Contents

Learning Objectives _

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---------------COMPLEX
>
NUMBERS
>
Mathematical
Representation of Vectors
Symbolic Notation

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>

Significance of Operator j

>

Trigonometrical Form of
Vector

>

Exponential Form of
Vector

>

Polar Form of Vector

Representation

>

Addition and Subtraction

of Vector Quantities

>

Multiplication and
Division of Vector
Quantities
Power and Root of
Vectors

>
>

^ ~

Conjugate Complex
Numbers

The 120 Operator

In multi-phase generation of electricity, it is

often convenient to express each phase as a
complex number, Z, which has the form a + jb,
where a and b are real numbers. This representation is known as Carterian form of Z.

12.1. Mathematical Representation of Vectors

There are various forms or methods of representing vector quantities, all of which enable
those
operations which are carried out graphically in a phasor diagram, to be performed analytically.
The
various methods are :
12.2.
Symbolic Notation. According to this method, a vector quantity is expressed
algebraically
in terms of its rectangular components. Hence, this form of representation is also known as
Rectangular or Cartesian form of notation or representation.

12.3.

Trigonometrical Form (iii) Exponential Form (iv) Polar Form.

12.4. Symbolic Notation

A vector can be specified in terms of its X-component and 7-component. For example, the
vector OE1 (Fig. 12.1) may be completely described
by stating that its horizontal component is a1 and
vertical component is bv But instead of stating
this verbally, we may express symbolically
Et = ai
+ ybi
where symbol j, known as an operator, indicates
that component b1 is perpendicular to component
a1 and that the two terms are not to be treated like
terms in any algebraic expression. The vector
written in this way is said to be written in 'complex
form'In Mathematics, a1 is known as real component and b1 as imaginary component but in
electrical engineering, these are known as in phase
(or
active) and quadrature (or reactive) components
respectively.
The other vectors OE2, OE3 and OE4 can simiFig. 12.1
larly, be expressed in this form.
12.3. Significance of Operator j
The letter j used in the above expression is a symbol of an operation. Just as symbols x, +J~, j
etc. are used with numbers for indicating certain operations to be performed on those numbers,
similarly, symbol j is used to indicate the counter-clockwise rotation of a vector through 90. It is assigned a value of j( 1) **. The double operation of j on a vector rotates it counter-clockwise
through 180 and hence reverses its sense because
The magnitude of a vector is sometimes called 'modulus' and is represented by | E | or E.
In Mathematics,

is denoted by i but in electrical engineering j is adopted because letter i is reserved

for representing current. This helps to avoid confusion.

Complex Numbers 3

2j

jj

(-1)

When operator j is operated on vector E, we get the new vector JE which is displaced by 90
in
counter-clockwise direction from E (Fig. 12.2). Further application of j will give j2E = -E as
shown.
If the operator j is applied to the vector j2E, the result is j3E = -E. The vector j3E is 270
counter-clockwise
from the reference
axis and is directly opposite to jE. If the vector j3E is, turn,
j 4E
Wei) ] e = E
Hence, it is seen that successive applications
of the operator j to the vector E produce
successive
90 steps of rotation of the vector in the counterclockwise direction without in anyway affecting
the
magnitude of the vector.
It will also be seen from Fig. 12.2 that the
apE
Summarising the above, we have

1270
Fig. 12.2

j = 90 ccw rotation = A/(-4)

j2 = 180 ccw rotation = [^/( 1)]2 = 4;
J

= 270 ccw rotation = [^( -1)]3 = - ^H) =

j4 = 360 ccw rotation = [,/(-1)]4 = + 1;

j5 = 450 ccw rotation = [Jl-1)]5 = -1) =
It should also be noted that - =
j
j

= -j-

j
-J

12.4. Conjugate Complex Numbers

Two complex numbers are said to be conjugate if they differ only in the algebraic sign of their
quadrature components. Accordingly, the numbers (a + jb) and (a -jb) are conjugate. The sum of
two conjugate numbers gives in-phase (or active) component and their difference gives quadrature
(or reactive) component.
12.5. Trigonometrical Form of Vector
From Fig. 12.3, it is seen that X-component of E is E cos 0
and 7-component is E sin 0. Hence, we can represent the vector
E in the form : E = E (cos 0 + j sin 0)
This is equivalent to the rectangular form E = a + jb
because
12.6. Exponential Form of Vector |
It can be proved that e j0 = (cos 0 j sin 0)
known as Euler's equation after the famous mathematician of 18th century :
Leonard Euler.
-1

Fig.

This equation is

6957

This equation follows directly from an inspection of Maclaurin* series expansions of sin 9,
cos
When expanded into
form :
cos 9 = 1 --9- + -9--------+
L2 L4 L6
e

79

(79)2 +

+ + L

2 '

series
and sin 9 = 9 - -91 + .
9
L3 L5 L7

c/9)l + Cj9)_
L3 '

( j 9)5

4 '

+ C /9)
L5

'

Keeping in mind that / = -1, / = -, j = 1, / = -, j = -1, we get

e

f , 92 + 94 9 6 + ^
^ L 2 L 4 L 6 '"^

f 9 - Jl+J9! - J9!+ " ' 1 L 3

L 5 L 7v. y

e 9 = cos 9 + j sin 9
Similarly, it can be shown that e-9 = cos 9 -j sin 9
Hence E = E (cos 9 y ' sin 9) can be written as E = Ee j9. This is known as exponential form of
representing vector quantities. It represents a vector of numerical value E and having phase angle
of
9 with the reference axis.
12.7. Polar Form of Vector Representation
The expression E (cos 9 + j sin 9) is written in the simplified form of E Z9. In this expression,
E represents the magnitude of the vector and 9 its inclination (in ccw direction) with the X-axis.
For
angles in clockwise direction the expression becomes E Z-9. In general, the expression is written
as
E Z9. It may be pointed out here that E Z 9 is simply a short-hand or symbolic style of writing
Ee . Also, the form is purely conventional and does not possess the mathematical elegance of the
various other forms of vector representation given above.
Summarizing, we have the following alternate ways of representing vector quantities
(i) Rectangular form (or complex form) E = a + jb
12.5.
Trigonometrical form E = E (cos 9 j sin 9)
A
5Z53.1 = 5ej53Example 12.1. Write the equivalent exponential and
polar forms of vector 3 + j4. How will you illustrate the
vector means of diagram ?
Solution. With reference to Fig. 12.4., magnitude of the
vector is = ^32 + 42 = 5. tan 9 = 4/3.
. - . 9 = tan-1 (4/3) = 53.1

Fig. 12.4
Functions like cos 9, sin 9 and e j 9 etc. can be expanded into series form with the help of Maclaurin's
Theorem. The theorem states : f (9) = f (0) +

f '(0)9 + f "(0)92 + f "(0)9

1

Z2 Z3

where f (9) is function of 9

which is to be expanded, f (0) is the value of the function when 9 = 0, f ' (0) is the value of first derivative
off (9) when 9 = 0, f " (0) is the value of second derivative of function f (9) when 9 = 0 etc.
10
3

: Exponential form = 5 eThe angle may also be expressed in radians.

Polar form = 5 Z53.1.
Example 12.2. A vector is represented by 20 ej53.1-2n3. Write the various equivalent forms of the
vector and illustrate by means of a vector diagram, the magnitude
andposition of the above vector.
Solution. The vector is drawn in a direction making an angle of 2n/3 =
120 in the clockwise direction (Fig. 12.5). The clockwise direction is
taken
because the angle is negative.
(0 Rectangular Form a = 20 cos (420) = 40 ;
b = 20 sin (420) = 47.32
: Expression is = (-10 -j17.32)
(ii) Polar Form is 20 Z -120

47.32
A=e-:'b212
Fig. 12.5

12.8. Addition and Subtraction of Vector Quantities

Rectangular form is best suited for addition and subtraction of vector quantities. Suppose
we
are given two vector quantities E1 = a1 + jb1 and E2 = a2 + jb2 and it is required to find their sum
and
difference.
Addition.

E = E1 + E2 = a1 + jb1 + a2

+ jb2 = (a 1 + a2) + j(b1 + b2)

The magnitude of resultant vector E is
0 Y a2

' /1
/1
/1
1
1
11
f/

T
i

-1

E2

b2

/
x'-

-b2

//

\k

E,

/ JC

//L \

Va

>

r 2Y'12.7
a

hCX Vi
P\ 82V *
9

b2

" 2aFig.

Fig.
12.6

A graphic representation of the addition process is shown in Fig. 12.6

Subtraction.
E = E1 -E2 = (a1 + jb1) - (a2 + jb2) = (a1 - a2) + j(b1 -b2)
Magnitude of

^ - a2 ) 2 + - b2 )

\2
b

Its position with respect to x-axis is given by the angle 9 = tan

- b

a - a,

The graphic representation of the process of subtraction is shown V

in Fig. 12.7.
1

1
2J

j)

12.9. Multiplication and Division of Vector Quantities

Multiplication and division of vectors becomes very simple and easy if they are represented
in
the polar or exponential form. As will be shown below, the rectangular form of representation is
not
well-suited for this process.
(i) Multiplication - Rectangular form
Let the two vectors be given by A = a1 + jb1 and B = a2 + jb2
01
.'. A x B = C = ( a 1 + jb1) (a2 + jb2) = a1a2 + j b1b2 + j (a1b2 + b1a2)

22

The magnitude of C = J[(a1a2 b 1b 2) + (a1b2 + b1a2) ]

In angle with respect to X-axis is given by 9 = tan aa ba

12

+ b a1"
b b

12

(a i + jbi ) 2 jb2
(a
*2 ' J "2 ^2 + A) (a 2 A)
a
Both
the numerator
and denominator
(ii)
Division
- Rectangular
Form : A _have
i + jbibeen multiplied by the conjugate of (a 2 + jb2) i.e.
by
(a 2 j b 2 )
(a1a2 + b1b2) + j (b1a2 a1b2) a 1a2 + a1b 2 + b 1a2 + a1b 2
A

2
2
2+b2

2
2
a
2+b2

2
2
a
2+b2

The magnitude and the angle with respects X-axis can be found in the same way as given above.
As will be noted, both the results are somewhat awkward but unfortunately, there is no easier way
to perform multiplication in rectangular form.
(iii) Multiplication - Polar Form
Let A = a1 + jb1 = A Za = A e j a where a = tan (b1/a1)
B = a2 + jb2 = B ZP = B ejP where P = tan1 (b2/a2)
.-. AB = AZa x B Zfi = AB Z (a + P)* or AB = Ae j a x BejP = ABej( a + P)
Hence, product of any two vector A and B is given by another vector equal in length to A x B and
having a phase angle equal to the sum of the angles of A and B.
A
A Za
= 4

ZP B P)

Z(a

B
Hence, the quotient A * B is another vector having a magnitude of A * B and phase
angle
equal
A Aeja _ A , (a P)
Als
B BeAs seen, the division and multiplication become extremely simple if vectors are
represented
in
their polar or exponential form.
Example 12.3. Add the following vectors given in rectangular form and illustrate the process
graphically.
A = 16 + j 12, B = - 6 + j 10.4
*
.-.

A
AB

= A (cos a+j sin a) and B = B (cos P + j sin P)

= AB (cos a cos P + j sin a cos P + j cos a sin P + j12 sin a sin P)
= AB[cos a cos P sin a sin P) + j (sin a cos P + cos a sin P)]
= AB[cos (a + P) + j sin (a + P)] = AB Z(a + P)

Solution. A + B = C = (16 + j 12) + (-6 + j 10.4) = 10 + j 22.4

Magnitude of C = ^/(102 + 22.42) = 25.5 units

10+j22.4

22.
= 65.95
Slope of C = 9 = tan
4
10
The vector addition is shown in Fig.
6+jl0.4
12.8.
a = tan-1 (12/16) = 36.9
-1
P = tan
(-10.4/6)
= -is240
orby
120
The
resultant
vector
found
using parallelogram law of vectors
Fig.
(Fig. 12.8).
Example 12.4. Perform the following operation
and express the final result in the polar form :
5 Z 30 + 8 Z
30.
(Elect. Engg. & Electronics Bangalore Univ.
1989)
Solution. 5 Z 30 = 5 (cos 30 + j sin 30) = 4.33 + j 2.5
8 Z - 30 = 8 [cos (-30) + j sin (-30)] = 8 (0.866 -0.5) = 6.93 -j 4
\5Z30 + 8Z-30 = 4.33 + j2.5 + 6.93 -j4 = 11.26 -j1.5 =^11.2612.82 +1.52 Ztan- (-1.5/11.26) =
11.35
tan- 1 (- 0.1332) = 11.35 Z 7.6
Example 12.5. Subtract the following given vectors from one another :
A = 3 0 + j 52 and B = -39.5 -j 14.36
Solution. A -B = C = (30 + j 52) - (-39.5 -j 14.36) = 69.5 + j 66.36
Magnitude of C = ^/(66.52 + 66.362) = 96
Slope of
C = tan-1 (66.36/69.5) = 43.6 C = 96 Z 43.6.
Similarly

B - A = - 69.5 -j 66.36 = 96 Z223.6* or = 96 Z- 136.4

Example 12.6. Given the following two vectors :

A = 20 Z 60 and B = 5 Z 30
Perform the following indicated operations and illustrate graphically (i) A x B and (ii) A/B.
Solution. ( i ) A x B = C = 20 Z 60 x 5 Z 30 = 100 Z 90
-

e=100Z.90
i A =20Z_60
/ ^B=5Z-30

1/ C = 4Z.30"
IY
Fig. 12.9

Fig.
12.10
* tan 9 = 66.36/69.5 or 9 = tan-1 (66.36/69.5) = 43.6. Since both components are negative, the vector lies
in third quadrant. Hence, the angle measured from + ve direction of X-axis and in the CCW directions is
= (180 + 43.6) = 223.6.

B = f Z ^ _ 4 Z 30

(U)

"Fig. 12.10

Example 12.7. Perform the following operation and the final result may be given in the polar
form : (8 + j6) x (0 j 7.5)
(Elect. Engg. & Electronics Bangalore Univ.
1990)
Solution. We will use the following two methods to solve the above question.
Method No. 1
We know that multiplication of (A + B) and (C + D) can be found as under :
A+B
x C+D
CA + CB
+ DA +
DB
CA + CD + DA +
DB
Similarly, the required multiplication
can be carried out as follows :
8+j6
x 10 j 7.5
80 j60
j 60 j2 45
- 80 j120 + 45
or 35 j120 =

35)2 + (120)2 |tan1 (120/35) _ 125 tan1 3.42 _ 125|73.8

Since both the components of the vector are negative, it obviously lies in the third quadrant.
As
measured from the X-axis in the CCW direction, its angle is = 180 + 73.8 = 253.8. Hence, the
product vector can be written as 125 Z 53.8.
Method No. 2
8 + j 6 = 10 Z 36.9, - 10 - j 7.5 = 12.5 tan-1 0.75 = 12.5 Z 36.9.
Again as explained in Method 1 above, the actual angle of the vector is 180 + 36.9 = 216.9
10 -j 7.5 = 12.5 Z 216.9 /. 10 Z 36.9 x 12.5 Z 216.9 = 125 < 253.8
Example 12.8. The following three vectors are given :
A = 20 + j20, B = 30 Z120 and C = 10 + j0
Perform the following indicated operations :
(i)

and (ii)

Solution. Rearranging all three vectors in polar form, we get

A = 28.3 Z 45 , B = 30 Z 120, C = 10 Z 0
28.3 Z45x30 Z 120
AB
Z
:84.9

~Q =
10 Z 0
BC =
A

30 Z 120

x l O Z0 _ 10.6 Z 165
28.3 Z45

Example 12.9. Given two current i1 = 10 sin (at + n/4) and i2 = 5 cos (a t n/2), find the
r.m.s.
value of il + i2 using the complex number representation.
[Elect. Circuit Theory, Kerala Univ.
]
Solution. The maximum value of first current is 10 A and it leads the reference quantity by
45.
The second current can be written as
i2 = 5 cos ( a t n/2) = 5 sin [90 + (at n/2)] = 5 sin at
Hence, its maximum value is 5 A and is in phase with the reference quantity.

\m2 = 5 (cos 0 + j sin 0) = (5 + j 0)

The maximum value of resultant current is
Im = (7.07 + j 7.07) + (5 + j 0) = 12.07 + j 7.07 = 14 Z 30.4
.-.

R.M.S. value = 14/V2 = 10 A

12.8. Power and Roots of Vectors

12.9.

Powers
Suppose it is required to find the cube of the vector 3 Z 15. For this purpose, the vector has

to
be multiplied by itself three times.
/. (3 Z 15)3 = 3 x 3 x 3. Z (15 + 15 + 15) = 27 Z 45. In general, A" = A" Z na
Hence, nth power of vector A is a vector whose magnitude is An and whose phase angle with
respect to X-axis is na.
It is also clear that A"B" = AnBn Z (n a + nP)
12.10.
Roots
It is clear that

^(8 Z45) = 2 Z 15

In general,

= lA = Z a / n

Hence, nth root of a vector A is a vector whose magnitude is n-JA and whose phase angle with
respect to X-axis is a / n.

12.11. The 120 Operator

In three-phase work where voltage vectors are displaced from one another by 120, it is
convenient to employ an operator which rotates a vector through 120 forward or backwards without
changing
its length. This operator is 'a'. Any operator which is multiplied by 'a' remains unchanged in
magnitude but is rotated by 120 in the counter-clockwise (ccw) direction.
:
.
a
= 1 Z 120
This, when expressed in the cartesian form, becomes
a = cos 120 + j sin 120 = -0.5 + j 0.866
2
Similarly, a = 1 Z 120 x 1 Z 120 = 1 Z 240 = cos 240 + j sin
240 = - 0.5 -j 0.866
Hence, operator 'a2' will rotate the vector in ccw by 240. This is
the
Fig. 12.11
same as rotating the vector in clockwise direction by 120.
. -.
a2 = 1 Z - 120. Similarly, a3 = 1 Z 360 = 1*
As shown in Fig. 12.11, the 3-phase voltage vectors with standard
phase sequence may be represented as E, a2E and aE or as E, E (-0.5 -j
0.866) and E (-0.5 + j 0.866)
It is easy to prove that
(i) a2 + a = -1 (ii) a2 + a + 1 = 0 (iii) a3 + a2 + a = 0
Note. We have seen in Art. 12.3 that operator -j turns a vector through -90 i.e. through 90 in clockwise
direction. But it should be clearly noted that operator '-a' does not turn a vector through -120. Rather ' a' turns a vector through - 60 as shown below.
2

Solution. (i) a2 = a x a = 1 Z 120 = 1 Z 240 = 1 Z - 120 = -1 - j

22
a -1 = I j- 1 j-^Vs :s2L
2

(ii)
,1 -a -a

= 1 -j

V3 210

180

+ j-^3; a2 = 1Z 240
1

- j

.VL
2

2
2

j0

- j
J
2

- j

VI

2a=
.-.

a = 1Z 120
,
1
.VL

2 a2 = 2

(iii)

V3

j2

21

4 2 i jV3

JJ

2 a2 + L + 2 a = L - 1 - j VL -1 + j y/ I = 1Z 0

(iv)

ja = j x a = 1 Z 90 x 1 Z 120 = 1 Z 210
Tutorial Problem No. 12.1

12.12.

Perform the following indicated operations :

(a) (60 + j 80) + (30 -j 40) (b) (12 -j 6) -(40 -j 20) (c) (6 + j 8) (3 -j 4) (d) 16 + j8) ^ (L -j 4)

[(a) (90 + j 40) (b) (-28 + j 14) (c) (50 + j 0) (d) (-0.56 + j 1.92)]

12.13.

Two impedances

Z1 = 2 + j

6 Q and Z2 = 6 -12 Q are connected in a circuit so that they are additive.

Find the resultant impedance in the polar form.

[10 Z - 36.9]

12.14.

Express in rectangular form and polar form a vector, the magnitude of which is 100 units and the
phase of which with respect to reference axis is
(a) + L0 (b) + 180 (c) -60 ( d ) + 120 (e) -120 f) -210.

[(a) 86.6 + j50 Z30 (b) (-100 + j0), 100 Z180 (c) 50 -j86.6, 100 Z-60 (d) (-50 + j86.6),
100
Z -120 (e) (-50 -j 86.6), 100 Z - 120 ( f ) (-50 + j 86.6), 100 Z - 210]

12.15.

In the equation

V m = V -ZI, V = 100 Z 0 volts, Z = 10 Z 60 Q and I = 8 Z - L0 amperes. Express

V m in polar form.
[50.5 Z - 52]
12.16. A voltage V = 150 + j 180 is applied across an impedance and the current flowing is found to be 1 =
5 -j 4. Determine ( i ) scalar impedance ( i i ) resistance ( i i i ) reactance ( i v ) power consumed.
[(i) 3.73 Q (ii) 0.75 Q (iii) 36.6 Q (iv) 30 W]

12.17.

Calculate the following in polar form :

OBJECTIVE TESTS - 1 2

12.19.

12.21.

The symbol j represents counterclockwise

rotation of a vector throughdegrees.

the same as vector

( a ) 180 ( b )90
( c ) L60

(c) j E

12.22.

The operator j has a value of

(b
1
(a)+ 1
)
(c)
(d)

=T

(b) j2 E

(a) jE
( d ) 270

12.20.
V

The vector j5 E is

(d) j4 E

The conjugate of (-a + j b ) is

(a)(a - j b ) ( b ) ( -

a -jb)

(c)(a +j u b ) ( d ) ( j b

+T
ANSWERS

1. b

2. c

3. a

4. b

Top

- a)