BG/CH 0493

Environmental Sustainability:
Chapter 9
Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving
Species & Ecosystem Services
The natural world is everywhere disappearing
before our eyes cut to pieces mowed down,
plowed under, gobbled up, replaced by human
artifacts Edward O. Wilson

Honeybee

Fig. 9-1, p. 190

Core Case Study: Where Have All

the Honeybees Gone?
Bees play a key role in pollination
Collect pollen & nectar for feeding their young (pollen) & adults
(honey); pollen is transferred within/among plants to produce
seeds & fruit (many vegetables, fruits, tree nuts almonds)

Globally, about 1/3 of food supply comes from insectpollinated plants

Currently, agriculture depends heavily on a single
species of bee (European honeybee 80%)
Violation of biodiversity
Suffering from Colony Collapse Disorder
Each year (from 2006), 30-50% of colonies in Europe & U.S.
Human activities cause habitat loss, climate change, extinction
Causes: mites, pathogens (virus, fungi), stress, poor nutrition

9-1 Role of Humans in Loss of

Species & Ecosystem Services
Species becoming extinct 100 -1,000 times faster than
before modern humans arrived on the earth
By the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be
10,000 times higher than that background rate

Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes Increase Sharply

Biological extinction no longer found anywhere on Earth
(irreversible), none alive
Trophic cascade Decline/extinction of connected species
Mass Extinction Many species (50 95%) extinct in short
period of time restored after Millions of years

Human Activities Hasten Extinctions

& Threaten Ecosystem Services
Background extinction rate
1 extinct species / year / 1 million species (~10M species)

Extinction rates have risen recently

Current extinction rate at least 100 higher than typical
background rate - 0.0001% (may rise to 10,000 by century end)

Rate of extinction & threats to ecosystem services likely

to rise sharply
Harmful human impacts 6th major extinction? (1 century)

Biodiversity hotspots
Extinction rates projected to be much higher than average (31 %
temperate, 61% tropics living planet index);

Biologically diverse environments eliminated/fragmented

Ecosystem extinction can lead to speciation crisis (biodiverse
environments), loss of air/water purification, natural pest control,
pollination
reduce emergence of new species
Norman Meyers, Speciation crisis essay

Endangered/Threatened Species:
Ecological Smoke Alarms I
Endangered species
So few members that the species could soon become extinct

Threatened species (vulnerable species)

Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining
May soon be endangered
E. O. Wilson: first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the
tasty and those with valuable parts such as tusks & skins

41%

Amphibians

30%

Conifers

25%

Mammals

Birds

13%

Endangered natural capital: Comparison of the percentages of various types of known species
that are threatened with extinction hastened by human activities as of 2012 (Concept 9-1).
Question: Why do you think so many of the worlds amphibians are threatened with extinction?
(See Chapter 4 Core Case Study, p. 78.)
Fig. 9-3, p. 194

Endangered/Threatened Species:
Ecological Smoke Alarms II
Regionally extinct
In areas a species is normally found

Functionally extinct
To the point at which species can no longer play a functional role
in the ecosystem
Species numbers drop to certain extent, other species
interaction greatly diminished; important ecosystem services
might be lost
Case study: American alligator creating gator nests for certain
birds

Characteristic

Examples

Low reproductive
rate

Blue whale, giant

panda, rhinoceros

Specialized
niche

Blue whale, giant

panda, Everglades kite

Narrow distribution

Elephant seal,
desert pupfish

Feeds at high
trophic level

Bengal tiger, bald

eagle, grizzly bear

Fixed migratory
patterns

Blue whale, whooping

crane, sea turtle

Rare

African violet, some

orchids

Commercially
valuable
Large territories

Snow leopard, tiger,

elephant, rhinoceros, rare
plants and birds
California condor,
grizzly bear, Florida
panther

Stepped Art
Fig. 9-4, p. 194

9-2 Why Care about the Rising

Rate of Extinction?
Endangered orangutans depend on a
rapidly disappearing tropical forest habitat

50-60K in the wild; cleared tropical forests for palm oil plantations; 1-2K
disappearing per year

Species are a Vital Part of

Earths Natural Capital
1. Species provide vital ecosystem & economic services
Help keep us alive: honeybees, plants for food
Support economies: food crops, fuelwood, lumber, paper
Bio-prospectors: animals & plants for medicinal plants (62% of
cancer drugs)
Ecotourism: Male lion - $515,000 from tourism (Kenya), but
$1,000 if killed for skin

2. 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity

Descendants unable to depend on life-sustaining biodiversity &

vital ecosystem services that support well-being & economies

3. Right to exist (stewardship view protect Earths species)

Which to protect? Animals, plants?; Appeal factor? (Elephants,
whales, tigers, but not plants and insects? Fear factor
mosquitoes, cockroaches, snakes, sharks etc

These plant species are examples of natures pharmacy. Once the active
ingredients in the plants have been identified, scientists can usually produce
them synthetically. The active ingredients in nine of the ten leading prescription
drugs originally came from wild organisms.

Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia
sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Anxiety, high
blood pressure

Pacific yew
Taxus
brevifolia,
Pacific
Northwest
Ovarian
cancer

Foxglove
Digitalis
purpurea,
Europe Digitalis for
heart failure

Cinchona
Cinchona
ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for
malaria
treatment

Rosy
periwinkle
Cathranthus
roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's
disease,
lymphocytic
leukemia

Neem tree
Azadirachta
indica, India
Treatment of
many diseases,
insecticide,
spermicides
Fig. 9-6, p. 196

9-3 How are we Threatening

Species & Ecosystem Services I
Greatest threats to species are (in order):

Loss or degradation of its Habitat

Harmful invasive species
Human population growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation (HIPPCO)

How are we Threatening Species

& Ecosystem Services II
Habitat fragmentation
Divided by roads, crops, urban development
Decrease tree cover, block animal migration, isolated animal
communities more vulnerable to predators, competitors,
disease & catastrophic events (storms, fires)

National parks, nature reserves as habitat islands

Surrounded by logging & mining operations, coal power plants,
industrial activities, human settlements
Freshwater lakes also vulnerable to invasive species & human
pollution

Indian
Tiger

Range 100 years ago

Range today
African
Elephant

Probable range 1600

Range today

Black
Rhino

Range in 1700
Range today

Asian or Indian
Elephant

Former range
Range today

Natural capital
degradation: These
maps reveal the
reductions in the
ranges of four
wildlife species,
mostly as the result
of severe habitat
loss and
fragmentation and
illegal hunting for
some of their
valuable body parts.
Question: Would
you support
expanding these
ranges even though
this would reduce
the land available
for human habitation
and farming?
Explain.
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-8, p. 198

We Have Moved Disruptive

Species into Some Ecosystems
Many species introductions are beneficial
Corn, wheat, rice & other crops; cattle, poultry, & livestock
provide >98% USA food; 85% of worlds trees nonnative
Introduced for pest control, European bees for honey (USA)

Nonnative species may have no natural:

Predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens

Nonnative species can crowd out native species

Invasive species, disrupt ecosystem services, cause human
health problems, lead to economic losses cause population
declines, local & regional extinction.
40% (USA) of endangered & 95% (Hawaii) because of invasive
species; $1.4B/year in economic & ecological damage & rising

Deliberately introduced species

Purple
loosestrife

Marine toad
(Giant toad)

European
starling

Water
hyacinth

African honeybee
(Killer bee)

Japanese
beetle

Nutria

Hydrilla

Salt cedar
(Tamarisk)

European wild
boar (Feral pig)

These are some of the

estimated 7,100 harmful
invasive species that have
been deliberately or
accidentally introduced
into the United States.
- Have caused
ecological/economic harm

Accidentally introduced species

Sea lamprey
Argentina
(attached to lake
fire ant
trout)

Formosan
termite

Zebra
mussel

Brown tree
snake

Asian longhorned beetle

Eurasian
ruffe

Asian tiger
mosquito

Common pigeon
(Rock dove)

Gypsy moth
larvae

Stepped Art
Fig. 9-9, p. 199

Kudzu vine has overgrown this car in the U.S. state of Georgia.

Fig. 9-10, p. 200

Case Study: The Kudzu Vine &

Kudzu Bugs
Imported from Japan in the 1930s
Help control soil erosion grow very rapidly, engulfs hillsides,
gardens, trees, stream banks, cars

Very difficult to kill

Even with grazing goats & herbicides which may damage other
plants & contaminate water; Fungus possible solution

Could there be benefits of kudzu?

Powdered starch in beverages, gourmet confections, herbal
remedies, leaves nutritious, lessen alcohol intake, fiber for paper

Kudzu bug imported from Japan

Can kill Kudzu vine, but spreads even more rapidly, feeds on
soybeans, emits chemical that disturbs & stains human skin,
propagate quickly & easily
Pesticides possible, but may promote resistance, gene
engineering to reduce soybean consumption?; wasp to eat bug
embryos?

Accidentally Introduced Species

can Disrupt Ecosystems
Nonnative invaders
Aircraft, ships, imported food products, cars & trucks, tourists

Argentina fire ant introduced in the 1930s

Reduced populations of native ants (up to 90%)
Painful stings can kill (deer fawns, ground-nesting birds, baby
sea turtles, newborn calves, pets & old & young (80)
Pesticide spraying in 1950s & 1960s worsened conditions
reduced native ants & genetic resistance
Tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants without harming
native ants or hairy crazy ants but these invade beehives & are
resistant to pesticides

University of Florida researchers hold a 4.6-meter-long (15-foot-long), 74kilogram (162-pound) Burmese python captured in Everglades National Park
shortly after it had eaten a 1.8-meter-long (6-foot-long) American alligator.

Fig. 9-11, p. 201

Case Study: Burmese Pythons

Eating through Florida Everglades
Accidentally introduced
Imported as pets but dumped into Everglades wetlands

Reproduce rapidly and are hard to kill

Live to 20-25 years, up to 5 m length, 77kg, huge appetites,
nocturnal, eats alligators (keystone), domestic pets, farm animals

Greatly depleted Everglades populations of:

Rabbits, foxes, raccoons, opossums, and deer

2012 illegal to import Burmese pythons, North & South

African pythons, yellow anacondas
Invasive top predator goes to ecosystem with no natural
enemies

Prevention Is Best Way to

Reduce Invasive Species Threats
U.S.A. spends $160M annually on eradication/control
Research programs identifying invaders
Its characteristics, vulnerable ecosystems & predators (control)

Establishing international treaties banning transfer

between countries
Step up inspection & banning controls, proper cargo ship and
ballast discharging

Public education about exotic pets & plants

What else can be done to prevent invasive species?

Fig. 9-12, p. 202

Other Species Extinction Causes

Human population growth & overconsumption
Degrading (eliminated, degraded, fragmented) habitat

Pollution
1/5 Euro bees, >67M birds, 6-14M fish PA; 20% endangered
Bioaccumulation can cause extinctions of species not directly
affected by pollution DDT; fish-eating birds, falcons, hawks etc
DDT make bird eggshells fragile unsuccessful reproduction

Climate change
Some species will become extinct (polar bear, lemming, arctic
fox, coral polyps)
Some will spread (43 of 61 Jansson & Nilsson)

DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
25 ppm

DDT in large fish

(needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small
fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm

DDT in
zooplankton
0.04 ppm
DDT in water
0.000003 ppm,
or 3 ppt

Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the
fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT is biologically magnified in
the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level, as it was in the case of a food chain in the U.S.
state of New York, illustrated here. (Dots in this figure represent DDT.)
Stepped Art
Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention?

Fig. 9-13, p. 202

Case Study: Polar Bears &

Climate Change
Live only in the Arctic
60% in Canada, rest in Greenland, Norway, Russia & Alaska
Eats ringed seals (winter), stores fat for summer (low ice)

Arctic ice is melting

Decreasing habitats less floating sea ice, shorter time
Polar bears swim farther between ice, less feeding, storing fats
Weaker females; less reproduction
30-35% decline by 2050 (20-25,000 in 19 subpopulations) uneven
population statistics

On floating ice in Svalbard, Norway, a polar bear feeds on its ringed seal prey.
Question: Do you think it matters that the polar bear may become extinct during
this century primarily because of human activities? Explain.

Fig. 9-14, p. 204

Illegal Killing, Capturing,

Selling of Wild Species
Threatens Biodiversity
Poaching, smuggling of animals, plants
Animal parts (pelt of giant panda, rhinoceros horn, tiger
fur/bones/penis)
Pets (live mountain gorilla, exotic birds: parrots)
Plants for landscaping and enjoyment (orchids, cactus)

Prevention- research & education

No verifiable evidence horn is aphrodisiac (mostly keratin
fingernails, hair), sustainable (8cm from base)
Cyanide used to stun tropical fish kill many, also polyps
Worth 16.5 from ecotourism (hyacinth macaw)
Imported exotic animals may carry: hantavirus, Ebola, Asian bird
flu, herpes B, salmonella

A poacher in South Africa killed this critically endangered northern white rhinoceros for its two
horns. This species is now extinct in the wild. With a rhino horn worth up to $300,000 on the Asian
black market, thieves have been stealing the horns from museums, antique stores, and even
private collections. Question: What would you say if you could talk to the poacher who killed this
Fig. 9-15, p. 205
animal for its horns?

Rising Demand for Bushmeat

Threatens Some African Species
West and Central African wild animals
Past: sustainable hunting, now: supply cities with exotic meats

Hunting has driven some species to extinction

Miss Waldrons red colobus monkey
Potentially spreads HIV/AIDS, Ebola

Threatened species:
Monkeys, apes, antelope (most hunted), elephants, and hippos
Alternatives: farmed fish, large rodents: cane rats

Case Study: A Disturbing

Message from the Birds
70% of the worlds bird species are declining
1 in 8 threatened with extinction

Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds breeding

habitats
Population growth leading to: forests cleared for farms, lumber
plantations, roads, resource usage and housing development

Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative

species
These species (e.g. bird-eating rats, brown tree snakes,
mongooses) eat the birds these kill millions of birds/year

Case Study: Disturbing Message

from the Birds (contd.)
Exposure to pollutants & industrialization
Oil spills, pesticides, herbicides, toxic lead (shotgun pellets,
angler sinkers)
23 species of seabirds (e.g. albatross) face extinction as they
drown due to fishing lines & nets

Overexploitation
For pets (52 of 388 species of parrots threatened)

Birds are indicator species

Respond quickly to environmental changes & are easy to track &
count decline indicative of environmental degradation

Birds perform critical ecosystem and economic services

Pollination, seed dispersal Extinctions could lead to extinction
cascade for many other species

Endangered natural capital: This endangered

Attwaters prairie chicken lives in a wildlife refuge
in the U.S. state of Texas.

Fig. 9-17, p. 206

9-4 How Can We Sustain Wild

Species and Their Ecosystem
Services?
Establishing and enforcing national environmental laws
and international treaties
Creating protected wildlife sanctuaries
Taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm

International Treaties & National

Laws Help Protect Species
1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES)
Signed by 178 countries banning hunting, capturing, selling of
threatened/endangered species
926 species in extinction danger, 5,000 animals and 29,000
threatened plants restricted from international trade
Although reduced international trade, limited effects due to
varying local enforcement (small fines), exemptions, non-signees

Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)

Focuses on ecosystems & links biodiversity protection to
indigenous people rights
Ratified by 193 countries (not ratified in some key countries like
U.S.A); no severe penalties or enforcement mechanisms

National laws can be important

Case Study: U.S.A Endangered

Species Act
Endangered Species Act (ESA) 1973 and later
amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988
Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad

National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species

Responsible for identifying & listing endangered & threatened
species; list/delist based on biological without political/economic
factors; use economic factors to decide on protection

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others

Case Study: The U.S.A

Endangered Species Act (contd.)
Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from
funding/authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered
or threatened species
In 2012, 1,476 species officially listed
ESA requires that all commercial shipments of wildlife
enter/leave country from 1 of 17 designated ports/airports
120 full-time USFWS inspectors for >200M wild animals
Few illegal shipments are ever caught/confiscated with small
fines

Case Study: Is ESA a failure?

Species are listed only when in serious danger
Akin to hospital emergency room taking in most desperate cases

Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable

or improving
90% recovering at specified rates, 99% still surviving (ER above)

Budget is about 86 cents per U.S. citizen

Considered highly productive with such a small budget

U.S National Academy of Sciences

Increase funding
Emphasis on recovery plans higher likelihood of getting off list
Establish species habitat & give it maximum protection; focus on
sustainable biodiversity & ecosystem services

The American bald eagle has been removed from the U.S.
endangered species list. Here, an eagle is about to catch a fish
in its powerful talons.

Fig. 9-19, p. 209

Establish Wildlife Refuges

& Other Protected Areas
In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal
wildlife refuge
Pelican Island, Florida 2009 brown pelican removed from list
2012 560 refuges, >47M annual visitors

Wildlife refuges
Most are wetland sanctuaries (protect migratory waterfowl)
Are not immune from disturbance: mining, oil drilling, off-road
vehicle usage occur in 60% of them; little funding, poor
maintenance
More needed for endangered plants

The Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge in Florida was Americas

first National Wildlife Refuge.

Fig. 9-20, p. 210

Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens,

Wildlife Farms Help Protect Species
Seed banks
Preserve genetic material of endangered plants 1,000
collectively hold >3M samples: refrigerated & low humidity
Svalbard Global seed Vault (Arctic) to contain 100M

Botanical gardens and arboreta

Living plants (1/3 worlds known plants), 3% rare & threatened
plants with space getting limited

Farms can raise organisms for commercial sale

Alligators (meat, hides, Florida), butterflies (educate visitors,
Papua New Guinea)

Zoos & Aquariums Can Protect

Some Species
Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species
Egg pulling collect from wild and hatch in Zoo, research center
Captive breeding bred in captivity before introduction to wild
(peregrine falcon, California Condor)
Artificial insemination
Embryo transfer implant eggs of 1 species into surrogate mother of
another
Use of incubators
Cross-fostering rare species raised by parents of similar species

Ultimately releasing/reintroducing to the wild

Black-footed ferret, golden lion tamarin, Arabian oryx, Condor

Limited space and funds

Unsuitable habitat, unable to survive wild, poaching, 10,000 members
required for genetic diversity, not gene banks, especially aquariums

The Monterey Bay

Aquarium in
Monterey,
California (USA),
contains this
tidewater pool,
which is used to
train rescued sea
otter pups to
survive in the wild.

Fig. 9-21, p. 211

Fig. 9-22, p. 212

The Precautionary Principle

Precautionary principle
Act to prevent or reduce harm when preliminary evidence
indicates acting is needed; better safe than sorry, look before
you leap
Species are the primary components of biodiversity

Focus on the preservation of species or ecosystems?

How to allocate, prioritize resources?

Which species gets the most attention?

Most threatened? Keystone? Most human appeal?

Which habitat areas most critical?

Case Study: Protecting

Honeybees and Other Pollinators
Failure to protect honeybees
Loss of vital ecosystem services (Japan, China, pesticide
overuse); pollinate crops by hand expensive, time-consuming

Farmers are:
Breeding bees resistant to harmful parasitic mites and fungi
Raising their own colonies avoid bringing in stressed,
unhealthy honeybees
Improving bee nutrition by not feeding sugar syrups & pollen
substitutes

Three Big Ideas

We are hastening the extinction of wild species and
degrading the ecosystem services they provide by:
Destroying and degrading habitats
Introducing harmful invasive species
Increasing human population growth, pollution, climate change,
and overexploitation

Three Big Ideas (contd.)

We should avoid causing the extinction of wild species
Species provide vital ecosystem and economic services
Their existence should not depend primarily on their usefulness
to us

Three Big Ideas (contd.)

We can work to prevent the extinction of species and to
protect overall biodiversity and ecosystem services by:
Using laws and treaties
Protecting wildlife sanctuaries
Making greater use of the precautionary principle