LECTURE NOTES FOR

EE 162
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY
CONVERSION & TRANSFORMERS

COURSE LECTURER: DR. PHILIP YAW OKYERE

Course Outline
EE 162 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (3 0 3)
Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion:
Force and torque as rate of change of energy with position. Basic Transducers: Single
Excitation, Alignment Force and Torque; Double Excitation, Alignment and Interaction
Forces and torque
Transformers:
Construction; Basic theory; Phasor Diagram; Equivalent Circuits; No-load and ShortCircuit Tests; Voltage Regulation; Efficiency; Cooling methods; Polarity; Polyphase
transformer Connections; Per-Unit Calculation; Parallel Operation of Transformers;
Auto transformers; Tap-Changing transformers; Instrument Transformers.

CHAPTER ONE
Transformers
1. Introduction
The transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another via the medium of
a pulsating magnetic field that links both circuits. The widespread development of ac
power systems is principally due to the transformer. It enables us to produce and transmit
power at economical voltages and to distribute it safely in factories and homes. In lowpower low-current electronic and control circuits, it is used to provide impedance
matching between a source and its load for maximum power transfer, to isolate one
circuit from another, to isolate direct current while maintaining ac continuity between
two circuits and to provide reduced ac voltages and currents for protection, metering,
instrumentation and control.
2. Principle of operation of a transformer
The transformer is a straight-forward application of Faradays Law of Electromagnetic
Induction. Consider the general arrangement of a single-phase transformer shown in Fig.
1. An alternating voltage applied to coil 1, causes an alternating current to flow in the coil
and this current produces an alternating flux in the iron core. A portion of the total flux
links the second coil. The alternating flux induces a voltage in the second coil. If a load
should be connected to the coil, this voltage would drive a current through it. Energy
would then be transferred through the medium of magnetic field from coil 1 to coil 2. The
combination of the two coils is called a transformer. The coil connected to the source is
called the primary winding (or the primary) and the one connected to the load is called
the secondary winding (or the secondary).
Soft iron

m
I2

I1

V1

E1

N1

N2

Load

E2

Coil 2

Coil 1

Fig. 1 An elementary transformer

3. Polarity and terminal markings of a transformer
Voltage E1 is induced in coil 1 and voltage E2 in coil 2. These voltages are in phase.
Suppose at any given instant when the primary terminal 1 is positive with respect to
primary terminal 2, the secondary terminal 3 is also positive with respect to secondary
terminal 4 (See Fig. 2). Then terminals 1 and 3 are said to have the same polarity. To
3

indicate that their polarities are the same, a dot is placed beside primary terminal 1 and
secondary terminal 3. Alternatively, letters of the same suffix, A1 (for the high-voltage
winding) and a1 (for the low-voltage winding) say can be used. Current I1 entering coil 1
through the dotted terminal 1 and current I2 entering coil 2 through the dotted terminal 3
create fluxes in the same direction.

A1

a1

A2 2

a2

A1
A2

a1
a2

(a) Magnetic Circuit

(b) Electric Circuit
Fig. 2 Polarity and terminal markings
4.0 Ideal transformer
An ideal transformer has no losses, no leakage flux and its core is infinitely permeable.
An ideal transformer is shown in Fig. 3. The mutual flux m is confined to the iron.

V1

I2

I1
E1

N1

N2

V2

E2

(I1 = 0 on no load)
Fig. 3 An ideal transformer

4.1 Properties of an ideal transformer

(a) Emf equation and voltage ratio (see Fig. 3): With the primary connected to an ac
source V1, an alternating flux m is produced in the core. Let the flux be expressed as
m max sin t webers
(1)
The induced emf e1 as indicated in the figure is given by
d
d
e1 N1 m N1 max sin t N1 max cos t
dt
dt
Or
e1 N1 max sint 90

(2)

Hence

E1

N1 max
2

2fN1
max
2

Or

E1 4.44 fN 1 max
Similarly
N 2 max 2fN 2 max
E2

4.44 fN 2 max
2
2

(3)

(4)

From (3) and (4), we obtain

E1 N1

(5)
E2 N 2
The ratio a = N1/N2 is called the turns ratio. A step-up transformer has a < 1 and a stepdown transformer has a > 1. In an ideal transformer, the applied voltage V1 and the
induced voltage E1 must be identical. Hence we may write
(6.a)
V1 E1
And
V1 4.44 fN 1 max

(6.b)

Equation (6.b) indicates that for a given frequency, number of turns and voltage, the peak
flux max must remain constant.
(b) Current ratio and power equation: On no load I1 = 0. Now if a load is connected
across the secondary terminals (i.e. switch S is closed) current I2 flows through the load.
This current produces mmf N2I2 which if it acted alone would by Lenzs law, cause the
mutual flux to reduce. Since when V1 is fixed the flux max is also fixed, the primary
develops mmf N1I1 which is such that
(7.a)
N1 I 1 N 2 I 2
Or
I1 I 2 a

(7.b)

In ideal transformer the secondary voltage

V 2 E2

(8)

remains constant since E2 is fixed when the max is fixed. It can be deduced from above
equations that for an ideal transformer
V1 I1 V2 I 2
(9)
That is there are no reactive and active losses in an ideal transformer.

(c) Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer (Fig. 4)

E1

E1, V1

E2

E2, V2

I2
I1

(a) No load

(b) Load is resistive inductive

Fig. 4 Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer

Example 1
An ideal transformer having 90 turns on the primary and 2250 turns on the secondary is
connected to a 200-V, 50-Hz source. The load across the secondary draws a current of 2
A at a power factor of 0.80 lagging. Calculate (a) the rms value of the primary current (b)
the flux linked by the secondary winding (c) Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution
(a) N1I1 N 2 I 2 90I1 2250 2 I1 50 A
V1
200
(b) max

0.01Wb
4.44 fN1 4.44 50 90

N
(c) E2 2 E1 5000V
N1
The phase angle between V2 and I 2 is cos -1 (0.8) 36.9
V2=E2
= 5000 V
V1=E1
= 200 V

I1 = 50 A

36.9

I2 = 2 A

Example 2
A 200-kVA, 6600-V / 400-V, 50-Hz 1-ph transformer has 80 turns on the secondary.
Calculate (a) the approximate values of the primary and secondary currents (b) the
approximate number of primary turns and (c) the maximum value of the flux.

Solution
(a) Full - load primary current (200 1000) 6600 30.3 A
and full - load secondary current (200 1000) 400 500 A
(b) N1 (80 6600) 400 1320
400
(c) max
0.0225Wb [ from (4)]
4.44 80 50
(d) Impedance ratio (see Fig. 5): The impedance seen by the source
Z e V1 I1 E1 I1 aE2 I 2 a a 2 E2 I 2 a 2 Z
Ze a2 Z

(10)

I1

V1

I2

E1

E2

Fig. 5 impedance ratio

(e)Equivalent circuits of an ideal transformer: From (10), we can represent the
transformer in Fig. 5 by equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6.a. We may also write
I 2 Z E2 E1 a V1 a
Or
V1
I2Z
a

(11)

and then represent the transformer by an equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6.b
I1

V1

I2

a2Z

V1
a

(a) Circuit referred to the primary side

(b) circuit referred to the secondary side
Fig. 6 Equivalent circuits of ideal transformer

Example 3
Calculate the voltage V and current I in the circuit of Fig. 7, knowing that the ideal
transformer has a primary to secondary turns of 1:100 (i.e. a = 1/100).
20k

5
I

40k

V1=10V

Fig. 7 See Ex. 3

Solution:
We shall shift all impedances to the primary side
5

10V

V aV

Z e R 2 X L X C 4 2 32 5
2

V1 10

2A
Ze
5

V IR 2 4 8V . The actual voltage V

V
100 8 800V
a

5.0 Practical single-phase transformer

The windings of a practical transformer have both resistance and leakage inductance. The
core is also imperfect: it has a core loss and finite permeability. The core loss has two
components: hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss
When ferromagnetic material is subjected to alternating magnetization, the energy put
into the magnetic field when the flux is increasing is not completely given back when the
flux dies away but a certain portion is wasted. The area of the hysteresis loop gives the
value of the energy loss taking place for each complete cycle of magnetization. The loop
x
area is found experimentally to vary as Bmax
up to moderate values of flux density (1.0
2
2.0 Wb/m )

The index x is named after Steinmetz and is about 1.6 though it may be higher. In
2
practice the hysteresis loss, for simplicity, is often taken as proportional to Bmax
If f = frequency of magnetization, the power wasted in magnetic hysteresis
Ph fWH W/m 3 Or
1.6
2
Ph fBmax
fBmax
W/m 3

(12)

The hysteresis constant depends upon the magnetic material.

Eddy-current loss
When a changing magnetic flux permeates any mass of metal, eddy currents are induced.
The eddy currents cause the metal to heat. Eddy currents are also induced in a core
revolving in a stationary or constant magnetic field. If iron or metal subjected to
alternating magnetization is built up of laminations insulated from each other, the eddy
current loss is reduced.
The eddy current loss in a laminated core is given by
2
Pe (kf 2 t 2 Bmax
) / W/m 3

(13.a)

Where
t = thickness of the laminations
= resistivity of the material
k = a constant depends on the waveform of the alternating flux
For a given thickness and waveform, (13.a) reduces to
2
Pe k f 2 Bmax
W / m3

(13.b)

Example 4
In a transformer core of volume 0.16 m3 the total iron loss was found to be 2170 W at 50
Hz. The hysteresis loop of the core material, taken to the same maximum flux density,
had an area of 9.0 cm2 when drawn to scales of 1 cm = 0.1 Wb/m2 and 1 cm = 250 AT/m.
Calculate the total iron loss in the transformer core if it is energized to the same
maximum flux density, but at a frequency of 60 Hz.
Solution
Hysteresis loss = area x scale factors = 9 x 0.1 x 250 = 225 J/m3
At 50 Hz, hysteresis loss = 225 x 50 x 0.16 = 1800 W
Therefore Eddy-current loss = 2170 1800 = 370 W
At 60 Hz, hysteresis loss = 1800 x (60/50) = 2160 W and
Eddy-current loss = 370 x (60/50)2 = 533 W
Therefore total iron loss = 2160 + 533 = 2693 W
Example 5
For the same maximum flux density, the total core loss in a core is 500 W at 25 Hz and
1400 W at 50 Hz. Find the hysteresis and eddy-current losses for both frequencies.
9

Solution
Since Bmax is constant, the losses can have the following forms:
Ph Af , Pe Bf 2 and Pc Ph Pe Af Bf 2
For a frequency of 25 Hz, the core loss = 500 = A(25) + B(25)2
For a frequency of 50 Hz, the core loss = 1400 = A(50) + B(50)2
Solving the two equations, we obtain A = 12, B = 0.32 and the individual losses
Ph = 300 W, Pe = 200 W at 25 Hz and Ph = 600 W, Pe = 800 W at 50 Hz
5.1 Phasor diagram on no load
To furnish the power loss in the core (core loss), a small current must be drawn from the
source. This current Ip must be in phase with induced voltage E1. Also to create the
mutual flux m, a magnetizing current Im in phase with m and lagging 90 behind E1
must be drawn to produce the required mmf.
V1=E1

E2

Ip

Io

Im
Fig. 8 Phasor diagram for practical transformer on no load

We note that
(i) the no-load current Io taken by the primary is the phasor sum of Ip and Im
(ii) the difference between the value of the applied voltage V1 and that of the induced emf
E1 is only about 0.05% when the transformer is on no load so the two can be considered
to be equal
(iii) Ip is very small compared with Im. Therefore the no-load power factor is very low.
Example 4
A 1-ph transformer has 480 turns on the primary and 90 turns on the secondary. The
mean length of the flux path in the iron core is 1.8 m and the joints are equivalent to an
air gap of 0.1 mm. If the peak value of the flux density is to be 1.1 T when a voltage of
2200 V at 50 Hz is applied to the primary, find (a) the cross-sectional area of the core (b)
the secondary voltage on no load (c) the primary current and power factor on no load.
Assume the value of the magnetic field strength for 1.1 T in iron to be 400 A/m, the
corresponding iron loss to be 1.7 W/kg at 50 Hz and the density of the iron to be 7800
kg/m3.

10

Solution
(a) 2200 4.44 480 50 max

max 0.0206Wb

Cross - sectional area of core 0.0206 1.1 0.0187m 2

90
(b) Secondary voltage on no load 2200
412.5V
480
(c) Peak value of mmf required for the iron core 400 1.8 720 A

H g l g g l g
o

Peak value of total mmf required to produce max 720 87.5 807.5 A
Peak value of total mmf 807.5
Peak value of magnetizin g current

1.682 A
N1
480
1.682
Its rms value assuming it to be sinusoidal I m
1.19 A
2
Volume of iron 1.8 0.0187 0.0337m3
Mass of iron volume density 0.0337 7800 263 kg
And iron loss 263 1.7 447W
I p 447 2200 0.203 A
Peak value of mmf for the air gap

1.1
0.0001 87.5 A
4 10 7

No load current I o 1.192 0.2032 1.21 A

No load power factor I p I o 0.203 1.21 0.168 lagging

5.2 Mutual and leakage fluxes in a transformer (see Fig. 9)

The actual flux linking a coil can be considered to have two components: the mutual flux
m linking both coils and the leakage flux l. The reluctance of the paths of the leakage
flux is almost entirely due to the long air paths and is therefore practically constant.
Consequently, the value of the leakage flux is proportional to the current in the coil.
m
I1

V1

I2

Ep

l1

l2

Es

V2

Fig. 9 Ttransformer possessing two leakage fluxes and a mutual flux

The secondary induced voltage Es is composed of two parts:
(a) a voltage El2 induced by leakage flux l2 given by El2 = 4.44fN2l2,max
(b) a voltage E2 induced by mutual flux m given by E2 = 4.44fN2max
11

Similarly, the primary induced voltage is composed of El1 =4.44fN1l1,max and

El1 = 4.44fN1max
We can segregate the four voltages E1, E2, El1 and El2 by rearranging the transformer
circuit as shown in Fig. 10. The rearrangement of the transformer circuit makes it clear
that El1 and El2 are voltage drops across reactances. These reactances called leakage
reactances are given by X 1 El1 I1 and X 2 El 2 I 2
m

l1

l2

I1

I2
Ep

V1

El2

El1
E2

E1

Es

Fig. 10 Separating out the various induced voltages

5.3 Equivalent circuit of a practical transformer
The behaviour of a practical transformer may be conveniently considered by assuming it
to be equivalent to an ideal transformer and then allowing for the imperfections of the
actual transformer by means of additional circuits or impedances inserted between the
supply and the primary winding and between the secondary winding and the load. The
complete equivalent circuit of this transformer is shown in Fig. 11. R1 and R2 are
resistances of the primary and secondary windings. X1 and X2 are the leakage reactances.
The reactance Xm is such that it takes a reactive current Im (i.e. the magnetizing current)
of the actual transformer. The core loss is accounted for by the resistor Rm which takes
the component Ip of the primary current.
Ideal
transformer

R1

X1

I21

I2

X2

R2

Io
V1

Ip

Im

Rm

Xm

E1

E2

V2

Fig. 11 Complete equivalent circuit of a practical transformer

Ideal transformer equations still apply: I 2 N1 N 2 I 2 and E1 E2 N1 N 2
12

5.4 Equivalent circuit referred to the primary side (Fig. 12a)

R1

X1

X21

I21

R21

Io
Ip

Im
Xm

Rm

Z1

E1

V21

Fig. 12.a.Exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary side

Let a N1 N 2

(14.a)

Then
X 2 ( N1 N 2 ) 2 X 2 a 2 X 2 , R2 ( N1 N 2 ) 2 R2 a 2 R2 , Z ( N1 N 2 ) 2 Z a 2 Z

V2 ( N1 N 2 )V2 aV2 , I 2 I 2 a

It is worth noting that for a practical transformer, R2 R1 and X 2 X 1

(14.b)
(14.c)

5.5 Equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side

I11

R 11

X11

I2

X2

R2

Io1
V1
a

Ip1

Im1

Rm1

Xm1

V2

Fig. 12.b.Exact equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side

R1 ( N 2 N1 ) 2 R1 R1 a 2 , etc

N 2 I p N1I p or I p aI p etc

(15.a)
(15.b)

13

5.5 Approximate equivalent circuits

The exact equivalent circuit of the transformer is too exact for most practical
applications. Consequently, we can simplify it to make calculations easier. Approximate
equivalent circuits commonly used for power transformer calculations are given in Fig.
13
I21

I1

Re1=R1+R21 Xe1=X1+X21

Io
Ip
V1

Rm

Im

V21

Z1

Xm

(a) Voltage drop in the primary leakage impedance due to exciting or

no load current Io is neglected.

I1 = I21

Xe1

Re1

Z1

V1

V21

(b) Exciting current is neglected entirely. Note that primary rated or

full load current is at least 20 times larger than Io. This circuit may
be used when I1 = 1.15xfull load current

I1 = I21

V1

Xe1

Z1

V21

(c) For transformers above 500 kVA, Xe is at least 5 times

greater than Re. This circuit can be used to calculate
voltage regulation of such transformers.
Fig.13 Approximate equivalent circuits

14

5.5 The complete phasor diagrams for loaded conditions

They are shown in Fig. 15

Fig. 15 Complete phasor diagrams for loaded conditions (drawn in two parts)
5.6 Rating of transformers
To keep the transformer temperature at an acceptable level, limits are set to both the
applied voltage (this determines the iron loss at a given frequency) and the current drawn
by the load (this determines copper loss). The limits determine the rated voltage and rated
current of transformers.
The power rating of transformer Srated = rated voltage x rated current can be expressed in
VA, kVA or MVA depending on the size of the transformer. The rated kVA (i.e. the rated
power), frequency and voltage are always shown on the name plate. In large
transformers, the corresponding currents are also shown. We note that
Rated kVA = V1r x I1fl x10-3 = V2r x I2fl x10-3 = V2n xI2fl x10-3 =E2n x I2fl x10-3
Where
V1r = rated primary voltage
I1fl = rated primary current = primary full load current
V2r = rated secondary voltage = V2n (no load secondary voltage corresponding to the rated
primary voltage) = E2n (no load induced secondary voltage corresponding to primary
rated voltage)
I2fl = rated secondary current = secondary full load current
5.7 The turns ratio
It is given by
a E1 E2

E1 V1r on no load because I o Z1 is very small. Since E 2 V2 on no load

15

a V1r V 2 r

(16.a)

And I1 fl I 2 fl a

(16.b)

Example 7
A transformer is rated 10 kVA, 2400 / 240 V, 60 Hz. The parameters for the approximate
equivalent circuit of Fig. 14.a are Rm = 80 k, Xm = 35 k, Re1 = 8.4 and Xe1 = 13.7 .
Determine the voltage to be applied to the primary to obtain the rated current in the
secondary when the secondary terminal voltage is 240 V. What is the input power factor?
The load power factor is 0.8 lagging.
Solution
I I
2

2 fl

a I1 fl 10000 2400 4.17 A

The power factor angle cos 1 0.8 36.9

If we choose the load current I2 as the reference phasor, then V2 24036.9
V aV 240036.9 1920 j1440 volts
2

The voltage across the equivalent leakage impedance is

Z e1 I 2 8.4 j13.74.17 j 0 35 j57 volts

The primary voltage required

V1 V2 Z e1 I 2 1920 j1440 35 j57 1955 j1497 246237.4 volts

V
1955 j1497
Ip 1
24.4375 j18.7125 mA
Rm
80 k
V
1955 j1497
Im 1
42.7714 j55.8571 mA
jX m
j35 k

I 1 I 2 I p I m 4.17 j 0 0.0244 j 0.0187 0.0427 j 0.0558

4.2371 j 0.0371 4.237 0.50 A
Phase angle between V1 and I 1 37.4 0.50 37.9
Input power factor cos37.9 0.79 lagging
Example 8
A 1-ph transformer operates from a 230-V supply. It has an equivalent resistance of 0.1
and an equivalent leakage reactance of 0.5 referred to the primary. The secondary is
connected to a coil having a resistance of 200 and a reactance of 100 . Calculate the
secondary terminal voltage. The secondary winding has four times as many turns as the
primary.

16

Solution
Refer to approximate equivalent circuit of Fig. 14.b
N
1
a 1 , Z 200 j100 , Z a 2 200 j100 12.5 j 6.25
N2 4

Total impedance Z e1 Z 0.1 j 0.5 12.5 j 6.25 12.6 j 6.75

2300
2300

12.5 j 6.25
and V2
12.6 j 6.75
12.6 j 6.75
230 12.5 j 6.25 230 13.9754
V2

224.8719 volts
12.6 j 6.75
14.2941

V2
V2
4 224.8719 899 volts
a

I2

5.8 Definition of per-unit impedances

The leakage impedances Z1 and Z2 on the primary and secondary side are expressed in
per unit as follows:
I 1 fl
S
Z1
Z1
Z1
Z1 rated
(17.a)
Z1base
V1 r
V12r
I 2 fl
S
Z2
Z 2
Z2
Z 2 rated
(17.b)
Z 2 base
V2 r
V22r
where

Z1base

V12r

S rated

and

Z 2 base

V22r

S rated

(17.c)

The impedances are said to be expressed in per unit with reference to the bases V1r, Srated
in the case of Z1 and V2r, Srated in the case of Z2. The total impedance of the transformer in
per unit Z1 Z 2 .
Example 5: A single-phase transformer that is rated 3000 kVA, 69 kV / 4.16 kV, 60 Hz
has an impedance of 8 percent. Calculate the total impedance of the transformer referred
to (a) the primary side (b) the secondary side
Solution
Vr2
69 2 10 6
(a) Z1base

1587
S rated 3000 10 3
Z Z Z
0.08 1587 127
e1

e1

(b) Z 2base

1base
2
V2 r

S rated

4.16 2 10 6
5.7685
3000 10 3

Z e2 Z e2 Z 2 base 0.08 5.7685 0.46

17

Alternatively Z e 2

N
4.16
2 Z e1
127 0.46
69
N1
2

5.9 Voltage regulation

With the primary voltage maintained constant, the secondary terminal voltage at no load
differs from the secondary voltage under load. The voltage regulation or simply
regulation of a transformer is the change in secondary voltage which occurs when the
rated kVA output at a specified power factor is reduced to zero, with the primary voltage
maintained constant. It is usually expressed as a percentage (called percentage regulation)
or a fraction of the rated no-load terminal voltage (in per unit).
The equivalent circuit given in Fig. 14.b is used to calculate voltage regulation. The
circuit may be either referred to the primary or the secondary side. The circuit in general
form can thus be represented as shown in Fig. 16.
If the circuit is referred to the primary side, then

E V1 , V V2 , Re Re1 and X e X e1
Re

Xe

Load

Fig. 16 Circuit for computing voltage regulation

E V V1 V2
Voltage regulation

pu
E
V1
If the circuit is referred to the secondary side, then
V
E V2 n 1 , V V2 , Re Re 2 and X e X e 2
a
V V2
pu
Voltage regulation 2 n
V2 n
V V V V2
It can be shown that 1 2 2 n
V1
V2 n
And V2 1 V2n

(18.a)

(18.b)
(19)
(20)

In general, let the load current be I lagging behind the load voltage V by . Then taking
the load voltage as the reference phasor, we can write
18

E V 1 j 0 Re jX e I cos jI sin

V IRe cos IX e sin j IX e cos IRe sin

And hence

E E

V IRe cos IX e sin 2 IX e cos IRe sin 2

The second term under the root is usually negligible except at low leading power factors.
Considering the first term only gives
E V IRe cos IX e sin
Or E V IRe cos IX e sin
(21)
The angle is negative when current is leading and positive when current is lagging.
The voltage regulation is maximum when = where

Xe

Re

d
From d E V IRe sin IX e cos 0

tan 1

R
Hence E V max IRe e
Ze
Where Z e Re X e
2

X
IX e e

Ze

R 2 X e2

I Ze
I e

Z
e

(22.a)
(22.b)

From (21)

I fl IX
E V I fl IR

cos sin Or

I fl E
I fl E
E

E V

I p.u. R p.u. cos I p.u. X p.u. sin

E

(23)

Where
I p.u. I I fl current in per unit R p.u. IR E resistancei in per unit , etc
We note the following:
(i) Usually the quantities will be referred to the secondary side
(ii) With (23), it is not necessary to refer quantities from primary to secondary side, for
per-unit values of primary and secondary impedances can be added directly
(iii)The equations are correct at any current or kVA and at rated current or kVA.
(iv) At rated current or kVA, Ip.u.=1.
(v) It is supposed that E is the rated voltage. When E is not the rated voltage, voltage
regulation can still be calculated using (21).

19

Example 9
A 100-kVA 1-ph transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 80 turns on the secondary.
The primary and secondary resistances are 0.3 and 0.01 respectively, and the
corresponding leakage reactances are 1.1 and 0.035 respectively. The supply voltage
is 2200 V. Calculate (a) the equivalent impedance referred to the primary circuit and (b)
the voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage for full load having a power
factor of (i) 0.8 lagging and (ii) 0.8 leading (c) the maximum voltage regulation
Solution
(a) Re1 R1 ( N1 N 2 ) 2 R2 0.3 0.01 (400 80) 2 0.55

X e1 1.1 0.035 (400 80) 2 1.975

Z e1 0.552 1.9752 2 2.05

(b) (i) cos 0.8 sin 0.6
I1 fl 100 10 3 2200 45.45 A
0.55 0.8 1.975 0.6
0.0336 pu
2200

80
V2 n 2200
440 V
400
V2 V2n 1 4401 0.0336 425.2 V

45.45

0.55 0.8 1.975 0.6

(ii ) 45.45
0.0154 pu
2200

V2 4401 0.0154 446.8 V

I1 fl Z e1 45.45 2.05
(c) maximum voltage regulation max

0.0424 pu.
V1
2200

Example 10
The primary and secondary windings of a 30-kVA, 6000-V / 230-V transformer have
resistances of 10 and 0.016 respectively. The total reactance of the transformer
referred to the primary is 23 . Calculate the percentage regulation of the transformer
when supplying full load current at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
Solution
Re1 R1 ( N1 N 2 ) 2 R2 10 0.016 (6000 230) 2 20.89 ]

X e1 23
I1 fl 30 103 6000 5 A
20.89 0.8 23 0.6
0.0254 pu
6000

Percent regulation 2.54%

20

5.10Transformer output
The transformer supply voltage and frequency are substantially constant; the heating
therefore depends on the current taken by the load. Since the secondary voltage of the
transformer is also substantially constant it means that the heating also depends on the
load kVA. The transformer output is therefore usually quoted in kVA. The transformer
load in kVA is given by
(24)
S V2 I 2 10 3 kVA
Where
V2 = actual load voltage and
I2 = actual load current.]
When S is given and V2 is unknown the load current can be estimated using the
approximate equation
S V2n I 2 10 3 kVA

(25)

5.11 Efficiency
The losses which occur in a transformer on load are composed of
(i) Copper losses in primary and secondary windings, namely

I12 R1 I 22 R2 I12 Re1 I 2 2 Re2

(ii) Iron losses in the core due to hysteresis and eddy currents. The iron losses depend on
the peak value of the mutual flux m and frequency. It is therefore independent of load
current if voltage and frequency are constant.
Let
Pi = the iron losses (fixed loss) in kW and
Pc = the copper loss with full-load S kVA in kW
Then the total loss at any load xS kVA at power factor cos is Pi + x2 Pc and the
efficiency is
output
xS cos
S cos

2
input
xS cos Pi x Pc
P

S cos i xPc
x

For a given power factor, the efficiency is maximum when the expression in brackets is a
minimum. Hence for a maximum efficiency, we have

Pi
P
d Pi

x
From
(26)
xPc 0 or 2i Pc 0 or Pi x 2 Pc

Pc
dx x
x

i.e. efficiency is maximum when the copper loss, x 2 Pc Pi , the fixed loss or iron losses.
The efficiency of a transformer is calculated using this form of efficiency equation:
Pi x 2 Pc
losses
1
1
(27)
losses output
xS cos Pi x 2 Pc

21

Example 13
The primary and secondary windings of a 500-kVA transformer have resistances of 0.42
and 0.0011 respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 6600 V and 400 V
respectively and the iron loss is 2.9 kW. Calculate the efficiency on full load at a power
factor of 0.8.
Solution

500 1000
1250 A
400
1000
Full - load primary current I1 fl 500
75.8 A
6600
Secondary copper loss on full load 1250 2 0.0011 1720 W
Full - load secondary current I 2 fl

Primary copper loss on full load 75.82 0.42 2415 W

Total copper loss on full load , Pc 1720 2415 4135 W 4.135 kW
Total loss on full load 4.135 2.9 7.035 kW
Output power on full load at 0.8 pf 500 0.8 400 kW
7.035
Efficiency on full load 1
0.9827 98.27%
400 7.035

Example 12
Find the output, at which the efficiency of the transformer of example 11 is maximum
and calculate its value assuming the power factor of the load to be 0.8.
Solution
Pi
2.9
x

0.837
Pc
4.135
Therefore output at maximum efficiency 0.837 500 418.5 kVA
At maximum efficiency , total loss 2 2.9 5.8 kW
and output power at 0.8 pf 418.5 0.8 334.8 kW
5.8
Therefore, maximum efficiency 1
0.983 98.30%
5.8 334.8
Example 13
A 400-kVA transformer has an iron loss of 2 kW and the maximum efficiency at 0.8 pf
occurs when the load is 240 kW. Calculate (a) the maximum efficiency at unity power
factor and (b) the efficiency on full load at 0.71 power factor
Solution
(a) Total loss at maximum efficiency 2 2 4 kW
240
Output kVA at maximum efficiency
300 kVA
0.8
Output power at maximum efficiency at unity pf 300 1 300 kW
22

4
0.9868 98.68%
4 300
300
(b) The fraction x of full load kVA at which the efficiency is max
0.75
400
P
2
Full load copper loss Pc 2i
3.56 kW
x
0.75 2
2 3.56
Full load efficiency at 0.71 pf 1
0.9808 98.08%
2 3.56 400 0.71
Maximum efficiency at unity pf 1

5.12 All-day efficiency

Power transformers operate at substantially constant load. They are designed such that
the maximum efficiency occurs at the normal operating load. Generally their efficiency
varies little as the load varies from 50 to 130 % of its rated kVA.
Distribution transformers on the other hand supplies load which varies widely over a 24-h
period. The efficiency of these transformers is better assessed on energy basis. The
output and losses are calculated in kW hours over a 24-hour day. The all-day efficiency is
defined as
losses in kWh
(28)
allday 1
losses in kWh output in kWh
Example 14
A 200-kVA 1-ph transformer has full load copper loss of 3.02 kW and iron loss of 1.6
kW. The transformer is in circuit continuously. For a total of 8 hours, it delivers a load of
160 kW at 0.8 pf. For a total of 6 hours, it delivers a load of 80 kW at unity power factor.
For the remainder of the 24-h cycle, it is on no load. What is the all-day efficiency?
Solution
At 160 kW, 0.8 pf, kVA 200 kVA (full load), copper loss 3.02 kW
iron loss 1.60 kW

Total loss 4.62 kW

2

80
At 80 kW, upf, kVA 80 kVA , copper loss
3.02 0.48 kW
200
iron loss 1.60 kW
Total loss 2.08 kW
On no load (there is no copper loss on no load), Total loss
1.6 kW
For 8 h output 160 8 1280 kWh loss 4.62 8 37 kWh
For 6 h output 80 6 480 kWh loss 2.08 6 12.5 kWh
For 10 h output 0 10
0 kWh loss 1.6 10 16 kWh
In 24 h, total output

1760 kWh total loss

65.5 kWh

23

All day efficiency 1

65.5
0.9641 96.41%
65.5 1760

5.13 Open-circuit and short-circuit tests on a transformer

These two tests enable the efficiency and voltage regulation to be calculated without
actually loading the transformer.
(a) Short-circuit test: This test is used to determine the leakage impedance. During this
test, one winding is short-circuited and a reduced voltage Vsc applied to the other to cause
rated current to flow. The test circuit and the equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. 18.a and
Fig. 18.b respectively. The magnetizing branch is neglected because its current under
this condition is less than 1 % of the total.
Voltage Vsc, current Isc and power Psc measured by the instruments are used to make the
following calculations.
V
P
(a) Z e1 sc
(b) Re1 sc
(c) X e1 Z e21 Re21 (c)
(29)
2
I sc
I sc
We note that the following:
(i) Isc need not be the rated current since the equivalent circuit is linear. However, it is
desirable that it should be near to the rated value so that stray losses (they are due to
eddy currents set up in large section conductors, tank and metallic supports by
leakage fluxes) are normal.
(ii) The supply could be fed to either winding. It is often convenient on the higher
voltage transformers to supply the high-voltage winding, thus using a smaller current.
Vsc which will be about 3-15 % of the rated value may also be more suitable for test
facilities.
(iii)In laboratory experiments using small transformers, the instruments positions shown
minimize measurement errors.
(iv) The circuit parameters obtained with (27) are referred to the side which the test
voltage is applied.

Fig. 18 Short-circuit test

(b) Open-circuit test or no load test: During this test, one winding is open-circuited and
rated voltage at rated frequency is applied to the other. Quite often the low-voltage side is
supplied to reduce the test voltage required for safety reasons. As with the short-circuit
24

test, the equivalent circuit parameters will be referred to the side to which the test voltage
is applied. The test circuit and equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. 19.a and b.
The following calculations can be made
P
V
2
2
(a) I p o (b) I m I o I p
(c) Rm 1
V1
Ip

(d ) X m

V1
Im

(e) a

V1
V2

(30)

Psc and Po represent the full load copper loss and the core loss (or iron losses)
respectively. They can be used directly to calculate efficiency.
.

Fig. 19 Open-circuit or no-load test

Example 15
The circuit shown below was used in a test on a 3-kVA transformer. A variable voltage
supply of fixed frequency was connected to terminals A and B and two tests were
performed:
(a) The voltage was raised to normal rated voltage and the meter reading were then 200
V, 24 W, 1.2 A
(b) The terminals C and D were short-circuited and the voltage was raised until the
transformer full-load current was flowing. The meter readings were then 6.4 V, 28 W,
15 A

(a) I p

From the results of the tests, obtain:

(i) the no-load current and its power factor
(ii) the iron losses of the transformer at normal frequency and voltage
(iii)the full-load copper loss
(iv) the transformer resistances, Re1 and Rm and reactances Xe1 and Xm
(v) the efficiency of the transformer at full load at a power factor of 0.8

25

V
D

Circuit diagram for Example 13

Solution
(i) No - load current I o 1.2 A

(ii) Iron losses Pi Po 24 W

(iii) Full load copper loss Pc Psc 28 W
(iv) Open - circuit test calculatio ns :
P
24
2
2
Ip o
0.12 A
I m I o I p 1.22 0.122 1.19 A
V1 200
V
200
V
200
Rm 1
1.67 k
Xm 1
168
I p 0.12
I m 1.19
Short - circuit test calculatio ns :
V
6.4
Z e1 sc
0.43
I sc 15

Re1

Psc 28

0.12
I sc2 152

X e1 Z e21 Re21 0.432 0.122 0.41

v) Efficiency 1

24 28
0.9788 pu 97.88 %
(3000 0.8) 24 28

Example 16
A 10-kVA 1-ph transformer has a voltage ratio 1100 / 250 V. On no load and at normal
voltage (1100 V) and frequency the input current is 0.75 A at a pf of 0.2 lagging. With
the secondary short-circuited, full-load currents flow when the primary applied voltage is
77 V, the power input being 240 W. Calculate
(a) the transformer equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the secondary side
(b) the maximum value of the voltage regulation at full load and the load power factor at
this regulation
(c) the percentage of full-load current at which the transformer has maximum efficiency

26

Solution
(a) Referring the circuit to the secondary side,
V1
250
77
17.5 V
a
1100
S
10 000
I rated
40 A
V2n
250
17.5
240
Z e2
0.438 , Re 2 2 0.15 and X e 2 0.4382 0.152 0.41
40
40
(b) The maximum voltage drop at full load = I 2 fl Ze 2 17.5 V
The maximum regulation occurs when or when
R
0.15
cos cos e 2
0.342 lagging
Z e 2 0.438
(c) Maximum efficiency occurs when x 2 Pc Po . Therefore

1100 0.75 0.2

0.829 or 82.9 %
402 0.15

5.14 Construction of transformers

Power transformers are designed so that their characteristics approach those of an ideal
transformer
(a) To attain high permeability and consequently a small magnetizing current, the core is
made of iron and the core forms a closed magnetic circuit
(b) To keep the hysteresis loss down, high-grade grain-oriented steel having a narrow
hysteresis loop is used
(c) To keep the eddy current loss down, the core is laminated and 3 to 4% silicon is added
to increase the resistivity of the steel. The laminations (about 0.4mm thick) are insulated
from each other by a thin layer of insulation, thus overall cross-sectional area is slightly
greater than the actual cross-sectional area of the iron.
(d) To keep the leakage fluxes low, the windings are arranged as shown in Fig. 18 in the
case of 1-ph transformers. Two main forms of magnetic circuits are used: core- and shelltype arrangements. The core-type construction has the primary and secondary windings
distributed over both core legs in order to reduce the amount of copper (i.e. length of
turns is reduced).
The transformer windings are carefully insulated from each other and from the core.
Winding resistances R1 and R2 are also minimized to minimize copper losses.

27

H L

L H

H L

L H

L
H

H
L

(b) Shell - type constructi on with

concentric windings
sandwiched windings
Fig. 20 Common Single-phase transformer construction

(a) Core - type construction with

5.15 Polarity tests

The four terminals of a single-phase transformer may be mounted so that it has either
additive or subtractive polarity as shown in Fig. 21
A2 a1

A2

a2

A1 a2

A1

a1

(b) subtractive polarity

(a) additive polarity

Fig. 21Two standard ways of mounting transformer terminals

If it becomes necessary to determine whether a transformer has additive or subtractive
polarity then either of the following polarity tests may be used:
(a) Using a low-voltage ac source: Referring to Fig. 22,
(i) Connect the HV winding to ac source
(ii) Connect a jumper J between any two adjacent HV and LV terminals (1, 3)
(iii) Connect a voltmeter (V2) between the other two adjacent HV and LV terminals (2, 4)
(iv) Connect a voltmeter (V1) across the HV winding.
Reading of voltmeter V2 = E1 E2 = V1 E2 if 1 and 3 possess the same polarity
= E1 + E2 = V1 + E2 if they do not
Therefore if V2 is lower than V1 then the polarity is subtractive and if V2 is higher than V1
then the polarity is additive

V1
V2
2

Fig. 22 Polarity test using ac source

28

(b) Using dc source: Referring to Fig. 23,

(i) Connect a dc source to LV winding
(ii) Mark the terminal connected to the positive side of the source a2
(iii) Connect a dc voltmeter across the HV winding
(iv) Close the switch and observe the movement of the pointer of the voltmeter
(v) If the pointer moves upscale, the transformer terminal connected to the (+)
terminal of the voltmeter is marked A2 and the other marked A1.

a2

+
V

Fig. 23 Polarity test using dc source

5.15 Parallel Operation of single-phase transformers
Parallel connection of several transformers is widely used in electrical systems for the
following reasons:
(a) In many cases, the amount of power to be transformed is greater than that which can
be built into one transformer
(b) Frequently, the growth of load requires that the installed transformers supply an
output greater than their total kVA capacity. Additional transformers are then
installed to run in parallel with the existing transformer.
(c) It is sometimes found desirable to supply a load through two or more units in order to
reduce the cost of the spare unit required to ensure continuity of service in case of
damage.
The following conditions must be fulfilled when operating two or more single-phase
transformers in parallel:
(a) The polarity should be the same. The polarity can be either right or wrong. A wrong
polarity results in a severe short circuit. Terminals of the same markings are
connected together to ensure correct polarity. See Fig. 24. If the polarity markings
are either incorrect or not present, the polarity of the incoming transformer can be
checked by connecting a voltmeter across the paralleling switch
(b) The voltage ratio should be the same. This is to avoid no-load circulating current and
also over-loading on one transformer when the paralleled transformers are loaded.
(c) The per-unit impedances should be equal in magnitude and have the same angle.
When they are equal in magnitude, the transformers share kVA loads in proportion to
their respective ratings. If both their magnitudes and angles are the same they will not
only share kVA loads in proportion to their respective ratings but also the combined
load kVA will be the algebraic sum of the kVA carried by each transformer. If the
angles are different, the resultant kVA capacity of the paralleled group will be slightly
smaller than the sum of their individual ratings if none should be overloaded. It is not
very necessary that the angles should be the same
29

Tx1
A2 a2
A1

Load

a1

Tx2
A2 a2
A1 a1
Fig. 24 Connection ensuring correct polarity

5.16 Load sharing of parallel-connected transformers

The equivalent circuit of two transformers in parallel feeding a common load ZL is shown
in Fig. 25. The voltage ratios are supposed to be equal and the magnetizing branch is
neglected. The circuit is referred to the secondary side but it may also be referred to the
primary side.
I1

Z1
I

I2

V1
a

Z2
V

ZL

Fig. 25 Equivalent circuit of two transformers in parallel

Z1 is the impedance of transformer 1 referred to the secondary side and Z2 is the
impedance of transformer 2 referred to the secondary side.
The voltage drops across the impedances are the same. Therefore
Z1Z 2
Or
I1Z1 I 2 Z 2 I
( Z1 Z 2 )
Z2
Z1
I1
I and I 2
I
Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
Multiplying by the terminal voltage V gives
Z2
S1 S
Z1 Z 2
Z1
S2 S
Z1 Z 2

(31.a)
(31.b)

30

Where
S1 VI 1 transformer 1 loading
S2 VI 2 transformer 2 loading
S VI combined load

(32.a)
(32.b)
(32.c)

Equations (31) hold for per-unit impedances provided that all are expressed with
reference to a common base power. The following equation can be used to obtain a new
per unit value with reference to a new base power.
S new
new
old
(33)
Z pu
Z pu
base
old
S base
Example 17
A 500-kVA transformer (Transformer 1) is connected in parallel with a 250-kVA
transformer (Transformer 2). The secondary voltage of each is 400 V on no load. Find
how they share a load of 750 kVA at power factor of 0.8 lagging if
(a) Z 1 0.01 j 0.05 pu 0.0509978.69 pu and

Z 2 0.015 j 0.04 pu 0.0427269.44 pu

(b) Z 1 0.01 j 0.05 pu 0.0509978.69 pu and
Z 2 0.01 j 0.05 pu 0.0509978.69 pu
(c) Z 1 0.01 j 0.05 pu 0.0509978.69 pu and
Z 2 0.025 j 0.0444 0.0509560.62 pu
Solution
If all the impedances are referred to a base power of 500 kVA, then only the impedances
of transformer 2 will change.
new
S base
500
old
old
old
Z new

Z pu

2 Z pu
pu
pu
old
250
S base
Case (a)
Z1 0.01 j 0.05 0.0509978.69 and
Z 2 20.015 j 0.04 0.03 j 0.08 0.0854469.44
Further
Z1 Z 2 0.01 j 0.05 0.03 j 0.08 0.04 j 0.13 0.136072.90
Total kVA load S 750 cos 1 0.8 750 36.9 kVA
Z2
750 36.9 0.0854469.44
S1 S

471 40.36 kVA

Z1 Z 2
0.13672.9
471kVA at power factor of cos 40.36 0.762 lagging

31

Similarly
750 36.9 0.0509978.69
S2
281 31.11
0.13672.9
281kVA at power factor of 0.856 lagging
Remark: Transformer 1 with larger per-unit impedance is under-loaded whereas
transformer 2 with lower per-unit impedance is overloaded.
Case (b)
Z 2 20.01 j 0.05 0.02 j 0.1 0.1019878.69 pu
Z1 Z 2 0.03 j 0.15 0.1529778.69 pu
750 36.9 0.1019878.69
S1
500 36.9 kVA
0.1529778.69
500 kVA at power factor of 0.8 lagging
750 36.9 0.0509978.69
S2
250 36.9 kVA
0.1529778.69
250 kVA at power factor of 0.8 laggging
Remark: Load shared in proportion to transformer ratings. Arithmetic sum of loadings is
equal to the combined load. A shorter approach can be used on recognizing that
Z1 pu Z 2 pu
Case (c)
Z 2 20.025 j 0.0444 0.05 j 0.0888 0.101960.62 pu
Z1 Z 2 0.06 j 0.1388 0.151266.62
750 36.9 0.101960.62
S1
505 42.9
0.151266.62
505 kVA at power factor of 0.732 lagging
750 36.9 0.0509978.69
S2
253 24.82
0.151266.62
253 kVA at power factor of 0.91 lagging
Remark: Transformers are slightly overloaded when the combined load is equal to the
sum of individual kVAs

32

6.0 Three-phase transformers

These are required to transform 3-phase power. The three-phase transformer may be
either of the following:
(a) A three-phase transformer bank: This consists of three identical single-phase
transformers having their windings externally connected for three-phase working. The
single-phase transformers retain all their basic single-phase properties such as current
ratio, voltage ratio and the flux in the core. The kVA capacity of the bank is the sum of
their individual ratings. See Fig.26.
(b) A three-phase transformer unit: This is a single unit of special construction for threephase working. Modern large transformers are usually of the three-phase three-legged
core type shown in Fig.27. A leg carries the primary and secondary windings of a phase.
The windings are internally connected. For a given total capacity, 3-phase units are much
cheaper in capital cost, lighter, smaller and more efficient.
Tx1
L1

A2

a2

A1

a1

L1

Tx2
L2

A2

a2

A1

a1

L2

Tx3
L3

A2

a2

A1

a1

L3

Fig. 9 Delta - Star connection of single - phase transformers

6.1 Winding arrangement

The three windings, primary or secondary, can be connected in three different ways:
(a) Star connection: For this connection phase voltage line voltage 3 58 % of the
line voltage. This enables the insulation of the winding to be reduced to a minimum for a
given supply voltage. Line current = phase current. It is the most economical connection
for a high-voltage winding.
(b) Delta connection: Phase voltage = Line voltage. Therefore winding must be
insulated for the full Line voltage. More turns are also required. With very high voltages
a saving of 10 % may be achieved by using star-connection rather than delta connection
on account of insulation. The saving is small, however, at voltages below 11 kV. For
delta connection phase current line current 3 so the winding cross-sectional area is
33

58 % of that required for the star connection. Therefore it is the most economical for
low-voltage winding.
(c) Zigzag (or interconnected star) connection: It is a modification of the star
connection. Each phase winding is divided into two sections and placed on two different
legs. The two sections are then connected in phase opposition. The zigzag connection is
restricted to the low-voltage winding. 15 % more turns are required for a given phase
terminal voltage compared with a normal star.
The three different winding arrangements give rise to several possible connection
combinations: star-star, star-delta, star-zigzag, delta-star, delta-delta, etc
L1

L2

A2

B2
A1

L1

L3

C2
C1

B1

a2

b2

c2

a1

b1

c1

L2

L3

Fig. 27 Delta-Star connection of three-phase, three-legged core-type transformer

6.2 Phase groupings
The voltage induced in a primary phase winding is in phase with its corresponding
secondary phase winding. However, the phase angles of the primary and secondary line
voltages may differ depending on the type of winding connection. Three-phase
transformers are given symbol which indicates the type of connection used for the highvoltage and the low-voltage winding and the phase displacement between the highvoltage line phasor and its corresponding low-voltage line phasor. The symbol is in the
form Xxn where X (the capital letter) and x (the small letter) indicate the type of
34

connection for the high-voltage and low-voltage windings respectively and n is a clock
hour number which indicates the phase displacement. In this method of indicating the
phase shift, the high-voltage line phasor is represented by the minute hand of a clock
always set at 12 (or the zero hour) and the corresponding low-voltage line phasor by the
hour hand. Thus when n = 11 it means the clock reads 11 Oclock and the low-voltage
line phasor leads by 30o. The groups into which three-phase transformers are classified
are as follows:
Group
1
2
3
4

Phase displacement
zero
180o
30o lag
30o lead

Winding connections
Yyo Ddo Dzo
Yy6 Dd6 Dz6
Dy1 Yd1 Yz1
Dy11 Yd11 Yz11

6.3 Three-phase transformer connections

More common transformer connections are
(a) Delta-Delta connection (Fig 28). : This connection is economical for large low
voltage transformer. This connection is not often used because there is no neutral point
and a four-wire supply cannot be given. It is used in a 3-phase transformer bank but
rarely in 3-phase transformer unit. It is possible to use this arrangement to provide 3phase power with one transformer removed. This connection, known as open-delta or
vee connection, can supply up to 57.7 % of the load capacity of the delta-delta
connection.
IL
L1

L3
A1

L3

I ph

C2

VL

B1

L1

a2

c2

b1

V ph

C1
L2

a1

A2

B2

c1

b2

L2

VL V ph

I L 3I ph

Fig. 28 Delta-delta connection

(b) Delta-Star (Fig. 29): It is commonly used to step up alternator voltage to
transmission line voltage. Another common application is in distribution service where
as a step-down transformer, the windings are not the most economical. The secondary
star point can be earthed and a four-wire supply given.
(c) Star-Delta: There is no secondary neutral and four-wire supplies cannot be given.
The main use is as a step-down transformer at the load end of transmission line.
35

IL
L1

L3

c2
A1

L3

A2

C2

B1

I ph
a1

c1

a2

b1
C1

B2

Vph

L2

L1

VL

b2

V ph

VL
3

L2

I ph I L

Fig. 29 Delta-star connection

(d) Star-Star: This is economical for high-voltage transformer. However, the primary
and secondary phase voltages contain pronounced third harmonic voltages, which cause
the neutral point to oscillate at three times the line frequency. The effect of this
oscillating neutral is to cause fluctuation in the line to star-point voltage. Also if the
secondary load is unbalanced, the neutral point will be displaced and the line-to-neutral
voltages will become unequal. To stabilize the neutral, the neutral of the primary and the
neutral of the source are connected together usually by way of ground. Another way is to
provide a third delta-connected winding called tertiary winding. Although it can be used
to supply additional power, the tertiary winding generally has no external connection
Example 18
Three single-phase step-up transformers rated 40MVA, 13.2 kV / 80 kV are connected in
delta-star on a 13.2 kV transmission line. If they feed a 90MVA load, calculate the
following:
(a) the secondary line voltage
(b) the currents in the transformer windings
(c) the incoming and outgoing transmission line currents.
Assume transformers are ideal.
Solution
V ph 2 1 80
(a)

V ph1 a 13.2
But V ph1 13.2 kV (transmission line voltage)

ThereforeV ph 80 kV
and the line voltage on the secondary side 80 3 138 kV

36

ph 2

V ph 1

13.2 kV

I ph 1

ph 2

90
30 MVA
3
30 MVA
Current in the primary winding I ph1
2272 A
13.2 kV
30 MVA
Current in the secondary winding I ph2
375 A
80 kV

(b) The load carried by each transformer

(c) Current in incoming line 3I ph1 2272 3 3932 A

Current in outgoing line I ph 2 I L 375 A

Example 19
Three single-phase transformers have their primaries joined in delta to a 6600 V, threephase, three-wire supply. Their secondaries are connected to give a three-phase, four-wire
output at 415 V across lines. The total load on the transformers is a balanced load of 150
kW at 0.8 pf lag. If the voltage per turn on the primaries is 4, find
(a) the number of turns on the primary winding and the secondary winding
(b) the currents and voltages in all windings and lines, including the neutral wire on the
secondary side
(c) kVA load on each transformer
Assume transformers are ideal
Solution

(a) Primary turns per phase

V ph1

6600
1650 turns
4

volt turn
V ph 2
415
Secondary turns per phase

60 turns
volt turn
34

37

I L2

I L1

I ph1

6.6 kV

V ph1

(b) Secondary I L 2 I ph 2
IN

150 kW

415V
Load

V ph 2

Power

3VL cos
0 A because load is balanced

150 10 3
3 415 0.8

0.8 pf lagging

261 A

N 2 I ph 2 60 261

I ph1
9.5 A
N
1650
1

I L 9.5 3 16.4 A .
Example 20
A three-phase 415 V load takes a line current of 800 A from a 3300 / 415 V delta/star
transformer. The 3300 V system is supplied from an 11000/3300 star/star transformer.
Draw the circuit diagram and assuming no losses, find both line and phase values of
voltages and currents in each part of the circuit. What will be the turns ratios of both
transformers?
Solution
I1

V ph1

Transforme r B
I ph 1

V1 11000

I ph2

Transformer A

I 2 I3

V ph 2

I ph 4

V2 V3

I ph 3

V ph 3

I 4 800 A

V ph 4 V 4

415 V

Solution
Voltages:

V4 415

240V
3
3
V3 3300V

V4 415V ; V ph4
V3 3300V ; Vph3

V2 V3 3300V ; V ph2

V2 3300

1905V
3
3
38

V1 11000; V ph1

V1
3

11000
3

6350V

Turn ratios:
Transformer A
Transformer B

V ph3
V ph4
V ph1
V ph2

3300
13.75
240

6350
3.33
1905

Currents:
I 4 800 A; I ph4 I 4 800 A

I ph3

I ph4
turns ratio A

800
58.2 A
13.75

I 2 I 3 3 I ph3 3 58.2 100.8 A

I ph2 I 2 100.8 A

I ph1

I ph2

turns ratio B
I1 I ph1 30.2 A

100.8
30.2 A
3.33

Check:
Input kVA 3 V1 I1 3 11000 30.2 575000 VA 575 kVA
Output kVA 3 V4 I 4 3 415 800 575000 VA 575 kVA

6.4 Parallel operation of three-phase transformers (Fig. 30)

Three-phase transformers operating in parallel should have
(a) the same line voltage ratios
(b) the same per-unit impedances, i.e., they are equal in magnitude and in phase
(c) the same phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages
(d) the same phase sequence
The last two conditions which are absolutely essential ensure that the secondary line
voltages of the transformers are in phase. When these conditions are not fulfilled a
potential difference appears across the paralleling switches S1 and S2.
From the view point of phase sequence and phase displacement, three-phase transformers
which can operate in parallel are:

39

Transformer 1
A2

a2

B2

b2

C2

c2

Transformer 2
A2

a2
S1

B2

b2

C2

c2

S2

Fig. 30 Parallel operation of 3-phase transformers

(a) transformers of the same group. This case the terminals with the same letter must be
connected to the same line as shown in Fig. 30.
(b) transformers having -30o phase displacement (Group 3 transformers) and those having
+30o phase displacement (group 4 transformers). In this case two of the high voltage
connections and the corresponding low voltage connections are interchanged as shown in
Fig. 31.
Faulty internal connections in the transformer tank can cause the phase sequence of a
transformer to be reversed. Voltage across paralleling switches should therefore be
monitored before the switches are closed.
7. Cooling methods
Cooling of transformer windings and core is provided to prevent rapid deterioration of
the insulating materials. There are several methods of transformer cooling. Each method
is described by a standard designation (or nomenclature) consisting of letter symbols.
They are
(a) Letters for medium: air A, gas G, synthetic oil L, mineral oil O, solid insulation S,
water W
(b) Letters for circulation: natural N, forced F
Up to four letter symbols are used for each method for which the transformer is assigned
a rating: some big transformers are designed to have a variable rating, depending on the
method of cooling used. The order of the symbols is
40

Transformer 1
A2

a2

B2

b2

C2

c2

Transformer 2
A2

a2
S1

B2

b2

C2

c2

S2

Fig. 31 Parallel operation of group 3 & 4 transformers

(i) the medium and
(ii) the circulation of the coolant in contact with the windings; and
(iii) the medium and
(iv) the circulation of the coolant in an external heat exchanger system.
Common methods of cooling transformers are
(a) Air Cooling (Dry type transformers)
(i) AN: the ambient air as coolant and natural circulation by convection. The metallic
housing is fitted with ventilating louvers. Ratings: up to 50 kVA (low-power
transformers). Using high-temperature insulating materials (glass and silicone resins)
make ratings up to 1.5 MVA possible. The low-power transformers are used inside
buildings where the air is clean and high-power ones are for special conditions such as
those in mines.
(ii) AF: Forced air circulation is used to raise transformer loadings
(b) Oil-immersed, Oil cooling: Oil is a much better insulator than air. Consequently, it is
invariably used on high-voltage transformers
(i) ONAN: natural oil circulation and natural air flow over the tank. It is very common
for transformers rated up to 5 MVA. With radiators, it is possible to build units up to 40
MVA. (Note that limit of output is determined by tank size and cost).
(ii) ONAF: Cooling fans blow air over the radiators to enable a much bigger output from
a transformer of a given size. With this method of cooling ratings up to about 75 MVA
can be built.

41

(iii) OFAF: Pumps are used to circulate the oil and cooling fans to blow air over
radiators. This is the usual method for transformers of 30 MVA and upward. Both OFAF
and ONAN may be used on a unit with ONAN up to 0.5 p.u. rating. Change over is
initiated automatically by temperature-sensing elements. Three-phase type OFAF step-up
transformer rated 1300 MVA installed at a nuclear power generating station is one of the
largest units ever built.
(c) Oil-immersed, Water cooling
(i) ONWF: Copper cooling coils are mounted in the tank above the level of the
transformer core, but below the oil surface.
(ii) OFWF: Oil is circulated by pump from the top of the transformer tank to an external
oil/water heat exchanger. Oil returns when cold to the bottom of the tank. Its advantages
over ONWF include
-The transformer is smaller and the tank does not have to contain the cooling coils.
-Leakage of water into oil is improbable if oil pressure is greater than that of water
This method is used for large installations. It is commonly used in generating stations,
particularly hydro stations where ample supply of water is available.
8.0 Tap-changing Transformers
Most power transformers have tappings on coils brought out to terminals so that the
number of turns on one winding can be changed. The turns ratios are changed in order
(a) to maintain the secondary voltage at their rated value under the varying conditions of
load and power factor. The secondary terminal voltage may vary with changes in load
over an undesirably large range, because of changes in the impedance drop in the
transmission lines and transformers
(b) to control the flow of reactive power between two interconnected power systems or
between component parts of the same system, at the same time permitting the voltages at
specified points to be maintained at desired values.
Tappings on power transformers permit voltage adjustment within 5% . Low- and
medium-power transformers usually have three taps per phase: +5%, 0, and -5%
variations in the turns ratio. Higher power ratings usually have five: +5%, +2.5%, 0, 2.5% and -5% variations in the turns ratio. The principal tapping 0 is that to which the
rating of the winding is related. A positive tapping includes more, and a negative less
turns than those of the principal tapping.
Tappings are usually fitted on the higher voltage winding to obtain tappings within fine
limits. Consider say, 11kV / 433 V, 600 kVA delta-star distribution transformer having
volts / turn = 10. On the low-voltage side, N 433 10 3 25 . Adjustment can then be
in steps of 4%. If 5 % and 10 % are required, we shall use 4 % and 8 % or 12 %.
On the high-voltage side N 11000 10 1100 and it is possible to make adjustment in
steps of 0.09 %.

42

8.1 Changing the taps of transformers

Tap-changing may be either on-load or off-load.tap-changing:
(a) Off-load tap changing: the changes are made when the transformer is disconnected
from the primary circuit. The most common off-load tap changing transformer has
tappings inside the tank and connected to an internal switch which is operated by an
external switch handle (usually by rotary movement of a handwheel). A three-phase star
connected winding with taps made at the neutral is shown in Fig. 32.

Fig. 32 Three-phase star connected winding with taps at the neutral point
Off-load tap changing is simple and inexpensive and it is commonly used with
distribution transformers where occasional adjustments are required..
(b)On-load tap changing: Daily and short-time adjustment is generally by means of onload tap-changing gear. Tap changing is done without breaking the circuit. Momentary
connection must be made simultaneously to two adjacent taps during the transition, and
the short-circuit current between them must be limited by some form of impedance
known as transition impedance. Centre-tapped iron-core inductors (the reactor method) or
resistors (the resistor method) are used for this purpose.
(i) Reactor method: This method has now almost entirely been superseded by the resistor
method. It is manufactured and used only in the USA.
(ii) Resistor method: In modern designs the transition impedance is almost invariably
obtained by means of a pair of resistors. An arrangement of such a tap changer for one
phase is shown in Fig. 33. In this figure, the diverter switch and the even tap selector are
shown in the position when the T2 tap is brought in circuit.
To move to the next tap, T3, the odd tap selector should first be moved to that tap (see the
dashed lines in Fig. 33), and the diverter switch may then be rotated clockwise. The
ensuing sequence of events is as follows:

43

T8

T7

T6
T5
T4

T3

odd tap selector

even tap selector

T2

TS 2

T1
TS1

R1

R2
3

1
4
I

Fig. 33.a. Resistor tap changer

- contacts 3 and 4 break, contacts 1 and 4 make, Fig. 33.b

R2

R1

1
I-i
2

2
1

1
Ii
2

4
I

Fig 33.b

44

- contacts 1 and 4 break, and contacts 1 and 2 make, Fig. 33.c

R2

R1
2

1
4

Fig 33.c
The tap selectors may be moved from tap to tap only when their circuits are de-energized.
The resistors are short-time rated and it is essential to minimize their time of duty. For the
same reason, means must be adopted to ensure that it cannot be inadvertently left in the
bridging position.
On-load tap changer control gear can vary from simple push-button initiation to a
complex automatic control of as many as four transformers in parallel.
9.0 Autotransformers
An autotransformer has a single tapped winding which serves both primary and
secondary functions as shown in Fig. 34. The circuit diagrams are shown in Fig. 35.
I1

V1

I2
I2

N1

I1 A

V1

N2
B

V2

B
Fig. 34.a Step - down autotransf ormer

Load

N1

N2
V2

Load

B
Fig. 34.b Step - up autotransformer

9.1 Autotransformer equations

If we neglect losses, leakage flux and magnetizing current then
N
V
I
n 2 2 1
N1 V1 I 2
9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of autotransformer over two-winding
transformer
The main advantage gained in the use of autotransformer is the saving of copper. For a
two-winding transformer and an autotransformer which can perform the same duty (they
45

I1

I2

V1

A
C

V2

I1

V2

Load

Load

V1

B
B
S series winding; C common win ding
Fig. 35 Circuit diagrams of autotransf ormer

should have the same voltage per turn and therefore the same flux. We can also assume
the same mean length per turn)
Volume of copper in autotransformer
V
1 L
Volume of copper in two - winding transformer
VH
Or
saving of copper effected by VL

Volume of copper in the two winding transformer

using an autotransformer
VH
Where

VL voltage on the low voltage side

VH voltage on high voltage side
In practice, voltage ratios VL V H less than about 1 3 show little economic benefit over
two-winding transformer because of other factors such as cost of insulation.
The main disadvantage is that the primary and secondary circuits are not isolated from
each other.
Example 21
An autotransformer is required to step up a voltage from 220 to 250 V. The total number
of turns is 2000. Determine (a) the position of the tapping point (b) the approximate
value of the current in each part of the winding when the output is 10 kVA and (c) the
economy in copper over the two winding transformer having the same peak flux and the
same mean length per turn.

46

Solution:
I2

I1
V1

(a)

N2

V2

N1

V1 N1 220
220
220

or N1
N2
2000 1760
V2 N 2 250
250
250
Position is 240 turns from one end.
10 103
40 A
250
10 10 3
V1 I 1 10 10 3 I 1
45.45 A
220

(b) V2 I 2 10 103 I 2

Therefore current in series winding is 40 A and current in common

winding 45.45 40 5.45 A
(c) Saving in copper

VL 220

0.88 pu or 88 % of copper used in the twoVH 250

winding transformer
9.3 Two-winding transformer connected as an autotransformer
A two-winding transformer can be changed into an autotransformer by connecting the
primary and secondary windings in series. The following rules apply whenever a twowinding transformer is connected as autotransformer:
(a) the current in any winding should not exceed its current rating
(b) the voltage across any winding should not exceed its voltage rating
(c) rated current in one winding gives rise to rated current in the other
(d) rated voltage across one winding gives rise to rated voltage across the other
(e) if current in one winding flows from say A2 to A1, then current in the other winding
must flow from a1 to a2 and vice versa
(f) the voltages add when terminals of opposite polarity (A1 and a2 or A2 and a1) are
connected together by a jumper. The voltages subtract when A1 and a1 (or A2 and a2) are
connected together.

47

Example 22
A two-winding single-phase transformer rated 15 kVA, 600 V / 120 V, 60 Hz. We wish
to reconnect it as an autotransformer in three different ways to obtain three different
voltage ratios:
(a) 600 V primary to 480 V secondary
(b) 600 V primary to 720 V secondary
(c) 120 V primary to 480 V secondary
Calculate the maximum load the transformer can carry in each case.
Solution
(a) The secondary voltage 120 V must be subtracted from the primary voltage to obtain
the 480 V.

(b) The secondary voltage 120 V must be added to the 600 V to obtain 720 V

(c)
48

(c) The 120 V becomes the primary of the autotransformer and the 120 V is subtracted
from the 600 V to obtain its secondary

9.4 Applications of autotransformers

They are mainly used for
(a) variac
(b) interconnecting power systems that are operating at roughly the same voltage (eg. 132
kV, 275 kV, 400 kV) and
(c) starting squirrel-cage induction motors.

(c)

10.0 Instrument transformers

They are used in ac circuits to serve these purposes:
(a) to make possible the measurement of high voltages with low-voltage instruments or
large currents with low current ammeters
(b) to insulate high voltage circuits being monitored from measuring circuit in order to
protect the measuring apparatus and operator
(c) to energize relays for the operation of protective and automatic control devices
The load on the secondary of an instrument transformer is called its burden and is
expressed in volt-amperes (VA). There are two types of instrument transformers: the
voltage (or potential) transformer and the current transformer
10.1 The voltage or potential transformers (VTs or PTs)
The construction is similar to a power transformer. The primary is connected directly to
the power circuit either between two phases or between a phase and ground and the
secondary is connected to instruments and coils of relays. Sufficient insulation is
provided between the primary and the secondary to withstand the full line voltage as well
as the very high impulse voltage. Voltage transformers are designed to step down the
primary voltage to a nominal or rated voltage of 110 V so that standard instruments and
relays can be used. They introduce errors of two kinds into measurement being made: the
ratio errors (the ratio between input and output voltages is not constant under all
conditions of load) and the phase angle errors (the phase shift between input and output
voltages is not zero). These errors are due to the exciting current and the equivalent
49

series impedance of the transformer and they are kept low by using high quality iron
(high permeability and low loss) and operating it at low flux densities so that the exciting
current is very small. The resistance and reactance of the windings are also made very
low.
Fig. 36 shows the circuit for a potential transformer. One terminal of the secondary
winding is always earthed. The windings though insulated from each other, are
connected invisibly together by distributed capacitance between them. By earthing one
of the secondary terminals, the highest voltage between the secondary lines and earth can
never rise above that of the secondary voltage.

H.V. ac circuit

PT
110 V

V
0 150 V

Fig. 36 Potential transformer installed on H.V. circuit

10.2 Current transformers (CTs)
Their primary consists of small number of turns connected in series with the power
circuit load. The secondary consists of a larger number of turns and it is connected to
ammeter, current coils of other instruments or current coils of relays. Current
transformers have the ratio of primary to secondary current approximately constant. The
nominal or rated secondary currents are usually 5 A or 1 A, irrespective of the primary
current rating. The transformer ratio is usually stated to include the secondary current
rating. Current transformers also introduce two errors in measurement: the ratio error
(the ratio between primary and secondary currents is not constant) and phase angle error
(the phase angle between the primary and secondary currents is not zero. The basic cause
of ratio and phase angle errors is the exciting current. To keep the exciting current small,
a high quality iron operating at very low flux densities is used as in PTs. In Cts the
secondary leakage impedance and impedances of the secondary leads and instruments
should also be very low; for any increase in these impedances increases the core flux and
therefore the exciting current. The tansformer is connected in the power circuit as shown
in Fig. 37 As in the case of PT (and for the same reasons) one of the secondary terminals
is always earthed
Current transformer secondary circuit must not be opened while current is flowing in the
primary. Without opposing ampere-turns the line current, which may be 100 to 200 times
the normal exciting current, becomes the exciting current. The iron core becomes.
50

Load current

ac supply

Load

CT

1 A or 5 A

1 A or 5 A
ammeter
Fig. 37 Current transformer intalled in H.V. circuit

saturated and very high voltage spikes (several thousand volts) are induced across the
open-circuited secondary. These voltages are dangerous to life and to the transformer
insulation. The core when it becomes saturated can also cause excessive heating of the
core and windings. Therefore when it is desired to remove a load from the secondary
circuit, the secondary winding must first be short circuited.
When the line current exceeds 100 A we can sometimes use a toroidal or bar-primary
(N1=1) transformer shown in Fig. 38. It consists of a laminated ring-shaped core which
carries the secondary winding. The primary is composed of a single conductor that
simply passes through the centre of the ring as shown in the figure. Toroidal CTs are
simple and inexpensive and are widely used in HV and MV indoor installations.

I 1 600 A

Bar primary
N1 1

I2 3 A

Fig. 38 Toroidal or bar-primary transformer having a ratio 1000A / 5A connected to

measure a current in a line

51

Current transformers are also commonly used for the measurements of large currents
even when the circuit voltage is not dangerously high. This avoids bringing heavy leads
to the instrument panels. Whereas instrument CTs have to remain accurate up to 12 %
rated current, protection CTs must retain proportionality up to 20 times normal full load
Example 23
A potential transformer rated 14400 V / 115 V and a current transformer rated 75 A / 5 A
are used to measure the voltage and current in a transmission line. If the voltmeter
indicates 111 V and the ammeter reads 3 A, calculate the voltage and current in the line.
Solution

The voltage on the line is V 111

The current in the line is I 3

14400
13900 V
115

75
45 A
5

Example 24
The toroidal current transformer of Fig. 38 has a ratio of 1000 A / 5 A. The line
conductor carries a current of 600 A.
(a)Calculate the voltage across the secondary winding if the ammeter has an impedance
of 0.15
(b) Calculate the voltage drop the transformer produces on the line conductor
(c) If the primary conductor is looped four times through the toroidal opening, calculate
the new current ratio
Solution

5
600 3 A
1000
Voltage drop across the burden 3 0.15 0.45 V
V
N
I
I
5
(b) 1 1 2 or V1 2 V2
0.45 2.25 mV
V2 N 2 I1
I1
1000
(c) I 2 N 2 I1x1 I1x4
This implies that I1 250 A
Therefore the new current ratio 250 A 5 A

(a) Current in the secondary I 2

52

Exercises One
(1) A single-phase transformer has a primary winding with 1,500 turns a nd a secondary
winding with 80 turns. If the primary winding is connected to a 2300-V, 50-Hz supply,
calculate (a) the secondary voltage (b) the maximum value of the core flux. Neglect the
primary impedance
(2) A single-phase 2,300/230-V, 500-kVA, 50-Hz transformer is tested with the
secondary open-circuited. The following test results were obtained: V1 = 2,300 V, Io =
10.5 A, and Po = 2,300 W. Calculate (a) the power factor (b) the core-loss current Ip (c)
the magnetizing current Im.
(3) A 150-kVA, 2,400/240-V, 50-Hz single-phase transformer has the following
resistances and reactances: R1 =0.225 , Xl1 = 0.525 , R2 = 0.00220 and Xl2 = 0.0445
. Calculate the transformer equivalent values (a) referred to the primary (b) referred to
the secondary.
(4) A 150-kVA, 2,400/240-V, 50-Hz single-phase transformer has the following
resistances and reactances: R1 =0.225 Xl1 = 0.525 , R2 = 0.00220 , Xl2 = 0.00445 ,
Rm = 10 k and Xm = 1.5 k . The transformer is supplying full-rated load at 0.85
lagging power factor and rated secondary terminal voltage. Calculate (a) I2 (b) Ip (c) Im
(d) Io (e) I1 (f) V1. Use the exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary side.
(5) The results of open- and short-circuit tests carried out on a 230/115-V, 60-Hz single
phase transformer are
Test type
Primary
Secondary
Open circuit Open
115 V, 6.5 A, 192 W
Short circuit 17.5 V, 43.5 A, 234 W Short-circuited
Calculate the parameter of the approximate equivalent circuit of Fig 13.a
(6) The results of open- and short-circuit tests on a 100 kVA, 11,000/2,200-V, and 50-Hz
single phase transformer are
Test type
Primary
Secondary
Open circuit Open
2,200 V, 1.5 A, 800 W
Short circuit 600 V, 10.0 A, 1,000 W Short-circuited
Determine (a) Re1 and Xe1 (b) Re2 and Xe2 (c) the percentage regulation at 0.75 power
factor leading, unity power factor and 0.85 power factor lagging
(7) From the data of Exercise 6 calculate the transformer efficiency at 0.8 power factor
lagging for (a) 50 % (b) 100 % of rated full load.
(8) A 100-kVA, 11,000/220-V, 50-Hz transformer has a core loss Po of 800 W and Re2 of
0.48 . Calculate the secondary current for maximum efficiency.

53

(9) A 10-kVa, 2,400/240-V, 60-Hz single-phase distribution transformer has a full-load

copper loss of 125 W and a core loss of 63 W. It supplies the following loads over a 24-h
period:
No load for 2.5 h
15 % rated load at 0.7 power factor lagging for 3 h
40 % rated load at 0.75 power factor lagging for 4.5 h
75 % rated load at 0.8 power factor lagging for 5 h
100 % rated load at 0.85 power factor lagging for 6 h
110 % rated load at unity power factor for 3 h
Calculate (a) the total energy loss over the 24-h period (b) the total energy output over the
24-h period (c) the all-day efficiency.
(10) A 10-kVA 2,400/240-V 50-Hz single-phase transformer is reconnected to step down
a voltage from 2,640 to 2,400 V. Calculate (a) the kVA rating as an autotransformer
(11) A 75-kVA 230-V three-phase load is supplied from a 6,600-V three-phase supply
using a star-star-connected transformer bank. What are the voltage, current and kVA
ratings of the single-phase transformers?
(12)Three single-phase transformers are connected in delta-delta, and are used to step
down a line voltage of 110 kV to 66 kV to supply an industrial plant drawing 50 MW at a
0.80 power factor. Calculate 9a) the high-voltage-side line current (b) the low-voltageside line current (c) the primary phase currents (d) the secondary phase currents

54

CHAPTER TWO
Electromechanical Energy Conversion
1. Introduction
In electromechanical energy conversion, energy is converted between electrical and
mechanical systems. The energy conversion process takes place through the medium of
the electric or magnetic field of the conversion device which links the two systems. In the
conversion process, the device releases energy from what is stored in its field to its output
and takes a new supply from its input by producing a reaction in the system at its input.
Although the various conversion devices operate on similar physical principles, the
structures of the devices depend on their function. The conversion devices can be placed
in three categories:
(a) Signal handling devices: They are used to generate output signals which have linear
relationship with input signals. They generally operate with small signals. Examples are
pickups, loudspeakers, microphones and tachometers.
(b) Force-producing devices: They are used to produce bulk and non-controlled forces or
torques. Examples are lifting magnets, iron-core solenoids, relays, contactors and ironvane instrument.
(c) Continuous energy-conversion devices: These devices deal with large amounts of
energy. Examples are motors and generators.
A transducer is a device which takes energy from one system and supplies it to another.
This term, however, is usually used for the devices for measurement and control which
operate at very low power levels. Transducers are signal handling devices.
2. Forces and Torques Developed by Electromechanical Devices
A method which is simple and is applicable to all the conversion devices will be used to
develop expressions for the forces and torques. The method is based on the law of
conservation of energy.
3. Energy balance: Suppose that the energy-conversion device is connected at its input
to an electrical source and at its output to a mechanical system. Then reckoning from an
initial zero-energy condition, the energy balance is
(electrical energy input, welec ) = (stored field energy, w fld ) + (mechanical energy output,

wmech ) + (energy lost, wloss )

(1)
This relation equally applies to energy changes (i.e. changes after an established
condition or state) and to energy rates (i.e. power):
dwelec dw fld dwmech dwloss (Energy balance)
(2)

Pe

dw fld
dt

Pm

dwloss
dt

(Power balance)

(3)

The energy loss generally arises from these causes:

55

(a) part of the electrical energy converted into copper loss in the electric circuit
(b) part of the mechanical energy converted into friction and windage loss
(c) part of the energy absorbed by the coupling field converted into iron loss (for
magnetic field coupling) or dielectric loss (for electric field coupling).
The copper, friction and windage losses play no basic parts in the energy conversion
process. They can therefore be considered as losses in the electrical and mechanical
systems on the two sides of the conversion device. welec in (1) and (2) then represents the
electrical energy supplied to the coupling field, wmech , the gross mechanical output from
the coupling field and wloss , iron or dielectric loss. The schematic diagram of such a
device is shown in Fig. 1

Heat due to
field loss

Copper loss
i
Electrical
source

Heat due to
mechanical
loss

r
e

vt

Input
terminals

Mechanical
system

Coupling
field

Output
terminal

Mechanical
output

Fig.. 1 General representation of electromechanical device

4. Force in Singly Excited Electric Field System

A model of such a system is shown in Fig. 2. The conversion device consists of two
parallel plates separated by air. One of the plates is fixed and the other is movable. In the
equilibrium state
f mech f fld
(4)
where
fmech = the gross mechanical force exerted by the mechanical system and
ffld = the force produced by the field called the field force.
We are interested in determining the field force. We shall apply the principle of virtual
work: we assume that a small displacement takes place, calculate the work that would be
done in such a virtual displacement, and then determine the actual force.
Suppose an incremental displacement dx of the movable plate is made in a time dt .
During this displacement
f fld dx dwmech

56

Fixed plate

x
ffld

i
+

fmech

e
V(t)

Movable
plate

Unspecified
mechanical
system

Fig. 2 Singly excited electric field system

.
Or
f fld dx dwelec dw fld dwloss

(5)

The electrical energy input to the device is

dwelec eidt
Or
dwelec edq

(6)

The dielectric loss is negligible so

dwloss 0

(7)

The energy supplied to the coupling field is

1
dw fld d qe
2
Or

dw fld

1
1
qde edq
2
2

(8)

Substituting (6), (7) and (8) into (5) gives

1
1
1
1
f fld dx edq qde edq edq qde
2
2
2
2
From which
1 dq 1 de
f fld e q
2 dx 2 dx

(9)

57

Now
q
c
e

(10)

Substituting this into (9) yields

1 dc
f fld e 2
2 dx

(11)

The expression for the field force derived is general and is applicable to
electromechanical devices of similar method of excitation. Application of the force
expression requires that capacitances of the systems be evaluated as functions of position.
Example 1
Two parallel plates as shown in Fig. 2 are maintained at a potential difference e of 104 V.
Each plate has an area of 0.02m2
(a) Find the force between the plates as a function of their spacing x
(b) Find the energy converted to mechanical form as the plate spacing is reduced from 1
cm to 0.5 cm
Solution
(a) For the two parallel plate C(x)

o r A

x
o r Ae 2
1 2 dc

Therefore f fld ( x) e
2 dx
2x2
The negative sign implies that the direction of the force is the reverse of that shown (i.e.
f fld will rather act to reduce the plate spacing)

1 2 dc
1
e
dx e 2 dc
2 dx
2
1 1
1
1
Therefore wmech e 2 (C2 C1 ) e 2 o r A
2
2
x2 x1
With e 104V , o 8.85 1012 , r 1, A 0.02m2 , x2 0.005m and x1 0.01m

(b) dw mech f fld ( x)dx

wmech 8.85 104 Joules

5. Force in Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
Fig. 3 shows a model of the system. The magnetic circuit of the device has air gap of
length x between fixed and movable members.
Applying here also the principle of virtual work, we obtain
f fld dx dwmech
Or
f fld dx dwelec dw fld dwloss

(12)
58

The electrical energy input in the time dt

dwelec ei dt

(13)

Movable
member

Fixed member
x

ffld
i
+
V(t)

fmech

Mechanical
system
Electrical
system

Fig. 3 Singly Excited Magnetic field system

The induced voltage e arises only from the rate of change of flux linking the coil. From
Faradays law
d
e
(14)
dt
The reluctance of the iron part in the magnetic circuit is linear and the induced voltage
can be expressed as
d
di
dL
e ( Li) L i
(15)
dt
dt
dt
From (13) and (15), we obtain
dwelec Li di i 2 dL

(16)

The iron loss is assumed to be negligible. Therefore

dwloss 0

(17)

The energy supplied to the coupling field

1
1
dw fld d Li 2 i 2 dL Lidi
2
2

(18)

59

Substituting (16), (17) and (18) into (12) gives

1
1
dwmech Li di i 2 dL i 2 dL Li di i 2 dL
2
2
which can be used in (12) to obtain
1 dL
f fld i 2
2 dx

(19)

To apply this force expression, the inductance of the system must be evaluated as
function of position.
Example 2
A steel electromagnet is used to support a solid block of steel weighing 908 kg as shown
in Fig. 4. A force of 8900 N is required to support this weight. The cross-sectional area of
the magnet (part 1) is 0.01m2. The coil has 700 turns. Assume both air gaps are 0.0015 m
long. Neglect the reluctance of the steel parts. Neglect fringing in the air gaps. Find the
minimum current that can keep the weight from falling.
i

Part 1
(fixed)
x

Part 2
(movable)

Fig. 4 See Example 2

Solution
The reluctance of the system R( x)

2x
0 A

N 2 o A
2x
2
N 2 o Ai 2
1 2 dL 1 2 N o A
i

The force f fld ( x) i

2 dx 2 2 x 2
4x 2
When x 0.0015m
N 2 o Ai 2
7 2 10 4 4 10 7 0.01i 2 1960 i 2
f fld

9
4 15 2 10 8
4 15 2 10 8

Therefore the inductance of the coil L( x)

60

1960 i 2
8900
9
8900 9
Therefore i 2
13 and
1960
i 3.6 A
Now

6. Torque in Singly-Excited Systems

Electromechanical devices can be designed in such a way that the permitted motion is
rotational rather than translational. Examples are shown in Fig. 5. In this case, the
mechanical work is expressed in terms of torque Tfld and the angle of rotation. The
torque is given by
dw
(20)
T fld mech Nm
d
By analogy with (11) and (19), the torque may be expressed as
1 dC
T fld e 2
2 d
1 dL
T fld i 2
2 d

(21)
(22)

for electric field coupling and magnetic field coupling respectively. The angular position
is measured from arbitrarily chosen reference position for which is zero.
Fixed member
(stator)
shaft

Rotating
member (rotor)

reference

V(t)
+

Fig. 5.a. A simple rotating electrostatic machine

61

Rotating
member
(rotor)

Fixed
member
(stator)

reference

V(t)

Fig. 5.b.A reluctance motor

7. Torques and Forces in Doubly Excited Magnetic Field Systems

Multiple excited magnetic field devices are used to obtain forces and torques proportional
to electrical signals and electrical signals proportional to forces and velocities. Permanent
magnets are frequently used as one of the excitation paths. Models of doubly excited
magnetic field systems are shown in Fig. 6
Let us consider the system in Fig. 6.a which has a permanent magnet as one of the
excitation paths. The force developed by the device is given by the well known
expression
f fld Bli
(23)
where B is the flux density in the air gaps and l is the total active length of the coil. This
expression for the force can also be derived using the foregoing method. Let the coil be
displaced through dx in a time dt . Then the electrical energy input
dx
dwelec eidt B l i dt Bl i dx
dt
and the mechanical energy output
dwmech f fld dx

62

S
ffld
fmech
N
x
Mechanical
system
S

Permanent
magnet

V(t)

Fig. 6.a Doubly-excited magnetic system with permanent magnet as one of excitation
paths

i1
Tfld
-

e1

V2(t)

V1(t)
-

e2
i2

Fig. 6.b. Doubly-excited magnetic field system with two sets of electrical terminals
In this device the field energy remains constant during the conversion process so that
dw fld 0
Equating therefore the mechanical and electrical expressions, the force is found to be
f fld dwmech dx Bl i

63

Let us now consider the system in Fig. 6.b. The electrical energy input
dwelec e1i1 dt e2 i2 dt
From Faradays Law
d
di
dL
di
d
dM
e1 1 L1i1 Mi2 L1 1 i1 1 M 2 i2
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
Similarly
di
dL
di
dM
e2 L2 2 i2 2 M 1 i1
dt
dt
dt
dt
Substituting these into the electrical energy input expression gives
dwelec L1i1di1 i12 dL1 Mi1di2 i2 i1dM L2i2 di2 i22 dL2 Mi2 di1 i2 i1dM

(24)

(25)

(26)

Energy supplied to the coupling field

1
1

dw fld d L1i12 L2 i22 Mi1i2

2
2

Or

dw fld

1 2
1
i1 dL1 L1i1di1 i22 dL2 L2 i2 di2 i1i2 dM Mi2 di1 Mi1di2
2
2

(26)

From the relation

dwelec dw fld
dw
T fld mech
d
d
we obtain for the torque, the expression
1 dL 1 dL
dm
T fld i12 1 i22 2 i1i2
2 d 2 d
d

(28)

Example 3
For the doubly excited system in Fig. 6.b, the inductances are approximated as follows:
L1 = 11 + 3 cos2, L2 = 7 + 2 cos2, M = 11 cos. The coils are energized with dc
currents. I1 = 0.7 A, I2 = 0.8 A. Find the torque for = +50. What is its direction?
Solution
dL1
dL2
dm
6 sin 2 ;
4 sin 2 ;
11sin
d
d
d
1 dL 1 dL
dm
T fld i12 1 i22 2 i1i2
2 d 2 d
d
1
1
0.7 2 6 sin 2 0.82 4 sin 2 0.7 0.8 11sin
2
2
2.75 sin 2 6.16 sin Nm
64

For 50, T fld 7.43 Nm.

8. Alignment and Interaction Forces
Electromechanical devices develop forces either by alignment or interaction or both.
(a) Alignment Forces: The forces developed in singly excited systems are all by
alignment. Alignment force acts in a direction that tends to increase the field energy in
the device. To achieve maximum field energy, the force will try to bring the fixed and
movable members together so as to increase the capacitance of the plates in the case of
the electric field system and the inductance of the coil in the case of the magnetic field
system. The torque components of (28) in the form (i 2 2).(dL d ) are also due to
alignment forces.
(b) Interaction forces: They are produced by the interaction of magnetic field and
current-carrying conductors. The force is set up when a conductor properly placed in a
magnetic field is made to carry current. The force is also set up between two or more
current-carrying coils. The force developed in the device of Fig. 6.a is a force of
interaction. The component of the torque given by (28) involving mutual inductance is
also due to interaction force. Forces of interaction between two current-carrying coils are
directed in a way that tends to increase the magnitude of the flux linkage of each of the
coil or in a way that tends to align the mmf axes of the coils.
The forces of interaction can be made proportional to electrical signals by supplying the
particular signals at one of the electrical inputs and their direction can be controlled.
9. Useful relations for calculating forces and torques
N2
(a) L
R
l
(b) R
o r A

(c ) C
(d ) C

q
e

o r A
d

Example 4
Show that the force expression (19) can be restated as
1 dR
f fld 2
2
dx
where is the total flux linking the coil and R is the total reluctance of the magnetic
circuit.
Solution
1 dL
f fld i 2
2 dx
65

Now
dL
N 2 dR
2
dx
R dx
Substituting this in the above equation yields
1 N 2i 2 dR
1 dR
f fld
2
2
2 R dx
2
dx
10. Motional emf
The terms in the induced voltage equations (15), (24) and (25) for which inductances or
mutual inductances are constant with current i differentiated, are the transformer emfs.
They give rise to electrical/electrical power conversion. The other terms arise if the
inductances or mutual inductances vary as the movable members move. These voltages
called motional or rotational emfs give rise to mechanical/electrical power conversion.
Expressions for torque or force in electromagnetic devices can be derived by considering
only these terms.
Let us consider the singly excited electromagnetic system. Electrical energy flow due to
this emf component caused by movement is
dL
d welec i i dt i 2 dL
dt
With current constant, the energy supplied to the field
1
d w fld i 2 dL
2
The energy converted to mechanical energy is then
1
1
dwmech d welec d w fld i 2 dL i 2 dL i 2 dL
2
2
Example 5
Considering only the motional emfs, derive an expression for torque developed in a
doubly excited electromagnetic device.
Solution
d welec e1i1dt e 2 i2 dt i1 i1dL1 i2 dM i2 i2 dL2 i1dM i12 dL1 2i1i2 dM i22 dL2
1
1
d w fld i12 dL1 i22 dL2 i1i2 dM
2
2
1
1
dwmech d w elec d w fld i12 dL1 i22 dL2 i1i2 dM
2
2

66

Hence
T fld

1 2 dL1 1 2 dL2
dM
i1
i2
i1i2
2 d 2 d
d

11. Examples of Electromechanical Devices

(1) Solenoid Relay (Fig. 11.1): It is used to operate switches. Due to rotational
movement about the pivot, the gap length is not uniform over the cross-section of the gap
but because the travel is short, this distortion is sufficiently small to be negligible.
To circuit being
switched

Fig. 11.1 Solenoid relay

A solenoid relay is operated from a 110-V, dc supply and the 5000-turn coil resistance is
5.5 k. The core diameter of the relay is 20 mm and the gap length is 1.5 mm, the
armature being stationary. The gap faces may be taken as parallel and the permeability of
the ferromagnetic parts as very high. Estimate (a) the gap flux density (b) the coil
inductance (c) the pull on the armature
Solution
V
100
20 103 A
(a) I
3
R 5.5 10
F NI 20 103 5000 100 AT
F
100
H
0.67 105 AT / m
3
l g 1.5 10

B o H 4 107 0.67 105 84 103 Wb / m2

(b) BA 84 10 3 10 2 10 6 26.3 10 6 Wb

N 26.3 10 6 5000

6.56 H
I
20 10 3
1 dL
(c) F fld i 2
2 dx
1.5 9.82
L( x) 6.56

x
x
L

67

where x is in mm
dL
9.82
2
dx
x
1
9.82
Therefore F fld 202 106 2 0.88 N
2
1.5

(2) Plunger relay (Fig. 11.2): It is also used for relay purposes. It is used for tripping
circuit breakers, for operating valves and in other applications in which greater lengths of
travel are required.

Air gap

1500
Excitation
coil

plunger

Fig. 11.2 Plunger relay

When the plunger relay is energized, the current remains constant at 2.0 A and the
plunger moves such that the air gap is reduced in length from 20 mm to 10 mm. If losses
may be neglected, calculate the average force experienced by the plunger and the energy
taken from the source. The diameter of the plunger is 50 mm. Neglect the air gap at the
hole through which the armature moves.
Solution
For l g 10mm, F NI 1500 2 3000 AT

F
3000

300 103 AT / m
l g 10 103

B o H 4 107 300 103 0.377 T

BA 0.377 252 10 6 0.74 10 3 Wb

N 1500 0.74 103
L

0.56 H
I
2
10mm
0.28 H
For l g 20 mm , L 0.56
20mm
1 L 1 2 0.28
2
56 N
Average force F fld ( a ) I 2
2
x 2
0.01
Change in mechanical energy Wmech F fld ( a ) x 56 0.01 0.56 J

68

1 2
1
I L 2 2 0.28 0.56 J
2
2
Change in electrical energy or energy taken from the supply during the displacement
Welec W fld Wmech 0.56 0.56 1.12 J
Change in stored energy W fld

(3) An electromagnet is made using a horse-shoe core as shown in Fig. 11.3. The core
has an effective length of 600 mm and a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. A rectangular
block of iron is held by the electromagnet force of alignment and a force of 20 N is
required to free it. The magnetic circuit through the block is 200 mm long and the
effective cross-sectional area is again 500 mm2. The relative permeability of both core
and block is 700. If the magnet is energized by a coil of 100 turns, estimate the coil
current.

20 N

Fig.11.3 Horse shoe electromagnet

Solution
1 dR
f fld 2
2
dx
With the fixed and movable members separated by a distance x m, the total air gap
would be 2 x . Hence the total reluctance would be in the form
2x
and
R( x) C
o A
dR
2

dx o A
The force developed when x 0 is given by
1 2
2
B2 A
f fld x 0

2
o A
o
where B is the flux density in the iron. We note that the cross-sectional area of the iron
part of the magnetic circuit is equal to the cross-sectional area of the air gaps.
B2 A
20 N
Now

69

20 4 10 7 2
Therefore B
0.222 T and
6
500

10

B
0.222
H

250 AT / m
o r 4 107 700
The total mmf required to create the above flux density in both the core and the block
F Hl 250 600 200103 200 AT
Hence I

200
2.0 A
100

(4) Electrostatic voltmeter: The electrostatic voltmeter movement shown in Fig. 11.4
consists of three semi-circular metal plates. The middle plate is attached to a taut
suspension wire which acts as a torsional spring. (A torsional spring will exert a
restraining torque proportional to the angular displacement). The rest position of the
middle plate is at = 0, where it is just about to enter the space between the outer plates.
Suppose the plates have a radius of 4 cm and an air spacing of 1 mm between the centre
plate and the outer plates.
(a) Determine the capacitance of the system as a function of the angle
(b) Determine the torque on the centre plate as a function of the applied voltage e
(c) Suppose the voltmeter is to have a full-scale deflection of = 3 radians with an
applied voltage of 1000 V. What should be the spring constant of the suspension system?
(d) When used on alternating voltage, does this instrument measure average, rms or peak
values?
(e) Suppose an alternating voltage of 600 V rmss at a frequency of 2000 Hz is applied to
the meter. Determine the deflection and also determine the input impedance of the
instrument.

70

Fig. 11.4 Electrostatic voltmeter

Solution
(a) The equivalent circuit can be indicated as shown below:
Upper plate

Centre plate
Lower plate

This is a multi-plate capacitor system with n = 3. hence

2 A
C o
d
where d = the air spacing and A is the effective area of the plate
1
A( ) r 2
2

71

Hence the effective capacitance of the system

r 2
where r = radius of the plates
C ( ) o
d
1 dC o r 2 e 2
(b) T fld e 2

k e 2
2 d
2d
r 2 E 2 8.85 1012 42 104 106

7.08 106 Nm
(c) T fld o
3
2d
2 10
Tmech 3 k T fld
70.8 107
2.36 106 Nm / rad
3
1
(d) t fld k e 2 k Vm2 sin 2 t k Vm2( 1- cos 2t) if e Vm sin t
2
2
k Vm
2
T fld (average force)
k r.m.s. value of e
2

Therefore k

Hence instrument measures rms values.

(e) Deflection Tfld V2 being dc or rms value. Therefore for V = 600 rms.
2

600

3 1.08 rad
1000

The effective capacitance when 1.08 rad is

8.85 10 12 4 2 10 4 1.08
C
1.529 10 11 F
3
10
1
1
Input impedance

5.2 M
C 2 2000 1.529 10 1
(5) The force between charged plates is exploited in the electrostatic loudspeaker shown
in Fig. 11.5. Two circular metallic plates are separated by a compressible ring of
insulating material. When a voltage et is applied between the plates, the resulting force
causes a change in the plate spacing x, which in turn results in an acoustic wave from the
plate surfaces.
For accurate sound reproduction, the variation in spacing x should be proportional to the
output voltage e of the audio amplifier. Unfortunately, the electrostatic force is
proportional to the square of the terminal voltage et. To overcome this difficulty, a
terminal voltage et = E + e is applied, where E is a constant voltage much larger than the
audio frequency signal voltage e.
(a) Suppose the voltage E is 1000 V. Assuming the spacing x between the plates does not
vary appreciably from a value of 0.5 mm. If the relative permittivity of the insulating ring
is assumed to be 1.0, show that the force between the plates is given approximately by
f = 0.139 + 2.78 x 10-4e newtons
(b) Suppose the ring provides a spring constant of 300 N/m. If e = 100 sin t, determine
the peak-to-peak oscillation in the plate spacing.
72

0.1m

et = E + e

Fig. 11.5 Electrostatic loudspeaker

Solution

1 2 dC
et
2 dx
A
C o r
x

(a) f fld

Hence

f fld

Or

f fld

1 o r Aet2
1 A
1 A
o 2r E e 2 o 2r E 2 2 Ee e2
2
2 x
2 x
2 x

1 o r A 2
E 2Ee
2 x2

e2 0

1 o r A 2 1 8.85 1012 1 0.12 106

E
0.139 and
2 x2
2
0.52 4
1 o r A
2E 2 0.139 2.78 104
2
2 x
E
Hence f fld 0.139 2.78 104 e Nm
Now

(b) 300 x pp 2 2.78 104 100 x pp 0.185 mm

73

Exercises Two
(1) A machine with two coils has inductances as follows: (on rotor) L1 = 0.1 H, (on
stator) L2 = 0.5 H, M = 0.2cos H, where is the angle of the rotor coil axis displaced
counterclockwise with respect to the stator coil axis. Coil 1 (on rotor) is short circuited.
Coil 2 (on stator) is energized from a 60-Hz sinusoidal voltage source of 110 V.
Resistances of the coils may be neglected. Assume the circuit operates in sinusoidal
steady state. is set to 30.
(a) Find an expression for the instantaneous torque on the rotor.
(b) Find the value of the average torque on the rotor
(c) Determine the direction of this torque.
(2) Fig. E.1 shows the essential components of a loudspeaker. The permanent magnet
produces a uniform radial magnet flux density of 0.8 Wb/m2 across a cylindrical air gap.
The coil of 30 turns is wound on a fiber cylinder of diameter d = 2 cm. When assembled,
the coil is inserted into the air gap of the magnet.
(a) Determine the force of the cone as a function of the current i.
(b) Determine the induced voltage in the coil per unit of coil velocity
(c) Neglecting coil resistance, show that the electrical power input to the coil is equal to
the mechanical power delivered to the cone.
(d) Over most of the audio frequency range, the force is absorbed by the damping action
of the air being driven by motion of cone. Suppose the damping coefficient of the cone is
0.3 N per m/s of velocity. If the current in the coil is imsint, determine the velocity of
the coil and the voltage induced in the coil. Show that the impedance looking into the coil
terminals is resistive and has a value of 7.6

d
i

Fig.E.1 Magnetic loudspeaker

(3) A rotating machine of the form shown in Fig. E.2 has a reluctance which can be
expressed approximately by
R = 5.06 x 104(2.5 + 1.5 cos 2) A/Wb
where is the angle between the axis of the rotor and of the stator.
(a) Suppose a voltage of 110 V rms at 60 Hz is applied to the 15-turn winding. If the
winding resistance is negligible, determine the magnetic flux in the machine.
(b) At what angular velocity must the rotor rotate to produce an average torque?

74

(c) What is the maximum value of the average torque this machine can produce when
connected to a 110-V, 60-Hz supply? What is the maximum mechanical power?

Fig.E.2 Reluctance motor

75