LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS

Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Definite Proportions
Law of Multiple Proportions
Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
Avogadro Law

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Law of Conservation of Mass
It states that matter can
neither be created nor
destroyed

Antoine Lavoisier
(1743—1794)

3
Law of Definite Proportions
It states that a given
compound always
contains exactly the
same proportion of
elements by weight.
Eg: NaCl may be obtained from
sea water. It is also prepared by Joseph
chemical reactions between Proust
NaOH and HCl. These samples on (1754—1826)
4
analysis are found to contain Na
Law of Multiple Proportions
This law states that if two
elements can combine to form
more than one compound, the
masses of one element that
combine with a fixed mass of
the other element, are in the
John Dalton
ratio of small whole numbers. (1776—
1884)
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Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
2g 16g 18g
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide
2g 32g 34g
the masses of oxygen (i.e. 16 g and 32 g)
which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen
(2g) bear a simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1: 2.
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Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous
Volumes
It states that when gases
combine or are
produced in a chemical
reaction they do so in a
simple ratio by volume
provided all gases are at
same temperature and Joseph
pressure. Louis
Gay Lussac
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Avogadro Law
Avogadro proposed
that equal volumes of
gases at the same
temperature and
pressure should
contain equal number Lorenzo Romano Amedeo
Carlo Avogadro di Quareqa
of molecules. edi Carreto
(1776-1856)
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DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY(1808)
1. Matter consists of
indivisible atoms.
2. All the atoms of a given
element have identical
properties including
identical mass. Atoms John Dalton
of different elements (1776—1884)

differ in mass.

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DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY(1808)

(contd…)
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of
different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of
atoms. These are neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
10 g of CaCO3 on heating gave 4.4g of CO2 and 5.6g of CaO. Show that these
observations agree with law of conservation of mass
1.375g of cupric oxide was reduced by heating in a current of hydrogen and
the weight of copper that remained was 1.098g. In another experiment, 1.179g
of copper was dissolved in nitric acid and the resulting copper nitrate
converted into cupric oxide by ignition. The weight of cupric oxide formed
was 1.476g. Show that these result illustrate the law of constant composition.
Atomic Mass
The atomic mass or the mass of an atom is
actually very-very small because atoms are
extremely small. In the nineteenth century,
scientists could determine mass of one atom
relative to another by experimental means.
Hydrogen, being lightest atom was arbitrarily
assigned a mass of 1 (without any units) and
other elements were assigned masses relative
to it.
However, the present system of atomic masses is
based on carbon - 12 as the standard and has
been agreed upon in 1961. One atomic mass
unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-
twelfth the mass of one carbon - 12 atom.
1 amu = 1.66056×10–24 g
Today, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’
which is known as unified mass.
Average Atomic Mass
Many naturally occurring elements exist as
more than one isotope. When we take into
account the existence of these isotopes and
their relative abundance the average atomic
mass of that element can be computed.
Isotope Relative Abundance (%) Atomic
Mass (amu)

12C 98.892 12.00000

13C 1.108 13.00335
14C 2 ×10–10 14.00317
The average atomic mass of carbon will come
out to be :
(0.98892) (12 u) + ( 0.01108) (13.00335 u) +
(2 × 10–12) (14.00317 u)
= 12.011 u
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses
of the elements present in a molecule. It is
obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of
each element by the number of its atoms and
adding them together.

Molecular mass of methane, (CH4)

= (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Find the molecular mass of
Formula Mass
Some substances such as sodium chloride do not
contain discrete molecules as their constituent
units. In such compounds, positive (sodium)
and negative (chloride) entities are arranged in
a three-dimensional structure
The formula such as NaCl is used to calculate
the formula mass instead of molecular mass
as in the solid state sodium chloride does not
exist as a single entity.
Thus, formula mass of sodium chloride =
atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of
chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u
One mole is the amount of a
substance that contains as many
particles or entities as there are
atoms in exactly 12 g of the 12C
isotope. It is equal to 6.022x1023 It is
known as ‘Avogadro’ constant

The mass of one mole of

substance in g is called molar
mass.
 MOLAR
VOLUME

●
The volume occupied by one
mole of a gas is called molar
volume or gram molar volume.
●
One mole of all gases occupies
22.4 L at STP.
 PERCENTAGE
COMPOSITION
Mass of an element in
Mass % of an element = the compound x 100
molar mass of the

compound
PERCENTAGE
COMPOSITION OF WATER
Molar mass of water = 18.02 g
Mass % of hydrogen = 2× 1.008 × 100/18.02
= 11.18
Mass % of oxygen =16.00× 100/18.02
= 88.79
What is the percentage of carbon,oxygen and hydrogen in
Ethanol?
Calculate the mass percentage of different
elements in sodium sulphate.
Empirical Formula for
Molecular
Formula
An empirical formula represents the simplest
whole number ratio of various atoms present in
a compound whereas the molecular formula
shows the exact number of different types of
atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
A compound contains 4.07 % hydrogen, 24.27 %
carbon and 71.65 % chlorine. Its molar mass is
98.96 g. What are its empirical and molecular
formulas ?
Solution
Step 1. Conversion of mass per cent to grams.
Since we are having mass per cent, it is convenient
to use 100 g of the compound as the starting
material. Thus, in the 100 g sample of the above
compound, 4.07g hydrogen is present, 24.27g
carbon is present and 71.65 g chlorine is present.
Step 2. Convert into number moles of each
element
Divide the masses obtained above by respective
atomic masses of various elements.
Moles of hydrogen = 4.07 g/1.008g = 4.04
Moles of carbon =24.27 g/12.01g = 2.021
Moles of chlorine =71.65g/35.453g = 2.021
Step 3. Divide the mole value obtained above by
the smallest number
Since 2.021 is smallest value, division by it gives a
ratio of 2:1:1 for H:C:Cl .
In case the ratios are not whole numbers, then they
may be converted into whole number by
multiplying by the suitable coefficient.
Step 4. Write empirical formula by mentioning
the numbers after writing the symbols of
respective elements.
CH2Cl is, thus, the empirical formula of the above
compound.
Step 5. Writing molecular formula
(a) Determine empirical formula mass: Add the
atomic masses of various atoms present in the
empirical formula. For CH2Cl, empirical formula
mass is
12.01 + 2 × 1.008 + 35.453 = 49.48 g
(b) Divide Molar mass by empirical formula mass
Molar mass/Empirical formula mass=98.96/49.48
= 2 = (n)
(c) Multiply empirical formula by n obtained above
to get the molecular formula
Empirical formula = CH2Cl, n = 2. Hence
molecular formula is C2H4Cl2.
An organic compound on analysis gave the following composition. Carbon =
40%, Hydrogen = 6.66% and oxygen = 53.34%. Calculate its molecular formula if
its molecular mass is 90.
A compound contains 4.07 % hydrogen, 24.27 % carbon and 71.65
% chlorine. Its molar mass is 98.96 g. What are its empirical and
molecular formulas ?

ELEMENT ATOMIC MASS % TO NO. OF DIVIDE BY WHOLE

MASS(M) GRAMS(m) MOLES SMALLEST NO.
(m/M) NO. RATIO
A substance on analysis, gave the
following percentage composition
Na=43.4%,carbon= 11.3%,oxygen 45.3%
A compound has following composition Mg
=9.76%, S= 13.01%, O = 26.01%. H2O = 51.22%.
What is the empirical formula?
What is the simplest formula of the compound which has the following percentage
composition carbon= 80% and H = 20%. If the molecular mass is 30 calculate the
molecular formula
A compound has following composition Mg =9.76%, S= 13.01%, O = 26.01%. H2O
= 51.22%. What is the empirical formula?
What is the simplest formula of the compound which has the following percentage
composition carbon= 80% and H = 20%. If the molecular mass is 30 calculate
the molecular formula.
 STOICHIOMETRY AND
STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Stoichiometry, deals with the calculation of
masses (sometimes volumes also) of the
reactants and the products involved in a
chemical reaction.
Stoichiometric calculations are possible only
with the help of balanced chemical equations
Limiting Reagent
⚫The reactant which gets consumed and hence
limits the amount of product formed is called
the limiting reagent.
GAME
⚫https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/reactants-products-an
d-leftovers/latest/reactants-products-and-leftovers_en.html
 How many grams of KClO3 must be decomposed to prepare 3.36 liters of oxygen at
STP? 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2 (K=39u , Cl=35.5u , O =16u) (At masses: Ca =40 u;
Cl = 35.5u)
Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide that could be produced when
(i) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in air.
(ii) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of dioxygen.
(iii) 2 moles of carbon are burnt in 16 g of dioxygen
 Expressing Concentration

⚫Mass percentage
⚫Mole Fraction (χ)
⚫Molarity (M)
⚫Molality (m)
 Mass percentage

⚫Mass percentage (w/w): The mass percentage

of a component of a solution is defined as:
Mass % of a component
= Mass of the component in the solution ×100
Total mass of the solution
Example
What is the mass percent of 500g of water
containing 6.50g of potassium nitrate?

Solution: 6.5 KNO3 x 100 =

(500g +6.5g) soln

Ans: 1.28 %

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 Mole Fraction (χ)
⚫Commonly used symbol for mole fraction is x
and subscript used on the right hand side of x
denotes the component. It is defined as:
Mole fraction of a component =
Number of moles of the component
Total number of moles of all the components
Example
Deepak puts 76.0g of sodium iodide in 500g of water.
What is the mole fraction of the solute?

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 Molarity
Assumptions you can make:

M =No. of moles of solute

A 5.0 Molar Solution =
liters of solution
5 moles solute
1 liter solution
Example
Calculate the molarity of a solution that contains
5.8g KCl in 550mL of solution.

Solution: 5.8g KCl x 1 mol KCl = 0.078 mol KCl

74.55g KCl

0.078 mol KCl =

0.55L solution

Ans: 0.14M
 Calculate the Molarity of 15 % H2SO4 solution by weight having density 1.1 g/mL.

 Atomic masses: H-1, S - 32, O-16

Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g in enough
water to form 250 mL of the solution
 Molality

m = moles of solute
Assumptions you can
kg solvent make:
A 5.0 molal solution =
5.0 moles solute
1 kg solvent
Example
Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by
placing 10.3g of MgCl2 in 200g of water.
Solution: 10.3g MgCl2 x 1mol MgCl2
=.108mol MgCl2
95.2g MgCl2

.108g MgCl2 =
.2 kg H2O
Ans: .54 m
Q 6 Commercially available sulphuric acid contains
93% by mass and has a density of 1.84 g/cm3 . Calculate
the molarity of the solution and the volume of
concentrated acid required to prepare 2.5L of 0.50 M of
H2SO4. (3 M)
Solution: M = % x d x10
Molar mass

=93*1.84*10/98 = 17.46M
M1V1=M2V2

17.46*V1= 0.5*2.5
V1=1.25/17.46
=0.0715L
a)A compound on analysis gave the following
percentage composition: Na = 14.31%, S = 9.97%,O =
69.5%
Calculate the molecular formula of the compound.All
the Hydrogen in the compound is present as water of
crstallisation. Molecular mass of the compound is 322.
(3M)
Element % At. mass No. of Simple Simplest
moles ratio whole no.
ratio
Na 14.31 23 14.31/23=0 0.62/0.31= 2
.62 2

S 9.97 32 9.97/32= 0.31/0.31= 1

0.31 1

H 6.22 1 6.22/1= 6.22/0.31= 20

6.22 20

O 69.5 16 69.5/16= 4.34/0.31= 14

4.34 14
Empirical formula = Na2SH20O14
Empirical formula mass = 322
n=1
Molecular formula =
Na2SO4. 10H2O
100g of H 2 is reacted with 100g of oxygen to form water.
Find out the mass of water obtained (2 M)
Moles of H2 = 100/2 = 50
Moles of O2 = 100/32 = 3.125
2 mol of H2 + 1 mol of O2 = 2 mol of H2O
(OR) 2g of H2 combines with 32 g of O2 to give 36 g of H2O
100 g of H2 requires 32 ×100/2 = 1600 g of O2
So O2 is the limiting reagent.
32 g of O2 gives 36 g of H2O
100 g of O2 will give 36 × 100/32 = 112.5 g of H2O
 Which has maximum no. of atoms?
 (a)24 g C (b)56 g of Fe
 (c)27 g of Al (d)108 g of Ag
 The maximum no. of molecules is present in:
 (a)5L of N2 gas at STP (b)0.5 gram of H 2 gas
 (c)10 gram of O2 gas (d)15 L of H2 gas at STP
 One mole of CO2 contains
 a)6.02 x 1023 atoms of C
 b) 6.02 x 1023 atoms of O
 c) 18.1 x 1023 molecules of CO2
 d) 3g atoms of CO2.
12. Assertion: Both 32-gram SO2 and 8-gram CH4
contain same number of molecules.
Reason: Equal moles of compounds contain same
no. of molecules.
Assertion: Molarity of a solution represents its
concentration.
Reason: Molarity of a solution changes with
temperature.
Assertion: The empirical mass of ethene is half of its
molecular mass.
Reason: The empirical formula represents the
simplest whole number ratio of various atoms
present in a compound.
3M
 Chlorine is prepared in laboratory by treating MnO 2 with aqueous HCl according to
the reaction,
4HCl (aq) + MnO2(S) → 2H2O(l) + MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g)
How many grams of HCl react with 5.0 gram of manganese dioxide?
 An organic compound contains only carbon and hydrogen. Burning a small sample
of it in oxygen gives 3.38 g carbon dioxide and 0.690 g of water. A volume of 10.0 L
(measured at STP) of this compound is found to weigh 11.6 g. Find:
 (i) Empirical formula
 (ii) Molar mass of the compound
 (iii) Molecular formula.
500 cm3 of 0.250 M Na2SO4 solution added to an
aqueous solution of 15.00 g of BaCl2 resulted in the
formation of a white precipitate of BaSO4. How many
moles and how many grams of BaSO4 are formed?