PHY 481/581 Intro

Nano-Materials Science and

engineering: Some Basics of
Quantum Mechanics

1
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Why Quantum Physics? Experimental evidence forces conclusions that the concept of classical
wave and classical particle are or limited generality, details later on
a beam of light is not only an electromagnetic wave but also a stream of
particles, the particles of light are mass less and referred to as photons
Plancks blackbody radiation formulae, Einsteins explanation of the photoelectric effect, Comptons scattering of X-ray photons by electrons (3
Nobel prizes)
a beam of particles with mass or a single particle, e.g. electron, neutron,
C60 is not only a collection of particles, but also a wave phenomenon is
associated with it, by special relativity this collection of particles is
moving for some observer while it may be stationary for another
observer
Double slit experiment with particles with mass, electron and neutron
diffraction
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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Why Quantum Physics? Classical mechanics (Newton's mechanics) and Maxwell's equations
(electromagnetics theory) can explain MACROSCOPIC phenomena
such as motion of billiard balls or rockets.
Quantum mechanics is used to explain microscopic phenomena
such as photon-atom scattering and flow of the electrons in a
semiconductor.
QUANTUM MECHANICS is a collection of postulates based on a
huge number of experimental observations.
The differences between the classical and quantum mechanics can
be understood by examining both
The classical point of view
The quantum point of view
For large quantum numbers, the predictions of quantum physics
match those of classical physics, Niels Bohrs correspondence
principle
3

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Classical Point of View

In Newtonian mechanics, the laws are written in terms of PARTICLE

TRAJECTORIES.
A PARTICLE is an indivisible mass point object that has a variety of
properties that can be measured, which we call observables. The
observables specify the state of the particle (position and momentum).
A SYSTEM is a collection of particles, which interact among themselves via
internal forces, and can also interact with the outside world via external
forces. The STATE OF A SYSTEM is a collection of the states of the
particles that comprise the system.
All properties of a particle can be known to infinite precision.
Conclusions:
TRAJECTORY
state descriptor of Newtonian physics,
EVOLUTION OF THE STATE
Use Newton's second law
PRINCIPLE OF CAUSALITY
Two identical systems with the same
initial conditions, subject to the same measurement will yield the same
result.
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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Quantum Point of View Quantum particles can act as both particles and waves

WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
Quantum state is a conglomeration of several possible
outcomes of measurement of physical properties

Quantum mechanics uses the language of
PROBABILITY theory
An observer cannot observe a microscopic system
without altering some of its properties. Neither can one
predict with certainty how the state of the system will
change.
QUANTIZATION of energy is yet another property of
"microscopic" particles.

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle One cannot unambiguously specify the values of
particle's position and its momentum for a microscopic
particle, i.e.

x(t0 ) p x (t0 )

1 h
2 2

Position and momentum are, considered as noncommuting variables (applying the respective operators
in different sequences gives different results.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle strikes at the very
heart of the classical physics => the particle trajectory.
There is an analogous uncertainty for the product of E
and t (at the same position).
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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- The Correspondence Principle When Quantum physics is applied to macroscopic systems,
it must reduce to the classical physics. Therefore, the nonclassical phenomena, such as uncertainty and duality, must
become undetectable. Niels Bohr codified this requirement
into his Correspondence principle:

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Particle-Wave Duality The behavior of a "microscopic" particle is very different from
that of a classical particle:

in some experiments it resembles the behavior of a
classical wave (not localized in space)

in other experiments it behaves as a classical particle
(localized in space)
Corpuscular theories of light treat light as though it were
composed of particles, but can not explain DIFRACTION and
INTERFERENCE.
Interference of light in a double slit experiment was
demonstrated as early as 1803 by Thomas Young
Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic radiation can explain
these two phenomena, which was the reason why Newtons
corpuscular theory of light was abandoned.
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- Particle-Wave Duality Waves as particles

Max Plank work on black-body radiation, in which he assumed that
there are resonators/oscillations of charge within the cavity walls that
cause light to be emitted and absorbe, described using a simple
harmonic oscillator model, can only exchange energy in quantized
units.
1905 Einstein proposed that the energy in an electromagnetic field is
not spread out over a spherical wavefront, but instead is localized in
individual clumbs - quanta. Each quantum of frequency n travels
through space with speed of light, carrying a discrete amount of energy
and momentum =photon => used to explain the photoelectric effect,
later to be confirmed by the x-ray experiments of Compton.
Particles as waves
Double-slit experiment, in which instead of using a light source, one
uses the electron gun. The electrons are diffracted by the slit and then
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interfere in the region between the diaphragm and the detector.

Check this link for Particle-Wave Duality

explanation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfPeprQ7oGc

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11

Blackbody?
A material is constantly exchanging heat with its
surrounding (to remain at a constant
temperature):
It absorbs and emits radiations
Problem: it can reflect incoming radiations,
which makes a theoretical description
more difficult (depends on the environment)
A blackbody is a perfect absorber:
Incoming radiations is totally absorbed and
none is reflected
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Blackbody Radiation
Blackbody = a cavity in a block of graphite with a small
hole connecting the cavity to the outside world.
Incoming radiations entering the hole keep
bouncing around inside the cavity with a
negligible change of escaping again
through the hole => Absorbed.
The cavity is the perfect absorber, e.g. the
blackbody radiation emission does not
depend on the material surrounding the cavity => a
universal law of nature should be describing this
phenomenon

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14

15

In essence the long

wavelength part of the
blackbody spectrum was
derived, the Rayleighjeans formulae is what
one obtained by Bohrs
correspondence principle

Whenever there is an infinite result, some of the physics is wrong

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Ultraviolet Catastrophe?
Classical physics:
Emission spectrum of hot body: a superposition of
electromagnetic waves of different frequencies (wavelength)
Frequencies allowed: standing waves inside the cavity, integral
number of wavelengths fit the size of the cavity
Equipartition of the energy:
Every standing wave carries kT of energy
Flaw: when 0, the number of standing waves , leading to E

[Ultraviolet Catastrophe] Failure of classical theory:

The work of Rayleigh-Jeans was considered as state-of-the-art,
using well tested theories, which were in very good agreement
with experimental results in many other circumstances.
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Need for a new theory

Used in many
application, i.e.
pyrometer

He used statistical physics of arrays of harmonic oscillators under the assumption that
their energy is quantized, originally he started with a curve fit and interpreted it physically

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of the energy of a
harmonic oscillator,
never before seen in
classical physics

from oscillator to light quantum

the distribution of energy for different

states is different from the classical
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics

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Used in many
application, i.e.
photocell

Photoelectric Effect

KEmax = Vstop = hf -
Larger frequency, means smaller wavelength, and larger Energy = hf.

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Photoelectric Effect, summary

The photoelectric effect provides evidence for

the particle nature of light.
It also provides evidence for quantization.
The electrons will only be ejected once the
threshold frequency is reached .
Below the threshold frequency, no electrons are
ejected.
Above the threshold frequency, the number of
electrons ejected depend on the intensity of the
light.
The effect is almost instantaneous, incompatible
with wave explanation
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Used in many
application, i.e.
determining of
particle masses

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Compton Effect -

h
'0 =
(1 cos )
me c

Nobel prize
1927

This formula is easily derived by

assuming an elastic collision
between two particles (energy
and momentum is conserved,
photon momentum p = E/c =22h/)

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics: electrons as waves

De Broglie hypothesis (1924): Wave properties: = h/p and f = E/h for
moving matter just as for moving particles of light, Nobel prize 1929
Davission and Germer by accident with low energy
electrons; G.P. Thompson and Reid with high energy
electrons in transmission, shared Nobel prize 1937

Slow electrons do not need to be

treated realistically, in a few range

Nowadays the
technique low
energy electron
diffraction
LEED to
characterize
surfaces 24

Basics of Quantum Mechanics: electron

diffraction
http://newton.umsl.e
du/run//nano/unknow
n173.html

For TEMs, is in the pm

range, Acceleration voltage
(U) is in the 200 300 kV
range, velocity: 70 80 %
speed of light
High energy transmission electron diffraction patterns fine
grained polycrystalline material left, one single crystal right

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

Many different
waves form
together a wave
packet,
the group velocity
of the packet
moves as the same
velocity as the
particle with which
it is associated
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uncertainty principle revisited

Results with necessity from the
wave particle duality

For a well defined pulse

composed of many waves with
different wave vectors k = 2/
and angular frequencies = 2 f
k x 1
t 1
> h/4 if
pulse is
described by
Gaussians

Just multiply both sides by h and use

de Broglie/Planck/Einstein relations
E = h f and p = h/ = h k

http://phys.educ.ksu.edu/vqm/html/wpe.html
In Heisenbergs non-commuting
operator notation

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics: expanding on Compton

experiment, precision limit and uncertainty

In order to know something about the electron, (build a theory, use the theory to
make predictions,) we need to make a measurement, i.e. we need to interact with
it, this however disturbs the electron,
in classical physics the effects of the interaction were negligible, in quantum
physics they cannot be neglected, this forces quantum mechanics to use a different
logical structure, this in turn leads to probabilistic predictions rather than definitive
classical predictions,
It is our classical preconception that makes quantum mechanics not intuitive

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29

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

The mathematical structure of Quantum Mechanics is just linear algebra and Hilbert
spaces
As most people do not learn about Hilbert space, we will have another set of slides
on that
What makes quantum mechanics a useful physical theory is the physical
interpretation of the mathematical results
As with any mathematical scheme, there are different ways to define the basis
postulates, what follows is not particularly strict in the mathematical sense and uses
some physical concepts for its justification

The mathematical structure of classical physics is set theory, because human

evolved with the physics of classical objects around, set theory comes natural to us
and we have physical intuition even without ever studying classical physics, many
animals have something like physical intuition as well, otherwise a carnivore could
not successfully hunt an omnivore

We did not evolve in an environment where quantum physical effects are

directly perceptible by our senses, therefore, we have difficulty understanding
it

The only way to do quantum mechanics is to do the mathematics right under

the physical boundary conditions that are set by the specifics of the problem,
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that is all nature allows us to know, but is is enough to build an engineering
disciplines and industries on it

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- First Postulate of Quantum Mechanics Quantum physicists are interested in all kinds of physical systems
(photons, conduction electrons in metals and semiconductors,
atoms, molecules etc.). States of these rather diverse systems are
represented by the same type of functions
STATE FUNCTIONS.
First postulate of Quantum mechanics:
Every physically-realizable state of the system is described in
quantum mechanics by a state function that contains all
accessible physical information about the system in that state.
Physically realizable states
states that can be studied in laboratory
Accesible information
the information we can extract from the
wavefunction
State function
function of position, momentum, energy

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- First Postulate of Quantum Mechanics If 1 and 2 represent two physically-realizable states of the system, then the linear
combination

= c11 + c 2 2

where c1 and c2 are arbitrary complex constants, represents a third physically

realizable state of the system.
Note:

( x, y , z, t ) = ( x, y , z ) e

iEt

if the particle finds itself in a

potential that does not change
over time, e.g. a bound state or a
free particle

Wave function (x,t)
position and time probability amplitude

Quantum mechanics describes the outcome of a hypothetical ensemble of
measurements, where the ensemble of measurements is very large and has
been performed on identical (non-interacting) systems, all of which have been
identically prepared so as to be in the same state.
While the wave function is generally complex, all physical
observable that are derived from it are real, e.g. probability of
finding the particle in region of space dV
2 32
P dV * ( x, y , z, t ) ( x, y , z, t ) dV
P

dV

(
x
,
y
,
z
,
t
)
dV
frequently

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Second Postulate of Quantum Mechanics the normalization condition for the wave function
2

*
PdV
=

(
x
,
y
,
z
)
dV
=

on the wavefunction:
( x, y, z ) ( x, y, z )dV = 1
Limitations
Only normalizable functions can represent a quantum state and
these are called physically admissible functions. (except for a
free particle, which cannot be normalized as it possesses a
definitive momentum and is spread out all over space)
State function must be continuous and single valued function.
State function must be a smoothly-varying function (continuous
first and second derivatives).
Note that normalization sets a scale, in the formulae above the
scale is one full particle per area
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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Third Postulate of Quantum Mechanics Third Postulate:
Every observable in quantum mechanics is represented by an operator which is used to
obtain physical information about the observable from the state function. For an
observable that is represented in classical physics by a function Q(x,p), the corresponding
) )
operator is Q( x, p) .
Observable
Position
Momentum
TotalEnergy
Energy,
sum of kinetic and
potential energy

Operator
)
x
) h
p=
i x
)
p2
h2 2
)
E=
+ V ( x) =
+V ( x)
2
2m
2m x
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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- calculating expectation values When we have solved the Schrdinger equation for the correct boundary
conditions of our problem, we know that our wave function described the
problem correctly,

It contains all we are allowed to know about the system given the
constraint of the uncertainty principle

< p >=

* p dx { * dx}

Generalization to 3D
straightforward

Note that the second factor-integral by which the first factor (with the operator
bracketed by the conjugate complex wave function and the wave function) is unity in
case the wave function is normalized, this clarifies that normalization sets the scale
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for all further measurements, calculations

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- More on Operators  An operator is an instruction, a symbol which tells us to perform one or more
mathematical acts on a function, say f(x). The essential point is that they act on a
function.
 Operators act on everything to the right, unless the action is constrained by brackets.
 Addition and subtraction rule for operators:
)
)
)
)
Q1 Q2 f ( x) = Q1 f ( x) Q2 f ( x)

 The product of two operators implies succesive operation:

) )
) )
Q1Q2 f ( x) = Q1 Q2 f ( x)

 The product of two operators is a third operator:

)
) )
Q3 = Q1Q2
 Two operators commute if they obey the simple operator expression:
) )
) )
) )
) )
) )
Q1 , Q2 = Q1Q2 Q2Q1 = 0 Q1Q2 = Q2Q1

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- More on Operators The requirement for two operators to be commuting
operators is a very important one in quantum mechanics and
it means that we can simultaneously measure the
observables represented with these two operators. The noncommutivity of the position and the momentum operators
(the inability to simultaneously determine a particles position
and momentum) is represented with the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, which in mathematical form is
expressed as:

h 1
x p =
2 2

) )
[x , p ]

and can be generalized for any pair of non-commuting

observables, e.g. time and total energy, spin in two different
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directions.

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Fourth Postulate of Quantum Mechanics 1926 Erwin Schrdinger proposed an equation that describes the evolution of a quantummechanical system
SWE which represents quantum equations of motion, and is of the
form:
2 2 2
h2 2

2
h
( x, t )

(
x
,
t
)
h
H(
= E ( x, t )
+ V (x)(x, 2t)+=U
( x, t ) (+x,Vt ()x=)
x, t()x=, tih) = ih

t
x 2m x2
2m2m

t
x2

This work of Schrdinger was stimulated by a 1925 paper by Einstein on the quantum
theory of ideal gas, and the de Broglie theory of matter waves.
Note:

i in the total energy operator term, this is is a complex

equation for complex functions !!

Examining the time-dependent SWE, one can also define the following operator for the
total energy:
)

E = ih
t

H = KE + PE

Potential Energy PE typically U or V

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Fourth Postulate of Quantum Mechanics -

When potential energy function does not depend on time, one

can make a separation of the variables of the wave function
and derive the time-independent Schrdinger equation

d 2 ( x )

2m

+ U ( x ) ( x ) = H ( x ) = E ( x )

Note that the i on the total energy side (right hand side) is gone
complex equation for complex functions !!

After re-arrangements, if three dimensional, one has to go back

to partial differentials

d 2 ( x )
x

+ 2m

{E U ( x )} ( x ) = 039

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Fourth Postulate of Quantum Mechanics note that it is the potential energy function that sets the
physical boundary conditions for the problem,
Schrdingers equation is just an operator statement that
energy is conserved multiplied by some wave function
when Schrdingers equation is actually fulfilled, we have
a wave function that makes sense for the specific
problem (so the problem becomes to find a wave
function that fulfills this equation)
from that wave function we can then calculate anything
we would like to know and are allowed to know by the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle

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Basics of Quantum Mechanics

- Fourth Postulate of Quantum Mechanics Fourth (Fundamental) postulate of Quantum mechanics:
The time development of the state functions of an isolated quantum system is governed
)
) ) )
by the time-dependent SWE H = ih / t , where
is the Hamiltonian of the
H = KHE=+TP+EV
system.
Note on isolated system:
The TDSWE describes the evolution of a state provided that no observations are made.
An observation alters the state of the observed system, and as it is, the TDSWE can not
describe such changes.
If is said that as soon as a measurement is made, or equivalently as
soon as an expectation value is calculated, the wave function
collapses into one of the eigenstates of the very operator that has
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been used for the calculations

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

-meaning of Schrdingers equation Schrdingers equation is the quantum physics equivalent to both
Newtons 2nd law (which deals with classical particles) and the
classical wave equation (which deals with classical waves and is
sometimes referred to as Helmholtz equation as it can be derive
from Newtons law)
So it deals with the wave-particle duality effectively, loosely
speaking this is one of the reason that it is complex in its time dependent form
The wave function of the free particle may be considered as being the equivalent of
Newtons first law, because its momentum is well defined (not uncertain), the free
particle is everywhere with the same probability, in a sense spread out over all space

( x, t ) = Ae

( i / h )( Et px )

= Ae

( ip / h ) x

( iE / h ) t

= ( x ) (t )

d
A
i
H
Heisenbergs law of motion formulated in matrix mechanics is
= [ A H , H ]
dt
ih
equivalent to Schrdinger equation (Newtons 2nd law, Helmholtz
equation),

but more general with respect to time dependence

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Dirac notation for state vectors, a generalization of wavefunctions to

use the mathematical structure of the Hilbert Space
|a> is a ket vector representing quantum state a just as well as a wave function a
its dual vector <a| is a bra vector and represents a*
The normalization condition thus becomes <a|a>=1= <|>
A physical quantity or the action to determine a physical quantity, i.e. a measurement is
represented my matrix A (instead a linear operator) is written as A|a> = A|>
An expectation value thus becomes <A>=<|A|>
Any ket vector can be represented by a linear combination of a complete set of ket
basis vectors, these basis vectors are chosen according to the problem to be solved,
i.e. for a two state system, there is a two dimensional Hilbert space with two basis
vectors, there is also an infinity dimensional Hilbert space with infinitely many basis
vectors for certain problems
|f>=c1|1>+ c2|2> + ci|i>
A measurement changes a quantum state (from a set of probabilities) to a definitively
measured state, the probability of observing the eigenvalue of the eigenstate i is ci*c i
The Schrdinger equation becomes Hij|j>=Ei|i>, instead of solving the differential
equation for the wave function for a certain potential energy function, one can
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diagonalize the matrix that corresponds to the Hamiltonian operator

ADVANCED
MODERN
PHYSICS
Theoretical
Foundations
by John Dirk
Walecka

44

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

Only in a few cases can the Schrdinger equation

be solved analytically, i.e. square well, simple
harmonic oscillator, hydrogen atom, helium 1+ ion,
lithium 2+ ion, (key is two- body problem, a threebody problem has no exact solution in classical
physics either)
All other case can be solved by approximations,
e.g. WKB as we will see for high n of harmonic oscillator
(typically for slowly vary wavelength of standing waves)

A popular approximation method is

perturbation theory
An alternative is density functional theory
45

Approximate Methods for solving

the Schrdinger equation
Perturbation theory works when a small
perturbing term () can be added to a known
Hamiltonian to set up the unknown problem:

H = H 0 + H
Then the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues
can be approximated by a power series in
:
( 0)
(1)
2 ( 2)
E n = E n + E n + E n + L
n = n( 0 ) + n(1) + 2 n( 2) + L

46

Perturbation theory
Plugging these expansions into the
Schrdinger equation and equating each
term in each order in
neglecting all but the first order, quite OK
for some problems, the Schrdinger
equation becomes
(1)
n

( 0)
n

( 0)
(0)
(1)

= H n + ( H 0 E n ) n
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Perturbation Theory
The (infinite series) of eigenstates for the
(time independent) Schrdinger equation
(SE) form a complete basis set for
expanding any other function:

(1)
n

= a nm

(0)
m

Substitute this into the first order SE just

shown.
48

Perturbation theory
and multiply from the left by n( 0 ) * and
integrate, gives, after using =
n
m
nm
Correction
terms and
functions

n =

E
(0)
n

(1)
n

m( 0)
H mn
+ ( 0)
( 0)
E

E
mn
n
m

(0)
n

(0)

H n

= m( 0 ) H n( 0 )
H mn

If En(0) and Em(0) are degenerate by accident one takes a linear

combination of all the degenerate wave functions that solves the
perturbing Hamiltonian
49

Perturbation theory
The new energy is corrected by the
perturbation Hamiltonian evaluated
between the unperturbed wavefunctions
The new wave functions are mixed in
using the degree to which the overlap with
the perturbation Hamiltonian is significant
and by the closeness in energy of the
states
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Time Dependent Perturbation Theory

Turning on a perturbing potential at t = 0 and applying (something like) the
previous procedure to the time dependent Schrdinger equation with P as (time
dependent) probability of making a transition from state m to state k:

1
Em Ek

P (k , t ) = m H k exp i
t dt
h

ih 0
t

Em Ek
For a cosinusoidal perturbation H (t ) cos(t )P peaks at =
h
(conservation of energy while uncertainty principle holds), leading to
Fermis Golden Rule, that the probability per unit time, dP/dt is

dP (m, k ) 2
=
m H k
dt
h

( E m E k h )
Conservation of energy in the transition

For a system with many levels

that satisfy energy conservation,
many states that are close to Ek
the Fermi golden rule becomes

dP (m, k ) 2
=
m H k
dt
h

( Ek )

Density of States

51

Many-electron quantum mechanics without

wavefunctions?
Density functional theory (DFT)
Hohenberg and Kohn (Nobel price chemistry 1998 to
Kohn): Ground state energy is a unique functional (loosely
speaking function of a function) of the electron density
distribution, n(r),

E [n(r )]
=0
n(r )

Get n(r) by minimizing E[n(r)]:

means varying the function n(r) until minimum is
achieved
Such a functional must exists, but is not known, so
approximations are used to derive it
52

Example of a simple energy functional

E[n(r )] = C n(r )

5/3

Kinetic energy

1 n(r1 )n(r2 )
dr +
dr1 dr2 + n(r )V (r )dr + XC
2
r12
Coulomb energy (e-e
repulsion)

Other potential
(e.g., nuclear)

Exchange and
correlation

In the Local Density Approximation, exchange and correlation

is modeled simply by n(r) 4/3
LUMO of quercetin

From Stuart Lindsay, Introduction

to Nanoscience, 2010

Lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital =
LUMO
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