INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JODHPUR

NATURE & PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS (NPM)

LABORATORY MANUAL

Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur

NPM Laboratory Manual

Objective of NPM Laboratory

In order to improve the understanding of nature and properties of material,
an NPM laboratory course would expose the technology of measurement, use of
basic instruments and methodology of data analyses and the scientific
documentation. Moreover it offers a student the unique opportunity of learning
science by doing rather than by reading.
The students will become familiar with the nature and properties of the
materials by conducting laboratory tests. These tests have been selected to illustrate
the basic properties and methods of testing of various metals, semiconductors,
ferromagnetic, wooden bar, Perspex material, nano kit etc.
The results of NPM laboratory are used in selecting materials for engineering
applications. Properties of material frequently included in specifications to ensure
quality and often are useful during development of new materials and processes.
This manual provides a brief theoretical background and complete procedure
for performing the experiments. Also some references and viva voce questions have
been given at the end of each experiment for further reading.

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NPM Laboratory Manual

INDEX
S. No. Experiment
1. ENERGY BAND GAP OF A PN DIODE

Page
5

2. HALL EFFECT

11

3. CORNU`S METHOD

17

4. B-H CURVE

21

5. BENDING OF BEAM

26

6. CURIE TEMPERATURE

30

7. SOLAR PV MODULE

34

8. BRINELL HARDNES TEST

40

9. UTM

43

10. NANO KIT

48

11. FOUR PROBE METHOD

51

12. X-RAY DIFFRACTION

59

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NPM Laboratory Manual

Instructions to the Students

1. Assessment in the course is based on (i) your performance in the laboratory
class (ii) your laboratory report, and (iii) the semester examination.
2. A prior study about the experiment is essential for good performance in the
lab. Read the manual carefully before coming to the lab class. If you come
unprepared to the lab; your performance would be accordingly affected.
3. You are expected to perform the experiment, complete the calculations and
data analysis, and submit the report of every experiment on the same day
within the laboratory slot assigned for it.
4. Always maintain the discipline in the lab.
5. At least one set of observations must be signed by one of the instructors. It is
important to estimate the maximum possible error of the results using the
given apparatus/data.
6. Each graph should be well documented; abscissa and ordinate along with the
units should be mentioned clearly. The title of the graph should be stated on
the top of each graph paper.
7. You are expected to give a careful thought on the precautions to be observed
in handling any equipment and conducting the experiment. In case of any
doubt you should feel free to interact with the instructors.
8. Following is the format of lab report:
(a) Name, Roll No., date, and title of the experiment.
(b) Objective of the experiment,
(c) Working formula (you might have to derive it starting from the
expressions given in the instruction manual particularly for the linear fit to
the data.), explanation of the symbols.
(d) The figure/figures if required.
(e) Least count of all the equipment, constants if any to be used and the well
tabulated observations. Observation tables should be neat and selfexplanatory. (Typical tabular columns have been given for some of the
experiments. You may make your own format). Relevant substitutions,
calculations, and error analyses. Graph/graphs if applicable. Results along
with the error estimates. Remarks/suggestion/comments, if any.

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NPM Laboratory Manual

1. ENERGY BAND GAP OF A PN DIODE

OBJECT:
To study the resistivity variation of Germanium with temperature and estimate the
energy band gap Eg (in eV).
APPARATUS:PN diode, DC battery source, voltmeter, Micro Ammeter, connecting leads etc.
THEORY:
Semiconductor is a special class of element having conductivity between the
conductivity of a good conductor and an insulator. Conductivity of semiconductor
depends upon temperature. Semiconductor materials have negative temperature
coefficient, so unlike metals conductivity of semiconductor increases with increase in
temperature. As the temperature increases, the thermal energy of the valence
electrons increases, allowing more of them to reach the energy gap into the
conduction band. When an electron gains enough energy to escape the electrostatic
attraction of its parent, it leaves behind a vacancy which may be filled by another
electron. The vacancy produced can be thought of as a second carrier of positive
charge. It is known as a hole. As electrons flow through the semiconductor, holes
flow in the opposite direction. If there are
free electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor, then there must also be holes.
Variation of conductivity of semiconductor with temperature is given by:
(1)
Where,
K = Constant; whose value depends upon the nature of semiconductor.
Eg = Forbidden energy gap.
k = Boltzman constant and
T = Temperature of semiconductor material in Kelvin.
Taking log both side of Equation.1
(2)
or

(3)

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NPM Laboratory Manual

If

is in electron volt than,

(

or

(4)

Now if we plot a graph between

slope is

and 104/T; we get a straight line whose

So, the energy band gap

of a semiconductor will be,

(

(5)

Thus calculating conductivity at different-different temperature we can calculate

energy band gap of a diode by equation (5).
When P-N junction diode is kept in
reverse biased, than few microampere range
current flows through junction. In reverse
bias current flowing through junction are
quite small (a few microampere range) and
internal heating of junction does not take
place. Hence junction temperature can be
increased by flowing current through coil. At
any temperature T, diode voltage is V and
current is I than conductivity of
semiconductor is given by:

Now calculate conductivity of diode at

different-different
temperature
and
complete the table.

Figure 1. PN Diode in Reverse bias

Factor affecting energy band gap of semiconductor

1. Temperature dependence of the energy band gap :
The energy band gap of semiconductor tends to decrease as the temperature is
increased. Thermal energy increases amplitude of atomic vibration which cause
band gap to shrink. The temperature dependence of the energy band gap has been

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NPM Laboratory Manual

experimentally determined by following expression for Eg as a function of

temperature, T.
( )
Where,
and are are the fitting parameters. These parameters are listed for
germanium, silicon arsenide in table below:
Parameters

Germanium
0.7437
0.477
235

Silicon
1.166
0.473
636

GaAs
1.519
0.541
204

2. Doping dependence of energy band gap :

High doping densities cause the band gap to shrink. This effect is explained by the fact
that the wave functions of the electrons bound to the impurity atoms start to overlap as the
density of the impurities increase. For instance, at a doping density of 1018 cm-3, the average
distance between two impurities is only 10 nm. This overlap forces the energies to form an
energy band rather than a discreet level.
If the impurity level is shallow, this impurity band reduces the energy band of the host
material by:

( )
Where,

Doping density,
Electronic charge,
Dielectric constant of the semiconductor,
Boltzmann's constant and
Temperature in Kelvin.
For silicon (e = 11.7) this expression further reduces to:
( )

From this expression we find that the band gap shrinkage can typically be ignored for doping
densities less than 1018 cm-3.
PROCEDURE:1. Connect the two terminals of the given semiconductor diode (Germanium or Silicon)
to the DC Power supply and micro ammeter in such a way that the diode is reverse
biased.
2. Switch on the DC Power supply and adjust the reverse bias voltage to 2 Volts. Switch
on the AC main supply.

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NPM Laboratory Manual

3. As the oven is switched on, the temperature of the PN diodes gradually increase.
Consequently, the current through the diode also increases.
4. Note the value of the current of every 5

in increasing order of the temperature, when the

temperature of the PN Diode reaches to about 65 , then switch off the oven.

Note: - Do not increase the temperature beyond the 65

5. Now also note Temperature V/s Current
6. Tabulate the values of current and temperature in decreasing order of temperature.
7. Repeat the experiment for two or three different voltages.
OBSERVATION TABLE:(i)

Sr.
No.

Applied Voltage

Temperature

Temperature
T (K)
=(273+ )

Current
Is (in
)

Conductivity

Current
Is (in
)

Conductivity

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
(ii)
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Applied Voltage

Temperature

Temperature
T (K)
=(273+ )

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NPM Laboratory Manual

(iii)
Sr.
No.

Applied Voltage

Temperature

Temperature
T (K)
=(273+ )

Current
Is (in
)

Conductivity

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
CALCULAION:

along the X-axis and

alongY-axis; plot a graph between
. (The graph will be straight line as shown in graph 1) for each value of
and
applied voltage.
Take

Slope of the line = = ..

Hence energy band gap of semiconductor
(
=.eV
Similarly find the value of band gap for another applied voltage.

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RESULT:Measured energy gap of a semiconductor is = ..eV

Standard value of energy band gap = 0.72 eV (Ge)
= 1.12 eV (Si)
Percentage error
PRECAUTIONS:1. The PN diode should be in reverse biased.
2. Do not increase the temperature of diode beyond the 65 0C.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you understand by Energy band gap?
2. Explain how the energy band gap is depends on temperature in semiconductors?
3. What is the standard value of energy band gap for Ge & Si semiconductor?
4. Why we use PN diode in reverse biased in this experiment?
5. What will be effect on conductivity of a semiconductor, metal & insulator on
increasing the temperature?

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2. HALL EFFECT
AIM:
1. To study Hall Effect in an extrinsic semiconducting sample and to determine Hall
voltage VH, and Hall coefficient RH.
2. To determine the type of majority carriers i.e. whether the semiconductor crystal is of
n-type or p-type.
3. To determine the charge carrier density or carrier concentration per unit volume in the
semiconductor crystal.
THEORY:
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying specimen (metal
or specimen), a voltage is developed in the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the
current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. The voltage so generated
is called Hall voltage.
We know that a static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless they are in
motion. When the charge flows, a magnetic directed perpendicular to the direction of flow
produces a mutually perpendicular Lorentz force on the charges. Consequently, electrons and
holes get separated by opposite forces and produce an electric field EH, thereby setting up a
potential difference between the ends of a specimen. This is called Hall Voltage VH.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Consider a rectangular slab of semiconductor with thickness d kept in XY plane (see
Fig.1.1). When an electric field is applied in X-direction, a current I flows through the
sample. If w is width of the sample and d is the thickness, the current density is given
by

Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of the Hall Effect. An n-type semiconductor with a current applied across and
magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

Now if a magnetic field B is also applied along Z- axis the moving charges experience
). This results in accumulation of majority charge carriers
additional force
(

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NPM Laboratory Manual

towards one side of the material (along negative Y-direction in the present case). This process
continues until the electric force
to accumulated charges balances the magnetic
force. So, in a steady state the net Lorentz force experienced by charge carriers will be zero.
The potential, thus developed across Y direction is known as Hall voltage VH (perpendicular
to both current and the field directions) and this effect is called Hall effect. Thus under steady
state condition
(1)
is the drift velocity of charge carriers. Equation (1) can be written as

Where,

Where,

is the charge density and

called the Hall coefficient

. (2)
is the charge on each carrier. The ratio (

) is

. i. e.

.. (3)

If w is width of the sample and d is the thickness, then current density is given by

and Hall voltage

using in equation (3) we get

Hall coefficient
Hall Voltage

..... (4)
...... (5)

From Equation (4) and (5), it is clear that the type of charge carrier and its density can be
estimated from the sign and the value of Hall coefficient
. It can be obtained by studying
the variation of VH as a function of I for a given B.
If the conduction is primarily due to one type of charge carriers, then conductivity is related
to mobility
therefore,

where,

is the resistivity of specimen.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
Electromagnet with power supply (0-16 V., 5 Amps.), Constant current source (0-20 mA),
Gauss meter with Hall probe, Semiconductor mounted on a PCB with four sockets,
Multimeter for measuring Hall voltage, Hall effect apparatus etc.
Specification: Thickness

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Width
Length
Block Diagram of Experimental Set-up:

Figure 3 Block Diagram of Hall Effect.

FORMULA USED:
1. Hall coefficient
Where,

Hall voltage in volts,

Width of the sample in m,
Magnetic flux density in Tesla,
= Current in mA
2. Concentration of charge carriers per unit volume

Carriers
3. Resistivity of the material of the sample

Where is voltage between two points situated cm apart on one face of sample
of sample in m, is Thickness of sample in m.
4. Mobility

is width

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PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the PCB (with mounted crystal) on one of the pillars and hall probe in another
pillar.
2. Complete all the connections as shown in fig. 1.2
3. Switch on the Gauss meter and place the hall probe away from the electromagnet.
Select the range of gauss meter as X1 and using the adjustment knob of the Gauss
meter, adjust the reading of the Gauss Meter as zero.
4. Switch on the constant current source and set the current, at 5 mA. Keep the magnetic
field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter.
5. Set the voltage as recorded by multimeter to be zero by adjusting the zero set pot
using a screw driver. When a current of 5 mA is passed through the crystal without
application of magnetic field the hall voltage as measured by the multimeter should be
zero.
6. Switch on the electromagnet at about 17V, 3.5 A.
7. Select the range of Gauss meter as X10 and measure the magnetic flux density at the
centre between the pole pieces.
8. Keep the magnetic field constant for the whole of the experiment i.e. do not change
the current in electromagnet.
9. Vary the current through the constant current source in small increments. Note the
current I mA from the constant current sources passing through the sample and the
hall voltage mV as recorded by the multimeter. Record these values of current in the
observation table.
10. Reverse the direction of magnetic field by interchanging the + and connections of
the coils. Again note down the Hall voltage for the same values of current in step 9.
11. Plot suitable graphs from the above data and determine the values of Hall co-efficient,
type, concentration and mobility of majority charge carriers.
12. Estimate the percentage of maximum possible errors in the measurement of Hall coefficient and mobility of charge carriers.
OBSERVATION:
Thickness of specimen
Width of specimen
Length of specimen

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..Gauss

Magnetic flux density

Tesla

1. OBSERVATION TABLE HALL VOLTAGE Vs CURRENT:

Sr.
No.

Current I
(mA)

Reading of millivoltmeter (mV)

B & I in one B & I in reversed
direction
direction

Mean value
of
(mV)

(Ohms)

2. TABLE FOR RESISTIVITY:

Sr.
No.

Current I
(mA)

Distance between two

points between which
potential difference is
measured (m)

(mV)

Resistivity

Plot two graphs and from the slope, calculate Hall coefficient RH. From the sign of
the Hall voltage with the given current and field direction, determine the type of
conductivity and mobility in the semiconductor material.

Calculate free carrier density

.
RESULTS:

For the given sample, RH = .

Hall Voltage VH

=.

Charge Carrier density n

= .

Resistivity of given sample

Type of majority carrier

= ..

Mobility of Charge Carrier =.

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before starting the experiment, check that the Gauss meter is showing zero
value.
2. Ensure that the specimen is located at the centre between the pole pieces and
exactly perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3. For carrying out the experiment, the magnetic flux density should be
maximum.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is Hall Effect?
2. What are the factors on which Hall coefficient depends?
3. Explain the meaning of positive and negative Hall coefficient.
4. What happens if the current is not perpendicular to the magnetic field applied?
5. Give some practical applications of Hall Effect.
6. What do you mean by charge carrier density?

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3. CORNUS METHOD
AIM:
To measure Young's modulus constant of perspex scale by Cornu`s interference
method.
APPARATUS:Prespex scale, travelling microscope, plane glass plate, sodium lamp source, scale,
magnifying lens, knife edges etc.
THEORY:
When a beam is loaded as shown below, it is bent into an arc with a longitudinal
radius of curvature . This causes an extension of the surface above the beam and a
compression below. It causes an internal bending moment, thus balancing the force
of the load.

.
Figure 1 Experimental set up of Cornu`s method.

The internal bending moment is given by

),

Where,

Youngs modulus constant,

R1= Radius of curvature with mass
Radius of curvature with mass
Moment of Inertia of Perspex scale
The Moment of Inertia is given by,
Where,
section.

is radius of gyration & given by

for a bar of rectangular cross

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At equilibrium the bending moment due to the weights is exactly counteracting the
restoring bending moment from the bar, thus:
(
For a particular mass

(1)

,
(2)

Similarly for another mass

(3)
i.e., Young modulus constant is given by,
(

(4)

Where,

,
Width of the Perspex scale
Breadth of the scale,
&
can be calculated by observing the interference pattern created by light
reflecting from the lower surface of the glass and the upper surface of the Perspex
beam, the fringes represent contours of constant distance between the glass plate and
the beam. R is given by,
[

(5)

Where,
wavelength of monochromatic light
) fringe.
curvature radius of (
curvature radius of
fringe.
PROCEDURE:1. First, the sodium lamp turned on and allowed to warm up.
2. The lamp shone horizontally on a glass plate tilted at 45 so the light would
shine straight down on the glass plate on top of the Perspex.
3. Now suspend the weight 300gm on either side of the bar according to the
diagram given above. As it is uniform bending of beam method, so both the
suspended weights should be at same distance from knife edges on either
side.
4. The setup is adjusted in such a way that hyperbolic fringes can be seen in the
field of view if microscope.

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5. Now the microscope moved to the tenth fringe on the left side with the help
of rotating screw, ensuring the microscope need only travel to the one
direction to avoid the backlash error.
6. Tabulate the readings in observation table for the given no. of fringes.
7. Now repeat the same process for another weight 350 gm.
OBSERVATIUON TABLE:1. Distance from edge to suspended weight
cm
2. Width of the Perspex scale
..cm
3. Breadth of the scale
.cm
(i)
Supended weight
300 gm
Sr.
No.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

No. of
fringes

Micrometer reading
Left Side
Right Side
M.S V.S. Total M.S V.S. Total
.
.
cm
cm

(
cm

(
cm

For

12
10
08
06
04
02

(i)
Supended weight
400 gm
Sr.
No. of
Micrometer reading
No. fringes
Left Side
Right Side
M.S V.S. Total M.S V.S. Total
.
.
cm
cm
1.
12
2.
10
3.
08
4.
06
5.
04
6.
02

For

Using equestion (3) and (2) one can determine the value of Youngs modulus
constant of the given scale.

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CALCULATION:(i)
When

300 gm

(ii)

When

350 gm

=
Young`s modulus constant of the given Perspex material,
(
(

)
)

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is Hookes Law?
2. What is modulus of elasticity?
3. What is Youngs modulus?
4. What is the change in Youngs modulus when the thickness and breadth of
the bar is doubled?

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4. B-H CURVE
AIM:
1. To study the B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material using computer software.
2. To analyze the Values of Br (Remanence), Hc (Coercive Force),
(Initial
Permeability), and ( ) (Maximum Amplitude Permeability).
3. To determine the Hysteresis loss for a given ferromagnetic material.
THEORY:
Ferromagnetic materials are materials which can be strongly magnetized such as
iron, steel, cobalt, nickel. The magnetic field produced by a d.c. solenoid becomes
many times stronger when a bar of iron or steel is placed inside the solenoid. When
the solenoid current is switched off, the bar retains its magnetism. The cause of
ferromagnetism is the electrons in outer shell atoms. Electrons moving around the
nucleolus creates tiny magnetic field because they are moving charges, and moving
chare form electric current. In ferromagnetic atom the electron of each atom produce
a resultant magnetic field. In all other type of atoms, the electrons produce zero
resultant magnetic field. So ferromagnetic are like tiny magnet.
In ferromagnetic materials have incomplete filled inner shells, with an unpaired
electron spin. This gives the atom a residual magnetic moment, which define an axis
moment, which defines an axis vector. As always in quantum mechanics, once a
direction is chosen then other properties of the atom (e.g. the electron configurations
in the outermost shells) can be aligned along
the same axis.In solids there is a strong
short-range force between neighbouring
atoms due to the interaction of their
outermost shells. They will choose the
configuration, which gives the lowest
potential energy under the action of this
force. In ferromagnetic material this turns
out to be with nearest neighbor axes are
opposite to one another. Linear arrays of
spin illustrating possible
(a) Ferromagnetic
(b) Anti-ferromagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic orderings

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These kind of ordering are only possible if the thermal excitations in the material are not too
big. If thermal vibrations at the atomic level have more energy than the small potential
difference due to alignment with a neighboring atom, then the alignment will not be able to
persist. Above some critical temperature it is observed that ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials revert to being simple paramagnetic solids, with a linear
susceptibility that obeys the Curie law. The critical temperature is called the Curie
temperature for ferromagnetic materials and the Neal temperature for anti- ferromagnetic.
In a transformer core (Ferro-magnet), the magnetic induction is given by

Where,
Relative permeability and depends upon magnetic field strength (H)
B = Magnetic field induction
H = Magnetic field strength and
= Permeability in vacuum
When B reaches a saturation value Bs as the magnetic
field strength (H) increases. In this experiment, a current
I1 in primary coil of the transformer which increase
linearly over time generates the magnetic field strength:

Where, L= Effective length of Iron core,

N1= Number of windings of primary coil
I1= Current in primary coil

Figure 2.1 Typical soft magnetic material hysteresis

The corresponding magnetic induction value B is obtained through integration of the voltage
V2 induced in the secondary coil of a transformer:

Where,

A = Effective length of Iron core

= Number of windings of Secondary coil
= Induced voltage of secondary coil

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By exciting the primary coil with Sinusoidal or Triangular wave of low frequency nad then
measuring the current (I1) and induced voltage (V2), we can the B-H curve from
measurement as shown in figure 2.1.
Initial Magnetization & Permeability curves:In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the
formation of a magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization
that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is
typically represented by the Greek letter .The magnetic permeability
is defined as the
ratio of flux density to field strength as follows:

The relative permeability

is also defined as the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium

to the permeability of free space given by the magnetic constant

Fig 2.2 Initial magnetizing curve for various materials.

therefore,
One can therefore apply a Sweep
excitation and plot B Vs H to show the
initial magnetization curve. We can also
plot
Vs H to show the change in
permeability at different field strength
or flux density. Figure 2.2 show the
initial magnetization curve.
For conducting the experiment, the
experimental set up is connected in the
same way as for B-H curve measurements. A sweep voltage is then applied at the primary
coil varying from 0 to Vmax to provide a rising magnetic field excitation. The induced voltage
is recorded at the secondary coil to calculate B.

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Block diagram of the circuit for B-H Setups:

PROCEDURE FOR B-H CURVE:1.

2.
3.
4.

Make all the connections as shown in block diagram in figure 2.3.

Connect the power unit to main supply and switch ON.
Start the B-H curve software Start>All Programs>BH Curve
If drivers are installed properly and data logger connected to PC then Right
side top buttons appears GREEN.
5. Click on reset button of the software, now voltage software sensor & current
sensor information will appears on BH software bar.
6. Click on start button, and see the live data logging and plotting of curve.
7. Reverse I Core and collect the data as describe above. Repeat the experiments
two three times.

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VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you understand by ferromagnetic Material?
2. Explain the meaning of Hysteresis loss.
3. Define Remanence, Coercive Force and Initial Permeability.
4. What are the practical applications of B-H curve?
5. What is Curie temperature?
Reference: New Understanding Physics for Advanced Level- By Jim Breithaupt

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5. BENDING OF BEAM
AIM:
To determine the Young`s modulus of the material of the given wooden bar by UniformBending method using a pin and microscope.
APPARATUSS:
Travelling Microscope, Two knife edge supports, Two Weight hangers, Slotted weights, Pin,
Screw gauge, Vernier Calipers.
THEORY:
Hooke's Law:
For most tensile testing of materials, in the initial portion of the test, the
relationship between the applied force (load), and the elongation the specimen
exhibits is linear. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as
Hooke's Law where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant, or,
( )
( )
is the slope of the line in this region where stress () is proportional to strain ()
and is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus.
Strain:When we apply an effort on the bar then the absolute measurement in the
change in length or as a relative measurement called strain. Engineering strain is
probably the easiest and the most common expression of strain used. It is the ratio of
the change in length to the original length,

Whereas, the true strain is similar but based on the instantaneous length of the
specimen.
Stress:Stress is the internal resistance, of a material to the distorting effects of an
external force or load. These counter forces tend to return the atoms to their normal
positions. The total resistance developed is equal to the external load. This
resistance is known as stress. () Can be equated to the load per unit area or the force

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(F) applied per cross-sectional are (A) perpendicular to the force shown in the
equation below

Where,
= stress (N/mm2)
F = applied force (N);
A = cross-sectional area (mm2)
Young`s modulus: It is also known as the tensile modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an
elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the
ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in
which Hooke's Law holds. The expression for Young`s modulus by the method of
uniform bending of beam is given by

Where,
Youngs Modulus of the material of the beam (Pascal or N/m2)
Elevation produced for M Kilogram of load (m)
M = Mass suspended on either sides of the beam (Kg)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
Distance between the two knife edges (m)
b = Breadth of the beam (m)
d = Thickness of the beam (m)
D = Distance between one of the knife edge and load applied (m)

Figure. Schematic figure of uniform bending of beam.

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28

PROCEDURE:
1. The given beam is placed over the two knife edges (A & B) at a distance of 70 cm or
80 cm.
2. Two weight hangers are suspended, one each on either side of the knife edge at equal
distance from the knife edge. Since the load is applied at both points of the beam, the
bending is uniform throughout the beam and the bending of the beam is called
Uniform Bending.
3. A pin is fixed vertically exactly at the centre of the beam.
4. A traveling microscope is placed in front of this arrangement.
5. Taking the weight hangers alone as the dead load, the tip of the pin is focused by the
microscope and is adjusted in such a way that the tip of the pin just touches the
horizontal cross wire. The reading on the vertical scale of the traveling microscope is
noted.
6. Now, equal weights are added on both the weight hangers, in steps of 50 grams. Each
time the position of the pin is focused and the readings are noted from the microscope.
The procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached.
7. The same procedure is repeated by unloading the weight from both the weight hanger
in steps of same 50 grams and the readings are tabulated in the tabular column.
8. The thickness and the breadth of the beam are measured using screw gauge and
vernier calipers.
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of Traveling microscope (L.C.) = .
Distance between the two knife edges ( ) =
Distance between one of the knife edge and load applied (D) =

Table: - To find the average value of Elevation :Sr. Load M

Microscope Reading
No.
Loading
Unloading
Kg M.S.
V.S Total M.S. V.S Total

Mean

Average
Elevation

Mean
Value

(For
gm)

(For
M=50
gm)

M=50
m

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

50
100
150
200
250
300

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CALCULATION:By substituting all the values in the given formula, the Young`s modulus of the
given material of the wooden bar can be calculated.

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is stress & Strain? Give its unit.
2. What are the factors affecting the elasticity of a material?
3. What is uniform bending?
4. Which one is the most elastic material, Wooden bar, Steel bar & Plastic bar?

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6. CURIE TEMPERATURE
AIM:
To determine the Curie Temperature of Monel metal using a transformer.
APPARATUS:
The set-up consists of Monel metal transformer, container, heater, Thermometer,
stirrer etc.
THEORY:
In
a paramagnetic material
the magnetization of
the
material
is
(approximately) directly proportional to an applied magnetic field. However, if the
material is heated, this proportionality is reduced: for a fixed value of the field, the
magnetization is (approximately) inversely proportional to temperature. This fact is
encapsulated by Curie's law:
(1)
Where, C = Curies constant,
B = Magnetic eld vector (magnetic induction), and
T = Absolute temperature.
This law is valid when the magnetizing eld is of relatively low intensity, far
from the magnetic saturation of the substance. In the laboratory experiment, it is
more convenient to make use of the CurieWeiss law:
(2)
Where,
Magnetic susceptibility
Magnetic permeability
Constant characteristic for a given substance
Curie temperature
Curie temperature: - Curie temperature is defined as the temperature which marks
the transition from ferromagnetism to para magnetism. Below Curie temperature
substances show spontaneous magnetization. Even when the external magnetic field
is withdrawn magnetization persists in a ferromagnetic substance. If a graph is
drown between temperatures (X-axis) and saturated magnetization (Y axis), the
curve is almost parallel to X axis in the beginning. As temperature increases there is
a decrease and beyond a certain temperature it is so fast it is so fast that it steeply
touches the temperature axis. This temperature for which magnetization becomes
zero is called the Curie temperature.
Similarly if the substance is cooled from

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higher temperature there will be a sharp increase in magnetization at Curie

temperature.

Figure 4.1 Circuit diagram for Curie temperature.

When an A.C. is passed through the primary coil an induced alternating e.m.f.
is produced in the secondary. The induced e.m.f. depends on the turn ratio of the
two coils, there close coupling and permeability of the medium. The medium
consists of the monel alloy. The temperature at which there is sharp decrease in
permeability is noted. The decrease in permeability is noted in form of voltage by
digital AC millivolt meter.
Graph is plotted between temperature and corresponding voltage taking
temperature along X-axis and voltage along with Y-axis. The shape of graph is
shown in figure. Draw tangents at extreme points of the curve. The temperature
corresponding the point of intersection of the tangents is the Curie temperature.
Monel Metal: Its composition is 67% nickel,
28% copper and 5 % other metals (Fe, Mn and
Si). It is tough and malleable, and is resistant
to many chemicals like oils, salts, sea water
and super heated steam. It is slightly
magnetic, widely used in chemicals industry
for containers and steam pipes.

Figure 5.2. Graph between Voltage and Temperature.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Monel metal transformer as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Insert thermometer in thermometer hole at container top.
3. Connect mains lead to mains socket and put the ON/OFF switch to ON
position.
4. Put the heater switch to ON position.
5. Heat the mobil oil keeping stir with the stirrer around 70 0C 75 0C. Then
switch OFF the heater.
6. Now stir the mobil oil by stirrer (up and down).
7. Note the temperature and corresponding voltage.
8. Plot a graph between temperature and voltage taking temperature along with
X-axis and voltage along with Y-axis.
9. Draw tangents to the current at the two ends. Let this tangents meet at certain
point, the temperature corresponding to this point is Curie temperature.
OBSERVATION:Sr. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Temperature in 0C

Voltage in mV

RESULT:
From the graph the curie temperature of the given Monel metal is..0C.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The mobil oil could not be heated above 75 0C.
2. In order to avoid the mutual inductance in secondary coils, the position of
transformer container could not be changed.

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References:1. Practical Physics

2. Practical Physics for 1st year TDC

: By Choudhary & Dashora

: By S. L. Kakani & T.C. Bansal

VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you understand by ferromagnetic Material?
2. Define magnetic susceptibility.
3. State The Curie`s law?
4. What do you understand by paramagnetic Material?
5. Explain the variation of magnetization of ferromagnetic material on
increasing the temperature.
6. Whether the Curie`s law is valid above the Curie temperature?
7. Define Curie temperature.

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7. SOLAR PV MODULE
AIM:
1. To determine the Fill Factor of given solar cell module.
2. To demonstrate the V-I and P-I characteristic graphs of Photo Voltaic module.
3. To study the effect of temperature on V-I characteristic graph.
THEORY:
A solar cell (photovoltaic cell/photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. The
solar cell works in three steps:
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting
materials, such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an
electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to
cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. Due to the special
composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.
Fill Factor:The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is the ratio
of the actual achievable maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that would be
achieved with open circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be
interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted in Figure1.1.

Where,

Current at Maximum power point

Voltage at Maximum power point
Short circuit current
Open circuit voltage
Figure 1 V-I Characteristics Graph.

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A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more squarelike. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as
a percentage.
Characteristics graph:PV cells can be modeled as a current source in parallel with a diode. When
there is no light present to generate any current, the PV cell behaves like a diode. As
the intensity of incident light increases, current is generated by the PV cell, as
illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 2 I-V Curve of PV Cell and Associated Electrical Diagram

In an ideal cell, the total current I is equal to the current I generated by the
photoelectric effect minus the diode current ID, according to the equation:

where I0 is the saturation current of the diode, q is the elementary charge 1.6x10 19 Coulombs, k is a constant of value 1.38x10-23J/K, T is the cell temperature in
Kelvin, and V is the measured cell voltage that is either produced (power quadrant)
or applied (voltage bias). A more accurate model will include two diode terms;
however, we will concentrate on a single diode model in this document.
Expanding the equation gives the simplified circuit model shown below and the
following associated equation, where n is the diode ideality factor (typically between
1 and 2), and RS and RSH represents the series and shunt resistances that are
described in further detail later in this document:

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Figure 3 - Simplified Equivalent Circuit Model for a Photovoltaic Cell

The I-V curve of an illuminated PV cell has the shape shown in Figure 4 as the
voltage across the measuring load is swept from zero to VOC, and many performance
parameters for the cell can be determined from this data, as described in the sections
below.

Figure 4 - Illuminated I-V Sweep Curve

The power produced by the cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the I-V
sweep by the equation P=IV. At the ISC and VOC points, the power will be zero and
the maximum value for power will occur between the two. The voltage and current
at this maximum power point are denoted as VMP and IMP respectively.

Figure 5 - Maximum Power for an I-V Sweep

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Effect of Temperature on Characteristic graph:On increasing the temperature, VOC of module decreases as shown in figure 1.5
while ISC remains the same which in turn reduces the power. For most crystalline
silicon solar cells modules the reduction is about 0.50%/0C.

Figure 6 Effect of Temperature on V-I Garph

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
The circuit diagram to evaluate Fill- Factor, I-V and P-V characteristic is shown in
the figure 7 forms a PV system which includes PV module and a variable resistor
(pot meter) with ammeter and voltmeter for measurement. Pot meter in this circuit
works as a variable load for the module. When load on module is varied by pot
meter the current and voltage of the module gets changed which shifts the operating
points on I-V and P-V characteristics.
OBSERVATION:
1. Observations for fill factor and Characteristics:Short circuit current ISC

=..Amp

Open circuit voltage VOC =..Volt

Temperature of panel

= ..0C

Solar Intensity

=.. Wb/m2

Figure 7 Circuit Diagram

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Sr. No.

Current (A)

Voltage (V)

Power P = VI

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2. Observations for Effect of Temperature on Characteristic graph:Sr. No.

At Temperature T=30
0C

At Temperature T=40 0C

At Temperature
T=50 0C

Current
(A)

Current (A)

Current
(A)

Voltage
(V)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
RESULT:
The Fill Factor of the given module =

Voltage (V)

Voltag
e (V)

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Readings for one set should be taken within 1-2 minutes; otherwise
temperature of the module may vary as radiation source used is halogen
lamp.
2. Halogen lamp position should not be changed during one set otherwise
radiation on module will change.
3. All connections should be tight.
References:
1. http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/7230
2. Insight Solar, 2011 by ECOSCENSE.
VIVA-VOCE
1. Explain the working principle of solar cell.
2. What do you understand by depletion layer in a PN diode?
3. What should be the energy band gap of a solar cell?
4. What is the efficiency of a solar cell?
5. Which type of material is to be used for a solar cell?
6. On increasing the temperature of solar module, explain its efficiency.
7. Define Fill Factor.
8. What is the physical significance of Fill Factor?

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8. BRINELL HARDNES TEST

AIM:
To determine the hardness of the given specimen of

using Brinell hardness test.

APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Brinell Hardness Tester Model HB-3000B

Testing Block with known BHN
Metal ( ) test samples
Microscope of low power
Ten millimeter diameter steel ball having diameter 10 mm.

THEORY:
Hardness is used to measure a variety of resistances including: scratching,
cutting, and indenting. Also, Hardness may be used for grading similar materials,
checking or controlling quality level and controlling uniformity of tensile strength.
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent
indentation under static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use under
direct static or dynamic loads, only indentation hardness test will be useful to find
out resistance to indentation. The Brinell Test procedures and specifications can be
found in ASTM E10. The test consists of applying a load through a steel ball with a
10-millimeter diameter.
If the sample is expected to have a Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) greater
than 450, an indenter made of a harder material should be used. After removing the
load, an indentation is left on the metal sample. By measuring the diameter of the
indentation and using the known diameter of the steel ball that applies the load, the
spherical area is calculated.
Brinell hardness number: - The Brinell Hardness
Number (BHN) is the ratio of the applied load in
kilograms to the spherical area of the indentation in
mm. In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter
(D) is forced under a load (F) on to a surface of test
specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is
measured after the removal of the load (F). In order to
find the BHN, the following equation is used:

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(1)

Where,
Diameter of steel ball indenter
Diameter of indentation
Load applied.
The Brinell hardness number is used to give an estimation of the tensile strength of
the
Metal using the following equation:
(2)
Where:
T.S. = Tensile Strength, psi
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number

Figure. Brinell hardness Tester Machine.

The Brinell Test consists of pressing a steel ball of 10-millimeter diameter into the
test sample. The 10-mm steel ball will impose a load of 1000 kg for aluminum
samples. This load will cause a depression to remain on the surface of the sample
after the load is removed. The spherical area of the indentation can be calculated
from the diameter of the indenter and the diameter of the depression on the surface
of the sample. For the Brinell Test, the steel ball must not deviate in diameter more
than 0.01 mm and balls of harder material are to be used if the sample has a known
BHN greater than 450.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Verify using the test block that the machine is accurate.
2. Apply proper load to the sample i.e. 1000 kg (250 kg + 750 kg) for aluminum
by a steel ball of 10 mm diameter.
3. Select a test area on the sample, being sure to stay away for the edges and
other indentions made on the sample.
4. Turn the screw until the sample and the steel ball contact each other and
continue to turn the screw until the screw slips.
5. Push Start to begin the test and create an indentation on the sample.
6. Repeat step (4)-(6) two times so that a total of 3 indentations are on the
sample.
7. Measure the diameter of each indentation with a low power microscope.
8. Determine the Brinell Hardness Number using Equation 1 and Tensile
strength by using equation (2).
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1. Diameter of steel bar D = 10 mm
2. Load applied F= 1000 Kg
Sr. No.

Test No.

Diameter of indentation on
Al bar d (mm)

1.

BHN

T.S.
(psi)

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

RESULTS:
The Brinell Hardness Number BHN =
Standard value of BHN for Aluminum =
References:

1. Mechanics of Materials Laboratory Manual CE 3410, Department of Civil and

Environmental Engineering, Spring 2007, pT1-1 T1-10.
2. ASTM E 10 Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials,
ASTM International, April 2001.

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9. UTM
AIM:
To determine the tensile strength of
Universal Testing Machine (UTM).

rectangular bar using computer controlled

THEORY:
A tension test is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test for a
material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By
pulling on the bar of material, one can very quickly determine how the material will
react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, we will find
its strength along with how much it will elongate.
As we continue to pull on the material until it breaks, we will obtain a good,
complete tensile profile. A curve will result showing how it reacted to the forces
being applied. The point of failure is of much interest and is typically called its
Ultimate Strength or UTS on the chart.
Hooke's Law:
For most tensile testing of materials, in the initial portion of the test, the
relationship between the applied force (load), and the elongation the specimen
exhibits is linear. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as
Hooke's Law where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant, or,
( )
( )
is the slope of the line in region I in stress strain curve, where stress () is
proportional to strain () and is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's
Modulus.
1. Engineering Stress vs. Engineering Strain:
The engineering stress can be calculated from measurements of the applied load,
P, and the original cross-sectional area, Ao:
= P/Ao

[1]

The engineering strain, , is defined as the change in length, , divided by the

original length, Lo:
[2]

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Representative engineering stress/strain curves for a number of engineering

materials in tension are illustrated in Figure 1. The materials response during a
tensile test can be broken into four (4) regions, as illustrated for a ductile metal in
Figure 2.
Region I: Elastic Deformation - Elastic deformation does not result in any permanent
change in shape after removal of the load.
In the elastic region, the stress is proportional to the strain:
=

[3]

Where is the elastic or Youngs modulus of the material. Its magnitude is equal to
the slope of the stress/strain curve in Region I.
Region II: Plastic Deformation - Plastic deformation results in permanent strain
after removal of the load. There is a permanent change in the dimensions
of the sample.
There are several ways to define the limit of elastic deformation, or the onset of
plastic deformation:
(i) The Elastic Limit or Proportional Limit - the maximum stress that the material
can withstand without permanent deformation.

Engineering Stress, s

(ii) The Yield Strength the stress required to

Strain to Fracture
produce a specified
Uniform Strain
small
amount
of
II
permanent strain. It is
III
Necking
IV
measured as an offset
Begins
yield (sometimes also
called a proof stress)
Tensile
and is given by the
Strength
Offset Yield
Fracture
Strength
stress
that
Stress
corresponds to a small
level of permanent
Figure 1. Schematic of a typical tensile engineering stress/strain curve for a
I
strain (e.g. 0.2 %). The
metal.
0.2 % offset yield is
determined from the
0.2 %
engineering
Engineering S train,
stress/engineering
strain
curve
by
constructing a line parallel to the elastic slope (Region I of Figure 2) that
intersects the strain axis at 0.2 %. The intersection of this line with the
stress/strain curve defines the offset yield.

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Region III: Necking - This corresponds to a localized reduction in the cross-sectional

area of the tensile specimen, as shown in Figure 2.
Region IV: Fracture - This is the culmination of the tensile test and occurs at the
end of Region III, as denoted by the X. Ceramic materials usually
fracture in tension at the elastic limit. In metals and many polymers,
fracture is preceded by extensive plastic deformation.
A measure of the ductility of a material is the magnitude of the plastic strain at
fracture. Ductility can be specified in terms of either % elongation (% EL) or %
reduction in area (% RA):

(l f l o )
% EL =
x 100
l
o

[4]

( A f Ao )
% RA =
x 100
Ao

[5]

where lo and lf refer to the initial and final specimen lengths, respectively and Ao and
Af refer to the initial and final cross-sectional areas of the specimen.
2. True Stress vs. True Strain Curve:
Engineering stress and engineering strain are based on the original dimensions of
the specimen. Because these dimensions change during the tensile test, the
engineering stress vs. engineering strain curve does not give a true measure of the
materials response. In comparison, true stress and true strain are calculated using
the instantaneous cross-sectional area and length of the sample. The largest
discrepancy between the two curves occurs after necking begins in the specimen
because of the large decrease in area.
The true stres, , is defined as the ratio of the instantaneous load, P, to the
instantaneous minimum cross-sectional area, Ai, supporting the load:
= P/Ai

[6]

True strain, , is defined as the integral of the ratio of the incremental change in
length, dl, to the instantaneous length of the sample, li:

d1/1

ln(1i /1o )

[7]

1o

This equation is applicable only until the onset of necking. After necking, the
strain must be based on the instantaneous cross-sectional area of the specimen, A:

ln (Ao/Ai)

[8]

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The difference between the engineering stress/engineering strain and true

stress/true strain curves is illustrated in Figure 4. Assuming conservation of volume
during the deformation of a metal, it can be shown that:
(

[9]

[10]

The shape and position of either stress/strain curve depends on:

Microstructure and bonding type

Material composition/purity
Heat treatment
Prior plastic deformation

The general shape of the engineering stress/engineering strain curve for metals is
shown in Figure 2. A metal behaves linearly in the elastic region. There is no
permanent deformation in this region, and on the atomic scale the bonds are
stretched, but not broken. When the stress exceeds a value corresponding to the yield
strength, the specimen undergoes plastic deformation. If the load is released in this
region, the specimen will remain permanently deformed. On the atomic level, the
yield strength is reached when the normal applied stress has a large enough shear
stress component to cause dislocation motion. As dislocations move through the
material, they result in a permanent change in shape.
As the sample is elongated further, the number of dislocations in the material
increases, and as the dislocations get closer together, the shear stress needed for
dislocation motion increases. The material becomes harder and a higher stress is
required to continue the plastic deformation. This phenomenon occurs in all ductile
metals and is called work-hardening or strain-hardening. The strain-hardening
behavior can be expressed as a simple power law curve:
[11]
Where, is the strength coefficient (with the same units as Young's modulus) and
is the strain-hardening exponent. For most metals, the value of n is between 0.1 and
0.5.
When the incremental decrease in cross-sectional area becomes greater than the
incremental increase in load due to work-hardening, necking begins in the specimen:
[12]
At this point, the load required to deform the specimen decreases until fracture. The
maximum engineering stress reached is defined as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Note
that the true stress/true strain response of the material does not go through such a
maximum. In materials that fracture without necking, the tensile strength and the fracture
strength are the same.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the Dimensions and gage length of tensile specimen. This data
should be recorded in tabular form.
2. Place the specimen into the appropriate grips.
3. Select the particular computer program for this test, making sure that the
adequate numbers of data points will be taken for proper analysis.
4. Select a suitable loading range i.e. 50 KN for the specimen. Start the UTM and
adjust the dead weight of movable heads and then set the load pointer to
zero.
5. Switch on the machine and open the control valve so that the load is increased
gradually and at the required rate.
6. Record the load at suitable interval from the digital display unit or the load
dial. Corresponding to loads, note the readings of extensometer.
7. For initial few observations, load and extension are in pace with each other.
Record the yield point load by observing the hesitation of load pointer. The
extension readings are faster at this moment. Measure extension by divider or
suitable scale.
8. Record the maximum load. Observe the decrease in load and neck formation
on the specimen through computer based system.
9. Record the load at fracture and put off the machine. Remove the specimen.
Observe the cup and cone formation at the fracture point. Rejoin the two
pieces, measure the final gauge length and the reduced diameter.
RESULT:
Tensile strength of given rectangular bar of Aluminum = ..
Reference:1. Everbach, Carr. Tensile Testing and Numerical Integration. Swarthmore
College, 2008 Everbach2:
2. Riley, William et al. Statics and Mechanics of Materials: an Integrated Approach.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2002.
3. Material Property Data. <www.matweb.com> Retrieved 5 April 2008.
4. MATE-221: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS DREXEL UNIVERSITY.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is stress & Strain? Give its unit.
2. What is the difference between true stress & engineering stress?
3. What are the factors affecting the elasticity of a material?
4. What is the difference between true strain & engineering strain?

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10. NANO KIT

OBJECT:
To demonstrate the arrangement of nanostructure pattern by using diffraction
method.
APPARATUS:
Diffraction Grating, Laser Source, Grating Stand, Viewing Screen with Holder,
screen etc.
THEORY:
Nano Kit is a fundamental kit to understand the basic concepts of Nano
technology right from the scaling to the characteristics at Nano level.
Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose
unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally
1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices with critical dimensions that lie
within that size range. There are two methods to realize the world of
nanotechnology:
1. X-ray diffraction: - It is an
indirect method with the
help of which we can
understand the arrangement
at atomic as well as
molecular level. It involves
incident high energy X-rays
upon a sample. As a result,
rays get scattered to give
rise to a diffraction pattern.
From this pattern, the
atomic arrangement can
easily be inferred. It should
be noted that the diffraction pattern obtained for a given sample might not be
a replica of its atomic
Figure 1. X-ray diffraction.
arrangement. It may be
contradictory to what somebody will expect.
2. Scanning Probe Microscopy: - It is a direct method for imaging the surface at
atomic level. AFM stands for Atomic Force Microscopy or Scanning Probe
Microscopy and is often called the Eye of Nanotechnology. It is a highresolution imaging technique that can resolve features as small as an atomic
lattice in the real space. It allows researchers to observe and manipulate
molecular and atomic level features.

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AFM works by bringing a cantilever tip in contact with the surface to

be imaged. An ionic repulsive force from the surface applied to the tip bends
the cantilever upwards. The amount of bending, measured by a laser spot
reflected on to a split photo detector, can be used to calculate the force. By
keeping the force constant whilenm scanning the tip across the surface, the
vertical movement of the tip follows the surface profile and is recorded as the
surface topography by the AFM.
The predecessor of AFM is G. Binnig and H. Rohrer who shared the
1986 Nobel Prize in Physics for their invention invented STM, Scanning
Tunneling Microscopy, in 1981. An excellent technique, STM is limited to
imaging conducting surfaces only. Figure 1.2 below shows scanning
tunneling microscopy.

Figure 2 Scanning Probe microscopy.

AFM has much broader potential and application because it can be used for
imaging any conducting or non-conducting surface. The number of applications for
AFM has exploded since it was invented in 1986 and now encompasses many fields
of nanotechnology. It provides the ability to view and understand events as they
occur at the molecular level which will increase our understanding of how systems
work and lead to new discoveries in many fields. These include life science,
materials science, electrochemistry, polymer science, biophysics, nanotechnology,
and biotechnology.

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Diffraction of light wave:In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the apparent
bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small
openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves,
and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, X-rays and radio waves. As physical
objects have wave-like properties (at the atomic level), diffraction also occurs with
matter and can be studied according to the principles of quantum mechanics. When
there are only a few sources, say two, we call it interference, as in Young's slits, but
with a large number of sources, the process is labeled diffraction.
While diffraction occurs whenever
propagating waves encounter such changes, its
effects are generally most pronounced for waves
where the wavelength is roughly similar to the
dimensions of the diffracting objects. If the
obstructing object provides multiple, closely
spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying
intensity can result. This is due to the
superposition, or interference, of different parts
of a wave that traveled to the observer by
different paths
A diffraction grating is an optical
component with a regular pattern. The form of
the light diffracted by a grating depends on the
structure of the elements and the number of
elements present, but all gratings have intensity
maxima at angles
which are given by the
grating equation
(
Where,

(1)

Figure 3 Diffraction grating with different

sets of Obstacle.

= Angle at which the light is incident,

Separation of grating elements, and
Integer which can be positive or negative.

The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from each
of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and interference
patterns.
VIVA-VOCE
1. Define Diffraction of light wave.
2. What do you mean by a diffraction grating?
3. How we can obtain a Fourier transformation of a nano structure?
4. What is the principle of scanning probe microscope?

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NPM Laboratory Manual

11. FOUR PROBE METHOD

AIM: - 1. To study the temperature variation of electrical resistivity of a
semiconducting material using four-probe method.
2. To determine the energy band gap of given semiconductor.
APPARATUS: - Four probe assembly with oven, semiconducting sample, current
source, voltmeter etc.
THEORY: - The Ohm's law in terms of the electric field and current density is given
by the relation,

(1)

Where, is electrical resistivity of the material. For a long thin wire-like geometry of
uniform cross-section or for a long parellelopiped shaped sample of uniform crosssection, the resistivity
can be measured by measuring the voltage drop across the
sample due to passage of known (constant) current through the sample as shown in
Fig. (1) also known as two probe method. This simple method has following
drawbacks:
(a)

The major problem in such

method is error due to
contact
resistance
of
measuring leads.

(b)

The above method cannot be

used for materials having
random shapes.

(c)

For some type of materials

soldering the test leads
would be difficult.

(d)

In case of semiconductors, the heating of samples due to soldering

results in injection of impurities into the materials thereby affecting
the intrinsic electrical resistivity. Moreover, certain metallic
contacts form Schottky barrier on semiconductors.

To overcome first two problems, a collinear equidistant four-probe method is

used. This method provides the measurement of the resistivity of the specimen
having wide variety of shapes but with uniform cross-section. The soldering contacts
are replaced by pressure contacts to eliminate the last problem discussed above.

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Four Probe Method:The 4-point probe set up (Fig.2) consists of four equally spaced tungsten metal tips
with finite radius. Each tip is supported by springs on the end to minimize sample
damage during probing. A high impedance current source is used to supply current
through the outer two probes; a voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner
two probes to determine the sample resistivity. Typical probe spacing ~ 1 mm.

Figure 2- Four Probe set-up.

These inner probes draw no current because of the high input impedance
voltmeter in the circuit. Thus unwanted voltage drop at point B & C caused by
contact resistance between probes and sample is eliminated from the potential
measurements. Since these contact resistances are very sensitive to pressure and to
surface condition (such as oxidation of either surface), error with the conventional
two-electrode technique (in which potential- measuring contact passes a current)
can be quite large.
The electric current carried through the two outer probes, sets up an electric
field in the sample. In Fig.3, the electric field lines are drawn solid and the
equipotential lines are drawn broken. The two inner probes measure the potential
difference between point B and C.

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In order to use this four probe method in germanium crystals or slices it is necessary
to assume that:
1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the
current carrying electrodes most of the carriers recombine near the
electrodes so that their effect on the conductivity is negligible. (This
means that the measurements should be made on surfaces which have
a high recombination rate, such as mechanically lapped surfaces.)
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurements contact the surface
at points that lie in a straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the
semiconductor should be small compared to the distance between
probes.
6. The boundary between the current-carrying electrodes and the bulk
material is hemispherical and small in diameter.
7. The surfaces of the germanium crystal may be either conducting or
nonconducting.
(a) A conducting boundary is one on which a material of much lower
resistivity than germanium (such as copper) has been plated.
(b) A nonconducting boundary is produced when the surface of the
crystal is in contact with an insulator.
Resistivity of Semiconductor:The process in which thermally or optically excited electrons contribute to
the conduction is called intrinsic semi-conduction. In the absence of photonic
excitation, intrinsic semi-conduction takes place at temperatures above 0 K as
sufficient thermal agitation is required to transfer electrons from the valence band to
the conduction band.
The total electrical conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of the
valence and conduction band carriers, which are holes and electrons, respectively.
It can be expressed as,
(
)
(1)
Where,
are electron concentration and electron mobility,
the holes concentration and holes mobility respectively.

are

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The mobility is a quantity that directly relates the drift velocity

carriers to the applied electric field across the matrial, i.e.,

of charge

(2)
We know in the intrinsic region the number of electrons is equal to the number of
holes,
, so equation (1) implies that,
(
(i)

(3)

Temperature Dependence of resistivity:The electron density (electrons/volume) in the conduction band is obtained

by integrating (density of states probability of occupancy of states) from the

bottom to top of the conduction band. The detailed calculations reveal that

Where

(4)

is some constant. Substituting equation (4) in Equation (1) gives

(

(5)

It shows that electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors depends on

temperature and decreases exponentially with decreasing temperature.
The temperature dependence of mobility in the intrinsic semi-conduction
region is of the form:

(6)
(

Therefore,

Use of this fact gives,

(

(7)

The resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity. Therefore, for intrinsic semiconductor,

the resistivity can be written as,
(

(8)

Where is some constant. The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on

decreasing the temperature. Taking logarithm, we get
,
(9)
Where,

is a constant. For convenience Eq. (9) is written as

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(10)
Thus a graph between
temperature (
(ii)

) and reciprocal of the

of resistivity (

), should be a straight line. (see fig. IV)

Energy Band Gap:The slope of the straight line graph between

reciprocal of the temperature(

) and

), is (see fig. IV)

Therefore,

Use

of resistivity (

(
to get

in

unit.

PROCEDURE:1. Make the connections as shown in

Figure 2.
2. Set some suitable low value of current
(2 to 4 mA) from the constant current
source. Note down this reading.
3. Switch the LED display to millivoltmeter mode. Note the temperature
and voltage between probes 2 and 3
(V1).
4. Switch on the oven supply. Record the
voltage between the inner probes as a function of temperature using the
method described in the previous step.
5. Determine the experimental resistivity as a function of temperature using
equation (4) and the measured voltage and current.
6. Express your resistivity data in Ohm-m unit and temperature in Kelvin (K).
Plot
vs.
(K-1) and see that it is a straight line. From the slope of the line
(choose only the linear portion of the curve), calculate
(bandgap of the
semiconductor).

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7. Repeat the procedure for different current. Note the data in the observation
table.
8. Estimate error in measured resistivity
OBSERVATION TABLE:(i)
Constant current passed through the sample =
Sr.
No.

(ii)
Sr.
No.

Temperature
T(K)

Voltage across
inner probes
V (mV)

Resistivity
(
)

Constant current passed through the sample =

Temperature
T(K)

Voltage across
inner probes
V (mV)

Resistivity
(
)

CALCULATION:Plot
vs.
(K-1) and use the straight line portion of the graph to calculate the
slope of the straight line. The energy band gap
(
Use

to get

in

unit.

RESULT:1. The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor

(germanium) chip is as shown in the graph. The resistivity increases
exponentially with the increase in 1/T. That is as at low temperatures
resistivity is more and at high temperatures the resistivity is less.
2. The energy band gap for the given semiconductor (germanium) is
.

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PRECAUTIONS:1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.

2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the
semiconductor chip is brittle and costly.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high
impedance millivoltmeter.
5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer of
the probes and chip set.
VIVA-VOCE
Q. 1 Explain the variation of resistivity with respect to temperature of metals.
Q. 2 Why the four probe method is most suitable over the conventional two probe
method?
Q. 3 Explain the temperature dependence of mobility of semiconductor.
Q. 4 What do you mean by density of energy states? Derive an expression for it.

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12. X-RAY DIFFRACTION

OBJECT: - To determine the crystal structure of Copper by using powder diffraction
method.
THEORY:- In 1912, von Laue first suggested that since the lattice points in a real
crystal are occupied by atoms, the crystal lattice should act as a three-dimensional
diffraction grating for X-rays. This should happen because X-rays have wavelength
of the dimension of interplanar distances in a real crystal. Shortly after this, W.L.
Bragg showed that wavelength of the X-ray undergoing diffraction by a crystal is
related to the interplanar distances by the famous Braggs equation.
BRAGGS LAW OF DIFFRACTION
Let there be a set of lattice planes consisting of an array of atoms as shown in
figure 1. The X-ray beam incident on a plane at angle will be reflected from the
plane such that

Figure 5 Different sets of crystal planes in a cubic crystal.

the angle of reflection is also and a part of the intensity will pass though the crystal
undeviated from its path. Reflection is caused by the interaction of the
electromagnetic radiation with the electrons of the atoms in the lattice. In order that
the intensity of the reflection is sufficiently strong, reflected waves from the
successive planes separated by dhkl should be in phase. From figure 2, it is seen that
the path difference of the waves from successive planes is
. In order that the
waves travelling from successive planes are in phase the condition.

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Figure 6 Diffraction of X-ray from a set of planes.

For

( )

The diffraction angle,

Where d is interplaner distance & depend on Miller Indices (hkl) or,

RECIPROCAL LATTICE
The concept of reciprocal lattice is very useful in X-ray crystallography. It was
Ewald who developed the relation between the diffracted X-ray beams. The crystal,
instead of being seen as different sets of parallel planes, may be represented by a
normal drawn perpendicular to each set of parallel planes from a common point as
origin. The length of the normal is proportional to 1/dhkl. This length and direction of
the normal is used to represent a set of parallel planes. If a point is placed at the end
of each such normal, an array of points is generated. Each point then represents a set
of parallel equidistant lattice planes and hence, each point is represented by a set of
Miller indices (hkl) of the crystal. This array of points is known as the reciprocal
lattice. The reciprocal lattice vector dhkl has a direction same as the normal to the dhkl
planes and its magnitude is 1/dhkl. We see that the arrangements of the points in the
reciprocal lattice have the same symmetry as the lattice points of the real crystal.
The concept of reciprocal lattice is particularly helpful in understanding
diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes. Let us rewrite the Braggs equation in
reciprocal lattice as

Here, we have tried to relate the magnitude of the reciprocal lattice vector to
diffraction angle and the wavelength of the X-ray. In order to see the geometric
consequence of this equation, let us imagine a sphere of radius 1/ = AO as shown in
figure 3.

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Figure 7 Relation between reciprocal lattice point and X-ray diffraction.

Let AO also be the direction of the X-ray beam incident on the crystal plane at C, the
centre of the sphere. If is the Braggs angle, the reflected beam will strike the sphere
(shown as a circle here) at the point P making an angle 2 with the passing beam. It
should be noted that the angle between the incident beam and AP is .
Since

we can see that 1/dhkl = OP. Thus, the point P is the

reciprocal lattice point for the set of planes from which the X-ray beam is reflected.
Also, since the Braggs diffraction conditions are satisfied, the diffracted beam will
touch the sphere (circle in the picture) at point P. The same will be the case with
other set of parallel planes except that they will strike the sphere at some other point
which is the reciprocal lattice points for the respective set of planes. The threedimensional sphere is called the sphere of reflection or Ewald sphere.
POWDER METHOD:The most common method of determining the structure of a crystalline solid
is X-ray diffraction. There are many experimental variations. Complete
determination of the crystal structure by locating the coordinates of all the atoms
requires a good single crystal of, at least, about 1 mm size. But most substances
crystallize as polycrystalline solids which means that each particle is made of a
number of randomly oriented tiny crystals. Growing a single crystal needs some
special techniques and is not always easy. However, it is possible to get important
structural information by recording the X-ray diffraction pattern of the powdered
polycrystalline samples. This is commonly known as the powder method.
Before proceeding further, one would like to know whether the desired
structure has been formed. This is done by recording the X-ray powder diffraction
pattern of the material and comparing this with that of the known pattern. Extensive

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powder diffraction data have been compiled in the ASTM X-Ray Data Files that
makes such comparison possible. Moreover, the powder diffraction patterns can
provide important structural information such as the type of Bravais lattice, size of
the unit cell and the space group. In the case of a simple crystal, it is even possible to
determine the coordinates of all the atoms by analyzing these patterns. No surprise
that this method has become a useful tool of the solid state chemists. If a set of Miller
planes satisfy the Braggs condition, the reflected beam will emerge making an angle
2 with the undeflected beam. Since the crystals are randomly oriented, the same
Miller planes in another crystal may satisfy Braggs condition, but the deflected
beam at angle 2 may have a different direction as shown in the figure 4. Since the
number of crystals is very large, all kind of orientations are possible and the
diffracted X-ray will form a cone with angle 4.

Figure 8 Diffraction of X-ray by randomly oriented crystals.

DEBYE-SCHERRER METHOD
Debye and Scherrer devised a specially designed camera that used
photographic film for detecting the diffracted X-ray beams. The finely powdered
sample in the shape of a thin rod is mounted vertically inside the camera which is
surrounded by a strip of photographic film. The rod-like shape of the powdered
sample is achieved by filling the powder in a short capillary made of glass or some
polymer. The crystals inside the tube are randomly oriented. Hence planes with
different Miller indices will satisfy the Braggs condition of reflection of X-ray. So as
not to miss any set of parallel planes fulfilling the reflection condition, the rod is
slowly rotated by a motor. In randomly oriented crystals, there are innumerable
orientations of the same set of planes making the angle hkl with the incident X-ray
beam. Hence the reflected X-ray will appear as a cone that makes an angle 2hkl with
the direction of the beam. This cone will strike the wall of the camera in the form of a
circle that will be registered in the thin strip of the film as two lines equidistant from
the centre of the circle (see figure 5).

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Figure 9 Diffraction from a powdered sample using Debye-Scherrer camera: (a) diffracted cones
and (b) the part of the cones as pairs of lines in the uncoiled film.

If S is the measured distance between the centre of the two lines (part of the circle),
then

This gives,

Where, S.F. is scaling Fcator,

Thus, by measuring S, the corresponding value of can be found out. The
interplanar distance dhkl can be found out using Braggs equation.
THE POWDER DIFFRACTOMETER
In this instrument, the powder sample in the form of a thin circular disc of
about 15 mm diameter 1-2 mm thickness is placed on a holder standing vertically.
The holder can be rotated about an axis perpendicular to the table. The X-ray beam is
allowed to fall on the sample making an angle with the surface. An X-ray photon
counter rotates in a circle around the sample detecting all the reflected beams in
turn. For better focusing of the reflected beam on the detector, the sample is rotated

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at a speed half of that of the detector. The detector converts the intensity into current
and the diffraction angles are plotted as 2 against the current on a strip-chart
recorder. As an example, the diffraction pattern of Copper crystals is shown in figure
6.

Figure 10 Diffraction Pattern of Cu Sample.

STRUCTURE FACTOR
The resultant wave scattered by all the atoms of the unit cell is called the
structure factor, because it describes how the atom arrangement, given by hkl for
each atom, affects the scattered beam. The structure factor, F is obtained by simply
adding together all the waves scattered by the individual atoms.
(

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