
space reflections, 4.3
space rotations, 4.3
Space Shuttle, 1.4, 2.4
spacelike interval, 4.1, 5.2
spacetime diagram, 3.1, 3.2, 3.6
speed of light as conversion factor, 2.1, 3.1
speed of light in vacuum, 1.2, 1.4, 2.1, 6.6
speed of light as speed limit, 5.1, 5.3, 7.3
speed of light in air, glass, etc, 1.4
speed of sound, 5.1
spinning wheel, 5.1
stars, positions of, 7.2
stellar aberration, 7.2
straight lines, 4.2, 4.5
Sun, motion of, 1.1, 1.3
superballs, 1.1
superluminal motion, 7.3
swimming, 1.1
symmetry arguments, 2.1, 2.3, 3.6, 4.3, 4.5, 6.3
synchronization of clocks, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1
time dilation, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6
time reversals, 4.3
timelike interval, 4.1, 5.2
twin paradox, 2.4, 4.5
ugliness, 6.4
Universe, expansion of, 7.6
vector, 6.2
velocity, 3- and 4-, 6.3
velocity addition, 1.2, 1.3, 4.4
velocity, relative and absolute, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 6.3
wave, compression, 5.1
wave theory of light, 1.2, 1.3
wavelength of light, 6.6, 7.1
Weinberg, 7.3, 7.6
wheel, spinning rapidly, 5.1
work, 6.10
worldlines, 3.1
wristwatches 2.1
47