Lubricant Friction and Wear Testing

MNL37-EB/Jun.
2003
Lubricant Friction and

Wear Testing
Michael Anderson^ and Frederick E. Schmidt^
THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES VARIOUS METHODS TO EVALUATE THE FRIC-
TION AND WEAR PROPERTIES of lubricants and materials. If friction and wear can be controlled then the engineer can select
materials and lubricants with a high degree of confidence.
Many laboratory tests are used to evaluate the interaction of
materials under a broad range of test conditions and controlled environments.
In this chapter, the following topics will be discussed:
History of tribology testing
Basic types of tribology test systems and reasons for their
use
Fundamentals in designing tribology tests
How to select a test device to simulate a field condition
Contact geometry used in bench tests
Standard and commonly used test devices
Designing special application bench tests
Common terminology relating to friction and wear testing
HISTORY OF TRIBOLOGY [1]

From the beginning of time, m a n has tried to overcome friction and wear. The earliest application of friction is its use for
building fires. To early man, fire offered many advantages including safety, light, warmth, and cooked food. Man also
needed weapons to kill animals for food. Primitive techniques were used to sharpen sticks and stones. As simple as
these would appear, this use of friction greatly enhanced
man's quality of life during this primitive period.
Later, as m a n began to cultivate the land to provide food to
supplement his diet of animal meat and fish, agricultural
tools became a necessity. Not only must they be durable, but
they also had to be shaped. Simple manufacturing techniques were employed such as grinding. More durable materials were more difficult to make. As time went on, m a n used
new techniques to help in this manufacturing stage. Simple
engineering methods were employed such as pottery wheels.
At the time the great pyramids and monuments in ancient
Egypt were being built, m a n was beginning to use not only
engineering techniques, such as rolling elements (logs) to reduce friction, but he was also introducing liquid media between the surfaces. Sometimes, these liquids were simply hydrated earth (clays, soaps, or other materials). Nevertheless,
lubrication was becoming a part of life.
' Vice President, Falex Corporation, 1020 Airpark Drive, Sugar
Grove, IL 60554.
^ Manager Services for Industry, Engineering Systems Inc., 3851 Exchange Avenue, Aurora, IL 60504.
Even though m a n was employing simple engineering principles and lubrication for manufacturing, it wasn't until the
late 15th century, when Leonardo DiVinci first deduced laws
governing the motion of a block over a flat surface, that the
science of friction and lubrication was developed. During this
time, primitive testing devices were developed to measure the
force of one object moving against another. Scientist during
this time also realized that measured forces were less when a
material such as pig fat was introduced between sliding or
moving surfaces; hence, the study of lubrication had begun.
During the years that followed, friction, wear, and lubrication studies increased. As the industrial revolution brought
more advanced machines for transportation and power generation, engineering became part of the curriculum at universities. These studies included the fundamentals of friction,
lubrication, and wear. With new extraction techniques for
obtaining crude oil and the ability to refine this oil, lubricants
became m o r e commonplace. As lubricants became more
widely used, technology was needed to eveduate the differences in properties and in various applications. In 1927, the
first commercial tribomoter was introduced to blenders and
manufacturers of finished lubricants. This tester "Pin and
Vee Block test machine" provided suppliers with a method of
measuring anti-wear and extreme pressure properties of the
lubricants they were selling. Subsequently, tribometers such
as the Timken^ tester. Four Ball Wear and Four Ball EP,
Block-on-Ring, and others were introduced to evaluate lubricants and materials under a variety of test conditions. These
machines are described in this chapter.
Further developments in transportation, medicine, and
space exploration have provided impetus for the development of new lubricants and materials. With these technologies has come the development of test machine designs and
test methods to meet the challenges of these new applications. Today, over 225 commercial and independent testing
devices [2] have been developed.
BASIC TYPES OF TRIBOLOGY

TEST SYSTEMS
Laboratory testing of lubricants used in a tribology system
involves different levels of sophistication. A tribological system consists of all relevant test parameters, materials in contact including the lubricant, if present, and any external, environmental conditions [3]. Each level of test sophistication
^ Timken Corporation, Canton, OH.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Thu Jun 12 01:30:32 EDT 20141017
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1018 MANUAL 37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS HANDBOOK

has benefits and drawbacks. The three levels of test sophistication Eire as follows [4]:
Laboratory bench test devices (simple geometric contacts)
Component bench test devices (use of actual parts and assemblies in a laboratory test rig)
Field tests (materials and lubricants tested in actual
systems)
The most representative test program is one that uses the
proposed material combination in the actual field situation
[4,5]. Generally, this approach is not practical for several reasons. Costs can be prohibitive; the time to develop a meaningful program may be too long; and the environmental or
ambient conditions are difficult if not impossible to control.
These limitations leave many uncontrollable variables and
possibly, a wide scatter of test data. Even component testing,
which is a laboratory test rig that uses the particular section
of the machine (or field application) that is of interest and in
which the parts are made of the materials under evaluation,
is more cost effective but rarely used as a first approach [3,6].
These instrumented laboratory test devices possess the same
limitations as field tests, except that the ambient conditions
are more controllable. However, laboratory bench tests are
designed to move test pieces with simplified geometry under
a variety of test loads, speeds, and environmental conditions.
Although these simplified devices cannot produce exact operating conditions, they have the potential to produce results
that provide meaningful data for a range of similar applications [5]. The wide use of these test devices, such as the Four
Ball and Timken machines, for determination of extreme
pressure properties reflects the low cost and ease of such
measurements and the belief that test results correlate to
some extent with performance [7]. The use of simple bench
testing reduces the test evaluation to a single, specific tribological condition simulating, as close as possible, the operating conditions for the material and lubricants. Data generated from these tests are compared and those materials and
lubricants are selected that jaeld the best wear life or performance for further testing under more specific test designs.
Repeatability of the obtained test results can be better when
the test is kept as simple as possible. Figure 1 gives a relative
economic comparison versus repeatability for bench tests,
component tests, and field tests.
The ability to use a bench test offers many benefits including:

Simplicity of operation
Lowest testing cost
Accelerated test results
Real time presentation of data to facilitate recognition of
changing conditions.
BENCH TESTS
Test
tvDe
Relative
cost
Repeatabiltv
bench
component
$$$
***
field
FIG. 1Economic comparison of test types.
Accurate and precise indication of wear rates and performance properties given the test parameters under which
the test is conducted
Inexpensive and uniform consumable test pieces
Test pieces from a wide range of materials and conditions
Small volumes of test fluid
Controlled test environments and ambient conditions
Convenience of operation.
Commercial test devices offer significant benefits over
test equipment made in-house. Because commercial test
machines are made in quantity to the same manufacturing
specifications, they can offer better test result comparisons
between the laboratories using them. Commercial testers
are often used when developing standardized test methods
because of the availability of users willing to cooperate in
the development of precision statements. In most cases, the
test parameters are listed in standardized test methods.
However, they may not provide the user all the necessciry information for evaluating his materials. Therefore, standardized test methods can be suitable starting points, but the
user may need to modify the test parameters to achieve
meaningful test results [3,8]. Usually more data can be obtained throughout the test rather than just the final specified endpoint or reported test result. Many data occur during the course of a test, including but not limited to,
changes in lubricating mechanisms, changes in surface areas giving different contact pressures, development of lubricating films and surfaces, and so on. Therefore, the operator must identify these changes and develop test methods
that facilitate obtaining as much pertinent information as is
possible or required.
Commercial test devices provide the following benefits:
Established and known precision
Simplicity of test operation
Many meet ASTM, SAE, ISO and other standard test
methods
Flexible test procedures
Ability to compare results worldwide
Correlation with previously published field results
Support and assistance in operation and method development by the manufacturer
FUNDAMENTALS IN DESIGNING THE

TRIBOLOGY TEST
One of the most important concepts in understanding tribological testing is that it is a system. As a system, each test parameter affects the test result. Changing any test parameter
can effect differences in wear rates and/or frictionaJ properties. One must identify the components and possible conditions that exist during the test as part of the test program and
try to match these as closely as possible with those that are
occurring in the field. The objective of testing is to produce,
on the test rig, similar surface damage to that which occurs
after failure in service [5,6].
The first step is to obtain a complete understanding of the
field condition. The second step is the selection of the most
representative bench test available and the development of
the test procedure to be used. The third step is to conduct
the test. And the fourth and final step is the review of the
test data and development of conclusions [3]. Formulation
CHAPTER
of conclusions at the end of the test requires the user to analyze the data obtained with respect to actual field conditions. The user then draws the appropriate conclusions and
then may develop models for predicting wear of future applications involving similar materials and operating conditions [9].
When designing a laboratory test program, the basic steps
for successful testing are as follows:
Field Problem
1. Identify the location of the wear problem in the test system
2. Determine the failure mechanism
3. Identify the tribological conditions
Motion
Sliding, unidirectional
Sliding, bidirectional or reversing
Rolling
Fretting
Speed
Linear velocity
Rotational velocity
Contact Geometry
Point
Line
Area
Pressure/Load
Normal loads
Surface area of contact
Temperature
Bulk lubricant
Contact temperature
Type of Lubricant
Fluid
Solid
Semi-solid (grease)
Dry film
None
Lubricant Performance Properties
Anti-wear
Extreme pressure
Chemistry
Lubricating Mechanism
Enclosed chamber (flooded sump)
Constant circulation
Spray
Coated
Contacting Materials
External Operating Conditions
Ambient temperature
Atmosphere
Humidity
Vibration
Contaminants
B e n c h Test Selection
1.
2.
3.
4.
Experience
Standardized test methods
Available test equipment
Analytical methods such as Tribological Aspect Number
(TAN) [3]
37: LUBRICANT
FRICTION
AND WEAR
TESTING
1019
Test Parameter Selection

1. Motion
Sliding
Rolling
Combination roll/slide
Unidirectional
Reciprocating
2. Speed
Constant
Ramping
Changing
3. Load
Constant
Ramping (to failure)
Cycling
4. Contact Pressure (Normal Load Over Area of Contact)
Hertzian (constant)
Hertzian (changing)
Area (constant)
5. Materials
Composition
Hardness
Surface finish
Micro-structure
Coatings
Surface treatments
6. Duration
Fixed (compare amount of wear)
Time
Number of cycles
Total linear distance
Time to failure (compare life of test)
Excessive friction/torque
Excessive temperature
Excessive wear rate
Excessive total wear
Test Results
1. Wear
Volume of material lost
Weight loss
Dimension of wear scar
Dimension change of material
2. Friction Force or Torque
3. Coefficient of Friction
Static Coefficient of Friction
Dynamic Coefficient of Friction
Maximum
Minimum
Average
4. Correlation with Field Results
Type of wear mechanism
Type of failure mechanism
Relative a m o u n t of wear
Comparative ranking of different material's performance with field results
Meets specification
5. Lubricant Analysis
Additive depletion
Wear particle count
Viscosity change
1020
MANUAL
37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
HANDBOOK
All controlled laboratory testing yields test data that reflect what is happening in the test device under the selected
test conditions. If the test results do not correlate with the
field results, then either the test device is not representative
of the field application or an incorrect test procedure was
chosen. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that the
user develops a meaningful test procedure and utilizes the
type of test equipment that best represents the field condition. There Eire many approaches that are used to select the
best test machine and the test parameters. This chapter will
reference and discuss a practical, analytical approach to selecting the best bench test for simulating a particular field
condition.
SELECTING AND DESIGNING THE TEST

The first and most challenging step in conducting a successful laboratory test program is the selection of a test that will
accurately simulate the field condition being investigated. As
mentioned previously, there are three basic types of tests:
bench, component, and field.
Field tests are time consuming, and generally very expensive. They tend to have poor repeatability as they are subject
to many complications in the control of their test parameters
and ambient conditions. For these reasons this chapter is
limiting the discussion to laboratory tests. Materials selected
using laboratory tests must be qualified in a field test before
actually being p u t into service. This is ultimately where the
tested materials must work, but considerable testing can be
done in the laboratory far more economically.
Two types of tests that will be discussed in detail are bench
tests and component tests. A good rule is to attempt the simplest test possible that accurately simulates what occurs in
service. To that end, test devices have been developed that are
used to simulate service conditions in the laboratory [2]. Selection of a laboratory test rig should be based on the ability
to simulate as closely as possible the conditions of the field
application. There are many ways to select a bench test, including experience, standardized test m e t h o d s , a n d p u b lished analjrtical approaches. One such approach is a paper
written by R. Voitik, "Realizing Bench Test Solutions to Field
Tribology Problems by Utilizing Tribological Aspect Numbers," incorporates an analytical approach to selecting the
best bench test [3].
Laboratory tests are used in two basic functions: specification testing (or quality assurance) and research testing. Specification testing uses standardized laboratory bench tests,
such as those based on the Pin and Vee Block, Timken, FourBall Wear, and Four-Ball EP test machines. Considerable
testing has been performed on these test machines in the
evaluation of materials for specific applications. Industrial
laboratories have a sufficiently high degree of confidence
that test results obtained on these test machines under prescribed conditions will correlate with performance in the
field. These tests work well for screening formulations during
lubricant development, for monitoring the quality of lubricant production and for lubricant specification [7]. Other
uses for specification testing include evsiluation of a new formulation to meet an existing application, competitive performance properties evaluation, and approving new batches of
materials. Laboratory tests for specifications are generally

accepted for verifying material performance.
A widely used test procedure is generally submitted to a
standardization organization to develop a test method for determining certain properties. A standardized test method is
selected for use in specifications because the user determined
that standardized test results correlate with field experience.
Qualifying materials to a specification allows further development and improvement of materials for field use, and provides a means for assuring performance quedity. A critical
part of the standardization process is the development of the
precision of the test method. Precision is developed through
the efforts of many testing laboratories participating in a cooperative testing program. In such a program, participants
test selected materials according to a prescribed sequence.
The laboratories obtain back-to-back duplicate test results.
These test results form the basis for determining both repeatability and reproducibility of the test procedure. Precision gives the user of the test method the confidence to determine whether the test results obtained are significant, in
other words, whether the results obtained are merely within
the repeatability of the test method and are not actually different. Additionally, uncertainty could be reduced by a duplicate test or comparison with reference oil [7].
When there is no established or agreed upon test procedure, test method development can be more involved and create significant delays. The test method developer must select
the test device, design the test method, run the tests and then
determine the validity of the test results [3,6]. This process of
developing a laboratory test method to predict field conditions can be difficult due to lack of information about the
field conditions, availability of the certain test equipment and
desired acceleration of the test. The volume of field performance data available for various test materials will determine the level of difficulty in developing base case information for test validation.
Sometimes the designer chooses a component test as being
the preferred approach for materials evaluation. Frequently,
the customer requires data to be produced on the actual components. Or quite possibly, preliminary test data was generated on a simple bench test and subsequent developmental
testing must be performed at the component level. Nevertheless, the fundamental criteria for selecting test conditions
and parameters Eire similar whether one selects a component
test or a bench test.
B e n c h Test
Bench Test, as used in this chapter, is the term used to describe laboratory test devices that are simple in design, yet
complex enough to rank a materiEil's performance for a specific property or to simulate an actual field condition. Unlike
component test stands, bench tests are designed to isolate
specific contacts, motions, loads, and geometric contacts.
These physical characteristics combined with the selected
test parameters give the researcher a means of easily evaluating materials for their effects in field applications or further
component testing. In a properly designed test, operating under a lubrication regime similar to the field condition, the asperities at the point of contact will react the same as they
would in the field condition that the bench test is represent-
CHAPTER
ing. Correlation has been shown by Faville [8] when using the
Pin and Vee Block for evaluating transmission and other
lubricants.
Component Test Design
Component testing, which includes, but is not limited to,
p u m p tests and engine test beds, uses actual parts or components from manufactured equipment. The test stand designer
must carefully select these parts to be within well-defined
manufacturing tolerances for dimensions, surface finish, and
hardness. The component fixturing is typically designed to
hold the components and test them in a manner that represents, as close as possible, the actual field conditions and environment while maintaining the desired test parameters.
The test device design should be sufficiently flexible to permit
a wide range of operating conditions.
To achieve reasonable repeatability and reproducibility
with the test results obtained from the test stand, close control of the test parameters must be maintained. In the actual
field condition it is virtually impossible to control all of the
a m b i e n t conditions, due to the wide fluctuations in surrounding conditions. These test parameters for a component
test stand should be selected to represent conditions that
might occur in actual applications. The selected parameters
must be closely controlled, and the test stand must be designed to provide provisions for monitoring the selected test
parameters. Monitoring the test parameters will provide the
operator with a recorded history indicating whether these parameters were maintained during the test. Often times controlled atmospheres, large sumps for test fluids, special air
and fluid filtration, temperature control, load control, and
other more specific systems must be designed into the test
stand to maintain test parameters or for better simulation of
field conditions. These test devices are designed to simulate a
particular aspect of actual operation and are valuable for the
development of additives and lubricant formulations [10]. In
engine test stands, for example, proper simulation of actual
driving conditions includes cycling of load, speed, and temperatures according to a designed test program. It is essential
to integrate the cyclic characteristics to simulate the actual
driving conditions on the laboratory test rig. The use of a
computer to control test parameters provides more consistent test operation and facilitates data acquisition
Monitoring test variables during the test sequence is critical. The computer, with its capability of acquiring and storing the test data, has offered considerable benefit to the test
operator by recording data throughout the test. This data will
advise the operator that the test has run within the selected
controlled parameters and that the test is operating as desired. It will also alert the operator to a change or failure in
any of the measured properties. Because ambient conditions
can also influence test results, it is important that these conditions such as t e m p e r a t u r e and relative humidity be
recorded. The computer may provide more rapid data collection when one or more of the variables exceed an alarm condition. This rapid data collection will give more detailed information of the test results when unusual conditions are
present. The computer can also activate the control function
of the test stand, eliminating the need for the operator to
make the control adjustments after the test has initiated. The
3 7: LUBRICANT
FRICTION
AND WEAR
TESTING
1021
computer can also cause the test to terminate if a predetermined set-point is exceeded or if a dangerous condition exists. And finally the computer can organize, calculate, and
present the data in tabulated or graphic format for ease of interpretation. This valuable tool is used in most component
test formats and for an increasing number of standard bench
tests stands.
With component tests, the parts chosen for the test fixturing must have some sensitivity to the materials under evaluation [11]. For example, p u m p s that are used to evaluate
wear of hydraulic fluids should be sensitive to formulated fluids that have sufficient anti-wear properties and those that do
not [12]. There should always be some check that the test device and selected test parameters and sequences are robust
enough to discriminate between materials with known poor
field performance and those with acceptable field performance. The user should prove that the component test has a n
acceptable degree of precision, both in repeatability and in
reproducibility. Repeatability is the closeness of the agreement of test data on back-to-back testing on the same test
stand, in the same laboratory, with the same operator, on the
same test materials or fluids, within a short time span. Reproducibility is the agreement of test results using the same
test materials or fluids but on different test stands, with different operators, in different laboratories, and run at different times.
When designing any laboratory test rig, the design should
provide for wide latitude of test parameters. This will assist
in discriminating between materials or components tested
with materials of varying performance properties. When a series of test parameters has been chosen that demonstrates
differences in materials of known field performances, the test
stand should successfully rank materials with unknown field
performance. Extreme care should be exercised when selecting existing manufactured parts for use as testing components, as these parts must have some guarantee of consistency of manufacture and known tolerances for dimensions
and materials. Nevertheless, successful testing has been developed and has given the test engineer considerable information on the performance of materials predicted from the
results of component testing under actual or near field conditions. Properly designed test stands should mimic the field
conditions as closely as possible so that the contacting materials will exhibit properties exactly as if they were in the actual field condition.
TEST PARAMETER SELECTION

The basic test parameters to be considered when developing
any type of test method are discussed in this section.
Temperature
Temperature control can be effected by the use of heating
systems if elevated temperatures are required and/or cooling systems if lower than ambient test temperature is required. The test fixturing can be designed to contain heaters
or cooling tubes to maintain the bulk temperature of the lubricant or the test pieces. It is virtually impossible to measure the temperature at the point of asperity contact, but by
1022
MANUAL
HANDBOOK
locating the temperature sensor in close proximity to the

contact surface, one can get an idea of the contact temperature versus the bulk lubricant temperature. In some test
designs, the atmosphere surrounding the test area must
have a controlled temperature. This is usually achieved
through some type of air circulation if lower than ambient
temperature is required, or through the use of heaters external to the test component but within the enclosed testing
chamber. Large fluid reservoirs can help in maintaining the
stability of test temperature by providing a large volume for
heat absorption. A large reservoir also permits the use of the
fluid in extended duration testing with a minimal amount of
additive depletion.
Load
Load control must be considered when selecting a test. Test
load can be applied by a static or dead weight system, a pneumatic system, hydraulic system, or by fluid pressure. Consideration should be given to including an initial "break-in" or
"wear-in" at a lighter load representing partial EHD [13]. Inclusion of a break-in can form a more uniform surface rather
t h a n testing under machined conditions. This more uniform
surface can add to the consistency of test results.
It can be difficult to select test loads that will be representative of the loads encountered in the field, yet of a magnitude
large enough to challenge the test system without introducing any complex or other type wear mechanisms. Selecting
loads that are excessive could produce results that are not
representative of what is occurring in the actual field condition. If the operator chooses a test load that is low, he may encounter very long test duration before failures occur. Another
way to determine an appropriate test load is to conduct a step
load test and look for an erratic change in the torque or friction force as load is increased [8]. This variability of the
torque indicates a breakdown of the lubricant film, allowing
for metal to metal contact. The load immediately prior to the
load that corresponds to the erratic torque or friction force
can be looked at in terms of the threshold limit of the test system load. The operator can choose a test load at or below the
threshold load that should give a controlled amount of wear
in a reasonable time. Note that too light a test load may not
give enough weeir to discriminate between samples and too
heavy a load may yield too m u c h wear to discriminate. At this
point, it is basically an educated guess as to the best test load.
Several loads in this area may have to be tried in order to select the test load that gives the best discrimination with regards to the other test variable. Ideally, if materials with
known field data are being used to set u p the test procedure,
discrimination should be the focus. If discrimination is obtained, then this test load should be used as the starting point
for the tests, that is to say that at some point in the testing
with other materials, these test parameters may have to be
reevaluated.
Often times the load must be controlled to allow for cycling of test loads to simulate in-field conditions. Cycling
versus static load can better simulate the stresses encountered in the test system and is used to better maintain the
temperature of the test system in long-term endurance or
life tests.
Speed
If possible, select the linear test speed to be the same as the
field condition. This is done in rotational tests by taking
the speed of the field condition and dividing by diameter of
the point of contact or wear track, and by pi, msiking the appropriate conversions for distance units results in the corresponding rpm. Certain applications require very slow or very
fast test speeds. Test speeds have a profound effect on lubrication regime in the test system. The operator should consult
the Stribeck curve for general effects of the change in load or
speed on the coefficient of firiction and lubricating regime.
The Stribeck curve (Fig. 2) shows the relation of coefficient
of friction to the ratio of viscosity, speed, and the inverse of
load, known as the Sommerfeld N u m b e r [14] with respect to
coefficient of friction.
Sommerfeld Number = speed X viscosity/load
This fundamental curve gives an illustration of the effect of
changing viscosity, speed or load on the coefficient of friction
in the various lubrication regimes of boundary, elastohydrodynamic, mixed and hydrodynamic [15].
1. Hydrodynamic lubrication: the surfaces are separated by
the lubricant film resulting in low friction.
2. Mixed lubrication: the load is carried by the lubricant and
the interacting asperities
3. Boundary lubrication: the load is solely carried by the interacting asperities, resulting in high friction.
Although it may be impractical to construct the entire classic Stribeck curve, specific portions of the curve for vEirious
test systems can be determined as illustrated in the curves
listed. It should also be noted that different materials, geometries, and test systems can yield curves that are different
in shape than the classic Stribeck Curve. For example, certain
systems may not have a boundary lubrication region and may
rise directly to a very high friction value indicating severe
metal-to-metal contact.
The curve in Fig. 3 depicts Stribeck curves in the mixed lubrication region as a function of lubricant thickness [15]. By
changing speed and/or load in the Sommerfeld number, the
resulting change in coefficient of friction is determined and
plotted for each lubricant thickness. In the self-lubricated
speed X viscosity/ioad
FIG. 2Theoretical Stribeck Curve. Reprinted with
permission of STLE.
CHAPTER 37: LUBRICANT FRICTION AND WEAR TESTING
tion and the wear of each material combination is compared.

Test duration in this case is either by time or by number of
cycles. If the materials are being severely challenged, tests
can be run to a predetermined failure point such as a friction,
wear, or temperature limit. In this type of test, the result is
the time to failure or in the case of increasing load or speed,
the load or speed at which failure occurred.
When selecting test parameters to represent a field condition, it may not be practical in the laboratory to have failure
occur in the same time frame or duration as it would in the
field, or it may be desired to accumulate data in a relatively
short period of time. This is referred to as an "accelerated
test." Therefore, the test parameters must be selected to enhance the desired wear condition or to produce a desired
wear condition in a shorter period of time. Careful consideration of accelerating test results must be given since it is important not to introduce any wear mechcinisms into the test
system that are not occurring in the field. Verification must
be made at the end of test to insure that the wecir mechcuiism
or failure is the same as that which occurs in the field. Otherwise, it is possible to obtain test results that do not correlate with field results.
. . ... 1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
5.00E-07
3.00E-07
0.14
0.12
2.00E-07
^ ^ v
"~~-
\ ^ ^S-.-.--''>^
1.00E-07
8.00E-08
4.50E-08
*- 0.08
4.20E-08
%\.
-4.00E-08
3.90E-08
0.04
-3.80E-08
370E-08
0.02 -
3.65E-08
3.64E-08
1.E -06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E -02
3.63E-08
1023
3.60E-08
FIG. 3Stribeck curves for starved lubricated line

contacts as a function of the applied lubricant layer
thickness in )j.m [15]. Reprinted with permission of
Prof. D. J. Schipper, University of Twente, The Netherlands.
Materials
0.20
Standardized test methods generally specify the materials

cuid conditions of the test pieces consumed in the test. Simulation tests should utilize consumable test pieces from the
same materials and conditions that are present in the system
being modeled. The use of different materials than present on
the system being modeled, can result in poor correlation of
the test with the system [11].
U 0.15
U-
p:
0.10-
o
O
0.05
c
<p
"o
N=0.2 N/cm2
Special Atmospheres
N=0.4 N/cm
N=1.0N/cm
N=0.8 N/cm
I
10"
IQ-
10 -6
10"
10"
10"
Sommerfeld Number
FIG. 4Coefficient of friction as a function of Sommerfeld
number for a plastic on a PMMA disk lubricated by a saline solution [14]. Reprinted with permission from the Society of Plastics Engineers.
condition, as illustrated in Fig. 4, changes in speed with constant loads are plotted against coefficient of friction determined by testing. Similarly, tests could be conducted by varying the load maintaining constant viscosity and speed.
Although it is possible to vary more than one variable in determining Sommerfeld numbers and their relation to coefficient of friction, it is more typically studied by varying just
one of the variable's affect on the coefficient of friction, as
illustrated in the above examples.
Duration
Test duration is also important. Often tests are conducted on
many different samples at the same predetermined test dura-
If special atmospheres are present in the field condition, the

test designer should consider these when designing the laboratory test procedure. Special atmospheres would include
humidity, pressurization, and inert or reactive gases. Gases
can be introduced into any closed test chamber. Inert gases
can be introduced in an attempt to exclude the formation of
oxide layers at the surface. Specialty gases, for example
Freon, can be introduced into the lubricant, often under pressure, to understcuid the effect of these gases when solublized
in the test lubricants. This approach is used for eveduating lubricants for use in compressors or refrigeration systems [16].
Test Fluids
Test design of lubricated systems will always include the
presence of test fluids and their influence on the prevention
of wear or on load carr5dng ability. The method of lubricant
introduction into the contact zone will affect test results. The
most commonly used system is the test fluid bath. This lubricated system uses a contained quantity of test fluid, into
which the moving test pieces are placed and remain as the
test is performed. The contact may be submerged in the test
fluid or a portion of the test piece enters the test fluid and carries the lubricant into the contact zone. Another lubricated
system involves the use of an external reservoir, which intro-
1024
MANUAL 3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
HANDBOOK
duces the test fluid into the contact zone either by continuously changing the fluid in a flooded test chamber or by injecting or depositing a controlled volume of test fluid directly
into the contact zone.
Special Testing
Special testing is the addition of a test variable that is unique
to a situation to better understand certain phenomena. These
would include the introduction of abrasives or solid particles,
the testing of used oils or test fluids with known history, or
the addition of contaminants such as water or some other
solid or liquid. Special testing is generally used in the laboratory test program when the field condition typically contains
these special materials. Anything that can be done to better
simulate field results will improve the simulated laboratory
test results.
TEST SELECTION AND USE OF THE

TRIBOLOGICAL ASPECT NUMBERS
Selecting the best bench test is the first part of a test development program. Prudently selecting the bench test will provide for a more efficient development of test data. There are
many ways used to select the best bench test to evaluate materieJs for a specific application. A common and important
method is to draw on experience. Although experience is critical in developing any test method, it is also a limitation when
evaluating materials and processes for new applications.
Trial and error is another method that can be successful, but
can also be very tedious and frustrating. Others have expanded geometry, speed, load, etc. and studied their effect on
friction and wear [8,11,12]. In 1993, a paper was presented at
the ASTM symposium on Wear Test Selection for Design and
Application, entitled, "Realizing Bench Test Solutions to
Field Tribology Problems by Utilizing Tribological Aspect
Numbers" [3]. This paper and a subsequent review paper by
Anderson [17] describe an analytical approach to selecting
the best bench test for simulating a particular field application. This procedure identifies the tribological condition and
characterizes it in a four-digit number based on motion, geometry, load (pressure), and entry angle of the test fluid. This
approach can be used to select laboratory bench tests for simulating field conditions.
Field applications can involve many different tribological
conditions in the same system. It is the premise of using the
Tribological Aspect Number (TAN) approach to isolate the
tribological condition under consideration and then select
the bench test that has the same TAN.
The TAN is a four digit number that characterizes a tribological condition. The first digit identifies the velocity or
motion characteristic. The second digit identifies the contact
area. The third digit identifies the load or pressure. And
finally, the fourth digit identifies the entry angle of the
lubricant.
The first step in the process of using the TAN system is to
identify the TAN of the field condition. Second, the user selects the bench test that has the same TAN number. Note that
a testing device may have been designed to provide for more
than one TAN and there may be more than one tester that can
yield the same TAN. After identifying the bench tester to be

used, the researcher must select the test parameters under
which the test will be performed. These conditions should be
selected to mimic or reflect the actual field conditions. These
parameters are discussed earlier in this chapter. With the
exact match of the TAN for the field and the tester, and selecting the same test parameters, the proposed test program
is identified as a simulation. A simulation is a set of conditions that exactly represents the field condition. It is under
this condition that the contact asperities should behave in
an identical manner as those contact asperities in the field
condition.
First DigitSpeed
The contact velocity or motion characteristic is subdivided
into four types. Unidirectional, identified as 1, is a motion
that does not change directions. It is unidirectional and is the
sliding motion encountered in most typical wear testers.
Cyclic motion, identified as 2, is motion that changes direction. It is also known as reciprocating motion and is more
specific to select applications involving this type of motion.
Roll/Slip, identified as 3, is motion that includes partial or
complete rolling. Complete rolling occurs in ball or roller
bearings; partial rolling, or those conditions that only have a
percentage of rolling, is typical of gear simulations. Finally,
fretting, identified as 4, is given its own, unique condition.
Second DigitContact Area
The contact area describes the geometry of the areas in which
the moving pieces contact each other. The descriptions simply and accurately describe the type of geometric contacts
that are present in the system. The open nature of the TAN 7
and 8 is unique in that one of the contact surfaces is being
contacted in a previously untouched area. The fixed refers to
non-changing contact geometry; the variable refers to changing contact geometry.
Third DigitContact Pressure or
Loading Characteristic
Unidirectional, third digit of 1, identifies a condition of constant load or increasing load. High frequency, third digit of 2,
is a quickly changing test load. Cyclic Loading, third digit of
3, refers to a condition of cycling the test load.
Fourth DigitEntry Angle
The entry angle identifies the geometric angle of the leading
edge of the tribological contact. It indicates the facility at
which the lubricant can enter the contact zone. An angle of
0-0, fourth digit of 1, describes a contiguous contact. That
is to say, there is no provision for the lubricant to enter the
contact zone. This TAN is typical of thrust washer or seal applications. Because no lubricant can enter into the contact
zone, these applications would do well using solid bonded lubricants, self-lubricating plastics, or high wear resistant ceramics. An angle of 90 to 75, TAN of 2, is a very steep angle
and would typically allow very little lubricant into the contact
zone acting like a plow. As one moves from a fourth digit of
CHAPTER 3 7: LUBRICANT FRICTION AND WEAR TESTING

2 through Tan of 7, the angle of entry gets increasingly
smaller. This smaller entry angle permits entry of the lubricant with ever increasing ease. An entry angle of < 10 - >2,
TAN of 8, has a very small angle of entry. This small angle of
entry allows for the lubricant to come into the contact zone
and reveals the effectiveness of the ability of a journal bearing, with its small entry angle, to easily carry the lubricant
into the contact zone. And finally, >2->0, fourth digit of 9,
illustrates the very, very small entry angle as is t5T3ical of
rolling elements.
Once the TAN for a field condition has been identified,
matching the bench test's TAN to the field condition's TAN
can easily affect selecting the bench test. However, this is not
always possible. Many times there is no exact match available
to the researcher. This occurs because of the complexity on
one or more of the TAN digits or in the fact that the best test
device just is not available to the researcher. In such cases,
the researcher should select a bench test with a TAN as close
as possible to the field condition. He may then have to make
some test procedural compromises to permit as close a representation of the selected laboratory tester with the field application. This condition represents a ranking rather than a
simulation. A ranking test basically will provide performance
test data for a particular property based on the value obtained from running the test.
Additional considerations when testing in the laboratory
are to select the material for the consumable test pieces to be
representative of the field condition material. This includes
selecting not only the type of material, but the condition of
the material such as hardness, case depth, surface finish,
coatings, surface treatments, and microstructure. In the laboratory environment, if one were to simulate the test parameter conditions exactly as in the field, the test would take
about the same time to fail in the laboratory as in the field.
This just is not feasible; therefore, it is always desirable to acquire the data under accelerated conditions. Care should be
taken not to introduce any complex or catastrophic wear
mechanisms that are not present in the field and may adversely affect representative test results.
This chapter has discussed some of the techniques available for selecting bench tests, choosing test parameters, acquiring test data and evaluating the results with respect to the
test procedure. The following sections will contain some of
the more common test devices available and their respective
standardized test methods.
The basic design of the Pin and Vee Block consists of two
opposing Vee blocks loaded against a rotating journal pin
(Fig. 6). It conducts tests in four-line contact, unless optional
C-Blocks are used. C-Blocks give a conformal area contact.
The test is run with the pins and blocks submerged in the test
lubricant (D 2670, D 3233) (Fig. 7), with the test pieces coated
with a bonded film lubricant (D 2625), or with the lubricant
coating the test pieces (D 5620). Load is applied via a ratchet
wheel and eccentric pawl. Each turn of the motor will advance the ratchet wheel one tooth when the pawl is engaged.
Tests can be run at constant load (D 2670, D 2625 procedure
A) or at increasing load until failure (D 3233, D 2625 procedure B). In the increasing load test, failure is indicated by a
break in either the shear pin or test pin or in the inability of
FIG. 5Pin and Vee Block Tester (Falex Lubricant

Tester).
FIG. 6Pin and

Vee Block test
pieces.
COMMON TYPES OF B E N C H
TEST DEVICES
Pin and Vee Block
This Pin and Vee Block (Fig. 5) is the most widely used commercialized wear tester for evaluating lubricants [18] Also
known as the Falex'* Lubricant Tester, the Pin and Vee Block
test machine has been successfully used for evaluating lubricating and wear preventing properties of lubricants, both
fluid and solid, for over 75 yccirs. This tester is used for evaluating metalworking fluids, automotive and industrial lubricants, and bonded solid film lubricants [8].
'' Falex Corporation, Sugar Grove, IL
1025
FIG. 7Pin and Vee Block test piece configuration.
1026
MANUAL
3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
HANDBOOK
FIG. 8Falex Test Pieces [8]. A: Unused (new); B: After ASTM D 2670 wear test;
C: After ASTM D 3233 EP test, torque failure; D: After ASTM D 3233 EP test, weld
failure.
the test system to maintain test load. Careful monitoring of
the torque with respect to the test load can yield valuable information as to the lubricating properties of the test fluid as
it interacts with the selected test piece materials [8,19]
Changes in the slope of the torque curve can reveal changes
in the lubricating regime of the test system. Careful examination of the torque, load, and wear values gives information
on the anti-wear and extreme pressure properties of the tribology system.
Tests can be r u n at constant load for evaluating anti-wear
properties and also u n d e r increasing load conditions to evaluate lubricating effects at different load conditions. Although
the ASTM test m e t h o d s for evaluating extreme pressure
properties of lubricants directs the user to increase load u p to
the point where either the test or shear pin breaks, the information obtained during the entire test can provide important
data as to the performance of the lubricating properties. An
important p h e n o m e n o n described by Faville [8] and later
elaborated by Helmetag [19] is the occurrence of a sudden increase in the torque, also referred to as the torque "pop-up."
Anti-weld evaluations can be made only in the load range immediately following this initial seizure. Products lacking
anti-weld properties tear out metal, resulting in weld type
seizure (Fig. 8D), while some products develop high torque,
which result in twisting off the shear pin without any occurrence of scoring (Fig. 8C). The latter failures cire referred to
as torque seizures [20].
The ASTM test methods that relate to the Pin and Vee
Block test machine and their typical test results (Fig. 8) Eire:
ASTM D 2625, Endurance (Wear) Life and Load-Carrying
Capacity of Solid Film Lubricants (Falex Pin and Vee
Method)
ASTM D 2670, Measuring Wear Properties of Fluid Lubricants (Falex Pin and Vee Block Method)
ASTM D 3233, Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Fluid Lubricants (Falex Pin a n d Vee Block
Methods)
ASTM D 5620, Evaluating Thin Film Fluid Lubricants in a
Drain and Dry Mode Using a Pin and V-Block Test Machine
Pin on Disk
Pin-on-Disk test is the simplest and most c o m m o n wear test
device [21]. It consists of a rotating disk upon which is loaded
a pin or ball (Figs. 9 and 10) In the simplest versions, the ball
rotates on the Scune wear scar. Other mechanisms can be incorporated such that the pin or ball comes in contact with a n
untouched portion of the rotating disk. This results in a spiral type of wear track. Pin-on-disk testing is used most widely
FIG. 9Pin-on-Disk.
FIG. 10Pin on disk test configuration.
for determining wear rates and endurance life of coatings

and bonded film lubricants, but can be used with liquid lubricants for determining wear rates and coefficients of friction (G 99). As wear progresses, material can be removed
from the pin or ball or from the disk or transferred from one
piece to the other. Therefore, as with any wear test, both
pieces should be examined for wear or material transfer. The
pin or ball can be eveJuated by measuring the diameter of the
wear scar and observing any material transfer. The wear scar
on the disk can best be characterized by a profilometric trace
across the surface to determine depth juid width of the wear
scar or by another surface characterization method (Chapter
35). Pin on Disk tests will give relative wear rates only, as few
actual field components match a pin-on-disk configuration.
The test methods that relate to the Pin on Disk test machine are:
ASTM G 99, Wear Testing with a Pin-on-Disk Apparatus
ASTM G 132, Pin Abrasion Testing
Four Ball
Four Ball tests include the Four Ball Wear Test, the Four Ball
Extreme Pressure (EP), Rolling Four Ball, and Ball on Three
Disks. Both the Four Ball Wear and the Four Ball EP test machine have three lower balls that are either held stationary
(Fig. 11) or allowed to roll in a race. The upper ball is held in

a chuck and rotated. The tests in which the three balls are
held stationary are the most common of the Four Ball tests.
It provides for pure sliding wear in initial three-point contact.
After initial motion begins, the point contact develops into a
load bearing, area contact. At the end of the test run, the
width of the wear scar on each ball is measured using a microscope designed for this purpose (Fig. 12). Measurements
are taken, once with the striations of wear and again at 90
(Figs. 13 and 14). The six scar diameter measurements are averaged for the reported wear scar diameter. The main advantage of testing with balls is that they are very consistent in
shape and properties and that if they Eire available, they are
very cost effective. The main disadvantage is that if they are
not available, they can be very expensive to manufacture and
perhaps impossible to manufacture depending on the shape
of the bulk material. For instance, if the materiEd is available
only in sheet stock, a ball cannot be made. In this case an
adapter called the Ball-Three-Disks can be used to effect sim-
1027
FIG. 14Ball scar measurement.
FIG. 11Four Ball.
FIG. 15Four Ball Wear test machine.
ilar geometrical contact. It allows geometry similar to the

Standard Four-Ball configuration while permitting the testing of additional materials. This test has found application
for testing for Einti-wear properties of diesel fuels containing
lubricity additives [22,23,24].
FIG. 12Typical scar measurement system (microscope).
FIG. 13Typical wear scars.
Four Ball Wear

In the Four Ball Wear tests (D 2266, D 4172), the upper ball
is allowed to rotate under load for an extended, predetermined period of time, tj^pically 60 min. The wesir scar average is reported Eind compared against a specification or other
wear scars obtained by testing comparative fluids under the
same conditions. The Four Ball Wecir test machine (Fig. 15)
has a very precise loading system Eind because of this, has a
limited range of test loads. Coefficient of friction is often a
desired result of the test. ASTM D 5183, using the Four Ball
1028 MANUAL 37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
HANDBOOK
Wear test machine, was standardized because the friction

trace in standard wear tests (D 2266, D 4172) can be erratic
under normal operating conditions, making it difficult to determine a reportable value. This alternate test provides for a
break-in run using a mineral oil to intentionally create a consistent load bearing area contact prior to the introduction of
the test lubricant. The minereJ oil is drained from the ball
cup; the balls aire cleaned without their removal from the ball
cup; and the test is run in a series of 10 kg increment loads
for 10 min each to determine the coefficient of friction at
each load tested. Incipient seizure, which is the localized fusion of metal between the rubbing surfaces of the test pieces,
can also be observed. Incipient seizure indicates that the film
is breaking down and allowing metal-to-metal contact. One
can report the coefficient of friction at any desired test load.
This test will generally give a steady, coefficient of friction
value that will be easy to determine.
The standardized test methods that use the Four-Ball "Wear
test machine are as follows:
ASTM D 2266: Wear Preventive Characteristics of Lubricating Greases (Four Ball Method)
ASTM D 4172: Wear Preventive Characteristics of Lubricating Fluids (Four Ball Method)
ASTM D 5183: Determination of Coefficient of Friction of
Lubricants Using the Four-Ball Wear Test Machine
APPLIED LOAD, kgf

ABEcompensation line.
BPoint or last nonseizure load.
ECRegion of incipient seizure.
CDRegion or immediate neizure.
DWeld point.
FIG. 16Schematic plot of scar diameter

versus applied load.
Four Ball EP
In the Four Ball EP test (D 2596, D 2783), the upper ball is allowed to rotate under load for 10 s, after which the resultant
wear scars are measured and averaged. In this test, a series of
test runs is performed at logarithmically increasing loads up
to the weld point. The weld point is the load at which the lubricant film breaks down and the temperature at the point of
contact is so high that it melts the metal, causing the test balls
to weld together, indicating that the extreme pressure level of
the lubricant has been exceeded. When the lubricant is performing as designed, the wear scars will be very smzdl, only
slightly larger than the corresponding theoretical Hertzian
scar diameters for the given materials, load, and radii of the
test balls. The Hertzian scar diameter is the average diameter
of an indentation caused by the deformation of the balls under static load (prior to test). The line that parallels the
Hertzian line is referred to as the compensation line. When
the lubricating film breaks down, metal-to-metal contact occurs and mild to severe incipient seizure occurs. This seizure
is evidenced by the disproportionate increase in the average
scar diameter. When incipient seizure is present, the test ball
scar diameter is no longer on the compensation line. The
highest test load that yields a scar diameter within 5% of the
compensation line value for the corresponding load is the last
non-seizure load. The ASTM D 2596 and D 2783 test methods
provide an index of the relative wear performance with respect to load for the lubricant under evaluation., which is
shown in a graph of the wear scar versus test load (Fig. 16).
This term is called the Load Wear Index (LWI).
Because of the wide range of test loads (8-1000 Kg) 2ind the
severe conditions that occur when a weld point is reached,
the Four Ball EP test machine (Fig. 17) is designed to be very
robust in construction. ASTM D 2266, D 4172, and D 5183
warn against using the Four Ball EP test machine for running
FIG. 17Four Ball EP test machine.
wear tests, as it lacks the necessary precision. When running

wear tests, the Four Ball Wear Test Machine should be used.
The Four Ball EP test machine is also used for testing
rolling elements (Fig. 18). This is because of the high test
loads that are available. These tests are referred to as contact
fatigue tests and are used to predict the life of a lubricant
when used in ball or roller bearings. A vibration detection device is required to identify the onset of surface fatigue. Another test of interest is a lubricant shear test. Also known as
the KRL test (CEC L-45-T-93), this test uses a tapered roller
bearing under high test load to shear polymer containing lubricants. The viscosity is measured before and after shearing
to determine viscosity loss. Results of this test have correlated well with the shear losses experienced with multiviscosity gear oils used in manual transmissions.
CHAPTER
37: LUBRICANT
FRICTION
AND WEAR
TESTING
1029
The standardized test methods that use the Four Ball EP

test machine are as follows:
ASTM D 2596, Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating Greases (Four Ball Method)
ASTM D 2783, Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating Fluids (Four Ball Method)
Block on Ring
The Block-on-Ring test machine (Fig. 19) is more of a research tool. It is primarily used to determine wear rates of
materials and to rank materials in pure sliding motion. The
tester is designed to accommodate different test fixtures to
effect point, line, ellipsoid, and area contact. The standard
block-on-ring test uses a rectangular block on a rotating ring
and starts as Hertzian line contact. As motion begins, a load
carrying bearing surface forms, allowing the formation of
anti-wear and/or EP films to form on the surface. The wear
scar width is measured and reported at the end of the test
(Fig. 20). The preferred method of reporting is volume loss;
however, if the same metals are being used, simply reporting
the wear scar diameter for comparative wear is acceptable. A
table in ASTM G 77 gives block scar volumes for measured
wccir scar widths. Oscillating drive mechanisms can be installed to effect reciprocating (back and forth) motion. This
motion is used in test methods for evaluating greases and
bonded film lubricants. Testing with a ball on ring combination results in initial high Hertzian point contact. After motion begins, the Hertzian point contact area develops into a
load carrying bearing surface. With increasing loads, moni-
FIG. 20Block on ring test piece

configuration. TImken size (left);
Falex size (right).
RING a. BLDCK
BOTATIDN
ROTATION
FIG. 21High pressure (rectangular) block (left); Low pressure (conformal) block (right).
FIG. 18Rolling four ball.
FIG. 19Block-on-ring test chamber.
toring the friction force of lubricants containing EP additives

has shown good correlation with predicting load limits obtained from more sophisticated component tests [11]. Area
tests that simulate journal bearing applications are effected
on this test machine using the conforming or curved test
block (Fig. 21). This configuration is most effective when
testing polymeric or plastic materials. When testing under
area contact, it is advisable to perform an initial break-in to
achieve complete contact between the mating surfaces. If
complete contact is not achieved, limited contact will give
higher t h a n desired pressures on the contacting aireas, resulting in premature failure. Recently, a new adapter has shown
promise in predicting anti-wear properties and coefficient of
friction values of thin film lubricants s u c h as automatic
transmission fluids. The canted cylinder adapter holds a
cylinder against the test ring with initial Hertzicin point contact. An additional benefit is the ease of alignment during
setup. As wear develops, an elliptical wear scar develops. The
resultant wear scar provides for easy measurement eind determination of wear and friction properties.
The standardized test methods that use the Block-on-Ring
test machine sire as follows:
ASTM D 2714, Calibration and Operation of the Falex
Block-on-Ring Friction a n d Wear Testing Machine
ASTM D 2781, Wear Life of Solid Film Lubricants in Oscillating Motion
1030 MANUAL 3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
HANDBOOK
ASTM D 3704, Wear Preventive Properties of Lubrication

Greases Using the (Falex) Block on Ring Test Machine in
Oscillating Motion
ASTM G 77, Ranking Resistance of Materials to Sliding
Wear Using the Block-on-Ring Wear Test
ASTM G 137, Ranking Resistance of Plastic Materials to
Sliding Wear Using a Block-on-Ring Configuration
Timken
The Timken Extreme Pressure Test Machine (Fig. 22) was developed in 1932 to measure load carrying capacity of EP lubricants for use in steel production. It too, is a block-on-ring
type test (Fig. 20, Fig. 23) and is CcJled out in many specifications for oils and greases requiring extreme pressure
properties or high levels of load carrying ability. This tester

is designed to evaluate lubricants for low, medium, and
high levels of extreme pressure for lubricating greases (D
2509) and fluids (D 2782). The test is carried out by running
a series of 10 min duration test runs at increasing test loads
to the point where scoring or seizure is indicated on the wear
scar. This scoring is evident as lines that extend past the edge
of the wear scar or as a scar in which scuffing is evidenced
by jagged irregularities (Fig. 24) The tester is also designed
to provide friction data, but is seldom used for this function [25].
The standardized test methods that use the Timken Extreme Pressure test machine are as follows:
ASTM D 2509, Measurement of Load Carrying Capacity of
Lubricating Grease
ASTM D 2682, Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating Fluids
Tapping Torque
FIG. 22Timken test machine.
The Tapping Torque test machine (Fig. 25) is designed to perform actual metalworking applications in a laboratory environment. Originally designed to perform thread cutting and
thread forming, the Tapping Torque test machine can perform additional metalworking functions. There are two basic
metalworking applications: metal removal and metal deformation. Metal removal techniques remove material to
achieve the desired final shape, while metal deformation
techniques reshape or form the existing material into the desired shape. Under metal removal, there are thread cutting
(tapping), drilling, and reaming. Under metal deformation,
there are thread forming (tapping), roll forming, drawing,
and rolling mill simulation.
The tool rotates and descends at a rate determined by the
rotational speed and pitch of the lead screw of the tapping
head. The test machine measures the torque as the tool descends and enters the material to be machined (Fig. 26). The
piece to be machined will have various forms depending on
the test selected. It is most important to observe the tight tolerances required for the consumable test pieces. Even slight
variances can have an affect on the precision of the test results.
The ASTM standardized test method that uses the Tapping
Torque test machine is as follows:
ASTM D 5619, Comparing Metal Removal Fluids Using the
Tapping Torque Test Machine
Multi-Specimen/Multi-Purpose
(Thrust Washer Tester)
FIG. 23Timl<en
ring and block configuration.
The Multi-Specimen test machine (Fig. 27) is designed to be

a versatile tribology test apparatus. It consists of two opposed, vertical test shafts. One rotates; the other is stationary.
It is called Multi-Specimen because of the use of different
adapters that can be placed between the opposing vertical
shafts. These adapters affect many different tribological configurations. The Multi-Specimen can measure friction and
wear under point, line, and area contacts, in pure sliding,
pure rolling or combination roll/slide motion in unidirectioneJ or oscillation. Because a lubricant is another parameter for the tribological system, virtually any of the adapters
T>pic4l OK
No Storing
1031
Improper Sclup
Scoring (failure)
FIG. 24Typical Timken test wear scars.
Pin-on-Disk (G 99), (Figs. 9,10)

Oscillating Roll Slide for evaluating greases used in constant velocity joints of front wheel drive automobiles (Fig.
29) [26]
Stick/Slip for determining static coefficients of friction of
way lubricants
Gear Cam Contact and Hypoid Gear with combination
rolling and sliding motion for evaluating wear and friction
of lubricants used in gear applications (Fig. 30) [27]
Ball Bearing tests for evaluating a lubricant's effect on
wear in a ball bearing assembly
Sliding Bottle test for evaluating lubricants used on conveyors in beverage bottle filling machines
Sheet Metal Forming for evaluating the friction obtained
during the forming of a flat piece of sheet stock into a
grooved surface
Linear Reciprocation
PILOT PLUG
SEALS WITI
O'RINC
FIG. 25Tapping Torque - exploded view of test area.
can accept a lubricant to determine its effect on friction and

wear of the selected tribological system.
Some of the adapters that are most specific to the evaluation of lubricants are as follows:
Vane on Disk test for evaluating friction and wear of hydraulic fluids under cycling stressed pressures (Fig. 28)
Thrust Washer test for area contact wear of plastic and ceramic materials (D 3702)
Linear reciprocation test machines are popular because they

add the element of reciprocation or back and forth motion.
This type of motion has proven effective in studying the friction, wear, and lubricating films occurring in applications
such as a piston ring on a cylinder wall [28-30]. High-speed
linear reciprocation has also shown good correlation in testing greases used in constant velocity joints of front wheel
drive automobiles.
Linear reciprocation can be achieved in point, line, or area
contacts. Load is applied vertically. The speed is controlled
by the rate of reciprocation, stroke length and test machine
design and is not constant, but rather a sinusoidal wave
shape, due to the start/stop reversal of the reciprocation function. The rate of reciprocation is measured in Hertz, or cycles
per second. Therefore, the user must specify the rate of re-
T I M E (RCJTATION)
FIG. 2BTapping Torque trace of tap entering test piece (insets show position of tap in specimen
blank).
FIG. 29Oscillating roll/slide.

GEAR/CAM CONTACT
R0TAT1C3N
FIG. 27Multi-Specimen type tester.
TORQUE
FIG. 28Vaneon-disk.
LOAD
FIG. 30Gear cam contact.


ciprocation (Hertz), stroke length, load, and temperature.
The wear scar on the ball and disk can be evaluated as a measurement for wear. In EP tests, the load at which incipient
seizure occurs is typically identified as the load carrying capacity of the lubricant with this test apparatus. The ball on
flat reciprocating test is used for evaluating the lubricity of
diesel fuels (D 6079) [31-33].
Depending on the design of the test machine, longer stroke
lengths may compromise the rate of reciprocation. The user
should verify desired requirements with the capabilities of
the test equipment. The commercially available linear reciprocating test machines are the Flint and Partners TE77, High
Frequency Friction Machine [34] (Figs. 31 and 32) and the
SRV5 [35] (Figs. 33 and 34). The TE77 test machine also
provides for contact resistance measurements for evaluating
lubricating surface films in elastohydrodynamic and boundary lubrication conditions.
The ASTM standardized test methods that use linear reciprocating test machines are as follows:
ASTM D 5706, Determining Extreme Pressure Properties
of Lubricating Greases Using a High-Frequency, LinearOscillation (SRV) Test Machine
ASTM D 5707, Measuring Friction and Wear Properties
of Lubricating Grease Using a High-Frequency, LinearOscillation (SRV) Test Machine
ASTM D 6425, Measuring Friction and Wear Properties of
Extreme Pressure (EP) Lubricating Oils Using SRV Test
Machine
ASTM G 133, Linearly Reciprocating Ball-on-Flat Sliding
Wear
' Optimol Insturments, Munich, Germany.
1033
COMMON TYPES OF WIDELY U S E D

COMPONENT TEST DEVICES
FZG Gear
The FZG Gear Test Rig [36], (Fig. 35) is a standard laboratory test machine, designed to test wear and load carrying
capacity of fluid lubricants. The tester uses a matched set of
spur gear (Fig. 36), referred to as Type A test gears, as the
consumable test pieces. These are used for evaluating fluids
for wear (scuffing) [37] and load carrying properties. Alternatively, a gear set of slightly different geometry having
greater surface area is available, referred to as Type C gears.
FIG. 33SRV test machine. Reprinted with permission of Optimol Instruments Priiftechnik GmbH.
tanOtrii t p a c R w m
m<\
Rntrr hMr*i(5 gurtx w r v p n anlfvtf |Wf n nr i n .
t-^î^ -^Bjfijl^j
point
FIG. 31High speed linear reciprocating test
rig (TE77). Reprinted with permission from
Phoenix Tribology.
twm
am
FIG. 34Schematic of SRV test pieces. Reprinted with permission of Optimol Instruments Pruftechnilc GmbH.
FIG. 32Schematic of the test area geometries

for TE77. Reprinted with permission from Phoenix
Tribology.
1034
MANUAL
HANDBOOK
Type C gears are used for evaluating pitting and micro-pitting tendencies of industrial gear oils [38]. As with most
component tests, this gear tester uses actual parts, in this
case, gear sets.
A constant load test is used for evaluating anti-wear properties of tractor hydraulic oils (D 4998). The test gears are
weighed before and after the test. A load stage test of increasing test loads is used for evaluating industrial gear oils
for their ability to carry a load. After each test load, the gear
teeth are evaluated for signs of scoring (D 5182) (Figs. 37 and
PlBion
LodUng Pin
GMrWiietl
Uver Ann with WelgM Kk
Oriva QitMm
TOKpi* Mtaswing Ciuteh
UMd Clutch
38). Lubrication can be either dip lubrication in which the

test gears are submerged in a known quantity of test oil, or in
jet spray lubrication. Jet spray lubrication uses a nozzle to deliver the test lubricant directly onto the test gears.
The ASTM standardized test methods using the FZG Gear
Test Rig are as follows:
ASTM D 4998, Evaluating Wear Characteristics of Tractor
Hydraulic Fluids
ASTM D 5182, Evaluating the Scuffing Load Capacity of
Oils (FZG Visual Method)
TtmptnMm Stnser
FIG. 36FZG test gears on test rig.

Reprinted with permission from StramaIV1PS IVIaschinenbau GmblH & Co. KG.
FIG. 35Diagram of FZG test rig.
Polishing
Scoring
Scoring and Scuffing

FIG. 37Examples of FZG gear distress.
Scuffing
CHAPTER
37: LUBRICANT
FRICTION
AND WEAR
TESTING
1035
CONCLUSION
3 |
Distress;
Pass
Scoring (15mm)
Scorinq (Smm)
Rating :
See 10.4.2
Scratches & Scoring
Rating
See 10.4.2
In this chapter, a systematic method to evaluate how to select

appropriate bench or laboratory tests has been described using the TAN approach. Test equipment, methods, and their
advantages have been detailed. Using the tools available in
the market today, researchers can develop meaningful tests,
acquire test data easily and rapidly, and then draw appropriate conclusions for improving the life and performance of industrial equipment.
In summary, extensive progress has been made to formalize the procedures, practices, and test methods required to
obtain predictive information on the performance of materials and lubricants. Additional information on the use of test
e q u i p m e n t and the significance of test results can be obtained from the meuiufacturer and can be found in the Significance of Test section in the respective ASTM test methods.
eBj
5 m
ASTM STANDARDS
Friction and Wear Properties
Distress:
Scoring (20mm)
Fail
7 M
Scratches & Scuffing (2mm)

R8tlns
See 10.4.2
No.
D1367
8 |M
D2266
Oistmss:
Rating :
Scoring & Scuffing (Smm)

See 10.4.2
[)istress:
Scuffing (20mm)
Rating :
Fail
FIG. 38Examples of FZG gear distress.
D2271
D2625
Vickers P u m p Stand
The Vickers P u m p Stand is a controversial yet widely used
component bench test. Although u n d e r current scrutiny for
i m p r o v e m e n t of its precision, this test stand evaluates
hydraulic fluids for wear using an actual p u m p . The p u m p
parts are inspected metrologically a n d corrected, cleaned,
weighed, and assembled prior to beginning each test. The test
load is the fluid pressure, which can be either 1000 psi or
2000 psi depending on the test method. In some tests the
loaded pressure exceeds that pressure recommended for normal operation. This pressure is chosen to challenge the test
system in order to screen lubricants. At the end of the test, the
p u m p cartridge pieces are again inspected for damage,
cleaned, and weighed.
This test is undergoing considerable modifications. It is
recommended to review the latest draft prior to beginning
ciny test program using this tester.
The ASTM standardized test methods using the Vickers
P u m p Stand are as follows:
ASTM D 2271, Preliminary Examination of Hydraulic Fluids (Wear Test)
ASTM D 2882, Indicating the W e a r Characteristics of
Petroleum and Non-Petroleum Hydraulic Fluids in a Constant Volume Vane P u m p
D2670
D2714
D2882
D2981
D3336
D3704
Title
Standard Test Method for Lubricating Qualities of
Graphites (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Wear Preventive Characteristics of Lubricating Grease (Four Ball
Method) (general laboratory test for wear of
greases in sliding contact)
Standard Test Method for Preliminziry Examination of Hydraulic Fluids (Wear Test) (general laboratory test for wear of hydraulic fluids under low
pressures in p u m p test)
Standard Test Method for Endurance (Wear) Life
and Load Carrying Capacity of Solid Film
Lubricants (Falex Pin and Vee Method) (genercil
laboratory tests for load carrying and wear
properties of solid lubricants)
Standard Test Method for Measuring Wear Properties of Fluid Lubricants (Fcdex Pin and Vee Block
Method) (general laboratory test for sliding wear)
Standard Test Method for Calibration and Operation of the Falex Block- on-Biing Friction and Wear
Testing Machine (generzJ laboratory test in sliding
motion)
S t a n d a r d Test Method for Indicating the Wear
ChEiracteristics of Petroleum a n d Non-Petroleum
Hydraulic Fluids in a Constant Volume Vane
Pump (general laboratory test, known as the Vickers p u m p stand test)
Standard Test Method for Wear Life of Solid Film
Lubricants in Oscillating Motion
(general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Life of Lubricating
Grease in Ball Bearings at Elevated Temperatures
Standard Test Method for Wear Preventive Properties of Lubricating Greases Using the (Falex)
Block-on-Ring Test Machine in Oscillating Motion
1036 MANUAL 3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

D 4172
D 4173
D 4998
D 5001
D 5183
D 5619
D 5620
D 5707
D 6078
D 6079
D 6425
G 77
G 83
G 99
G 115
G 118
G 133
HANDBOOK
Standard Test Method for Wear Preventive Characteristics of Lubricating Fluid (Four Ball
Method) (general laboratory test)
Standard Practice for Sheet Metal Forming Lubricant Evaluation (general methodology for testing)
Standard Test Method for Evaluating Wear Characteristics of Tractor Hydraulic Fluids (general
laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Lubricity of Aviation Turbine Fuels by the Ball-onCylinder Lubricity Evaluator (BOCLE) (general
laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Determination of the
Coefficient of Friction of Lubricants Using the
Four-Ball Wear Test Machine (general laboratory
test)
Standard Test Method for Comparing Metal Removal Fluids Using the Tapping Torque Test Machine (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Evaluating Thin Film
Fluid Lubricants in a Drain and Dry Mode Using a
Pin and V-Block Test Machine (general laboratory
test)
Standard Test Method for Measuring Fiction and
Wear Properties of Lubricating Grease Using a
High-Frequency, Linear-Oscillation (SRV) Test
Machine (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Evaluating Lubricity of
Diesel Fuels by the Scuffing Load Ball-on-Cylinder
Lubricity Evaluator (SLBOCLE) (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Evaluating Lubricity of
Diesel Fuels by the High-Frequency Reciprocating
Rig (HFRR) (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Measuring Friction and
Wear Properties of EP Lubricating Oils Using the
SRV Test Machine (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Ranking Resistance of
Materials to Sliding Wear Using Block-on-Ring
Wear Test (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Wear Testing with
a Crossed Cylinder Apparatus (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Wear Testing With a
Pin-on-Disk Apparatus (general laboratory test)
Standard Guide for Measuring and Reporting
Friction Coefficients (guide for methodology)
Standard Guide for Recommended Data Format
for Sliding Wear Test (guide for methodology)
Standard Test Method for Linearly Reciprocating
Ball-on-Flat Sliding Wear (general laboratory test)
Extreme Pressure Properties

D 1947
D 2509
Standard Test Method for Load-Carrying Capacity

of Petroleum Oil and Synthetic Fluid Gear Lubricants (general laboratory test for testing load carrying capacity of oils in sliding and rolling contact)
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Load
Carrying Capacity of Lubricating Grease (Timken
Method) (general laboratory test for extreme pres-
D 2596
D 2782
D 2783
D 3233
D 5182
D 5706
sure using block-on-ring type tester for seizure,

galling and scuffing)
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme-Pressure Properties of Lubricating Grease
(Four Ball Method) (general laboratory test for extreme pressure properties in sliding motion)
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating Fluids
(Timken Method) (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Lubricating Fluids
(Four-Ball Method) (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Extreme Pressure Properties of Fluid Lubricants
(Falex Pin and Vee Block Method) (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Scuffing
Load Capacity of Oils (FZG Visual Method) (general laboratory test)
Standard Test Method for Determining Extreme
Pressure Properties of Lubricating Greases Using
a High-Frequency, Linear Oscillation (SRV) Test
Machine (general laboratory test)
OTHER STANDARDS
Friction and Wear Properties
DIN-Deutsches
Institut fur
No.
50280
Normung
Title
Running Test on Radial Plain Bearings; General
Plain Bearings; Testing of the Tribological Behavior of Plain Bearings with Hydrostatic and Mixed
Lubrication in Bearing Testing (General Laboratory Test for Sliding Wear of Bearings)
50281
Friction in Bearings; Definitions; Tjrpes; Conditions; Physical Quantities (definitions)
50320
Wear; Terms; System Analysis of Wear Processes;
Classification of Wear Phenomena
(definitions of wear terms and classifications)
5032l.G Wear Quantities (definitions of various wear
types)
50322
Wear; Wear Testing Categories (definitions of
scales of testing of all tjrpes of wear)
50323
Tribology; Terms (4 parts) (terms and definitions
of wear t5fpes)
50324
Tribology; Testing of Friction and Wear Model
Test for Sliding of Solids (Ball on Disc System)
51350
Testing in the Shell Four-Ball Tester (lubricant
characterization)
Determination of the Wearing Characteristics of
Liquids (Part 3);
Determination of the Wearing Characteristics
for Consistent Lubricants (Part 5);
Determination of Shear Stability of Lubricating
Oils Containing Polymers (Part 6)
51354
Mechanical Testing of Lubricants in the FZG Gear
Rig Test (gear lubricant classification in
sliding/rolling contact)
51389
51509
51834
General Working Principles, (Part 1);

Method 1/8.3/90 for Lubricating Oils, (Part 2)
Shear Stability of Polymer Containing Oils
(Parts)
Mechanical Testing of Hydraulic Fluids in the
Vane-Cell P u m p (lubricant characterization of
hydraulic fluids)
General Working Principles (Part 1)
Method A for Anhydrous Hydraulic Fluids
(Part 2)
Method B for Aqueous Not Easily Inflammable
Fluids (Part 3)
Selection of Lubricants for Gears (recommended
use of hydraulic fluids in sliding/rolling contact)
Gear Lubricating Oils (Part 1)
Semi-Fluid Lubricants (Part 2)
Testing of LubricantsTribological Test in Translatory Oscillation Apparatus
General Working Principles (Part 1)
Determination of Friction and Wear Data for
Lubricating Oils (Part 2)
Determination of Tribological Behavior of Materials (Part 3)
ISO-International
7148/1
TR6281
Standards
Organization
Testing of the Friction and Wear Behavior of Bearing Material / Mating Material / Oil Combinations
under Conditions of Boundary Lubrication (bearings, friction and wear tests)
Testing Under Conditions of Hydrodynamic and
Mixed Lubrication in Test Rigs-Guidelines (guidelines for bearings in sliding wear)
JIS - Japanese Agency of International

Technology Standards
Department
K2519
334
166
239
240
326
and
Testing Methods for Load-Carrying Capacity of

Lubricating Oil (note: Japanese Timken Test)
(lubricant testing in sliding or rolling contact)
IP - Institute
281
Science
of
Petroleum-UK
Determination of the Anti-Wear Properties of Hydraulic FluidsVane P u m p Method (lubricant

characterization of hydraulic fluids in a vane pump)
Determination of Load Carrying Capacity of Lubricants-FZG Gear Machine Method (lubricant
characterization of gear oils in sliding and rolling
contact)
Load Carrying Capacity for Oils-IE A Gear Machine (testing of geeir oils in gear test rig)
Extreme Pressure Properties: Friction and Wear
Tests for Lubricants: Four Ball Machine (seizure
and welding characteristics using Four Ball EP)
Standard Method for Measurement of Extreme
Pressure Properties of Lubricating Fluids (Timken
Method) (general laboratory test for extreme pressure properties of oils)
S t a n d a r d Method for Measurement of Extreme
Pressure Properties of Lubricating Grease
(Timken Method) (general laboratory test for extreme pressure properties of greases)
1037
ASTM RELATED STANDARDS

D4175
G40
S t a n d a r d Terminology Relating to Petroleum,

Petroleum Products, and Lubricants (terminology
compilation)
Standard Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion (terminology compilation)
REFERENCES
[1] Dowson, D., History ofTribology, Professional Engineering Publishing Limited, London, UK, 1998.
[2] Benzing, R., Goldblatt, I., Hopkins, V., Jamison, W., Mecklenburg, K., and Peterson, M., Friction and Wear Devices, STLE,
Park Ridge, IL, 1976.
[3] Voitik, R. M., "Realizing Bench Test Solutions to Field Tribology
Problems," Tribology: Wear Test Selection for Design and Application, ASTM STP 1199, A. W. Ruff, and Raymond G. Bayer,
Eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 1993.
[4] Sture, H. and Staffan, J., "Hints and Guidelines for Tribotesting
and Evaluation," Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 48, No. 5, 1991,
pp. 401-409.
[5] Neale, M. J. and Gee, M., Guide to Wear Problems and Testing for
Industry, y^ ed., Williams Andrew Publishing, Norwich, NY,
2001.
[6] Calabrese, S. J. and Muray, S. F., "Methods of Evaluating Materials for Icebreaker Hull Coatings," Selection and Use of Wear
Tests for Coatings, ASTM STP 769, R. G. Bayer, Ed., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 1982, pp. 157-173.
[7] Banniak E. A. and Fein R. S., "Precision of Four Ball and
Timken Tests and Their Relation to Service Performance," NLGI
Spokesman, January 1973.
[8] Faville, F. and Faville, W., "Falex Procedures for Evaluating Lubricants," Journal of the American Society of Lubrication Engineers, STLE, Park Ridge, IL, August 1968.
[9] Bayer R. G., Shalkey A. T., and Wayson A. R., "Designing for
Zero," Machine Design, IBM Corporation, Endicott, NY, 1969.
[10] Wei D.-P., "Future Directions of Fundamental Research in Additive Tribochemistry," Lubrication Sciences, Vol. 7, April 1995.
[11] Mizuhara K. and Tsuya Y., "Investigation of a Method for Evaluating Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids by Means of an Oil-Testing Machine," JSLE International Tribology Conference, Tokyo,
Japan, 8-10 July 1985.
[12] Feldman, D. G. and Kessler, M., "Development of a New Application-RelatedTest Procedure for Mechanical Testing of Hydraulic Fluids," Hydraulic Failure Analysis: Fluids, Components
and System Effects, STP 1339, G. E. Totten, D. K. Wills, and D.
G. Feldman, Eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA, 2001, pp. 75-89.
[13] De Gee, A. W. J., "Characterization of Five High-Performance
Lubricants in Terms of IRG Transition Diagram Data," Proceedings of the IMechE, International Conference on Tribology-Friction. Lubrication, and Wear, Fifty Years On, London, Mechsinical
Engineering Publications Lmtd., Bury St. Edmunds, 1987, Vol.
1, pp. 427-436.
[14] Vaim, J. A. and Jising, T.-B, "Measurement of the Friction and
Lubricity Properties of Contact Lenses," Proceedings of the ANTEC1995, Boston, MA, May 7-11, 1995.
[15] Schipper, D. J. and Faraon, I. C, "Stribeck Curves for Starved
Line Contacts," University of Twente, The Netherlands, Report
number TROl-2227, 2001.
[16] Sanvordenker, K. S., "Lubrication by Oil-RefrigerEint Mixtures:
Behavior in the Falex Tester," ASHRAE Transactions, KC-84-14,
No. 3, pp. 799-805.
[17] Anderson, M., "The Use of Tribological Aspect Numbers in
Bench Test Selection-A Review Update," Bench Testing of In-

dustrial Fluid Lubrication and Wear Properties Used in Machinery Applications, ASTM STP 1404, G. E. Totten, L. D. Wedeven,
J. R. Dickey, and M. Anderson, Eds., ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
[18] Condensed Catalog ofFalex Test Equipment and Custom Services,
QG-18, Falex Corporation, Sugar Grove, IL, 1999.
[19] Helmetag, K., "A New Look at an Old Idea: The Torque Curve
Revisited," Bench Testing of Industrial Fluid Lubrication and
Wear Properties Used in Machinery Applications, ASTM STP
1404, G. E. Totten, L. D. Wedeven, J. R. Dickey, and M. Anderson, Eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
[20] "Extreme Pressure Lubricant Test Machines," Mobil Technical
Bulletin, Mobil Oil, Roswell, GA, 1970.
[21] "A Compilation of International Standards for Friction and
Wear Testing of Materials," VAMAS Technical Working Area 1,
Peter J. Blau, Ed., Report No. 14, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD,
1993.
[22] Voitik, R., and Ren, N., "Diesel Fuel Lubricity by Standard Four
Ball Apparatus Utilizing Ball on Three Disks, BOTD," SAE Paper #950247, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA,
1995.
[23] Voitik, R., "Diesel Fuel Lubricity BOTD Status-1995," Presented
at the Fuels & Lubricants Meeting & Exposition, Toronto, Ontario, 16-19 Oct. 1995, SAE Paper #952371, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1995.
[24] Nikeinjam, M., " Diesel Fuel Lubricity: On the Path to Specifications," presented at the International Spring Fuels & Lubricants
Meeting & Exposition, Dearborn, MI, 3-6 May 1999, SAE Paper
#1999-01-1479, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale,
PA, 1999.
[25] The Timken Company Model 1750 Lubricant and Wear Tester,
The Timken Company, Canton, OH, 1977.
[26] Anderson, M., "Oscillating Roll/Slide Test Machine for Screening Properties of Greases Used in Constant Velocity Joints,"
Journal of the National Lubricating Grease Institute: NLGI
Spokesman, Vol. 54, No. 3, June 1990.
[27] Voitik, R. M., and Heerdt, L. R., "Wear and Friction Evaluation
of Gear Lubricants by Bench Test," Journal of the American Society of Lubrication Engineers: Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 40,
No. 12, pp. 719-724.
[28] Bell, J. C. and Delargy, K. M., "Lubrication Influences on the
Wear of Piston-Ring Coatings," Proceedings of the 16''' Lees-Lyon
Symposium, Mechanics of Coatings, 1989, pp. 371-377.
[29] Patterson, D. J., Hill, S. H., and Tung, S. C, "Bench Wear Testing of Engine Power Cylinder Components," Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 49, No. 2, 1993, pp. 89-95
[30] Hartfield-Wunsch, S. E., Tung, S. C, and Rivard, C. J., "Development of a Bench Wear Test for the Evaluation of Engine
Cylinder Components and the Correlation with Engine Test Results," Tribological Insights and Performance Characteristics of
Modem Engine Lubricants, SAE SP-996, SAE Paper #932693,
1993.
[31] Lacey, P. I. and Lestz, S. J., "Fuel Lubricity Requirements for
Diesel Injection Systems," SWRI Report No. BFLRF 270, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, 1991.
[32] Spikes, H. A., Meyer, K., Bovington, C, Caprotti, R., and
Krieger, K., "Development of a Laboratory Test to Predict Lubricity Properties of Diesel Fuels and its Application to the Development of Highly Refined Diesel Fuels," presented at the 9*^
International Colloquium, Ecological and Economical Aspects of
Tribology, Paper 3.22, Technische Akademie Esslingen, Germany, 1994, pp. 1-16.
[33] Hadley, J. W., Owen, G. C, and Mills, B., "Evaluation of a High
Frequency Reciprocating Wear Test for Measuring Diesel Fuel
Lubricity," SAE Paper #932692, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1993.
[34] Plint and Partners Catalog of Tribology Test Equipment, Flint and
Psutners, Newbury, Bershire, England, 2001.
[35] SRV Test System for Evaluating the Tribological Properties of

Lubricants and Materials, Optimol Instruments Priiftechnik
GmbH, Miinchen, Germany, 1996.
[36] D-94303: FZG Zahnrad-Verspannungs-Prufstand FZG Gear
Test Rig, Strama GmbH & Co. KG, Straubing, Germany, 1995.
[37] "Method to Assess the Scuffing Load Capacity of Lubricants
with High EP Performance Using an FZG Gear Test Rig," FVA
Information Sheet, Research Project No. 243, Forschungsvereinigung Antriebstechnick E.V., 60528 Frankfurt/Main, 1995.
[38] "Test Procedure for the Investigation of the Micro-Pitting Capacity of Gear Lubricants," FVA Information Sheet, Research
Project No. 54/1 - IV, Forschungsvereinigung Antriebstechnick
E.V., 60528 Frankfurt/Main, 1993.
APPENDIX
Terminology Related to Fuels
and Lubricants Testing
abrasive wear, nwear due to hard peirticles or hard protuberances forced against and moving cdong a solid surface.
additive, na material added to another, usueJly in small
amounts, to impart or enhance desirable properties or to suppress undesirable properties.
adhesive wear, nwear due to localized bonding between
contacting solid surfaces leading to material transfer between the two surfaces or loss from either surface.
apparent area of contact, nin tribology, the area of contact
between two solid surfaces defined by the boundaries of their
macroscopic interface. (Contrast with real a r e a of contact.)
asperity, nin tribology, a protuberance in the small-scale
topographical irregularities of a solid surface.
break-in, nin tribology, an initicJ transition process occurring in newly established weEuing contacts, often accompanied by transients in coefficient of friction or wear rate, or
both, which are uncharacteristic of the given tribological system's long-term behavior.
catastrophic vwear, nrapidly occurring or accelerating
surface damage, deterioration, or change of shape caused by
wear to such a degree that the service life of a part is appreciably shortened or its function is destroyed.
coefficient of friction, fi or f, nin tribology, the dimensionless ratio of the friction force (F) between two bodies to
the normal force {N) pressing these two bodies together.
/x or f = (F/N)
Discussiona distinction is often made between static coefficient of friction and kinetic coefficient of friction.
corrosive wear, n^wear in which chemical or electrochemical reaction with the environment is significEuit.
debris, nin tribology, pjirticles that have become detached
in a wear or erosion process.
dry solid film lubricants, ndry coatings consisting of lubricating powders in a solid matrix bonded to one or both
surfaces to be lubricated.
extreme pressure (EP) additive, nin a lubricant, a substcince that minimizes damage to metcil surfaces in contact
under high stress rubbing conditions (D 4175).
fatigue wear, n^wear of a solid surface caused by fracture
arising from material fatigue.
fretting wear, na form of attiitive wear caused by vibratory or oscillatory motion of limited amplitude characterized

by the removal of finely-divided particles from the rubbing
surfaces. DiscussionÂir can cause immediate local oxidation of the wear particles produced by fretting wear. In addition, environmental moisture or humidity can hydrate the
oxidation product. In the case of ferrous metals, the oxidized
wear debris is abrasive iron oxide (FeaOs) having the appearance of rust, which gives rise to the nearly synonymous terms
fretting corrosion and friction oxidation. A related, but somew h a t different, p h e n o m e n o n often accompanies fretting
wccir. Fedse brinelling is localized fretting weeir that occurs
when the rolling elements of a bearing vibrate or oscillate
with small amplitude while pressed against the bearing race.
The mechanism proceeds in stages: (1) asperities weld, are
torn apart, and form wear debris that is subsequently oxidized; (2) due to the small-amplitude motion, the oxidized
detritus cannot readily escape, and being abrasive, the oxidized wear debris accelerates the wear. As a result, wear depressions are formed in the bearing race. These depressions
appear similar to the Brinell depressions obtained with static
overloading. Although false brinelling can occur in this test,
it is not chcu-acterized as such, and instead, it is included in
the determination of fretting wear.
fretting corrosion, na form of fretting wear in which corrosion plays a significEuit role.
fretting wear, nwear arising as a result of fretting (see
fretting).
friction, nthe resistance to sliding exhibited by two surfaces in contact with each other. Basically, there are two frictional properties exhibited by any surface: static friction EUid
kinetic friction.
friction force, n^the resisting force tangential to the interface between two bodies when, under the action of an external force, one body moves or tends to move relative to the
other. (See also coefficient of friction.)
Hertzian c o n t a c t area, nthe a p p a r e n t area of contact
between two nonconforming solid bodies pressed against
each other, as calculated from Hertz's equations of elastic
deformation.
Hertzian c o n t a c t pressure, nthe m a g n i t u d e of the
pressure at any specified location in a Hertzian contact Eirea,
as calculated from Hertz's equations of elastic deformation.
kinetic coefficient of friction, nthe coefficient of friction
u n d e r conditions of macroscopic relative motion between
two bodies.
kinetic friction, nthe force that resists motion when a surface is moving with a uniform velocity; it is, therefore, equal
and opposite to the force required to maintain sliding of the
surface with uniform velocity.
lubricant, nany substance interposed between two surfaces for the purpose of reducing the friction or wear between them.
lubricating grease, na semi-fluid to solid product of a dispersion of a thickener in a liquid lubricant.
Discussionthe qualifying term, lubricating, should always be used. The term, grease, used without the qualifier
refers to a different product, namely certain natural or processed animal fats, such as tallow, lard, cind so forth (D 128).
Discussionthe dispersion of the thickener forms a twophase system a n d immobilizes the liquid lubricant by surface
tension eind other physical forces. Other ingredients cire commonly included to impart specied properties (D 217).
1039
lubricating oil, na liquid lubricant, usually comprising

several ingredients, including a major portion of base oil and
minor portions of various additives (D 5966).
lubricity, na qualitative term describing the ability of a lubricant to minimize friction between and damage to surfaces
in relative motion u n d e r load (D 4857, D 4863).
precision, nthe degree of agreement between two or more
results on the same property of identical test material. In this
practice, precision statements are framed in terms of the repeatability and reproducibility of the test method (D 3244).
pitting, nin tribology, a form of wear characterized by the
presence of surface cavities, the formation of which is attributed to processes such as fatigue, local adhesion, or cavitation.
repeatability, nthe quantitative expression of the random
error associated with a single operator in a given laboratory
obtaining repetitive results with the same apparatus under
constant operating conditions on identiced test material. It is
defined as the difference between two such results at the 95%
confidence level.
Discussioninterpret as the value equal to or below which
the absolute difference between two single test results obtained in the above conditions may expect to lie with a probabihty of 95%.
Discussionthe difference is related to repeatability standard deviation but is not the standard deviation or its estimate.
reproducibility R, nquEintitative expression of the r a n d o m
error associated with operators working in different laboratories, each obtaining single results on identical test material
when applying the same method.
result, nthe value obtained by following the complete set of
instructions of a test method.
rolling contact fatigue, na damage process in a triboelement subjected to repeated rolling contact loads, involving
the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks in or under
the contact surface, eventually culminating in surface pits
or spalls.
rolling wear, nwear due to the relative motion between
two nonconforming solid bodies whose surface velocities in
the n o m i n a l contact location are identical in magnitude,
direction, and sense. DiscussionRolling wear is not a
synonym for rolling contact fatigue, although the latter can
be considered one form of rolling wear.
run-in, nin tribology, an initial transition process occurring
in newly established wearing contacts, often accompanied by
transients in coefficient of friction, or wear rate, or both,
which ju-e uncharacteristic of the given tribological system's
long term behavior. {Synonym: break-in, wear-in.)
run-in, vin tribology, to apply a specified set of initial operating conditions to a tribological system to improve its long
term frictional or wecir behavior, or both. {Synonym: break
in, V. and wear in, v. See also run-in, n.)
scoring, nin tribology, a severe form of wear characterized
by the formation of extensive grooves and scratches in the direction of sliding.
scratching, n^the formation of fine lines in the direction of
sliding that may be due to asperities on the harder slider or
to h a r d particles between the surfaces or embedded in one of
them. DiscussionScratching is considered less damaging
than scoring or scuffing.
1040 MANUAL 37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
HANDBOOK
scuff, scuffing, nin lubrication, damage caused by instantaneous localized welding between surfaces in relative motion, which does not result in immobilization of the parts.
scuffingn, a form of wear occurring in inadequately lubricated tribosystems that is characterized by macroscopiccJlyobservable changes in surface texture, with features related
to the direction of relative motion.
Discussionfeatures characteristic of scuffing include
scratches, plastic deformation, and transferred material. (Related terms: galling, scoring.)
seizure, nin lubrication, welding between surfaces in relative motion that results in immobilization of the parts. Localized fusion of metal between the rubbing surfaces of the
test pieces (D 5707). DiscussionSeizure is usually indicated
by an increase in coefficient of friction, wear, or unusual
noise and vibration. In this test method, increase in coefficient of friction is displayed on the chart recorder as rise in
the coefficient of friction from a steady state value.
sliding wear, nwear due to the relative motion in the tangential plane of contact between two solid bodies.
speilling, nin tribology, the separation of macroscopic particles from a surface in the form of flakes or chips, usually associated with rolling element bearings and gear teeth, but
also resulting from impact events.
standard test, na test on a calibrated test stand, using the
prescribed equipment according to the requirements in the
test method, and conducted according to the specified operating conditions. Discussionthe specified operating conditions in some test methods include requirements for determining a test's operational validity. These requirements are
applied after a test is completed, and can include (1) midlimit ranges for the average values of primary and secondary
parameters that are narrower than the specified control
ranges for the individual values, (2) allowable deviations for
individual primary and secondary parameters from the specified control ranges, (3) downtime limitations, and (4) special
parameter limitations.
static coefficient of friction, nthe coefficient of friction
corresponding to the maximum friction force that must
be overcome to initiate macroscopic motion between two
bodies.
stick-slip, nin tribology, a cyclic fluctuation in the magnitudes of friction force and relative velocity between two
elements in sliding contact, usually associated with a relaxation oscillation dependent on elasticity in the tribosystem
and on a decrease of the coefficient of friction with onset of
sliding or with increase of sliding velocity.
DiscussionClassical or true stick-slip, in which each cycle
consists of a stage of actual stick followed by a stage of overshoot "slip," requires that the kinetic coefficient of friction is
lower than the static coefficient. A modified form of relaxation oscillation, with near-harmonic fluctuation in motion,
can occur when the kinetic coefficient of friction decreases
gradually with increasing velocity within a certain velocity
range. A third t5ê of stick-slip can be due to spatial periodicity of the friction coefficient along the path of contact. Random variations in friction force measurement do not constitute stick-slip.
test oil, nany oil subjected to evaluation in an established
procedure.
test sample, na portion of the product taken at the place

where the product is exchanged, that is, where the responsibility for the product quality passes from the supplier to the
receiver. Actually, this is rarely possible and a suitable sampling location should be mutually agreed on.
triboelement, none of two or more solid bodies that comprise a sliding, rolling, or abrasive contact, or a body subjected to impingement or cavitation. (Each triboelement contains one or more tribosurfaces.)
DiscussionContacting triboelements may be in direct
contact or may be separated by an intervening lubricant, oxide, or other film that affects tribological interactions between them.
tribology, nthe science and technology concerned with interacting surfaces in relative motion, including friction, lubrication, wear, and erosion.
tribosurface, nany surface (of a solid body) that is in moving contact with another surface or is subjected to impingement or cavitation.
tribosystem, nany system that contains one or more triboelements, including all mechanical, chemical, and environmental factors relevant to tribological behavior, (See also
triboelement.)
thin film Quid lubricant, nfluid lubricants consisting of a
primary liquid with or without additives or lubricating powders and without binders or adhesives, which form a film on
one or both surfaces to be lubricated and perform their function after application and after excess material has drained
from the application area, and without additional material being supplied by either a continuous or intermittent method.
wear, ndamage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss of material, due to relative motion between that
surface and a contacting substance or substances.
wear, nthe removal of metal from the test pieces by a mechanical or chemical action, or by a combination of mechanical and chemical actions.
wear rate, nthe rate of material removal or dimensional
change due to wear per unit of exposure parameter; for example, quantity of material removed (mass, volume, thickness) in unit distance of sliding or unit time.
wear coefficient, nin tribology, a wear parameter that relates sliding wear measurements to tribosystem parameters.
Most commonly, but not invariably, it is defined as the dimensionless coefficient k in the equation
wear volume = k (load X sliding
distance/hardness of the softer material)
(1) The equation given above is frequently referred to in the
literature as "Archard's equation" or "Archard's law."
(2) Sometimes the term wear coefficient has been used as a
sjrnonym for wear factor. While this usage is discouraged, the
term should always be fully defined in context to prevent confusion.
wear rate, nthe rate of material removal or dimensional
change due to wear per unit of exposure parameter, for example, quantity of material removed (mass, volume, thickness) in unit distance of sliding or unit time.
DiscussionBecause of the possibility of confusion, the
manner of computing wear rate should always be carefully
specified.

welding, nin tribology, the bonding between metallic surfaces in direct contact, at any temperature.
Terminology Specific to Standards
load-canying capacity, nas determined by D 2782, the
maximum load or pressure that can be sustained by the lubricant (when used in the given system under specific conditions) without failure of the sliding contact surfaces as evidenced by scoring or seizure or asperity welding (D 2509, D
2782).
OK value, nas determined by D 2782, the maximum mass
(weight) added to the load lever weight pan at which no scoring or seizure occurs (D 2509, D 2782).
score value, nas determined by D 2782, the minimum
mass (weight) added to the load lever weight pan, at which
scoring or seizure occurs (D 2509, D 2782).
DiscussionWhen the lubricant film is substantially maintained, a smooth scar is obtained on the test block, but when
there is a breakdown of the lubricant film, scoring or surface
failure of the test block takes place, see Fig. 24. In its simplest
and most recognized form, scoring is characterized by the
furrowed appearance of a wide scar on the test block and excessive pick-up of metal on the surface of the test cup. The
form of surface failure more usually encountered, however,
consists of a comparatively smooth scar, which shows local
damage that usually extends beyond the width of the scar.
Scratches or striations that occur in an otherwise smooth
scar and that do not extend beyond the width of the scar are
not considered as evidence of scoring.
seizure or asperity welding, nlocalized fusion of metal between the rubbing surfaces of the test pieces. Seizure is usually indicated by streaks appeciring on the surface of the test
cup, an increase in friction and wear, or unusual noise and vibration. Throughout D 2782, the term seizure is understood
to mean seizure or asperity welding (D 2509, D 2782).
load-wear index, n(or the load-carrying property of a lubricant)an index of the ability of a lubricant to minimize
wear at applied loads. Under the conditions of this test, specific loadings in kilograms-force (or Newtons) having intervals of approximately 0.1 logcirithmic units, are applied to the
three stationary balls for ten runs prior to welding. The loadwear index is the average of the sum of the corrected loads
determined for the ten applied loads immediately preceding
the weld pair (D 2596, D2783).
weld point, nunder the conditions of this test, the lowest
applied load in kilograms at which the rotating ball welds to
the three stationary balls, indicating the extreme-pressure
level of the lubricants-force (or Newtons) has been exceeded.
DiscussionSome lubricants do not allow true welding,
and extreme scoring of the three stationary balls results. In
such cases, the applied load that produces a maximum scar diameter of 4 mm is reported as the weld point (D 2596, D 2783).
1041
corrected load, nthe load in kilograms-force (or Newtons)

for each run obtained by multiplying the applied load by the
ratio of the Hertz scar diameter to the measured scar diameter at that load (D 2596, D 2783).
Hertz scar diameter, nthe average diameter, in millimeters, of an indentation caused by the deformation of the balls
under static load (prior to test). It may be calculated from the
equation
Dh = 8.73 X \Q-^ (P)''3
Where:
Dh = Hertz diameter of the contact area, and
P = the static applied load.
(D 2596, D 2783)
compensation scar diameter, nthe average diameter, in
millimeters, of the wear scar on the stationary balls caused by
the rotating ball under an applied load in the presence of a lubricant, but without causing either seizure or welding (D
2596, D 2783).
DiscussionThe wear scar obtained shall be within 5% of
the values noted in Table 1, Column 3 of ASTM D 2596/D
2783.
Hertz line, na line of plot on logarithmic paper, as shown
in Fig. 16, where the coordinates are scar diameter in millimeters and applied load in kilograms-force (or Newtons),
obtained under static conditions.
compensation line, na line of plot on logarithmic paper,
as shown in Fig. 1, where the coordinates are scar diameter
in millimeters and applied load in kilograms-force (or
Newtons), obtained under dynamic conditions. (D 2596,
D 2783)
DiscussionCoordinates for the compensation line are
found in Table 1, Columns 1 and 3 of ASTM D 2596/D 2783.
DiscussionSome lubricants give coordinates which are
above the compensation line. Known examples of such fluids
are methyl phenyl silicone, chlorinated methyl phenyl silicone, silphenylene, phenyl ether, and some mixtures of
petroleum oil and chlorinated paraffins.
last nonseizure load, nthe last load at which the measured scar diameter is not more than 5% above the compensation line at the load (D 2596, D 2783).
incipient seizure or initial seizure region, nthat region
at which, with an applied load, there is a momentary breakdown of the lubricating film. This breakdown is noted by a
sudden increase in the measured scar diameter and a momentary deflection of the indicating pen of the optional friction-measuring device (D2596, D2783).
immediate seizure region, nthat region of the scar-load
curve characterized by seizure or welding at the startup or by
large wear scars. Initial deflection of indicating pen on the
optional friction-measuring device is larger than with nonseizure loads (D 2596, D 2783).

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MNL37-EB/Jun.

Lubricant Friction and

THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES VARIOUS METHODS TO EVALUATE THE FRIC-

HISTORY OF TRIBOLOGY [1]

BASIC TYPES OF TRIBOLOGY

1018 MANUAL 37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS HANDBOOK

The ability to use a bench test offers many benefits including:

FUNDAMENTALS IN DESIGNING THE

Test Parameter Selection

37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

SELECTING AND DESIGNING THE TEST

materials. Laboratory tests for specifications are generally

TEST PARAMETER SELECTION

37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

locating the temperature sensor in close proximity to the

CHAPTER 37: LUBRICANT FRICTION AND WEAR TESTING

tion and the wear of each material combination is compared.

1.E -06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E -02

FIG. 3Stribeck curves for starved lubricated line

Standardized test methods generally specify the materials

If special atmospheres are present in the field condition, the

MANUAL 3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

TEST SELECTION AND USE OF THE

yield the same TAN. After identifying the bench tester to be

CHAPTER 3 7: LUBRICANT FRICTION AND WEAR TESTING

FIG. 5Pin and Vee Block Tester (Falex Lubricant

FIG. 6Pin and

FIG. 7Pin and Vee Block test piece configuration.

3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

FIG. 10Pin on disk test configuration.

for determining wear rates and endurance life of coatings

CHAPTER 3 7: LUBRICANT FRICTION AND WEAR TESTING

FIG. 14Ball scar measurement.

FIG. 11Four Ball.

FIG. 15Four Ball Wear test machine.

ilar geometrical contact. It allows geometry similar to the

FIG. 13Typical wear scars.

Four Ball Wear

1028 MANUAL 37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

Wear test machine, was standardized because the friction

APPLIED LOAD, kgf

FIG. 16Schematic plot of scar diameter

FIG. 17Four Ball EP test machine.

wear tests, as it lacks the necessary precision. When running

The standardized test methods that use the Four Ball EP

FIG. 20Block on ring test piece

FIG. 18Rolling four ball.

FIG. 19Block-on-ring test chamber.

toring the friction force of lubricants containing EP additives

1030 MANUAL 3 7: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

ASTM D 3704, Wear Preventive Properties of Lubrication

properties or high levels of load carrying ability. This tester

FIG. 22Timken test machine.

The Multi-Specimen test machine (Fig. 27) is designed to be

CHAPTER 3 7: LUBRICANT FRICTION AND WEAR TESTING

Pin-on-Disk (G 99), (Figs. 9,10)

FIG. 25Tapping Torque - exploded view of test area.

can accept a lubricant to determine its effect on friction and

Linear reciprocation test machines are popular because they

1032 MANUAL 37: FUELS AND LUBRICANTS HANDBOOK