Name:

Date:
Mole Concept

1.0

Atomic Masses and Avogadros Hypothesis

We have learned that compounds are made up of two or more different elements and those
elements are composed of atoms. Therefore, compounds must be composed of molecules
made up of two more different kinds of atoms. During a chemical reaction, the atoms that
make up the starting materials rearrange to form new and different molecules

[Figure 1]: Showing changes that occur during a chemical reaction.

The question that arises however, is how many atoms and molecules are involved in the
reaction or how much of one element will combine with another element? In addition, since
atoms are so small, how can we count them?
Early experimental work by English chemist John Dalton (1766 1844) was concerned with
how much of one element could combine with a given amount of another element. Dalton
assumed that elements formed simple compounds in a 1:1 ratio and he assigned an
ARBITRARY MASS to each element. Since hydrogen was the lightest element, it was
assigned a mass of 1 and all other elements were compared to that of hydrogen. Carbon
was found to be 6 times heavier than hydrogen so it was assigned a mass of 6. Oxygen was
found to be 16 times heavier than hydrogen so it was assigned a mass of 16. In this way,
Dalton was able to calculate the RELATIVE MASSES for several elements.
Daltons atomic mass scale was partly in error because not all the molecules he studied
actually contained only one atom of each element. During the time that Daltons mass scale
was just being introduced, the French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac began to study how gases
reacted. When Gay-Lussac reacted pairs of gases at the same temperature and pressure, he
found that gases combined in simple whole number ratios.
1 L of hydrogen gas reacts with 1 L of chlorine gas to make 2 L of HCl (g)
1 L of nitrogen reacts with 3 L of hydrogen gas to make 2 L of NH3(g)
2 L of CO gas react with 1 L of oxygen gas to make 2 L of CO2(g)
By itself, Gay-Lussacs findings did not seem to be related to atomic mass but then the Italian
chemist Amadeo Avogadro proposed the following explanation for Gay-Lussacs data.

pg. 1

In other words, if 1 L of gas A reacts with 1 L of gas B, then there exactly the same number of
particles of A and B present. Therefore, the molecule formed by reacting A with B is AB.
Similarly, if 2 L of gas A reacts with 1 L of gas B, the molecules formed have the formula
A2B.

Avogadros hypothesis allows us to predict the formula of a compound by determining the

ratio of the volumes of gases needed to make the compound.
e.g. If 1 L of nitrogen reacts with 3 L of hydrogen to form ammonia, then its formula is NH3.
If 2 L of hydrogen reacts with 1 L of oxygen to form water, then its formula is H2O.
So if we want to make a particular compound, all we need to do is react volumes of gases in
the ratio given by their formulas but how do we determine how much of one element reacts
with another element when they are not gases?
e.g. How much iron is required to react with sulphur to produce iron (II) sulphide, FeS, so
that neither element is left over?
Since the easiest way to measure solids is to measure their mass, we need to relate mass to
the number of atoms. The periodic table shows us the relative masses of the elements. Its
units are u which stands for unified atomic mass units. Some books refer to it as 1 amu
instead. An amu or u is a unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular weights, equal to
one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Unlike Daltons mass scale, the present day
scale is not based on hydrogen. Instead, 1u is defined as 1/12 the mass of carbon12 (carbon
12, 12C, is a particular isotope of carbon). Carbon-12 is used now because it is easier to
handle than gaseous hydrogen and is an abundant isotope.

Therefore relative atomic mass of an atom or compound (molecule) is given as:

pg. 2

The molar mass is the relative formula mass of a substance in grams (measured in g/mol).
Mass is conserved in chemical reactions, allowing the mass of a reactant or product to be
calculated if the masses of the other substances in the reaction are known.

The periodic table gives us the molar mass of each of the elements expressed in grams.

[Figure 2]: Some common elements in the periodic table.

Finding the molar mass of a compound simply involves adding together the molar masses of
each of the atoms that make up the compound (remember the units of molar mass are grams).
To find the relative formula mass (or Mr) of a substance, you add together the relative atomic
mass for all the atoms shown in its chemical formula.
Remember that the values for relative atomic masses (Ar) are given in the periodic table. So,
although it helps to learn some of the common values, you do not have to do this.
What is the relative formula mass of water, H2O?
(Ar of H = 1, Ar of O = 16)
Mr of H2O = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18
The molar mass of a substance is its relative formula mass in grams. The unit for molar
mass is g/mol. For example: the Mr of water is 18, so its molar mass is 18 g/mol.
1.1

Relating Moles to Mass, Volume of Gas, and Number of Particles

The molar mass of a compound allows us to calculate the mass of a given number of moles of
a substance and the number of moles in a given mass of a substance.
pg. 3

Since we know that:

We have two conversion factors:

The mole is the fundamental unit in chemistry for measuring the amount of substance or the
number of particles of a substance. In a sense, the mole is simply a counting number. Just
as a dozen = 12 experimentally, 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023. This value, 6.02 x 1023, is called
Avogadros number. Notice that there are no units in the same way a dozen stands for.
Conversion Factors:

Calculations involving gas volumes are simplified by Avogadros hypothesis. Recall that:

Since the volume of a gas is drastically affected by the temperature and pressure we need to
define STANDARD conditions. Standard conditions are 25C and 1 atm for temperature and
pressure respectively.
Avogadros hypothesis can be interpreted to mean that all gas samples with the same
temperature, pressure, and numbers of particles occupy the same volume. This can be re
stated as equal numbers of moles of any gas at STP occupy the same volume. Experimentally,
it is determined that 1 mol of any gas at STP has a volume of 24.0 L or 24 dm3. In other
words, the molar volume of any gas at STP is 24.0 L or 24 dm3.
pg. 4

The following flow chart will help to simply calculations that involve multiple conversions.

[Figure 3]: Flowchart to help in calculations.

1.2

Percentage Composition

The percentage composition is the percentage (by mass) of each element or species in a
chemical formula. The problem below illustrates how to calculate percentage composition.
What is the percentage composition of H2SO4?
Assume that there is 1 mole of the compound.
Molar mass = 98.1 g
Total mass of H = 2 x 1.0 g = 2.0 g
Total mass of S = 1 x 32.1 g = 32.1 g
Total mass of O = 4 x 16.0 g = 64.0 g
% H = 2.0 g / 98.1 g x 100% = 2.0%
% S = 32.1 g / 98.1 g x 100% = 32.7%
% O = 64.0 g / 98.1 g x 100% = 65.2%
1.3

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

The empirical formula is called the simplest formula and is the smallest whole-number ratio
of atoms which represents the molecular composition of a species. CH 2, C2H4, C3H6, C4H8,
and C5H10 all contain twice as many Hs as there are Cs. The empirical formula (simplest
formula) for all of these molecules is CH2. Finding empirical formula is essentially the
opposite of determining percentage composition.
The problem below illustrates how to calculate empirical and molecular formulas.
pg. 5

What is the empirical formula of a compound consisting of 80.0% C and 20.0% H

Assume 100.0 g of the compound
mass of C = 80.0% x 100.0 g = 80.0 g
mass of H = 20.0% x 100.0 g = 20.0 g
Use the mass to determine the moles of each element.

Determine smallest ratio by dividing by smallest number of moles ( 6.67).

If your empirical formula is not a whole number, DO NOT just round off ratio, you must
multiply both number by 2, 3, 4, or 5 until both are whole numbers. ALWAYS carry out
calculations to 3 or 4 digits and NEVER round off intermediate values. Improper round-off
calculations will cause you to multiply by the wrong number when trying to obtain whole
numbers.
The molecular formula can be found be using the molar mass of the empirical formula; that
is, the empirical mass. The molecular formula is made up of whole number multiples of the
empirical formula. CH2, C2H4, C3H6, C4H8, and C5H10 all have the same empirical formula
CH2. The whole number multiple (N) is given by the formula:

pg. 6

Hence, molecular formula = N x (empirical formula)

It may be necessary to calculate the molar mass from information that is given in the
question.
(a) Finding molar mass from density of a gas at STP
If: density of gas X = 1.43 g/L (at STP)
Then: molar mass of X = 1.43 g/L x 24.0 L/mol = 32.0 g/mol
(b) Finding molar mass from mass and volume of a gas at STP
If you are told: 0.0425 L of gas X at STP has a mass of 0.135 g
Then: density of gas X = 0.135 g / 0.0425 L = 3.176 g/L
And: molar mass of X = 3.176 g/L x 24.0 L/mol = 76.224 g/mol
(c) Finding molar mass from mass and a given number of moles
If you are told: 0.0250 mol of X has a mass of 1.775 g
Then: molar mass =1.775 g / 0.0250 mol = 71.0 g/mol
(d) Finding molar mass from of the molar mass if given as a multiple of a known molar
mass
If you are told: X has a molar mass which is 1.64 times that of CO2
Then: molar mass of CO2 = 44.0 g/mol
And: molar mass of X = 1.64 x 44.0 g/mol = 72.2 g/mol
1.4

Molar Concentrations

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures in which the substances are so thoroughly mixed that
they cannot be distinguished from one another. Most solutions contain a solid (solute)
dissolved in a liquid (solvent); however, there are solutions of gases as well. The
CONCENTRATION of a substance in solution provides a way to find how much of the
substance exists in a given volume of the solution. Chemists use the mole to describe the
amount of substance in a solution.
MOLAR CONCENTRATION or MOLARITY of a substance is the number of moles of
the substance contained in 1 L of solution.
e.g. If 2.0 L of solution contains 5.0 mol of NaCl, what is the molarity of the NaCl?

pg. 7

When expressed in words, the unit symbol M is written as molar.

The short-hand symbol for molar concentration of is a set of brackets: [], so [NaCl]
means the molar concentration of NaCl.
The definition of molar concentration leads to the following equation:

For example: What is the [NaCl] in a solution containing 5.12 g of NaCl in 250.0 mL of
solution?
In order to find molarity (M), the moles, and volume are needed. The volume is given and the
mass must be converted to moles.

pg. 8

1.5

Dilution Calculations

When two solutions are mixed, the resulting mixture has a volume and total number of moles
equal to the sum of the individual volumes and individual number of moles of chemical
found in the separate solutions.

Consider the following dilution:

Since the number of moles of solute in the initial solution are equal to the number of moles of
solute in the diluted solution,
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
This equation can be rearranged to give the following dilution equation:
M2 = M1 x V1/V2
For example, if 200.0 mL of 0.500 M NaCl was added to 300.0 mL of water, what is the
resulting [NaCl] in the mixture?

pg. 9

The resulting concentration would be 0.200 M.

Multiple Choice Questions
1) 6.02 x 1023 is called _____ number.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Avogadros
Newtons
Aristotles
Plancks

2) There are 6.02 x 1023 atoms in one ____ of atoms.

A.
B.
C.
D.

mole
Newton
amu
kilogram

3) The mass in grams of one mole of any pure substance is called its ____ mass.
A.
B.
C.
D.

atomic
formula
molar
molecular

4) If 24 g of carbon is measured on a balance, how many atoms have been indirectly counted?
A.
B.
C.
D.

2
24
6.02 x 1023
12.04 x 1023

5) Which element has a molar mass of 31 g/mol?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Potassium
Phosphorus
Gallium
Palladium

6) Which is the mass of an atom of calcium?

A.
B.
C.
D.

20 amu
20 g
40 amu
40 g

7)
Isotope

Mass (amu)

Abundance

pg. 10

28

27.98

92.21%

29

28.94

4.70%

32

29.97

3.09%

Using the table above determine the average atomic mass of the element and then use the
periodic table to determine the identity of the element.
Average atomic mass ___________________
The element is_________________________
8) The symbol for the element sodium is
A.
B.
C.
D.

K
S
Na
Sc

9) Which elementary particles attract each other?

A.
B.
C.
D.

proton and neutron

electron and electron
proton and electron
electron and neutron

10) Which elementary particle has the smallest mass?

A.
B.
C.
D.

electron
neutron
proton
they all have the same mass

11) The formula weight of Ba(NO3)2 , to the nearest integer, is

A.
B.
C.
D.

199 amu
247 amu
261 amu
398 amu

12) 1.80 moles of CaSO4 weighs

A. 176 g
B. 38.4 g
C. 245 g
pg. 11

D. 245 kg
13) When 4.0 g of NaOH is dissolved in 50 mL of aqueous solution the molarity of the
solution is
A.
B.
C.
D.

1.0 M
2.0 M
0.10 M
0.20 M

14) How many molecules are in a cube of dry ice (CO2) that weighs 440 g?
A.
B.
C.
D.

10
1 x 1023
6.02 x 1023
6.02 x 1024

15) For the reaction

2 P + 3 Cl2 2 PCl3
if 32.5 g of Cl2 reacts completely with excess P, how many g of PCl3 will be produced?
A.
B.
C.
D.

42.0 g
62.9 g
83.9 g
94.4 g

Short Answer Questions

1) Calculate the molar masses of
(a) Na2Cr2O7
(b) Ag2SO4
(c) Pb3(PO4)4
2a) Calculate which of the following has higher percentage of nitrogen. Calcium nitrate of
ammonium sulphate?
2b) Calculate the percentage of water of crystallisation in washing soda with formula of
Na2CO3.10H2O.
3ai) Find the empirical formula of a compound of carbon and hydrogen which contains 80 %
carbon.
3aii) The molecular weight of the above compound is 30. What is its molecular formula?
3aiii) Name the compound and write down its structural formula.

pg. 12

3bi) The molecular formula of an organic compound is H4C2O4. What is its empirical
formula?
3bii) A hydrocarbon has the following percentage composition- Hydrogen 2.2 %, Carbon
26.6 % and oxygen 71.2 %. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound. If its
molecular weight is 90, find its molecular formula.
4a) What would be the concentration of the hydrochloric acid produced if all the hydrogen
chloride gas from the reaction between 50 g of pure sulphuric acid and an excess of sodium
chloride was collected in water, and the solution made up to a volume of 400 cm3 of water?
Based on equation: NaCl (s) + H2SO4(aq)

> NaHSO4(s) + HCl (g)

4b) 60g of NaOH is dissolved in water and make up to the total volume of 500cm3. Calculate
the concentration of solution in
i) g/dm3 and ii) mol/dm3.
5) Hydrogen Fluoride attacks glass and is used to draw on glass. It is prepared by adding
concentrated sulphuric acid to calcium fluoride. The reaction takes place at r.t.p:
CaF2 (s) + H2SO4 (l) 2HF (g) + CaSO4 (s)
a) When 15.6g of calcium fluoride was reacted with 12.5cm3 of 20.0 mol/dm3 sulphuric acid,
7.68dm3 of hydrogen fluoride was formed.

i) What is the limiting reactant in this reaction?

ii) Calculate the theoretical volume of hydrogen fluoride that should be formed.
b) Calculate the mass of the calcium fluoride in the impure calcium fluoride.

c) What is the percentage purity of the calcium fluoride?

pg. 13