Blue Carbon

A new concept for reducing the impacts

of climate change by conserving coastal
ecosystems in the Coral Triangle

Written and edited by Anissa Lawrence, TierraMar Consulting,

forWWF-Australia June 2012.
Cover photograph: Anissa Lawrence.
Published in Brisbane, Queensland 2012 by WWF-Australia. Any
reproduction in full or in part must mention the title and credit
the above-mentioned publisher as the copyright owner.
Text 2012 WWF
All rights reserved
WWF is one of the worlds largest and most experienced
independent conservation organizations, with over
5 million supporters and a global Network active in
more than 100 countries.
WWFs mission is to stop the degradation of the planets natural
environment and to build a future in which humans live in
harmony with nature, by: conserving the worlds biological
diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources
is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution and
wasteful consumption.

Blue Carbon page 2

Contents
SUMMARY

03

WHAT IS BLUE CARBON?

03

BACKGROUND

04

Our coastal ecosystems are in trouble

04

Coastal ecosystems support local communities

07

The science coastal ecosystems

are rich carbon sinks 10
Learning the REDD lessons

13

Opportunities and challenges for Blue Carbon

projects in the Coral Triangle

14

Managing your blue carbon reserves

14

Establishing blue carbon initiatives

16

MOVING FORWARD PURSUING

BLUE CARBON OPPORTUNITIES

17

how do I stay in the loop?

18

References 19

 Xxxxxxx
ANISSA LAWRENCE.
xxxxxxx

A new concept for reducing the impacts of climate

Summary
change

SUMMARY

This paper is aimed at politicians, governments, businesses

and organisations that influence the development of
policies and strategies in climate change mitigation
and adaptation, poverty alleviation, natural resource
use, biodiversity conservation and economics. Its aim
is to stimulate discussion and debate on how to promote and utilise healthy coastal
ecosystems and the valuable benefits they provide to support a sustainable and more
climate resilient future for communities within the Coral Triangle.
Coastal ecosystems in the Coral Triangle support key industries such as commercial
fishing and tourism. Well over 120 million people rely directly on its coastal resources
for their food and livelihoods. In fact the region is the worlds largest tuna producer.

WHAT IS BLUE
CARBON?

In addition to their critical economic

importance, coastal ecosystems, in
particular seagrass, mangroves and
saltmarsh, are also known as blue
carbon sinks because they can transfer
and store carbon in their sediments
and within plant parts at rates far greater than those
of terrestrial forests. This storage of blue carbon can
potentially occur for millennia.

Conserving the coastal ecosystems of the Coral Triangle not only protects these social
and economic benefits but also removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
Therefore, conservation of coastal ecosystems is an immediate and cost effective way
to help coastal communities adapt to climate change making a compelling case
for managers, policy makers, researchers and coastal communities within the Coral
Triangle to take immediate conservation action.
The Coral Triangle
encompasses Indonesia,
Malaysia, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines,
Solomon Islands and
Timor-Leste. These
countries have launched a
Coral Triangle Initiative on
Coral Reefs, Fisheries and
Food Security that aims to
transform marine resource
management within
thisregion.
Find out more:
www.cti-secretariat.net

Blue Carbon page 3

Blue Carbon A New Concept

background

Our coastal ecosystems

are in trouble

Covering just one per cent of the earths surface, the

Coral Triangle is comprised of extensive seagrass
beds, more mangroves than anywhere else in the
world and is a global hotspot for marine biodiversity
(Figure 1). More than 120 million people, along with
thousands of small and medium businesses rely
heavily on the marine resources that are generated
by these vast and thriving ecosystems to support
livelihoods and provide income and food security,
particularly for coastal communities.
UNEP

MANGROVES
Diversity
Low
Mid
High

SEAGRASS
Diversity
Low
Mid
High

FIGURE 1
Global distribution of
mangroves and seagrass i

Many low-lying areas within the Coral Triangle are extremely vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change, particularly to increases in storm intensity and
coastal inundation linked to sea level rise. By the end of this century, scientists
are predicting that many parts of the Coral Triangle will be largely unliveable if
our present trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions is not slowed. Climate change
is already having a significant and costly impact on the Coral Triangle coastal
ecosystems through warming, acidifying and rising seas. Ongoing mass coral
bleaching and mortality events associated with increasing temperatures are likely
to result in the accelerated degradation of our spectacular reef systems if these
events continue to increase in intensity and frequency.
Mangroves, seagrasses and saltmarsh within the Coral Triangle are highly
sensitive to rising sea levels, and are also being threatened by climate change.
Other changes such as coastal ecosystem destruction by clearing, infilling, siltation
from upland catchment disturbances and pollution from industry and urban
development are also destabilising these critically important ecosystems along the
coast. The stresses arising from climate change are also amplifying the impacts of
local stresses, leading to an accelerated deterioration of coastal ecosystems ii.

Blue Carbon page 4

Background

It is well understood that healthy reef systems and mangrove belts protect coastal
communities from storms and tsunamis, and can reduce future reconstruction costs
and the need for international aid. In addition to providing a measure of resistance
and resilience to coastal communities, these coastal ecosystems transfer and store
carbon from the atmosphere and ocean at rates of up to 4 times higher than tropical
forests iii. There is a growing awareness in the region of the combination of climate
change adaptation and mitigation benefits provided by these coastal ecosystems.

Frida Sidik, University of Queensland

Intensive shrimp farming

in Surabaya, East Java
Indonesia.

Globally, we are losing our coastal ecosystems at rates of up to 4 times higher than
terrestrial forests. The news is not any better in the Coral Triangle where coastal
ecosystems are deteriorating rapidly. Over 40% of mangroves have already been
lost in the past 40 years. Coastal deforestation, coastal reclamation, declining water
quality, pollution and exploitation of marine life have had a severe impact on these
essential ecosystems. This is placing many communities and businesses within the
Coral Triangle at risk. Not only this, but degraded coastal ecosystems are contributing
to increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere through emitting enormous
quantities of greenhouse gases. It is estimated that clearing mangroves and using
their peat soils for alternate uses such as shrimp ponds can result in CO2 emissions
comparable with that from rainforest peat soils drained for agriculture iv. All countries
in the Coral Triangle have experienced significant loss of coastal ecosystems. For
example, Indonesia harbours nearly a quarter of the worlds mangroves and yet has
lost over half of its mangroves in the past three decades, shrinking from 4.2 million
hectares in 1982 to 2 million hectares in 2000v. Likewise the Philippines had around
450,000 hectares of mangroves in 1918 vi and latest estimates have mangroves at
263,137 hectaresv. In both cases, large areas of mangroves have been converted into
fish and shrimp ponds Philippines (232,000ha)vi and Indonesia (211,000 ha) vii.
Latest estimates of area of remaining coastal ecosystems in
Coral Triangle countries are found in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2 MANGROVES
Area of coastal ecosystems
AREA (HA)
within Coral Triangle countries.
Note no information is available
on seagrass coverage for Timor
Leste and PNG. Seagrass
coverage for Malaysia relates
to Peninsula Malaysia only,
Borneo Malaysia unknown.
No information available for
saltmarsh, however saltmarsh
is found throughout the Coral
Triangle v, viii, ix, x, xi

PNG 480,121
SOLOMON ISLANDS 52,500
TIMOR LESTE 3,035
MALAYSIA 505,386
PHILIPPINES 263,137
INDONESIA 3,112,989

SEAGRASS
AREA (HA)

PHILIPPINES 2,200,000
SOLOMON ISLANDS 6,633
MALAYSIA 315.5
INDONESIA 3,000,000

Blue Carbon page 5

 ANISSA LAWRENCE.

Background

Unfortunately, the relationship between

people and coastal ecosystems is now under
extreme threat from climate change, as well as
escalating local and regional environmental
pressures. Regional and international action
is urgently needed to avoid an ecological and
human catastropheThese challenges are
increasing, and unchecked, climate change will
ultimately undermine and destroy ecosystems
and livelihoods in the Coral Triangle ii.
Professor Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, University of Queensland
James P. Leape, Director General WWF International

ANISSA LAWRENCE.

ANISSA LAWRENCE.

Coastal ecosystems
support local
communities

Coastal ecosystems provide extensive benefits for

supporting and enriching peoples lives and national
wellbeing for countries within the Coral Triangle.
Globally, coastal ecosystems have been valued at
US$25,783 billion xii. For many coastal communities
of the Coral Triangle, coastal ecosystems also play
a significant role in their culture and identify.

Without coastal ecosystems many people, communities and countries would suffer
serious economic hardship through impacts to critical industries such as fishing,
aquaculture and tourism. In addition, the wellbeing of many coastal communities
would decline as essential needs like protein, fuel wood, shelter, clean water and
storm surge protection could not be met.

Blue Carbon page 7

Blue Carbon A New Concept

WWF WESTERN MELANESIA.

WWF Western Melanesia Mangrove Rehabilitation Program,

Papua New Guinea
Since 2007/08 WWF has been working with local communities, government
and researchers in mangrove rehabilitation and restoration in Western
Melanesia, PNG to build resilience in local communities against the impacts
of climate change. Mangrove ecosystems provide many resources to local
villages, including fuel wood and fish protein. The impacts of coastal erosion,
sea level rise and an increasing demand for fuel wood and fish protein
prompted local communities to restore their mangrove forest habitats.
Since these mangrove forests support the local fishing industry by acting
as breeding grounds for fish and providing income through the selling of
fuel wood, local communities saw value in protecting their livelihoods by
conserving their mangroves.
A mangrove nursery was established at the pilot project site at Tahira outside
of Port Moresby, in partnership with the University of PNGs Motupore
Island Research Centre (MIRC), and the local communities and funded by
AusAID. WWF provided technical expertise for the mangrove restoration
and rehabilitation program. In 2008 more than 15 schools and 1,000
children were able to plant 5,000 mangrove seedlings in one day. WWF is
now replicating this project in the Madang and Manus Provinces with its
partners. In addition, alternative fuel woods are being investigated to reduce
the overharvesting of mangroves. Since the project commenced, communities
have seen an increase in fish catch, providing communities with a good
income on a regular basis.
The PNG Government has recently launched the Millions of Mangrove
Initiative to plant mangroves as a cost effective means to protect coastlines
in north-eastern PNG. WWF and its partners are assisting the Government
to upscale this program.

Blue Carbon page 8

Background

Ecosystem services are the benefits provided to people from nature that play a vital
role in livelihoods and economies at all scales these benefits can only be realised
if the capacity of natural processes is retained xiii.
Key benefits from coastal ecosystems in the Coral Triangleinclude:
Food security

Soil protection and control of erosion

and sedimentation

Poverty alleviation

Shelter and wood (fuel)

Fish production

Wildlife habitat

Tourism

Cultural identify

Coastal protection

Natural adaptation and resilience to

climate change

Clean water

Climate change mitigation through

storing and transferring carbon from the
atmosphere and oceans

Coastal ecosystems can play a critical and cost effective role for coastal communities
as natural adaptation solutions against the impacts from climate change or extreme
weather events causing coastal inundation, contamination of water supply and
damage from storm surge.
The cost benefit of conserving and sustainably managing coastal ecosystems can far
outweigh engineered armouring, that often occurs retrospectively. For example,
the ecosystem services provided by mangroves are not always considered when they
are converted to other uses such as shrimp ponds. Intact tropical mangroves are
worth around US$10,00012,000 a hectare, but when cleared for shrimp ponds the
value of the land falls to around $1,000 a hectare xiv. There is evidence to suggest that
in the 2004 Asian tsunami of the 12 Indian Ocean countries affected by the tsunami
disaster, those coastal areas that had dense and healthy mangrove forests suffered
fewer losses and less damage to property than those areas in which mangroves had
been degraded or converted to other land uses xiv, xv.

Ensuring that conservation contributes

to poverty alleviation means conserving
biodiversity in places where poor people
live, ensuring that poor people are not
denied access to the biodiversity-based
goods and services on which they depend,
and putting in place policies which conserve
the components of biodiversity on which
poor peoples resilience is based xvi.

Blue Carbon page 9

Blue Carbon A New Concept

THE SCIENCE

coastal ecosystems
are rich carbon sinks
FIGURE 3
Coastal ecosystems store large
quantities of carbon. Global
averages for carbon pools (soil
organic carbon and living
biomass) of coastal ecosystems.
Only the top meter of soil is
included in the soil carbon
estimates. Note tropical forests
included for comparison iii.
Soil organic carbon
Living biomass

Coastal ecosystems can store carbon

at rates estimated to be up to 4 times
higher than mature tropical forests.

In addition to providing a measure of resistance and

resilience to coastal communities, coastal ecosystems
are very effective at sequestering and storing carbon
(Figures 3 and 4). By far, the largest carbon pool is
that stored in the soils of these coastal ecosystems 1. About 95% to 99% of total
carbon stocks of saltmarsh and seagrass ecosystems are stored in the soils beneath
them, while in mangrove systems, 50% to 90% of the total carbon stock is in the
soil; the rest is in living biomass. The rates of carbon sequestered in the soils
annually by mangroves, saltmarsh and seagrass are similar, but can vary greatly
within each habitat type. Mangroves and saltmarsh average between 6 and 8
tonnes of CO2 equivalent per hectare per year, whereas seagrass are estimated
at a rate of around 4 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per hectare per year iii. These rates
are about two to four times greater than global rates observed in mature tropical
forests (1.82.7 t CO2equivalent per hectare per year xvii). The amount of carbon
held in living biomass of coastal ecosystems is much more variable among the
habitat types. Mangroves have the largest above ground biomass as they can grow
up to 40 metres tall in somelocations xviii.

Seagrasses
Salt Marsh
Estuarine Mangroves
Oceanic Mangroves
Tropical forest

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

tCO2eq/ha
Soil organic carbon

Living biomass
What
is exciting is that when healthy, coastal
ecosystems continuously store carbon in their
soils over long time scales, unlike terrestrial soils
which tend to plateau over time xix. In addition,
the rate of carbon sequestered and the size of the
carbon pool may continue to increase over timexx.
This is because the sediments in which healthy
mangroves, saltmarsh and seagrass grow increase
in volume in response to rising sea levelsxxi.

Blue Carbon page 10

1 Note that while the carbon stored in the soil can be many metres deep, only the first
metre of soil depth has been considered so as to allow for consistent comparisons among
habitat types and in recognition of the fact that the top metre of carbon is most at risk after
conversion of the ecosystem to other uses.

The Science

Even though the total land area of mangroves, coastal marshes, and seagrass
is small compared with land in agriculture or forests, the carbon beneath these
habitats is substantial. If released to the atmosphere, the carbon stored in a typical
hectare of mangroves could contribute as much to greenhouse gas emissions as three
to five hectares of tropical forest. A hectare of intact saltmarsh may contain carbon
with a climate impact equivalent to 488 cars on U.S. roads each year. Even a hectare
of seagrass meadow, with its small living biomass, may hold as much carbon as one
to two hectares of typical temperate forestiii.

FIGURE 4
Coastal ecosystems
sequester large amounts
of carbon. Mean longterm rates of carbon
sequestration in soils in
terrestrial forests and
coastal ecosystems. Error
bars indicate maximum
rates of accumulation xxii.

Similarly to terrestrial ecosystems, in the coastal zone, landuse change has

lead to high levels of CO2 emissions. The draining, conversion or destruction of
coastal ecosystems for other uses can disrupt the carbon sequestration by coastal
ecosystems and may switch these ecosystems from being net sinks to net sources
of carbon xxii. For example, converting mangrove forests to aquaculture ponds could
result in the release of 150 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year from the removal
of the mangroves and 750 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year from the exposure
of mangrove sediments that have been accumulating carbon for millennia. Over
10 years, this could equate to a loss of carbon from the sediments 50 times greater
than the rate of carbon previously sequestered by these mangroves xxiii. Globally,
early estimations of carbon emissions resulting from mangrove deforestation and
land use change are suggested to be in the order of 20 million to 120 million tonnes
of carbon per year as much as around 10% of emissions from deforestation
globally, despite accounting for just 0.7% of tropical forest area xxiv. While we do
not know these estimates for the Coral Triangle, the significance of carbon losses
in coastal ecosystems here makes a powerful argument for the conservation of
mangrove forests, particularly when increasing atmospheric concentrations of CO2
are considered.

Seagrasses
Mangroves
Salt Marshes
Temperate forests
Boreal forests
Tropical forests

10

100

1,000

10,000

Carbon burial rate (gCm-2yr-1)

Blue Carbon page 11

Blue Carbon A New Concept

International blue carbon action

Large-scale emissions from ecosystem degradation and habitat conversion in
coastal ecosystems are ongoing, but currently not accounted for in national
greenhouse gas inventories, nor are they being mitigated to any degree xxv.
Forest conservation schemes such as Reduced Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation (REDD+), are now emerging as potential tools to reduce
emissions from deforestation and degraded forests and enhance carbon storage.
The understanding and acknowledgment of the role of blue carbon in climate
change mitigation may see the development of a similar scheme which could
support the sustainable use of Coral Triangle coastal ecosystems, but there are
some uncertainties around factors influencing carbon sequestration and carbon
stocks in these coastal ecosystems and how a payment scheme might work.
An International Scientific Blue Carbon Working Group consisting of leading
scientists from around the world is currently working to detail the global
relevance of coastal ecosystems carbon, assess the feasibility of this blue
carbon as a conservation and management tool, provide implementable
recommendations for marine policy, conservation and management and identify
and work with others to address critical information needs and data gaps.
This work is also facilitating an International Blue Carbon Economics and Policy
Working Group who are focused on identifying relevant international climate,
coastal and ocean policy agreements, frameworks, platforms and mechanisms
for supporting adequate management and long-term financing of blue carbon
defining priorities, opportunities and issues that allow for conservation and
restoration of coastal blue carbon ecosystems, and creating a Blue Carbon
Policy Framework and timeline.

LEARNING THE
REDD LESSONS

There is much to be learned from existing

schemes that attempt to balance conservation
with sustainable livelihoods. REDD+ schemes,
particularly relevant for mangroves, provide a
unique learning opportunity, given their focus
on harnessing forests to mitigate climate change.
REDD+ is designed to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions through avoiding the release of carbon

stored in trees when trees are cut down; encouraging the storage of additional
carbon by leaving trees standing; and promoting reforestation xxvi.
Sustainable financing
It should be noted however, that while schemes such as REDD+ are showing
great potential, there are also significant challenges in developing and financing
effective incentive systems that will provide efficient carbon reductions while
protecting dependent communities against new risks xxvii. Any such schemes for
coastal ecosystems are also likely to face similarchallenges.
Like REDD+ financing, blue carbon financing could flow through national
planning, development of pilot programs, and payments for verified emissions
reductions. The current REDD+ funding process suggests however, that the
future financing of blue carbon will hinge on three keyissues:
Incorporation of blue carbon in the REDD+ readiness process: As
readiness plans evolve and more countries enter the readiness process, the
applicability of blue carbon to that process can strongly define future funding
for coastal habitat protection.

Blue Carbon page 12

Learning the REDD Lessons

Inclusion of blue carbon in future REDD+ agreements: Unless future

REDD+ protocols include soil carbon, achieving any scale on blue carbon
investments may be difficult.
Competitiveness of blue carbon sequestration with other land use
mitigation activities: Blue carbon offsets will be required to compete
not only with other REDD+ projects, but also with other carbon mitigation
strategies as well xxviii.

ANISSA LAWRENCE.

What is clear for coastal ecosystems and the communities that depend on them is a
need for a holistic, integrated conservation management approach. A resilient and
robust coastal ecosystem conservation strategy should encompass a regional vision
which is supported by ecosystem based management approaches which recognise
and strengthen the inherent and interdependent linkages between the land/sea
interface, as well as incorporate the different land uses and recognise the social
and economic needs of local inhabitants, their cultural rights and local capacities.
This can help facilitate the transition of Coral Triangle countries to a green
economy through reducing emissions, while at the same time generating multiple
benefits for peoples livelihoods, the economy and conservation.
Key lessons from the REDD+ xxix experience for developing and implementing
coastal ecosystems conservation policy, planning and Payments for Ecosystem
Services (PES) schemes, include:
Governance
The rights of local communities and their management capability
must be recognised, a substantial portion of the financial benefit must
go to the communities who have the ability to manage and protect these
coastal ecosystems and these coastal communities must have secure
rights to the land and shorelines where they live.
As coastal land becomes increasingly valuable for agriculture, carbon and
development, there is greater pressure from investors and less interest by many
governments to recognise local land rights xxx. The behaviour of landowners and
coastal ecosystem stewards can change immediately in the light of decisions to
introduce carbon trading or a REDD+ regime and a short-term consequence
can be an increase in clearing in reaction to an unexpected government
tax take linked to the nationalisation of carbon rights. The implications of
such a decision for different types of coastal ecosystems and land ownership
categories could be severe, particularly in countries where rights to land are
contentious and where vulnerable groups that depend on coastal ecosystem
resources may lose out. From the perspective of investors, assigning carbon
rights to governments may be a disincentive for external investment as
investors may see their returns from projects significantly reduced xxvii.
National governments need to take proactive steps to clarify tenure.
Only when tenure of an area is secure, on paper and in practice, do longer-term
investments in sustainable management become worthwhile xxxi.
Coordination among different stakeholders, such as agriculture,
planning, fisheries and forestry ministries, in order to reduce deforestation
from aquaculture or development expansion is critical. REDD+ like schemes
can succeed if stakeholders share a common understanding of appropriate
coastal land use, a shared and trusted way of negotiating agreements, and if
local users derive co-benefits.

Blue Carbon page 13

Blue Carbon A New Concept

Policies and Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV)

Global decisions will influence the design and implementation of national REDD+ type
schemes for coastal ecosystems, and national policy makers face some uncertainties
until global policy direction is provided. Therefore, initially the focus should be on
national blue carbon strategy development and readiness, which can occur
quickly if adequate data, resourcing and capacity is available. However many countries
in the Coral Triangle do not have even a minimum capacity for MRV. The priority should
be on developing a roadmap for establishing a sustainable MRV system and
its early implementation. This will require an understanding of the active drivers and
processes of coastal ecosystems emissions, sufficient data to assess their importance
(carbon impact), and policies that will achieve REDD+ (or equivalent) objectives.
Blue carbon related national policies should be focused on actions
to encourage or discourage drivers of coastal carbon loss and the
processes that increase coastal ecosystems emissions and their longterm effects. Policies should be underpinned by basic coastal ecosystem data
and information (and thus monitoring capacity). Additionally, an integrated and
cross cutting national coastal ecosystem/blue carbon strategy and
implementation plan may help to set priorities for MRV.
REDD+ type strategies are likely to be more equitable and locally legitimate
if they represent local needs and aspirations in design, implementation and
benefit allocation.
Community engagement
Communities in coastal areas can be trained to map and inventory
mangroves, seagrass and saltmarsh, although they may need technical support
for some tasks to assess carbon storage and sequestration rates. Communities
have successfully and accurately mapped and collected local forest data more cost
effectively than researchers and this may also be possible for coastal ecosystems.
Balancing the requirements of a REDD+ type system (storing carbon) and
satisfying the expectations of local stakeholders may prove challenging
and it is critical that communities are engaged in an open and transparent way,
being made fully aware of the full range of issues affecting revenue generation
with respect to coastal ecosystems. Unrealistically high expectations generated in
governments and communities about large money flows and REDD+ type rents put
REDD+ type coastal ecosystems projects at risk.
Payments for environmental services (PES) or conservation
agreements aimed at reducing deforestation or degradation can be
effective for coastal ecosystems when payments depend on delivering results;
if payment rates are set appropriately; and when land tenure and carbon rights are
clearly defined. Because they are voluntary and based on incentives, PES are more
equitable for conserving coastal ecosystems than erecting fences or imposing fines.
Using spatial targeting toward high-threat, high-service, and low-cost areas can
dramatically improve the carbon outcomexxvii.

OPPORTUNITIES
AND CHALLENGES
for Blue Carbon projects
in the Coral Triangle

Blue Carbon page 14

Managing your blue

carbonreserves
Natural ecosystems underpin all
of the resources upon which we
depend and therefore are critical
forsecuring human wellbeing.
Investing in ecosystems and nature based solutions
can bring both local and global benefits, providing the

Opportunities and Challenges

dual goals of supporting local communities, helping them cope with and adapt to a
changing climate, while also helping to mitigate global climate impacts depending on
implementedpracticex.
While the science on blue carbon is refined and policy frameworks developed for
mitigating climate change using coastal ecosystems through market driven mechanisms
such as carbon offsets and PES, the immediate focus for decision makers in the Coral
Triangle needs to be on:
building resilience in coastal communities to improve protein and fuel wood
resource security and wellbeing through developing natural adaptation strategies for
coastal communities through community led conservation ofcoastalecosystems;
building on existing policy mechanisms that support integrated coastal
zone management including climate change resilient networks of marine protected
areas, to ensure a priority focus on coastal ecosystemsmanagement;
reducing current greenhouse gas emissions from degraded coastal
ecosystems through improved conservation and restoration; and
commencing pilot and demonstration projects geared towards the collection
of coastal ecosystem carbon emissions data in preparation for an offset scheme
should it become available down the track.
While there are many organisations working within the Coral Triangle with local
communities to restore and rehabilitate mangroves and seagrass for the benefit of
coastal communities, this work is really only scratching the surface. Serious investment
in the conservation of these critical ecosystems, combined with integrated coastal zone
planning and innovative and sustainable solutions to create alternate income generation
schemes will allow improvements to the wellbeing of adjacent coastal communities. This
will also improve the health of coastal ecosystems upon which they depend and will
contribute to reducing global greenhouse gas emissions.
A natural solution model for adapting to climate change
Green Coast xxxii
Green Coast was developed in response to the December 2004 tsunami which hit the
coasts of Asian countries and caused enormous destruction and loss of human lives.
Together with partners Wetlands International, IUCN and Both ENDS, WWF developed
a program to restore damaged coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves in tsunami hit
areas in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Malaysia. The Green Coast model
provides effective natural adaptation solutions for climate change related impacts that
engage coastal communities and improve livelihoods. A total of 91,000 tsunami affected
people in these coastal areas have benefited from rehabilitated coastal ecosystems;
more than 1,100 hectares of mangrove and coastal forests, 2,5 km of sand dunes and
100 hectare of damaged coral reef and seagrass beds were restored and protected. An
additional 12,000 people have also benefited from increased income from livelihood
activities supported by Green Coast such as fishing, small-scale aquaculture, ecoenterprises, home gardening and livestock. The Green Coast model is based around:
Science and community based assessments identifying ecological damage and
priority options for coastal restoration;
Community-based restoration of coastal ecosystems and livelihoods through a
bio-rights approach (community groups receive financial capital to rebuild their
livelihoods and in return, provide environmental services to the coastal restoration
work); and
Policy guidance and targeted communications aimed towards large-scale green
reconstruction programs by influencing the coastal resource management policies
of district and national governments and increasing general awareness on value of
coastal ecosystems.

Blue Carbon page 15

Blue Carbon A New Concept

Establishing blue carbon initiatives

For the Coral Triangle, effective conservation is about balancing conservation of
biodiversity with a need to improve sustainable livelihoods and the ecosystem
services that support communities. A blue carbon project is no different. Blue
carbon is not a new concept, but potentially might offer a new funding source
to finance pre-existing goals. Building climate change objectives into project
activities can open up a broader range of financing opportunities. Whether a
reworking of an existing conservation project or a newly developed project seeking
carbon money for conservation finance, blue carbon projects need to focus on
co-benefits. It should be noted however, that as for many REDD+ projects, many
potential blue carbon projects will face significant challenges in demonstrating
both financial and environmental additionality because they would have been
implemented without carbon funding or they are paying for coastal ecosystems
that are not under threat.
Blue carbon should be used as an incentive to finance coastal ecosystem
conservation efforts, rather than as a stand-alone mitigation opportunity.
In developing blue carbon projects a number of critical success factors need to
beconsidered:
Projects should be geared towards improving the resilience and livelihoods of
coastal communities through improving the ecosystem services that are critical
for their survival livelihoods and food security are generally the
concerns of coastal communities, not carbon. Blue carbon should be
used as an incentive to finance coastal ecosystem conservation efforts, rather
than as a stand-alone mitigation opportunity.
Effective partnerships and technical capacity supported by strong
project governance, management and clearly defined roles and
responsibilities are key. This will include technical expertise in coastal
ecosystems, biomass measurements and carbon accounting; experience
in stakeholder engagement; familiarity with the local conditions; detailed
knowledge of relevant national and international laws and policies; significant
knowledge of the project area; strong credibility with local communities; and
solid, pre-existing working relationships among project partners xxxiii.
Solid technical information and scientific site-specific analyses
to support the project by way of baseline carbon, environmental and socioeconomic data and adequate methodologies.
The choice of which standard to apply to a blue carbon initiative can
have important implications for the speed, ease and cost of project
development. In the case of coastal ecosystem replanting or rehabilitation
projects, this choice will also be crucial in determining the amount of land
that is eligible for planting, which will affect potential carbon credits that can
be generated. The voluntary carbon offset market is currently the only sales
outlet for carbon credits generated by blue carbon projects and many project
investors will seek guarantees that the credits they purchase actually reduce
net carbon emissions, and do so without negative impacts on biodiversity and
local livelihoods.
The most recognised standards for natural carbon projects are the Climate,
Community and Biodiversity Standards (CCBS), the UNFCCC Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM), and the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), which is the leading
standard focused on the integrity of emissions reductions. New requirements are
under development for crediting the climate benefits of Wetlands Restoration and
Conservation (WRC) activities, including for mangroves, saltmarsh, seagrass,
under the VCS. The requirements are due for release in mid-2012.

Blue Carbon page 16

Moving Forward

Mangroves now recognised under the Clean Development Mechanism

A new methodology xxxiv for calculating the role that mangrove restoration plays in slowing
climate change, by capturing and storing CO2 from the atmosphere, has been adopted
under the UN climate change conventions Kyoto Protocol, as part of the Clean Development
Mechanism that supports emission reduction projects in developing countries.
This will not only reduce emissions from degraded mangrove sites and provide a
significant boost for existing and new mangrove restoration efforts for Coral Triangle
countries, but it has the potential to improve the livelihoods of coastal communities by
improving fisheries productivity and access to sustainable timber.
A word of caution though
The latest science xxxv shows that there remains large uncertainties concerning the
extent to which these mangroves are a natural sink for carbon. This uncertainty
is coupled to the natural dynamics of mangrove ecosystems. Any PES or REDD+
scheme must account for this level of uncertainty. To maximise carbon payments for
mangroves, PES and REDD+ type schemes must therefore be restricted to choosing
sites conducive to net accumulation of carbon, that is, primarily at the sea-forest
boundary, unless payments are being made simply to preserve existing mangroves or to
preserve biodiversity. In order to maximise the efficiency of PES and REDD+ schemes,
close collaboration between managers and scientists is required. A combination of
approaches, such as ecological modelling, field testing of ecosystem services and filling
in of existing information gaps to improve the accuracy of modelling estimates is
necessary for the successful sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems.
It should be noted that it is likely that this natural variability will also be a challenge for
seagrass and saltmarsh carbon related projects.

For project activities to deliver clear, tangible benefits to local

stakeholders, they need to be actively engaged in project design and
implementation. Adequate capacity building will also need to be provided in
coastal ecosystem carbon project risk management, community based MRV and
for onground activities to build trust and confidence in the local community to
participate in the project.
Supportive government policy geared towards integrated coastal zone
management and adequate experience and capacity of government
representatives in carbon related projects to actively engage in the project and
act effectively on project outcomes by way of policy or onground efforts.
Investors willing to provide adequate financial resources to support the
project from design through to completion.

MOVING
FORWARD

pursuing blue carbon

opportunities

For Coral Triangle countries interested in pursuing

the opportunities blue carbon may offer the key
priorities include:
Policy
building on existing policy mechanisms that
support integrated coastal zone management
to ensure a priority focus on coastal
ecosystemsmanagement;
reducing current greenhouse gas emissions from
degraded coastal ecosystems through improved
conservation and restoration; and

Blue Carbon page 17

Blue Carbon A New Concept

leveraging existing coastal ecosystem conservation programs to use blue

carbon as a means to provide ongoing funding to regional and national coastal
ecosystem livelihood improvement programs and site-level adaptation projects.
Governance
building on and including blue carbon into existing regional, national and subnational climate change policies, strategies and adaptation action plans; and
working with the Global Blue Carbon Initiative to influence the UNFCCC.
Science
commencing pilot and demonstration projects geared towards the collection of
coastal ecosystem carbon emissions data in preparation for an offset scheme
should it become available down the track.
Communities
building resilience in coastal communities to improve food security and
wellbeing through developing natural adaptation strategies for coastal
communities through community led conservation of coastal ecosystems.

HOW DO I STAY
IN THE LOOP?

There are a number of key websites that will keep

you in the loop of latest developments, science and
publications, including:
Blue carbon portal: bluecarbonportal.org
Blue carbon blog: bluecarbonblog.blogspot.com
For more information on the science supporting blue
carbon refer to:

Duke University publication State of Science on Coastal Blue Carbon: A

summary for policy makers. May 2011 available from http://nicholasinstitute.
duke.edu/economics/naturalresources/state-of-science-coastal-blue-carbon
Recommendations from the international working group on coastal blue carbon
Minimising carbon emissions and maximising sequestration and storage
by seagrass, tidal marsh and mangroves http://www.marineclimatechange.
com/marineclimatechange/bluecarbon_recommendations_files/bluecarbon_
recommendations_3.28.11.FINAL.HIGH.pdf
For more information on the global policy directions for blue carbon refer to:
Blue Carbon Policy Framework from the second workshop of the International
Blue Carbon Policy Working Group http://www.iucn.org/about/work/
programmes/marine/marine_news/?uNewsID=9336
If you would like to discuss establishing a blue carbon initiative in your country
please contact your local WWF office who can provide assistance.

Blue Carbon page 18

References

REFERENCES

Spalding, M.D., C. Ravilious, and E.P. Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral
Reefs. University of California Press, Berkely, California, 424 pages.

ii

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hoegh-Guldberg, H., Veron, J.E.N., Green, A., Gomez,

E. D., Lough, J., King, M., N, L., Cinner, J., Dews, G., Russ, G., Schuttenberg,
H. Z., Peafor, E.L., Eakin, C. M., Christensen, T. R. L Ambariyanto, Hanse,
Abbey, M., Areki, F., Kosaka, R. A., Tewfk, A., Oliver, J. (2009). The Coral
Triangle and Climate Change: Ecosystems, People and Societies at Risk.
WWF Australia, Brisbane, 276 pp.

iii

Murray, B. C., Pendleton, L., Jenkins, W.A., Sifleet, S. (2011). Green

Payments for Blue Carbon: Economic Incentives for Protecting Threatened
Coastal Habitats NI R 11-04 Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy
Solutions. Duke University.

iv

Lovelock CE, Ruess RW, Feller IC (2011). CO2 Efflux from Cleared Mangrove
Peat. PLoS ONE 6(6): e21279. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021279

Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L.L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek,
J. and Duke, N. (2010). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of
the world using Earth observation satellite data. Global Ecology and
Biogeography 20(1): 154159. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x.

vi

Brown WH, Fischer AF (1920). Philippine mangrove swamps. In: Brown WH

(ed) Minor products of Philippine forests I, Bureau of Forestry Bull. No. 22.
Bureau of Printing, Manila, pp 9125 in Primavera, JH and Esteban, JMA
(2008) A review of mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines: successes,
failures and future prospects Wetlands Ecol Manage (2008) 16:345358 DOI
10.1007/s11273-008-9101-y.

vii

Chua, T. E. 1992. Coastal aquaculture development and the environment,

the role of coastal area management. Marine Pollution Bulletin 25:98
103 in Federico Paez-Osuna (2001) The Environmental Impact of Shrimp
Aquaculture: Causes, Effects, and Mitigating Alternatives Environmental
Management Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 131140.

viii

Solomon Islands National Forestry Inventory 1995.

ix

Green EP, and Short FT (2003). World Atlas of Seagrasses Prepared by the
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, University of California,
Press Berkeley, USA.

McKenzie, L., S. Campbell and F. Lasi. 2006. Seagrasses and Mangroves. In:
Green, A., P. Lokani, W. Atu, P. Ramohia, P. Thomas and J. Almany (eds). 2006.
Solomon Islands Marine Assessment: Technical report of survey conducted
May 13 to June 17, 2004. TNC Pacific Island Countries Report No 1/0

xi

FAO, 2003. Status and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide. By

Wilkie, M.L. and Fortuna, S. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper
No. 63. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome. (Unpublished).

xii

Conservation International. (2008) Economic Values of Coral Reefs,

Mangroves, and Seagrasses: A Global Compilation. Center for Applied
Biodiversity Science, Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA

xiii

Munang, R., Thiaw, I., Rivington, M., Goldman, R. (2010). The Role of
Ecosystems in developing a Sustainable Green Economy Policy Brief 2,
2010 UNEP Ecosystem Management Policy Series

xiv

Barbier, E. B. 2007. Valuing ecosystem services as productive inputs.

Economic Policy 22:177229

Blue Carbon page 19

Blue Carbon A New Concept

xv

Danielsen, F. et al. (2005). The Asian Tsunami: a protective role for coastal
vegetation. Science 310, 643. (doi:10.1126/science.1118387).

xvi

Roe, D., Thomas, D., Smith, J., Walpole, M., Elliot, J. Biodiversity and
Poverty: Ten Frequently asked questions Ten Policy Implications, 150,
July 2011 Gatekeeper Series, International Institute for Environment
andDevelopment.

xvii Lewis, S.L., et al. 2009. Increasing carbon storage in intact African tropical
forests. Nature 457(7232): 1003U3.
xviii Spalding et al. (2010). World atlas of mangroves. London: Earthscan.
xix

Schlesinger WH and Lichter J. 2001. Limited carbon storage in soil and

litter of experimental forest plots under elevated atmospheric CO2. Nature
411: 46669.

xx

Chmura GL, Anisfeld SC, Cahoon DR, and Lynch JC. (2003). Global carbon
sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils. Global Biogeochem Cy 17: 1111,
doi:10.1029/2002GB001917.

xxi

McKee KL, Cahoon DR, and Feller I. (2007). Caribbean mangroves adjust
to rising sea level through biotic controls on change in soil elevation. Global
Ecol Biogeogr 16: 54556.

xxii McCleod E, Chmura GL, Bouillon S, Salm R, Bjork M, et al. (2011) A

Blueprint for Blue Carbon: Towards an improved understanding of the
role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Front Ecol Environ.
doi:10.1890/110004.
xxiii Eong OJ. 1993. Mangroves a carbon source and sink. Chemosphere 27:
10971107 referred to in McCleod et al. (2011) as listed above.
xxiv Donato DC, Kauffman JB, Murdiuarso D, et al. 2011. Mangroves among the
most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nat Geosci 4:29397.
xxv Crooks, S., D. Herr, J. Tamelander, D. Laffoley, and J. Vandever. 2011.
Mitigating Climate Change through Restoration and Management
of Coastal Wetlands and Near-shore Marine Ecosystems: Challenges
and Opportunities. Environment Department Paper 121, World Bank,
Washington, DC.
xxvi Jagger P., Sills E.O., Lawlor, K. and Sunderlin, W.D. 2010. A guide to
learning about livelihood impacts of REDD+ projects. Occasional paper 56.
CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
xxvii Cox, G. and Peskett, L (2010). Background Note Commodifying carbon to
reduce deforestation: Lessons from New Zealand. Overseas Development
Institute, November 2010, London
xxviii Gorden D, Murray BC, Pendleton L, Victor B (2011). Financing Options
for Blue Carbon: Opportunities and Lessons Learned from the REDD+
Experience NI R 11-11 Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions.
Duke University.
xxix Adapted from Angelsen, A. with Brockhaus, M., Kanninen, M., Sills, E.,
Sunderlin, W. D. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S.(eds) 2009. Realising REDD+:
National strategy and policy options. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia
xxx Rights and Resources Initiative (2011). PushBack: Local Power Global
Realignment, Rights and Resources Initiative, Washington, D.C.
xxxi Eliasch J (2008). Climate change: financing global forests. The Eliasch
review. Office of Climate Change, London.

Blue Carbon page 20

References

xxxii Wibisono, I.T.C. and Ita Sualia. 2008. Final Report: An Assessment
of Lessons Learnt from the Green Coast Project in Nanggroe Aceh
Darussalam (NAD) Province and Nias Island, Indonesia, Period 2005
2008. Wetlands International - Indonesia Programme, Bogor.
xxxiii Adapted from Harvey C. A., Zerbock O., Papageorgiou S. and Parra A. 2010
What is needed to make REDD+ work on the ground? Lessons learned
from pilot forest carbon initiatives. Conservation International, Arlington,
Virginia, USA. 121 pp.
xxxiv AR-AM0014: Afforestation and reforestation of degraded mangrove
habitats. Version 1.0.0 available from www.cdm.unfccc.int
xxxv Alongi, D. (2011). Carbon payments for mangrove conservation: ecosystem
constraints and uncertainties of sequestration potential. Australian
Institute of Marine Science. 14, 462470 (2011).

Blue Carbon page 21

WWF-Australia celebrating a history of success

100%

ReCYCLeD

WWF has helped secure new highly protected

areas that help recovery of fish populations and
which build the resilience of the reef system.

Ningaloo
WWF has played a pivotal
role in securing sanctuaries
within Ningaloo waters.

Antarctica & the

Southern Ocean
WWF continues to promote sustainable
fisheries and to protect seabirds from
fishing and pest animals.

wwf.org.au

1986 Panda symbol WWF WWF is a registered trademark

WWF instigated an unprecedented

agreement amongst the six Coral Triangle
countries to conserve their fisheries,
implement protected areas and build
resilience to climate change.

Earth Hour
Earth Hour was co-founded by
WWF-Australia and has evolved
into one of the most recognised
campaigns in history.

Southwest
Australia Ecoregion
WWF helped to ensure that some 5,000 hectares
of globally important, privately-owned bushland
in WAs wheatbelt isprotected.

WWF has offices throughout the Coral Triangle region including

Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the
Solomon Islands, Fiji and Australia.
For more information on our work, please contact:
WWF Australia
Freecall 1800 032 551
Email enquiries@wwf.org.au.

WWF.COM.AU

Why we are here

To stop the degradation of the planets natural environment and
to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.

CORAL TRIANGLE

BLUE CARBON A NEW CONCEPT 2012

Great Barrier Reef