Brick Wall Calculation

Manual 6
Design of Clay
Masonry for
Compression
Contents
1
2

While the contents of this publication are believed to be

accurate and complete, the information given is intended
for general guidance and does not replace the services of
professional advisers of specific projects. Local or state
regulations may require variation from the practices and
recommendations contained in this publication. Think Brick
Australia disclaims any liability whatsoever regarding the
contents of this publication.
This publication, its contents and format are copyright (c)
2012 of Think Brick Australia and may not be reproduced,
copied or stored in any medium without prior, written
authorisation from Think Brick Australia. ABN 30 003 873 309.
First published February 2004, revised in February 2009.
Revised February 2013.
Introduction
General principles

2.1

Behaviour of masonry elements

in compression
Compressive strength in masonry
10
2.2.1
Action in compression
10
2.2.2
Masonry units
11
2.2.3
Masonry strength
12
2.2.4
Special masonry
14
Effect of engaged piers
15
General basis of design for compression
16
Basic compressive strength capacity
18
Design by simple rules
19
3
4
5

2.2
2.3
Original text prepared by Dr Stephen Lawrence, SPL

Consulting Pty Ltd and Emeritus Professor Adrian Page,
The University of Newcastle. Revised by John Trenerry,
Enertren Pty Ltd in 2013.
5.1
Procedure
19
5.2
Design Charts
22
Design by refined calculation
27
The Standards referenced in this manual were current at the

time of publication.
6.1
Slenderness ratio
30
6.2
Assessment of eccentricity
31
Cover: La Trobe University Wodonga by Billard Leece

Partnership.
Joint Winner - Horbury Hunt Commercial Award 2012
Manufacturer: Boral, Euroa
Builder: Zauner Constructions
Masonry Contractor: Harris Bricklaying
Brick Used:
Boral: 50mm Slimline La Mesa, Labassa, Grey Nuance
Euroa: 50mm Glazed Slimline
6.3
Reduction factors for slenderness and eccentricity 32
7
8

Concentrated loads
35
Composite action between walls and beams
39
8.1
Wall-beam interaction
39
8.2
Composite action in walls with openings
40
Worked examples
42
9.1
Simple wall
42

9.2

Ground floor wall in a three-storey

residential walk-up
43
Concentrated load
48
References
49
10
9.3
PO Box 370, Artarmon NSW 1570 Australia

Suite 3.02, Level 3, 44 Hampden Road Artarmon NSW 2064 Australia
Telephone +61 2 8448 5500 Fax +61 2 9411 3801
Technical hotline 1300 667 617
ABN 30003873309
www.thinkbrick.com.au
Design of Clay Masonry for Compression / 3
Figures
1. Frame action in a load-bearing building (typical section)
2. Single and double curvature in compression
3. Effect of slenderness and eccentricity on compressive capacity
10
4. Behaviour of masonry in compression
11
5. Platen restraint effect for masonry in compression
11
6. Aspect ratio factor for masonry in compression
12
7. Compressive strength of masonry for various unit strengths
13
8. Factor to adjust for unit height/ joint thickness
13
9. Thickness coefficients for engaged piers
15
10. Width and spacing of engaged piers
15
11. Equivalent eccentricity approach to combined compression and bending
16
12. Flow chart for the general basis of compression design
17
13. Basic factored compressive load capacity
18
14. Wall loaded by a concrete slab
20
15. Wall loaded by other than a slab
20
16. Wall loaded on one face
20
17. Slenderness reduction factors for design by simple rules
21
18. Flow chart for compression design by simple rules
21
19. Compressive load capacities for walls 90 mm thick,

and loaded by a concrete slab
23
20. Compressive load capacities for walls 2.4 m high and 90 mm thick,
with three edges supported and loaded by a roof or floor other than a slab
23
21. Compressive load capacities for walls 110 mm thick, and loaded
by a concrete slab
24
by a roof and floor other than a slab
24
1. Introduction
6/ Design of Clay Masonry for Compression
by a concrete slab
25
by a roof or floor other than a concrete slab
25
by floor attached to the face
26
26. Panel action in walls under light compressive loading
27
27. Slenderness ratios for various length and support conditions

(walls 2.4m high and 110mm thick)
27
28. Flow chart for compression design by refined calculation
29
29. Slenderness ratios for walls 2.4 m high and 110 mm thick,
with three edges supported
30
30. Slenderness ratios for walls 2.4 m high and 110 mm thick,
with four edges supported
31
31. Simplified assessment of eccentricity
32
32. Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors for walls

with edge supports (single curvature)
33
33. Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors for

e1 /tw = 0.2 showing the effect of end restraints and double curvature
34
34. Concentrated bearing factor for solid, cored or grouted masonry
36
35. Dispersion zones for concentrated loads acting on a wall
37
36. Flow chart for concentrated load design
38
37. Simple model for composite action behaviour
39
38. Composite action behaviour
39
39. Composite action with a central opening
41
40. Composite action with an offset opening
41
Masonry walls in a structure can resist loads by

compression, shear of flexure, depending on the type of
structure and the location of the walls within it. These
actions can occur in combination, but there is usually
one action that governs the behaviour of each particular
wall. This manual deals with design for compression
loading, while design for shear and flexure are dealt
with in the Think Brick Australia Manual 4, Design of Clay
Masonry for Wind & Earthquake1.
As well as design for compression, shear and flexure
forces, all walls should be checked for robustness to
ensure that they are serviceable in the absence of specific
applied loading. Design for robustness is dealt with in
Think Brick Australia Manual 7, Design of Clay Masonry for
Serviceability2.
This manual follows the procedures set out in Masonry
Structures (AS 3700)3 for the design of unreinforced clay
masonry to resist compressive forces. For any aspects
not covered here, reference should be made to AS 3700.
Useful guidance on the interpretation of AS 3700 can also
be found in its commentary4.
This manual covers the general arrangement of loadbearing masonry structures, material properties for clay
masonry, specific design procedures for vertical loading,

both simple and refined, design for concentrated loads,
and composite action between walls and beams. It
covers walls and piers to predominantly vertical loading.
Design charts for vertical loading and worked examples
for typical cases are included.
Unreinforced load-bearing masonry structures greater
than four storeys in height are common in other parts
of the world (for example in Europe) and have been built
in Australia in the past. Modern Australian codes and
standards permit the use of unreinforced load-bearing
masonry in structures up to 15 m in height, provided
earthquake loading is properly considered. Multipleoccupancy domestic units of load-bearing masonry up
to four storeys in height are common in Australia and
two-storey semidetached townhouses are becoming
increasingly popular. In these buildings, the masonry
walls and piers usually support concrete floor slabs and
the roof structure, without any separate building frame.
The masonry walls must also provide the resistance to
lateral in-plane (shear) forces, with the floor and roof
acting as diaphragms to distribute forces to the walls,
and this requires a cellular form of structure. Wall sizes in
these structures are usually determined by their capacity
to resist vertical load.
2. General principles
Load-bearing walls are defined as those that carry

significant vertical load in addition to their own
weight. In other words, they rely on their compressive
load resistance to support other parts of the structure.
Buckling and crushing effects, which depend on the wall
slenderness and interaction with the elements supported
by the wall, determine the compressive capacity of
each individual wall. The shape of the units, particularly
the presence and size of hollow cores, influences the
compressive strength of the masonry. External loadbearing walls will usually be of cavity construction to
ensure adequate penetration resistance.
Masonry piers can either be isolated (supporting a slab)
or engaged (providing enhanced load resistance to a
wall). Isolated piers are designed for compressive load
capacity in the same way as load-bearing walls. The effect
of engaged piers in stiffening a wall is taken into account
by the use of an effective thickness for the wall/pier
combination.
Strength properties of masonry can be difficult to predict
from known properties of the mortar and masonry units,
because of the relatively complex interaction of the two
component materials. For this reason, values given in AS
3700 for masonry strengths based on these properties are
conservative. Whenever practical, it is better to measure
the strength of masonry by testing small specimens
(stack-bonded prisms) than to use the conservative
AS 3700 figures. Tests will always give a more accurate
measure of properties than can be obtained from typical
values. This can be worthwhile on larger projects, and
classifies the masonry as Special Masonry (see Section
2.2.4).
Masonry as a material has inherently variable properties.
This variability arises because of natural variations in
materials, and manufacturing processes and the site
conditions, and workmanship. Partial safety factors used
for design make allowance for this variability and ensure
that the resulting structures are safe and serviceable,
provided that the workmanship is adequate .Masonry is

sometimes considered to be an architectural rather than
a structural material and this can mean that supervision
is not as thorough as it is for structural elements. The
importance of supervision of construction cannot be
overestimated for loading masonry, especially when it
is classed as Special Masonry. The potential economic
benefits in the use of structural materials are great when
the full strength of the material is utilized in design and
ensured by adequate supervision.
Figure 1. Frame action in a load-bearing building (typical

section)
2.1 Behaviour of masonry elements in

compression
In load-bearing masonry buildings, the masonry is

basically designed to act in compression, with the loadbearing walls transmitting vertical loads from storey to
storey down to the foundation. Lateral loads caused by
wind and earthquake are transmitted to the foundation
by shear wall action and also produce bending moments
in the walls that are normal to the direction of the loads.
Further bending moments arise in the walls from the
floor loading, which is transmitted to the walls because
of partial joint fixity where the floors rest on the walls.
Full or partial frame action in the structure is therefore
mobilised, with the degree of joint fixity depending on
the level of pre-compression (see Figure 1). The masonry
walls are therefore subjected to combined compressive
and bending actions. These combined compressive forces
and bending moments acting simultaneously can be
expressed as a compressive force acting at an equivalent
eccentricity, as detailed in Section 3.
There are two possible modes of failure for masonry

members under eccentric compression. These
mechanisms are quite different and would rarely occur
in this pure form; most walls and piers, if overloaded
in a building, would fail by a combination of both
effects. The first mechanism is crushing, which would
only be observed in short stocky members, and the
second mechanism is buckling, which would occur in
long slender members. The transition between these
two extremes is shown schematically in Figure 3, with
the various curves showing the effect of increasing
eccentricity of loading. The calculation of member
capacity therefore requires both the compressive
strength of the masonry and the effects of buckling to be
taken into account.
In general, the compressive load capacity of a masonry
wall or pier depends on four factors:

The characteristic compressive strength of the

masonry.
The cross-sectional area resisting the load.
The slenderness.
The effective eccentricity of loading at each end

and the resulting deflected shape (single or double
curvature).
Figure 2. Single and double curvature in compression
Depending on the relative signs of the eccentricity at

opposite ends of the wall, the combined loading will give
rise to either single or double curvature (see Figure 2).
A wall subjected to double curvature has a much higher
resistance to buckling than a wall in single curvature,
because of the reduced second-order (P-8) effect and this
can be taken account of in design.
Figure 3. Effect of slenderness and eccentricity on compressive capacity
Figure 4. Behaviour of masonry in compression
2.2 Compressive strength of masonry
Hollow masonry units

For hollow units, the compressive strength of masonry
is based upon face-shell bedding and when prism tests
are carried out with hollow units they can use this form
of loading. In this case, the mode of failure differs from
that applying for solid and cored units. Load applied
through the face shells is transferred into the webs,
causing transverse tensile stresses. This causes web
splitting followed by crushing of the mortar joints and
spalling of the face shells as a result of the subsequent
stress redistribution. Because of this different mode of
behaviour, the strength of hollow unit masonry is less
affected by mortar strength than is the strength of solid
and cored unit masonry.
2.2.1 Action in compression

When slenderness effects are eliminated, the
compressive strength of masonry is a function of the
masonry units and the mortar. The compressive strength
of masonry is usually less than that of the units alone,
because of the influence of the mortar joints. When
considering the action of masonry in compression, a
distinction must be made between solid and hollow
masonry units. These are the terms used in AS 3700 as
follows:

joints are weaker and therefore more flexible than the

units are, and expand to a greater extent. This induces
tensile stresses in the units and corresponding lateral
compressive stresses to the mortar (see Figure 4).
The measured compressive strength is therefore affected
by the following:

Tensile strength of the masonry unit. For clay units,

the material itself, the degree of firing, and the
coring pattern all affect this property.
Mortar joint thickness. In highly stressed loadbearing walls, thicker mortar joints would
increase the splitting force on the units. An
appropriate correction factor can be applied, but
the joint thickness is best limited to 10 mm in these
structures.
Solid masonry units, which usually have frogs or

cores, are laid in a bed of mortar covering the full bed
face area (called full bedding).
Hollow masonry units, which usually have a large
proportion of hollow cores, are laid with strips of
bedding mortar on the face shells and no mortar on
the webs (called face-shell bedding).
Solid masonry units

When masonry constructed with solid units is subjected
to direct compression and loaded to its full capacity,
failure will be initiated by the lateral expansion of the
mortar joints (the Poissons Ratio effect), which causes
vertical tensile cracks to form in the masonry units.
While both materials expand laterally, the mortar
Mortar strength. Because mortar with a low

strength generally has a lower elastic modulus, it has
a greater lateral expansion under load and therefore
a higher tendency to split the units. It is therefore
important to use a mortar with adequate strength
in load-bearing masonry construction. If the mortar
strength is very low, then crushing of the mortar
itself might occur even before tensile failure is
induced in the units.
with the relative height to width of the masonry unit.

Because masonry units are available in a wide range of
sizes and shapes, the effect is not the same for all units
and must be corrected so that all unit shapes are treated
equally for design.
Figure 5. Platen restraint effect for masonry in
compression
Grouted hollow masonry

Where hollow units are filled with grout, the compressive
strengths of the blocks and the grout cannot be simply
added. The grout, which is usually less stiff than the
units, has a greater level expansion under compressive
load and tends to burst the units. AS 3700 allows for this
when determining the basic compressive capacity.
2.2.2 Masonry units
When a prism of any material is tested in compression,
the rigid platens of the testing machine, through friction,
confine the upper and lower faces and resist the tendency
of the material to spread under load (see Figure 5). This
phenomenon has the effect of enhancing the apparent
strength of the material. The platen restraint effect varies
Figure 6. Aspect ratio factor for masonry in compression
The compressive strength for units used in design is

called an unconfined strength, which means that the
effects of platen restraint have been eliminated. An
adjustment factor based on the height-to-width ratio
of the unit is used. There is no international standard
method of adjusting for this effect, and this makes
comparisons between various national standards
difficult. AS 3700 adopts the strength corresponding
to a prism of material with height equal to five times
its width as a standard basis for this adjustment. This
assumes that the platen restraint effect is negligible at
these proportions and that the effects of load eccentricity
have not yet become significant. The correction factor is
called the aspect ratio factor and is tabulated in AS 3700
Appendix C (see Figure 6).
For hollow units, the aspect ratio factor is based on
the height-to-thickness ratio of the face shell, which is
usually greater than 5. The factor is usually 1.0.
The dimensions used for finding the aspect ratio factor
are the work size dimensions of the unit, that is, the
nominal dimensions specified by the manufacturer. This
is particularly important for hollow units, where the face
shells might vary in thickness (taper from top to bottom)
but the manufacturer nominates a single work size
dimension. This ensures that any compressive strength
calculations are made on the same basis as that used by
the manufacturer to rate the strength of the units.
The standards require compressive strength for hollow

units to be determined by testing under load applied to
the face shells only, to simulate the way in which they
will be laid. This ensures that the failure mechanisms in
compression for the test and the units in the structure
would be the same.
The symbol used for the characteristic unconfined
compressive strength of units is f 'uc. As for other
structural design properties, the compressive strength
used in design is the 95% characteristic value. This
strength is expected to be exceeded by 95% of the
material, ensuring a very low risk of structural failure.
Typical characteristic strengths (f 'uc) for clay masonry
units range from 12 MPa to 40 MPa or more.
2.2.3 Masonry strength
Masonry strength depends on the interaction between
the units and the mortar. Mortar strength (and therefore
masonry strength) is usually lower than the unit
strength.
As for the case of the masonry units, an unconfined
characteristic compressive strength of the masonry
based on a height-to-thickness ratio of five is used for
design. This compensates for platen restraint effects in
testing and brings all masonry types to a common basis
for comparison.
Consistent with the behaviour

mechanism described in
Section 2.2.1, strength tests on
masonry prisms have shown
a strong correlation with the
strength of the masonry units
and the mortar composition.
AS 3700 gives characteristic
compressive strengths
for masonry with various
unit strengths and mortar
compositions in Table 3.1 and
these are shown graphically
in Figure 7. The AS 3700 table
is based on the characteristic
unconfined compressive
strength of the unit, the
material of manufacture,
and the classification of
mortar. The values have been
established from a lower
bound fit to a wide range of
tests carried out in Australia
and will be adequate for most
cases without confirmation by
testing. While it will usually
be possible to obtain a higher
value of design strength by
carrying out tests, this would
require precise knowledge
at the design stage of the
type of unit to be used on the
job. It would also require the
masonry to be classified as
Special Masonry for compressive
strength and site control
tests would then be required
during construction (see
Section 2.2.4). This is difficult,
but the potential benefit
from the higher strength will
sometimes justify accepting
this higher level quality control
regime.
Figure 7. Compressive strength of masonry for various unit strengths
Figure 8. Factor to adjust for unit height/joint thickness
The compressive strength of the masonry is further

adjusted in AS 3700 (Clause 3.3.2) by a factor, k h, that
allows for the effect of the mortar joint thickness by
relating it to masonry unit height (see Figure 8). This
factor is 1.0 for traditional brick-sized units of 76 mm
height with mortar joints of 10 mm thickness, because
the values in AS 3700 (shown in Figure 7) have been based
on these dimensions. For taller units, where a smaller
number of joints will be used in a given wall height (or
where the joint is thinner in relative terms) the strength
is enhanced. Conversely, for less-tall units the strength
will be reduced because of the higher number of joints.
The resulting characteristic compressive strength of the
masonry is referred to by the symbol f 'm.
2.2.4 Special masonry
Whenever a designer uses higher design strength than the
default value given in AS 3700, the corresponding masonry
is classified as Special Masonry. This means that site testing
for quality control becomes mandatory for that masonry.
For determination of design strength, tests must be
carried out at the design stage, using the same materials
(units and mortar) and the same workmanship as
that intended for the actual construction. These preconstruction tests are conducted as specified in 3700
Appendix C and the results are used to determine a
characteristic strength in accordance with AS 3700
Appendix B. By following this procedure, the full strength
of the material in compression can be utilised and this
can often be significantly more than the minimum
compressive strength guaranteed by the manufacturer.
During construction of masonry classed as Special Masonry,
tests must be carried out for quality control and to assess
compliance. The test regime is specified in AS 3700 Clause
12.7. The standard specifies the rate of sampling as one
sample per storey height or one sample per 400 m2 of
walling, whichever gives the greater number of samples,
with at least two samples for any job. The number of
specimens in a sample is at least three for determination
of compressive strength. This quality control testing
is in accordance with AS 3700 Appendix C, as for tests
to determine the design strength, but in this case, the
assessment of test results is based on the average strength
of the test sample.
For quality control purposes, the average test unit is

compared with the target strength. If the strength falls
below the target then reasons should be sought and
remedial action taken. This is purely for the purpose of
control on site and is quite distinct from the assessment
of compliance, although the same test samples can be
used for both purposes. The target strength specified by
AS 3700 is 1.4 f 'm for compression, where f 'm is the design
characteristic strength.
For assessment of compliance of Special Masonry, each
individual test sample represents a segment of masonry
on the job and this relationship should be tracked and
recorded on site. Then if the result of any sample falls
below a specified strength level the whole of the masonry
represented by that sample is deemed not to comply with
AS 3700.
2.3 Effect of engaged piers

The thickness coefficient for engaged piers reflects
the stiffening effect that piers have in increasing the
buckling resistance by increasing the effective radius of
gyration of the section. This coefficient depends upon
the relative pier thickness, pier width and pier spacing.
When applied to the wall thickness, it gives an effective
thickness of a rectangular section having an equivalent
radius of gyration to the T section.
For the stiffening to be effective, it requires full

engagement of the pier, with bonding or tying as
required by AS 3700 Clause 4.11.
Values are tabulated in AS 3700 Table 7.2 for overall
thickness (of wall and pier combined) of two and three
times the wall thickness alone. Figure 9 shows these
values plotted against the ratio of pier spacing (centre
to centre) and pier width. The pier width and spacing are
illustrated on Figure 10.
Figure 9. Thickness coefficients for engaged piers
The use of testing to control construction of Special

Masonry is described in Think Brick Australia Manual 10,
Construction Guidelines for Clay Masonry5, and illustrates
with sample charts for quality control and assessment of
compliance.
Figure 10. Width and spacing of engaged piers
3. General basis of design for compression
Compressive strength design in AS 3700 uses a tiered

approach comprising two levels- design by simple rules and
refined calculation. Both use the same general approach,
but they differ in the method of allowance for slenderness
and eccentricity effects. The refined calculation method is
more specific about these factors and can produce more
efficient designs, but at the expense of greater calculation
effort.
Figure 11. Equivalent eccentricity approach to combined

compression and bending
Where the level of compressive stress exceeds the limit

of three times f 'mt, the bending provisions in AS 3700 do
not apply and compression design must include all forces
and moments. This is handled by converting the bending
moments to vertical loads at equivalent eccentricities.
Thus a concentric load P acting simultaneously with a
moment M will be replaced by the load P acting at the
eccentricity e, where e = M/P (see Figure 11). Design for
'
compression in these situations can use the refined
calculation procedure (see Section 6) but, in practice, the
common cases would be carried out more quickly (and
conservatively) using the simple rules procedure (see
Section 5).
for lateral buckling and for crushing failure. The method

will therefore give the most efficient design in any given
situation. It can provide a substantial strength increase
in comparison with the simplified method but it can
be complex to apply. The refined calculation method is
described in Section 6.
Figure 12. Flow chart for the general basis of the compression design
Whereas some masonry codes in other parts of the world

deal with compression and bending effects acting together
by considering an interaction diagram for the behaviour of
material, AS 3700 deals with it by an equivalent eccentricity
approach, in which vertical load is considered to act at
equivalent eccentricities at the top and bottom of the wall.
These equivalent eccentricities incorporate the effects of
any imposed bending actions.
AS 3700 sets out the general basis of design for unreinforced
masonry in Clause 7.2. The approach is based on the
assumption that design for bending due to lateral forces
and design for light compression loads can be treated
separately, ignoring any interaction. Consequently,
provided the compressive stress is less than or equal to
three times the characteristic flexural tensile strength (f 'mt),
design for bending due to lateral forces can be carried out
using the lateral load provisions in AS 3700 (see Manual 4,
Design of Clay Masonry for Wind and Earthquake1). Under these
circumstances, the compression design excludes forces and
moments arising from transient out-of-plane loads.
In practice, this calculation will usually be carried out
using simple rules procedure (see section 5).
The method of refined calculation requires the

assessment of end eccentricities and takes full account
of the strengthening effect of double curvature, where
the eccentricities at two ends of a member are of
opposite sign. A full range of slenderness coefficients
is provided, depending on the conditions of the wall or
pier. The refined method uses separate reduction factors
The flow chart shown in Figure 12 summarises the

general basis of design as set out in AS 3700 Clause 7.2
and discussed above.
Both the slenderness and the eccentricity effects are
incorporated into a single set of reduction factors, which
are provided separately for the simplified and refined
calculation methods. These reduction factors are applied
to a basic compressive capacity (see Section 4) to give the
load capacity of the member being designed.
The simplified method is sufficient for most cases
commonly encountered and design charts for this
approach are provided in this manual (see Section 5.2).
In the simplified method, the end eccentricities are dealt
with by defining three common cases of end restraint
and tabulating slenderness reduction factors for these
cases, based on all members being in single curvature
(a conservative assumption in some cases). Unlike the
refined method, this approach uses a single combined
factor to cover lateral buckling and crushing failure. This
simplified approach is defined in Section 5.
4. Basic compressive strength capacity
Both the simplified and refined methods use a basic

compressive strength capacity, which is derived as
follows for ungrouted masonry:
Where:
f = Capacity reduction factor
= 0
.75 for compression in unreinforced solid or cored
masonry
= 0
.5 for compression in hollow or grouted masonry
(See AS 3700 Clause 4.4)
f 'm = Characteristic compressive strength of the masonry
Ab = Bedded area
The design characteristic compressive strength f 'm is

either obtained from the default values given in AS
3700 Table 3.1 or from tests on the actual materials and
methods to be used in the construction (see Section 2.2).
The bedded area Ab is calculated as specified in AS 3700
Clause 4.5.4, allowing for any raking of the mortar joints.
It is based on full bedding for solid or cored units and
face shell bedding for hollow units. The length and width
of the units used to calculate this area should always
be based on manufacturers work size dimensions, not
on actual measurement of individual masonry units, as
explained in Section 2.2.2.
Basic compressive load capacities are shown in Figure
13 for wall thickness of 90mm, 110 mm, and 150 mm
and for a range of masonry compressive strength. The
calculations are based on the full bedded area with no
joint raking.
5. Design by simple rules
5.1 Procedure
It can be difficult to establish the end eccentricities for a
given set of wall support conditions and AS 3700 provides
a simplified means of design to cover the most common
cases without the need to make the assessment. In this
approach, the slenderness and eccentricity factors are
combined into a single set of coefficients, which are
tabulated for three common end support cases. In doing
so, simplifying but conservative assumptions are made
for end restraint conditions and the deflected shape of
the wall under the applied end moments. Any additional
support provided along the vertical edges of the wall is
ignored. This is called design by simple rules.
The design equation for the simplified method is:
Fd k Fo

Where:
Fd = Design compressive strength capacity of the wall
k = Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factor
(obtained from AS 3700 Table 7.1)
Simplified slenderness ratio

For a wall the simplified slenderness ratio is:
Srs
a vH
ktt

Where:
Srs = simplified slenderness ratio

av = Slenderness coefficient for vertical span
= 1.0 for top edge support
= 2.5 otherwise
H = Clear height between the supports or the overall
height of the wall
kt = Thickness coefficient for engaged piers see Section 2.3
= 1.0 for no engaged piers
t = Thickness of the leaf
Figure 13. Basic factored compressive load capacity

F0= Basic compressive strength capacity (see Section 4)
To find the slenderness and eccentricity reduction factor
it is necessary to establish the slenderness ratio of the
wall. This is derived as follows (see AS 3700 Clause 7.3.3.4).
Consequently for walls with top edge support and where

there are no engaged piers, the slenderness ratio is
simply the height-to-thickness ratio.
If there is no support, the slenderness ratio is based on
an equivalent height of 2.5 times the actual height. Such
a cantilevered wall, with a vertical load applied and yet
no lateral support at the top is rare and its size is severely
restricted by the high slenderness ratio.
Once the slenderness ratio is calculated, the slenderness
and eccentricity reduction factor is found (see AS 3700
Table 7.1). These factors are tabulated for three different
end support conditions, thus avoiding the need for the
designer to calculate end eccentricities. Slenderness
ratios up to 36 are provided for.
End support conditions

Figure 14, Figure 15 and Figure 16 illustrate the three end
support conditions covered by the simple method. These
are a wall supporting a concrete slab, a wall supporting
a roof or floor other than a concrete slab, and a wall with
a side-attached load (such as a floor) and at least one
storey height of masonry above that level. In the last
case, the wall must be at least 140 mm thick. Note that
strengthening provided by any vertical edge support is
ignored.
Figure 17 shows the slenderness reduction factors for the
three support cases illustrated on Figure 14, Figure 15 and
Figure 16. Note the higher factors for a wall loaded by a
concrete slab, compared with those for a wall supporting
another type of load. This is because the concrete slab
imposes a greater degree of end restraint, causing the
equivalent load to act at a smaller eccentricity than
for other types of load. The factors for a load attached
at the side of the wall are very low because of the high
eccentricity. In this case, since the load being applied
to the wall is outside the wall thickness, the load from
above is critical in moving the resultant of the two forces
Figure 14. Wall loaded by a concrete

slab
within the wall thickness and thus avoiding inherent

instability. This is the reason for the requirement of at
least one storey of masonry (and thus superimposed
load) above the level under consideration.
Figure 17. Slenderness reduction factors for design by simple rules
In the past, it was assumed that the two leaves of a cavity

wall provided mutual support against buckling and an
equivalent thickness based on a combination of the two
leaf thicknesses was used for such a case. However, later
research showed that each leaf acts independently and
there is no mutual support available to enhance load
capacity. AS 3700 therefore requires that each leaf be
designed separately for its share of the vertical load. In
the majority of cases, the vertical load is taken entirely
by the inner leaf of the cavity wall and the outer leaf acts
only as cladding.
Figure 18 is a flow chart summarising the design process
for compression by simple rules.
Worked Example 9.1 shows the design by simple rules of
a wall
Figure 15. Wall loaded by other than

a slab
Figure 16. Wall loaded on one face
Figure 18. Flow chart for compression design by simple rules
The following design charts can be used for design

according to simple rules for walls with slab or other
loading and with supports top and bottom. For the use
of these charts, the loading conditions must correspond
with one of the cases illustrated in Figure 14, Figure 15
and Figure 16. The applicable case is indicated on each
chart by an icon.
Charts are provided for thicknesses of 90 mm, 110 mm
and 150 mm in combination with heights of 2.4 m and
3.0 m. For the case of face loading, the only thickness
provided for is 150 mm because AS 3700 requires the wall
to be at least 140 mm for this loading case.
Figure 19. Compressive load capacities for walls 90 mm thick, and loaded by a concrete slab
SLAB
800
f'm (MPa)
90
700
14
600
Load Capacity (kN/m)
5.2 Design charts
12
500
10
400
300
200
100
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Height (mm)
Figure 20. Compressive load capacities for walls 2.4 m high and 90 mm thick, with three edges supported and loaded
by a roof or floor other than a slab
800
f'm (MPa)
90
700
14
600
12
500
10
400
8
300
200
100
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Height (mm)
SLAB
900
f'm (MPa)
800
700
f'm (MPa)
12
10
500
8
400
300
800
10
8
600
400
200
200
100
150
14
1000
12
600
SLAB
1200
110
14
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
Height (mm)
1200
f'm (MPa)
12
600
10
500
8
6
300
150
14
12
800
10
8
600
400
4
4
200
200
100
0
6000
f'm (MPa)
1000
110
14
400
5000
Figure 24. Compressive load capacities for walls 150 mm thick, and loaded by a roof or floor other than a concrete slab
900
700
4000
Height (mm)
Figure 22. Compressive load capacities for walls 110 mm thick, and loaded by a roof and floor other than a slab
800
3000
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Height (mm)
Height (mm)
6. Design by refined calculation
Figure 25. Compressive load capacities for walls 150 mm thick, and loaded by floor attached to the face
120
f'm (MPa)
150
14
100
12
80
8
6
40
Figure 26. Panel action in walls under light compressive

loading
To illustrate how the slenderness ratio is influenced

by the wall length and support conditions, example
slenderness ratios are plotted in Figure 27 (for walls
240mm high and 110mm thick). It can be seen that the
slenderness ratio is limited once a certain length is
reached.
10
60
In the method of design by refined calculation, the

slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors are
calculated considering the actual supports of the wall
and making an assessment of eccentricities at the top
and bottom and their effect on the wall deflected shape
and buckling capacity. Figure 26 illustrates the idealised
buckling modes in walls depending on their support
conditions.
4
20
1000
2000
3000
Height (mm)
4000
5000
6000
Since there is some doubt about the maintenance of

the integrity of the side supports or returns of the wall
up to the point of buckling failure, AS3700 limits the
assumption of two-way panel action to lightly loaded
walls where the design compressive force (Fd) is less
than 20% of the basic compressive capacity (Fo). For
other walls, this effect is ignored, and one-way action is
assumed.
Figure 27. Slenderness ratios for various length and support conditions (walls 2.4m high and 110mm thick)
For lightly loaded walls, (where is Fd less than

0.20Fo), the slenderness ratio is calculated using a
vertical coefficient av and a horizontal coefficient ah in
combination with the height and length of the wall. The
stiffening effect of any engaged piers is also considered.
The horizontal coefficient depends on whether one or
both vertical edges of the wall are supported. It is never
considered justified to assume any degree of rotational
restraint to the vertical edges of a wall. For all other
walls, horizontal effects are ignored and ah is taken as
zero.
For a support to qualify as effective it must satisfy the
AS 3700 conditions for load resistance and stiffness. The
vertical coefficient is calculated taking into account the
degree of lateral support and rotational restraint at the
top and bottom of the wall, rather than being based on
a few common cases as it is for simplified design. The
calculation of slenderness ratios for the refined method is
described and illustrated in Section 6.1
In addition to calculating the slenderness ratio, the
refined calculation method requires an assessment of end
eccentricities at the top and bottom of the wall. As 3700

permits this to be done by a rigorous calculation method
or by certain simplifying assumptions. The assessment of
eccentricity is illustrated in Section 6.2.
Figure 28. Flow chart for compression design by refined calculation
Once the slenderness ratio and end eccentricities have

been determined, the reduction factor is calculated as
the lesser of the two factors. The first of these accounts
for the possibility of lateral buckling of the wall and the
second accounts for the possibility of local crushing
in the masonry. The worst of these two possibilities
will govern in any particular case. The calculation
of slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors is
illustrated in 6.3.
Figure 28 is a flow chart summarising the design process
for compression by refined calculation.
Worked example 9.2 shows the design of a wall in a
residential walk-up building, illustrating that a more
efficient solution can be achieved by refined calculation
than by simple rules.
6.1 Slenderness ratio

For walls designed by refined calculation, the slenderness
ratio takes into consideration a range of horizontal and
vertical support conditions for the wall or pier, through
the calculation of the vertical and horizontal slenderness
coefficients, or av and ah.
The possible values for av are as follows:
0.75 Where the wall is assessed as having lateral support
and partial rotational restraint at the top and bottom.
at both top and bottom and partial rotational restraint at
only one of them.
and no rotational restraint at both top and bottom.
and partial rotational restraint at the bottom and only
partial lateral support at the top.
Cases of walls where the various support and restraint

conditions are deemed to be satisfied are illustrated in AS
3700 Figures 7.1 (A) to 7.1 (E).
Figure 30. Slenderness ratios for walls 2.4 m high and 110 mm thick, with four edges supported
The possible values of ah are:

1.0 Where the wall is laterally supported along both
vertical edges regardless of the rotational restraint)
2.5 Where a wall is laterally supported along one vertical
edge, and unsupported along its other vertical edge.
Cases of walls where the various support conditions are
deemed to be satisfied are illustrated in AS3700 Figure 2.
Figure 29 and Figure 30 show the slenderness ratios
applicable for walls 2400mm high and 110 mm thick with
support on three sides and four sides respectively. The
limitation of slenderness ratio based on height and the
effect of the slenderness coefficient, which depends on
the support conditions at the top and bottom, can be
clearly seen.
2.5 Where the wall has no support at the top, in other

words is freestanding.
Figure 29. Slenderness ratios for walls 2.4 m high and 110 mm thick, with three edges supported
6.2 Assessment of eccentricity

The effective eccentricity at a joint between a masonry
wall and a beam or slab that it supports is determined
by the relative stiffness of the members and the degree
of joint fixity that exists. Factors that influence the
effective eccentricity include local crushing in the joint,
opening up of the joint (relative rotation between wall
and floor slab), non-linear material properties and
two-way slab action. The degree of joint fixity is also
influenced strongly by the magnitude of compressive
load transmitted from the levels above.
Ideally for a wall supporting a slab or beam, with
additional masonry above the level under consideration,
assessment of eccentricity requires an equivalent frame
analysis, which involves calculation of masonry stiffness
above and below and calculation of the slab or beam
stiffness and the relative rotation between it and the
wall. This calculation is relatively complex and AS 3700
permits a simple assumption that, where a floor or roof
frames into a wall, its load can be considered to act at
an eccentricity of one-third of the bearing thickness. If
the floor or roof is continuous across the wall then each

side is considered to be supported on half of the bearing
thickness. In this approach, the vertical load coming
from the level above is assumed to be axial at the level
under consideration.
Figure 31 illustrates these simplified assumptions for
assessment of eccentricity. For the case of a slab framing
into either a solid wall or one leaf of a cavity wall (shown
on the left) the resultant eccentricity is:
For the case of a slab continuous across a solid wall

(shown on the right) the resultant eccentricity is:
In cases where the vertical stress coming into the joint

from the wall above exceeds 0.25 MPa, a frame analysis
can be carried out to determine the moment, and hence
the equivalent eccentricity, at the joint. This frame
analysis can take into account a partial fixity of the joint
between the masonry and the supported member. For
this frame analysis the remote ends of the members
attached to the wall being designed can be assumed
as pinned (see Figure 1). The commentary to AS 3700
illustrates some typical joint fixity factors from research
on walls compressed between concrete slabs. These
factors can be used to modify the results of a rigid-frame
analysis.
In extreme cases, very high eccentricities can arise. These
can be dealt with by inserting a strip of flexible packing
material under the slab at the edge of the wall. This
has the effect of permitting a higher joint rotation and
relieving some of the effect of the eccentric load on the
wall below the slab. For cases where high eccentricity
is a risk, it is considered good practice to restrict the
maximum eccentricity to one-third of the wall by this
method.
6.3 Reduction factors for slenderness and

eccentricity
Figure 32. Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors for walls with edge supports (single curvature)
Reduction factors for slenderness and eccentricity are

calculated from several equations given in AS 3700 Clause
7.3.4.5. The equations for lateral instability (buckling) take
into account slenderness ratio, the ratio of the larger end
eccentricity to wall thickness (e1/tw), and the ratio of the
smaller eccentricity to the larger end eccentricity (e1/e2)
that is, the deflected shape of the wall. There is a lower
cut-off eccentricity of 5% of the wall thickness, which
is considered to be the inherent limit of construction
accuracy. In other words, no wall is assumed to have
perfectly aligned end bearings.
If the wall has one or both vertical edges supported, the
slenderness ratio is calculated assuming panel action.
It therefore cannot deform in double curvature and the
reduction factor for lateral instability is based on e2/e1= 1.
The equations for local crushing take into account the
eccentricity ratio (for the larger end eccentricity) and, in
the case of hollow units with face-shell bedding, the ratio
of face-shell thickness to wall thickness.
Figure 31. Simplified assessment of eccentricity

The overall reduction factor for any given
case is the lower of the separate factors for
instability and local crushing.
Figure 32 shows the overall reduction
factors for walls with supports to one
or both vertical edges (that is, single
curvature) and built with solid units,
plotted against slenderness ratio. A range
of eccentricity ratios from the minimum
of 0.05 to the practical maximum of 0.45
is shown. The horizontal cut-off at the
left-hand side of each line of the chart
corresponds to the factor for local crushing.
Similar relationships hold for walls with no support on

their vertical edges, including cases of equal eccentricity
at top and bottom, eccentricity at either top or bottom
only, and opposite eccentricity at top and bottom
(leading to double curvature). A typical example is shown
in Figure 33 for walls built with solid units where the
ratio of the larger end eccentricity to the wall thickness

is 0.2 and the eccentricity at the other end is equal but
opposite in sign (double curvature), zero, or equal having
the same sign (single curvature). The strengthening
effects of double curvature can be seen.
7. Concentrated loads
Figure 33. Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors for e1/tw= 0.2 showing the effect of
end restraints and double curvature
When a concentrated load is applied to a masonry

element, there is an enhancement of compressive
(bearing) capacity immediately beneath the load because
of the restraining effect of the surrounding, more lightly
stressed, material. In AS 3700 a strength enhancement
factor is used when checking the capacity of walls and
piers supporting this type of load. Although the basic
compressive capacity is used for design, failure under this
type of loading would usually be by splitting as a result
of induced tensile stress. The strength enhancement
depends on the size of the loaded area as a proportion
of the area of the member, as well as the location of the
load, measured as the closest distance to the end or side
of the member. Empirical equations are given in AS 3700
Clause 7.3.5.4 for this strength enhancement factor.
The crushing capacity under a concentrated load is kbF0

Where:
kb= concentrated bearing factor
F0= basic compressive strength capacity (see Section 4)
The effect of the code provisions is to limit the
concentrated bearing factor kb as follows:

1 for hollow masonry (because of the limited

possibility for dispersion)
not < 1 in any case
In addition to checking for crushing, the overall

performance of the wall or pier must also be checked,
assuming the concentrated load to be spread over a
dispersion zone at mid-height.
not > 2 in any case
not > 1.5 for a load at the end of a member (because of

the limited possibility for dispersion)
This treatment of concentrated loads applies equally to

situations where a load is supported by a wall or pier,
in which the case load disperses downwards, and cases
where a wall is supported on a small bearing area, in
which case the load disperses upward through the wall.
The discussion here concentrates on the more common
case of a load bearing downwards on a wall.
This is achieved by taking the concentrated bearing

factor as the lesser of the following equations:
In summary, design for concentrated loads requires two

things:
and
Check for crushing on the bearing area under the

load (allowing for strength enhancement).
Check for buckling in the dispersion zone at midheight (overall member performance).
At the present time, the buckling check requires the

refined approach to compressive strength design, the
principles of which are outlined in Section 6.
Where:
a1 = d
istance of bearing area from the end of the wall or
pier
L = the length of the wall or pier
Ads = the bearing area
Ade = t he area of dispersion at mid-height
(see Figure 35)
Figure 34 shows the concentrated bearing factors for

solid, cored or grouted masonry walls or piers. The factor
is plotted against the ratio of the loaded area Ads to the
mid-height area of the dispersion zone Ade. Two example
cases are shown, namely the case of a concentrated load
bearing at the centre of a wall a1/L= 0.5 and the case of a

load bearing at the end of a wall a1/L=0. The curves show
the lower of the two equations in each case. All other
cases will lie between these two extremes. The factor kb is
always greater than or equal to one.
Figure 35. Dispersion zones for concentrated loads acting on a wall
Figure 34. Concentrated bearing factor for solid, cored or grouted masonry
Buckling checks are carried out in accordance with the

compressive load design (Section 6). The appropriate end
eccentricity (or end support conditions) must be used as
with the case of compressive load design.
The flow chart shown in Figure 36 summarises the
procedures for concentrated load design.
Worked example 9.3 shows the design check of the
bearing capacity for a beam supported on a masonry
wall.
Figure 34 shows that the enhancement starts to operate
when the loaded area falls below about 30% of the area in
the dispersion zone for centre loading and about 15% of
the area for end loading. Cut-offs apply for loaded areas
below about 5% of the dispersion zone area.
Dispersion zones are calculated based on a 45angle
of dispersion. They must also not overlap each other

or extend beyond the end of a member. Various cases
are illustrated on Figure 35. The area of the member in
the dispersion zone at mid-height is the parameter Ade
used for calculating the concentrated bearing factor
and for checking the member against buckling under
concentrated load.
8. Composite action between walls and

beams
Figure 36. Flow chart for concentrated load design
When a masonry wall is supported on a beam or slab of

concrete or other material, the wall can act compositely
with the supporting member to resist vertical loads. The
resulting action is complex and depends on the relative
stiffness of the wall and the supporting member. A
common example of this is a lintel over an opening in a
masonry wall, where the composite action is likely to be
partial and is usually ignored. Another situation where
composite action arises is for an infill wall supported on
a slab or beam in a multistorey structure. For this case,
assuming that the beam will support the full load of the
wall can be unnecessarily conservative, and it can be
advantageous to design for composite action.
A full design procedure for composite action is beyond
the scope of this manual, but an outline of the behaviour
and the important design parameters is given. Further
information and a design procedure are discussed in The
Australian Masonry Manual6.
8.1 Wall-beam interaction

A simple model of the interaction between a loaded wall
and its supporting beam would be to consider that the
beam supports only a triangular portion of the wall, and
that the remainder of the masonry and the load from
above is supported by arching between the supports.
Figure 37 shows schematically this model behaviour.
Figure 37. Simple model of composite action behaviour
However, such a model is of limited value because it does

not provide information on the compressive stresses in
the wall or an accurate picture of the forces in the beam,
either of which can be critical to design. This model
would significantly overestimate the forces in the beam.
Figure 38 shows a wall carrying vertical load supported
on a beam and illustrates the main characteristics of the
behaviour. Arching action develops in the wall, supported
by a combination of the abutments (not shown in Figure
38) and the horizontal forces that develop at the wallbeam interface.
These horizontal forces are concentrated towards the
ends of the beam and rely on friction developed at the
interface. The resulting action is to develop a tensile
force in the beam, superimposed on its bending action
under the vertical load from the wall. As the vertical
load progressively increases, a point is reached where
the friction capacity is insufficient to maintain the
horizontal force and composite action is lost. The
masonry will then suffer tensile failure near the centre at
the base of the wall and the beam will deflect excessively
and fail.
The degree of arching depends on the relative stiffness
of the wall and the beam. Both the flexural and axial
stiffness of the beam are relevant. In the case of a stiff
Figure 38. Composite action behaviour
wall and a very flexible beam, the latter is acting almost

entirely as a tie to balance the horizontal compressive
stresses in the wall. This is the action for a simple arch
bar used over small openings. At the opposite extreme,
where a flexible wall is supported on a stiff beam, the
beam resists the load primarily by bending and the wall is
subject to much lower stresses.
Another important consideration is the relative
proportion of vertical load transmitted through the
wall and that applied directly to the beam or slab. If the
latter is high, the beam can separate from the base of the
wall and the development of friction forces to promote
arching can be compromised. The resulting horizontal
crack at the base of the wall can be unsightly and the lack
of sufficient arching might lead to overstressing of the
masonry in the tension and result in a vertical crack at
this point.
The main parameters for the design of this combination
can be listed as follows:

Vertical stress in the wall, resisted by the masonry

compressive strength. The critical location for this
action is adjacent to the supports and immediately
above the beam. If the wall is heavily loaded in
comparison to its compressive capacity this
concentration of stress at the supports can lead to
crushing.
Axial force in the beam, resisted by its tensile

strength. The tensile force in the beam will be a
maximum at mid-span.
Shear stress at the interface, resisted by friction

between the masonry and the beam. The friction
capacity of the interface is influenced by the
materials of the wall and beam and the level of the
compressive stress at the interface. Higher friction is
usually likely for a concrete supporting member than
for steel.
Bending moment in the beam, resisted by its

bending capacity. The beam must be designed for
the combination of this bending moment and the
superimposed tensile force.
Figure 39. Composite action with a central opening
In addition, the shear and tensile strengths of the

masonry must be considered and the construction
sequence can have a significant effect, because failure
to prop the beam prior to building the masonry wall will
increase the bending moments in the beam and reduce
the capability for development of composite action.
Most design procedures for composite action are limited
to cases where the height of the wall is at least 60% of
the span of for the supporting member. Below this level,
the composite action is usually considered to be partial
and not reliable for design.
8.2 Composite action in walls with openings

Where walls with openings are seated on flexible
supports, the resulting action depends on the location
of the opening within the wall as well as its size. Central
openings have only a small effect, because the wall has a
capacity to arch above the opening and still develop the
necessary composite action.
Figure 40. Composite action with an offset opening
In the case of an opening near the ends of a wall (near

the beam supports), the effect of the opening on the
potential for composite action can be severe. In these
cases, it has been suggested that the masonry between
the opening and the end of the wall be designed as a
column to withstand half of the vertical load transmitted
through the wall.
Figure 39 shows schematically the distribution of vertical
stresses imposed on a beam as a result of arching over a
central opening and Figure 40 indicates the approximate
shape of the distribution for an offset opening.
9. Worked Examples
10. References
1. Manual 4, Design of Clay Masonry for Wind & Earthquake,

Think Brick Australia, Sydney, 2013.
2. M
anual 7, Design of Clay Masonry for Serviceability,
3. AS 3700 2011 Masonry structures, Standards Australia,
Sydney, 2011.
4. AS 3700 2011 Masonry structures Commentary,
Standards Australia, Sydney, 2012.
5. Manual 10, Construction Guidelines for Clay Masonry,
6. B
aker, L. R. Lawrence, S.J. & Page, A.W. Australian
Masonry Manual, Joint Committee of the NSW Public
Works Department and the Association of Consulting
Structural Engineers of NSW, Sydney, 1991.
PO Box 370, Artarmon NSW 1570 Australia

Suite 3.02, Level 3, 44 Hampden Road Artarmon NSW 2064 Australia
Telephone +61 2 8448 5500 Fax +61 2 9411 3801
Technical hotline 1300 667 617
ABN 30003873309
www.thinkbrick.com.au

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Manual 6

While the contents of this publication are believed to be

Behaviour of masonry elements

Compressive strength in masonry

Effect of engaged piers

General basis of design for compression

Basic compressive strength capacity

Design by simple rules

Original text prepared by Dr Stephen Lawrence, SPL

Design by refined calculation

The Standards referenced in this manual were current at the

Cover: La Trobe University Wodonga by Billard Leece

Reduction factors for slenderness and eccentricity 32

Composite action between walls and beams

Composite action in walls with openings

Ground floor wall in a three-storey

PO Box 370, Artarmon NSW 1570 Australia

Design of Clay Masonry for Compression / 3

2. Single and double curvature in compression

3. Effect of slenderness and eccentricity on compressive capacity

4. Behaviour of masonry in compression

5. Platen restraint effect for masonry in compression

6. Aspect ratio factor for masonry in compression

7. Compressive strength of masonry for various unit strengths

8. Factor to adjust for unit height/ joint thickness

9. Thickness coefficients for engaged piers

10. Width and spacing of engaged piers

11. Equivalent eccentricity approach to combined compression and bending

12. Flow chart for the general basis of compression design

13. Basic factored compressive load capacity

14. Wall loaded by a concrete slab

15. Wall loaded by other than a slab

16. Wall loaded on one face

17. Slenderness reduction factors for design by simple rules

18. Flow chart for compression design by simple rules

19. Compressive load capacities for walls 90 mm thick,

Design of Clay Masonry for Compression / 5

6/ Design of Clay Masonry for Compression

26. Panel action in walls under light compressive loading

27. Slenderness ratios for various length and support conditions

28. Flow chart for compression design by refined calculation

31. Simplified assessment of eccentricity

32. Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors for walls

33. Slenderness and eccentricity reduction factors for

34. Concentrated bearing factor for solid, cored or grouted masonry

35. Dispersion zones for concentrated loads acting on a wall

36. Flow chart for concentrated load design

37. Simple model for composite action behaviour

38. Composite action behaviour

39. Composite action with a central opening

40. Composite action with an offset opening

Masonry walls in a structure can resist loads by

masonry, specific design procedures for vertical loading,

Design of Clay Masonry for Compression / 7

Load-bearing walls are defined as those that carry

8/ Design of Clay Masonry for Compression

provided that the workmanship is adequate .Masonry is

Figure 1. Frame action in a load-bearing building (typical

2.1 Behaviour of masonry elements in

In load-bearing masonry buildings, the masonry is