Coordinates

Review of vector calculus

Spherical coordinates (r, , )

z (k)

z (k)

P(x,y,z)
P(r, , )

r cos

r cos

P(r, , )

- Polar Angle
- Azimuthal Angle

x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos

Spherical coordinates UNIT vectors

z
z (k)

cos

sin

90

Spherical coordinates UNIT vectors

Unit vectors in Cartesian coordinate are constant vectors (unit
magnitude and constant direction)
However, unit vectors in other coordinate systems (spherical,
cylindrical and polar) are NOT constant vectors (direction is NOT
fixed)
Hence they cannot be used inside differentiation and integration
Corresponding vectors has to be converted into Cartesian vectors
before differentiation and integration
Eg.;
Let
Then

be the position vector of a particle in POLAR coordinates

Now

Similarly
(1) becomes
For circular motion,
is the tangential velocity.

and hence

The first term is the tangential acceleration and the second term is the centripetal
acceleration (directed towards the centre) needed for circular motion

Spherical Coordinates

Length element dl

z
dr

Volume element dV

r sin d

dV = r2sin dr d d
r sin

r d

Area element da

y
d
(r = constant surface)
( = constant surface)
( = constant surface)

AREA element da
z

Area element da

(r = constant surface)
( = constant surface)
( = constant surface)

cylindrical coordinates (, , z)
z

P(, ,z)

x = cos
y = sin
z=z
0
0 2
z0

z 0, polar coordinates

cylindrical coordinates (, , z )
z

Length element dl

P(, ,z)

Volume element dV

dl = d + d + dz z

d
Area element da

y
dz

dV = d d dz

d
= d dz ( = constant surface)

= d dz ( = constant surface)
= z d d (z = constant surface)

Vector calculus
Gradient

slope

(vector)

For a scalar function = (x),

For = (x,y,z),

length element

Vector operator DEL

GRADIENT of scalar function which is a vector

where is the angle between

and

For a given dl, dT is maximum when = 0, ie, along the direction

of T
GRADIENT of a function points in the direction of max. increase of
the function
|

| gives the slope along the maximum direction

Example: r(x,y,z) r ?
Direction?
r increases fastest as we move radially out from the origin
dl =dr

|=1

Spherical coordinates
(r, , )

cylindrical coordinates
(
, , z)

Divergence

(scalar)

acts on a vector function through dot product

Physical meaning:
measures the spread out (divergence) of a vector at a given point
net amount of flux through a given volume
div = (outgoing flux incoming flux) from a given volume

Spherical
coordinates
(r, , )

cylindrical
coordinates
(
, , z)

Curl (vector)
acts on a vector function through cross product

Physical meaning:
measures the circulation (curl) of a
vector at a given point
z

y
x

Gradient Theorem
For a scalar function (x,y,z) in the interval (ra,rb)

Depends only on the end points

Independent of path
over a closed path

Example :
b
II

III
a

Divergence theorem (Gauss Theorem / Greens Theorem)

Flux of the vector function

volume
volume element

area

area
element

Divergence of a vector function in a given volume is

equivalent
to the flux passing through any surface bounding the volume

Divergence theorem - contradictions

Let

be a vector field . Then divergence theorem implies that

Hence LHS = 0
If the volume is taken as a sphere of radius R, then RHS

This contradiction is due to the fact that r = 0 is a singularity and

such cases should be dealt with Dirac Delta-function method of
integration.

Curl theorem (Greens theorem)

area

area
element

length

length
element

Curl of a vector function in a given surface is

equivalent to
value of function along the bounding line enclosing the surface

Electrostatics
Electric field, potential and conductors

ELECTROSTATICS
Assumption:
all charges are stationary
charges are given; i.e., neglect the internal structure of the charges
or the energy needed to create them
AIM
Force exerted on a charge Q by charges q1, q2, qn? Coloumbs Law
(1st fundamental rule of electrostatics)
Attractive or repulsive depending on the charges
Valid only for point charges or
Charge distribution whose spatial extent << r

(2nd

Superposition principle
fundamental
rule) :
Interaction between 2 charges is
completely unaffected by the presence of
other charges. i.e., interaction between
charges qi can be neglected.

q1 q3
qn qi

q2

ELECTRIC FIELD
How the charge distribution knows about the charge Q?
Action at a distance needs concept of Electric Field!
Electric field attaches itself as a local property to a charge system
(compare with gravity).
Force exerted on a charge Q by charges q1, q2, .., qn

E(P) refers only point P; =

completely removes
reference of test charge
or
Test charge Q does not affect charge
distribution q1, q2, .., qn

Electric Field at the

point P where charge Q
is located

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS

LINE CHARGE
CHARGE DISTRIBUTED OVER A LENGTH L
LINEAR CHARGE DENSITY = CHARGE/LENGTH

dl
SURFACE CHARGE
CHARGE DISTRIBUTED OVER A SURFACE S
SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY = CHARGE/AREA

dS
P
VOLUME CHARGE
CHARGE DISTRIBUTED OVER A VOLUME V
VOLUME CHARGE DENSITY = CHARGE/VOLUME

SOLID ANGLE
To define angle, circle of radius r is drawn
with the apex as its centre.
Then = L/r.
L is the length of arc subtending the angle
L/r is independent of the radius (
= L/r)

dS subtends at O a solid
angle d

d
= dS cos
/r2 for small dS
O
Total solid angle (for a spherical
surface enclosing O)
O

Flux of electric field and Gausss Law

Point charge +q at the origin : E 1/r2
Field lines
Flux of electric field field lines
passing through a given surface
Flux through elemental area dS
Total flux
dS

For the point charge +q at the

origin of the sphere, total flux

constant, does not depend on r

source is
enclosed by
the surface

surface area increases as r2

e.f. decreases as 1/ r2

Gausss Law using SOLID ANGLE

For a system of charges

q1, q2, ., qn

Flux of E if charge is outside the volume

Net flux = incoming flux outgoing flux
=0
d
A
a

Gausss Law
Flux of electric field through a given surface,
if the surface encloses the charges
= 0

if the surface does not enclose the charges

Integral form of Gausss Law

Differential form

Using divergence theorem,

Since it is true for any volume,

1st Maxwell equation

Gausss Law - Applications

if the surface encloses the charges
= 0

if the surface does not enclose the charges

If a symmetry in the charge distribution exists, integral form of GL

provides a far easier method to find
Possible symmetries
1. Spherical
2. Cylindrical
3. Planar

Gausss Law - Applications

Spherical symmetry : Electric field outside and inside a uniformly
charged sphere of radius R and volume charge density
P
r
R

Keep the sphere with its centre at the origin of the coordinate
system. Let P be the point outside at a distance r from O where
the electric field is to be calculated.
Draw a spherical surface of radius r centred at O : Gaussian
surface
Then for the flux through the spherical surface,

Symmetry arguments :
At the spherical surface, E and dS will be in direction
dot product goes away.
E will be constant everywhere on the surface
E comes out of the integral.
This is the advantage of GL application in the case of symmetry

Gausss Law - Applications

Total charge

Field outside is exactly the same as if the whole charge is concentrated at the centre!

Electric field inside

This volume does not contribute to flux since

it lies outside the point OR not enclosed by
the surface

P
rr
o

GL is valid for all charge distributions; integral form

can be used for calculating E when symmetry allows
E

GL is more general compared to Coloumbs law

CL : applicable only in static cases
Differential form of GL is the 1st Maxwell equation
Valid for em waves/moving charges

Infinite slab, thickness 2a, volume charge density = 0z/2a, kept in the x-y plane,
Extends from z = 0 to z = 2a along the z-axis. Find the magnitude and direction of field both
inside and outside

(a) Field outside

E

dS

z = 2a

z=0

dS

Gausss Law Applications : E due to infinite sheet, surface charge

density 1
Gaussian
pill box

E dS
3

The image part with relationship ID rId2 was not found in the file.

The image part with relationship ID rId3 was not found in the file.

EdS
2
The image part with relationship ID rId4 was not found in the file.

Since
above/ below the plane , surface 3 (curved surface)
contributes nothing (dot product goes to zero). Due to symmetry, E1 = E2
(equidistance surfaces from the plane)
The image part with relationship ID rId5 was not found in the file.

Constant! Does not depend on the

distance

Gausss Law Applications : E due to infinite SLAB, thickness 2d,

volume charge density
1
EdS
Gaussian
pill box

1
EdS

1
EdS

E dS
2

1
EdS

z
z=0

E=0 plane

E dS
2

Consider the slab as infinite sheets in the z-direction. Then field outside
the sheet is constant

Infinite slab, thickness 2a, volume charge density = 0z/2a, kept in the x-y plane,
Extends from z = 0 to z = 2a along the z-axis. Find the magnitude and direction of field both
inside and outside

(a) Field outside

E

dS

z = 2a

z=0

dS

(b) E = 0 plane : Let the E = 0 plane be at a distance z as shown

E

dS

dS

z = 2a
E=0
z
z=0

dS

(a) Field inside

E

dS

Electric field is in +
E

direction if

and in

direction if

dS

z = 2a
E=0
z
z
E

dS

dS

z=0

Gausss Law Applications : E due to infinite line charge, charge

density
(A). Electric field at P at a distance r from the wire

Draw Gaussian surface (cylinder of radius r and height

Gaussian h, enclosing the wire) such that the P is on the surface.

cylinder

From symmetry,

r
P 3

h
2

(B). E due to infinite cylinder, volume charge density

a
1

r
P 3
2

Gaussian
cylinder

(i) E outside

(ii) E inside

flux through flat

surfaces (1 & 2) = 0, E dS

outside

inside

Curl of Electric field

Spherical
coordinates
(r, , )

cylindrical
coordinates
(r, , z)

Cartesian
coordinates
(x, y, z)

E = E(r)

E is a central field
Curl of Electric field
+Q

Line integral of E
ra

+q

rb
O

Line integral is independent of path; depends only on the end

positions
Using Stokes theorem

+Q

Line integral of E

Work done per unit charge (Potential V)

any reference point

Usually Potential Difference is important

From Gradient theorem

Potential V is a scalar function, grad of which gives the electric

field
Potential obeys superposition principle
V = V1 + V2 + .. A simple scalar sum

Potential V due to a spherical shell

Electric field due to a spherical shell
inside

outside, E = 0

Potential V outside
Total charge is centred at the origin

Potential V inside (depends on what the ef outside is!)

Potential is constant
inside

Potential V due to an infinite wire (

), cylinder (
)
(A). Electric field at P at a distance r from the wire

Draw Gaussian surface (cylinder of radius r and height

Gaussian h, enclosing the wire) such that the P is on the surface.

cylinder

From symmetry,

r
P 3

h
2

(B). E due to infinite cylinder, volume charge density

a
1

r
P 3
2

Gaussian
cylinder

(i) E outside

(ii) E inside

flux through flat

surfaces (1 & 2) = 0, E dS

Potential V due to an infinite wire

Infinity as a reference point is NOT good;

only a potential difference can be found in this case
where r = a is a point where the potential is well defined
with the condition that