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KE

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JNIVERSITY

OF

CALIFORNIA

EARTH
SCIENCES
LiC.v

DANA'S MANUAL
OF MINEBALOGY
FOR THE STUDENT OF ELEMENTARY MINERALOGY, THE MINING ENGINEER, THE
GEOLOGIST, THE PROSPECTOR,
THE COLLECTOR, ETC.

BY

WILLIAM

E.

FORD

Assistant Professor of Mineralogy in the Sheffield Scientific

School of Yale University

THIRTEENTH EDITION
ENTIRELY REVISED AND REWRITTEN

TOTAL

ISSUE,

THIRTY-FIVE THOUSAND

NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY &
LONDON:

SONS,

CHAPMAN & HALL,

INC.
LIMITED

EARTH
SCIENCES
LIBRARY

GOPTBIGHT, 1912,

BY
S.

DANA.
,

AKD:

19t2,

WILLIAM

K GBEfAT BRITAIN

Stanbopc ipreas
H.

GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON.

U.S.A.

E.

FORD

EARTH
SCIENCES

PREFACE.

LIBRARY

THE

"

Manual

"

Mineralogy was first published by James

D wight Dana in 1848. A second edition was printed in 1850
and a "New Edition," which had been revised and enlarged,
was published in 1857. The book was rearranged and rewritten
of

for the third edition

which appeared in 1878.

This edition

the book
was changed to "Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography." The
fourth and last revision was published in 1887. Since that time
the book has been frequently reprinted, so that the last edition
was the twelfth. But it is now twenty-five years since the last
included an extensive chapter on rocks, and the

revision of the text.

its

proved
of the

usefulness,

Dana

title of

Believing that the

Manual has amply

and with the desire

of keeping the series

Mineralogies complete, Professor

Edward

S.

Dana

asked the author to prepare a new and revised edition.

It was found that it was desirable to rewrite the book, and
consequently, as far as the text and figures are concerned, this
present edition is almost wholly new. The scope and character
of the book, however, have been kept as nearly as possible the
same. The book has been primarily designed to fill the ordinary

needs of the elementary student of Mineralogy, the mining

engineer, the geologist and the practical man who may be
interested in the subject.
It has been made brief and direct
and the treatment has been as untechnical as possible.
The chapter on Petrography has been omitted and only a
brief and general description of the various important rock types
This change was made in view of the fact that since
given.
1887 the subject of Petrography has had so large a development

as to render

chapter.

impossible its adequate treatment in a single

Moreover, several elementary books on the subject,
iii

469983

PREFACE

IV

notably "Rocks and Rock Minerals" by L. V. Pirsson, are now

available.
Because of this, the title has been changed again to
its original form and the book is to be known in the future as
"

Dana's Manual of Mineralogy."

The order adopted in the description of species has been
changed to that of the chemical classification as used in the
System of Mineralogy. It was felt that this was, on the whole,
the most logical and useful arrangement. Following the description of the individual species, however, various tables are
given,

among them one

in

which the minerals are grouped

according to their chief element. After each such list a general

description of the association and occurrence of the minerals

which
etc.,

it

contains

is

given.

Statistics of mineral production,

Appendix II. It is intended by frequent

portion of the book to keep the figures reasonably

are given in

revision of this

up to date.
The author has made
tion of the book.

He

free use of

many

sources in the prepara-

especially indebted to the sixth edition

of Mineralogy" and the "Text Book of
is

"Dana's System
"
Brush-Penfield DeterMineralogy" by E. S. Dana, to the
"
"
minative Mineralogy and Blowpipe Analysis
and to Rocks
and Rock Minerals" by L. V. Pirsson. He acknowledges
gratefully the constant advice and criticism of Professor Edward
S. Dana.
of

SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY,

NEW HAVEN, CONN., June, 1912.

INTRODUCTION.
MINERALS are the materials of which the earth's crust consists
and are therefore among the most common objects of daily obser-

A mineral may be defined as a naturally occurring substance having a definite and uniform chemical composition with
vation.

corresponding characteristic physical properties. This eliminates all artificial products of the laboratory which may conform
It also eliminates all natural
to the last part of the definition.

products of organic agencies, since they will not show the uniform chemical and physical characters demanded of a mineral.

In the form of rocks, minerals make up the solid matter of the

But in the great majority of cases a rock is not
made up of a single mineral, but is a more or less heterogeneous
earth's crust.

aggregate of several different species. A few rocks, like limestone and quart zite, consist of but one mineral in a more or less
pure state. In addition to occurring as essential and integral
parts of rocks, minerals are found distributed through them in
a scattered way, or in veins and cavities. Water is a mineral,
but generally in an impure state from the presence of other

The atmosphere and all gaseous materials

and other regions are mineral in nature.

minerals in solution.
set free in volcanic

Characters of Minerals.
1.

Minerals,

cal composition.

stated, have a definite chemiThis composition, as determined by chemical

as previously

and distinguish the species, and indicates their profoundest relations.

Owing to difference in com-

analysis, serves to define

position, minerals exhibit great differences when subjected to the

action of various chemical reagents, and these peculiarities are
a means of determining the kind of mineral under examination

INTRODUCTION

VI

in

any

case.

The department

position of minerals
ical

and

comtermed Chem-

of the science treating of the

their chemical reactions

is

Mineralogy.

Each mineral, with few exceptions, has its definite form,

by which, when in good specimens, it may be known. These
2.

forms are cubes, prisms, pyramids, etc.

They are included
under plane surfaces arranged in symmetrical order, according
to mathematical law.

These forms are called

these outward forms there

is

crystals.

Besides

also a distinctive internal structure

The facts of this branch of the science come

under the head of Crystallographic Mineralogy.
3. Minerals differ in hardness, from talc at one end of the

for each species.

diamond at the other. Minerals differ in specific

and
this character, like hardness, is a most important
gravity,
means of distinguishing species. Minerals differ in color, transparency, luster and other optical properties. The facts and
principles relating to the above characters and others of a similar
scale to the

nature are included in the department of Physical Mineralogy.

4. The detailed descriptions of individual mineral species,

and general physical

characters, together with their occurrence, associations, uses, etc.,
are included under the division known as Descriptive Mineralogy.
including their chemical, crystallographic

5.

Lastly, the discussion of the

methods that are used

identifying minerals forms the division

known

for

as Determinative

Mineralogy.

These different branches of the subject are taken up in this

book in the following order: I. Crystallographic Mineralogy;
III. Chemical
II. Physical Mineralogy;
Mineralogy; IV.
Descriptive Mineralogy; V. Determinative Mineralogy.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE

INTRODUCTION
I.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

INTRODUCTION

SYMMETRY
CRYSTAL NOTATION

7
9

DEFINITION OF VARIOUS TERMS

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM

12
16

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
TRICLINIC SYSTEM

31
37
47
50
54

H.

GENERAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

STRUCTURE OF MINERALS
CLEAVAGE, PARTING AND FRACTURE
HARDNESS OF MINERALS
TENACITY OF MINERALS
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MINERALS
PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON LIGHT
.

Luster
Color of Minerals
Refraction of Light in Minerals
Double Refraction in Minerals

65
67
68
71

72

PYROELECTRICITY
III.

57
59
60
62
62

CHEMICAL MINERALOGY.

CHEMICAL GROUPS
DERIVATION OF A CHEMICAL FORMULA
CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
ISOMORPHISM
ISOMORPHOUS GROUPS
DIMORPHISM, TRIMORPHISM, ETC
INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS AND METHODS OF TESTING
TESTS FOR THE ELEMENTS
vii

74
75
76
77
79
80
80
93

CONTENTS

Vlll

FACM
IV.

DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

115

MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO ELEMENTS.

OCCURRENCE AND ASSOCIATION OF MINERALS
LISTS OF

Rocks and Rock-making Minerals

Pegmatite Dikes and Veins
Contact Metamorphic Minerals
Veins and Vein Minerals
'

LISTS OF

328
345
347
349

MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO SYSTEMS OF

CRYSTALLIZATION

V.

354

DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY.

INTRODUCTION
DETERMINATIVE TABLES
INDEX TO DETERMINATIVE TABLES
APPENDIX I. LIST OF MINERALS FOR A COLLECTION
APPENDIX II. MINERAL STATISTICS

INDEX

309

364
369
434
436
437
451

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY.
I.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
I.

INTRODUCTION.

THE great majority of our minerals, when the conditions of

formation are favorable, occur in definite and characteristic
geometrical forms which are known as crystals. To gain a comprehensive knowledge of the laws which govern the shape and
is a very important part of the study of
This division of the subject is called crystallog-

character of crystals

mineralogy.
raphy.

It

forms almost a separate science in

quately and exhaustively

discuss

it

much

itself,

and

to ade-

would require a volume

In the following section,

larger than the present one.

however, the attempt will be made to present the elements of
crystallography in a brief and simple manner and at least to

introduce the reader to the more essential facts and principles

of the subject.

A crystal has been defined as follows: A crystal is a body which

by the operation of molecular affinity has assumed a definite internal
structure with the form of a regular solid inclosed by a certain number of plane surfaces arranged according to the laws of symmetry*
This
to

is

its

a very compact definition and several pages will be devoted

discussion.

better idea of the fundamental laws of crystallography will

first considering the three prominent modes of

be obtained by
crystallization.
(1)

Crystals are formed by crystallization either

The
(2) from fusion, or (3) from a vapor.

from a solution,

first case,

is the most familiar

example a water solution

that of crystallization from solution,

to our ordinary experience.

Take

for

* Century Dictionary.
1

OF -MINERALOGY
containing sodium chloride (common salt). Suppose that by
evaporation the water is slowly driven off. The solution will,
under these conditions, gradually contain more and more salt

per unit volume, and ultimately the point will be reached where
the amount of water present can no longer hold all of the salt
In other
in solution, and this must begin to precipitate out.
words, part of the sodium chloride, which has up to this point
been held in a state of solution by the water, now assumes a solid
form.

If the conditions are so arranged that the evaporation of

the water goes on very slowly, the separation of the salt in solid

form

The

and definite crystals will result.

sodium chloride as they separate from the solu-

will progress equally slowly

particles of

tion will

group themselves
shaped solid which
Crystals can also be formed from solution by

by the laws

of molecular attraction

together and gradually build

we

up a

definitely

a crystal.
lowering the temperature or pressure of the solution. Hot
water will dissolve much more salt, for instance, than cold, and
call

a hot solution is allowed to cool, a point will be reached where

the solution becomes supersaturated for its temperature and
salt will crystallize out.
Again, the higher the pressure to which
water is subjected the more salt it can hold in solution. So

if

with the lowering of the pressure of a saturated solution super-

and crystals form. Therefore, in general,

form
from
a solution by the evaporation of the
crystals may
solvent, by the lowering of the temperature or by a decrease in
saturation will result

pressure.

crystal is formed from a fused mass in much the same way

as from a solution. The most familiar example of crystalliza-

from fusion is the formation of ice crystals when water

While we do not ordinarily consider it in this way,
water is fused ice. When the temperature is sufficiently lowered
the water can no longer remain liquid, and it becomes solid by
tion

freezes.

The particles of water which were free

crystallization into ice.
move in any direction in the liquid now become fixed in their

to

position,

and by the laws

of molecular attraction arrange themand build up a solid crystalline mass.

igneous rocks from molten lavas, while more

selves in a definite order

The formation

of

INTRODUCTION

complicated, is similar to the freezing of water. In the fluid

lava we have many elements in a dissociated state. As the

lava cools these elements gradually group themselves into different mineral molecules, which gather together and slowly crystal-

form the mineral particles

lize to

The

mode

third

tals are

produced from a vapor,

two described above.

lization are

much

of the resulting solid rock.

of crystal formation, that in

is less

which the crys-

common than

the other

The

principles that underlie the crystalThe dissociated chemical atoms

the same.

through the cooling of the gas are brought closer together until
they at last form a solid with a definite crystal structure. An ex-

ample

of this

mode

of crystal formation

of sulphur crystals about the

mouths

is

seen in the formation

of fumeroles in volcanic

'

regions,

where they have been crystallized from sulphur-bearing

vapors.

The most fundamental and important fact concerning crystals

that they possess a definite internal structure. A crystal is to
be conceived as made up of an almost infinite number of excesis

sively

minute mineral

ment and
network.

particles

relation to each other

Little

is

which have a regular arrangeand form, as it were, a crystal

known as to the character or size of

They may be the same as the chemical

definitely

these mineral particles.

molecule, but more probably consist in definite groups of that

molecule. There are many proofs that a crystal does possess a
Infinite internal

arrangement of

its

mineral particles, but the

following three are the most important.

Cleavage. Many minerals when fractured break with definite

and smooth

flat surfaces

which are known as cleavage planes.

Common salt, halite, for instance, cleaves in three different planes

which are at right angles to each other. It is said, therefore, to
have a cubic cleavage. When it crystallizes it usually shows
cubic forms also. The planes of cleavage are found to be always
parallel to the natural cubic crystal faces.

If the internal struc-

ture of halite was heterogeneous, the fact that it always shows this
cubical cleavage would be inexplicable. It can only be explained
by assuming some definite internal arrangement which permits

and

controls such a cleavage.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Optical Properties. All transparent crystals have definite

upon the light which passes through them. Many of

effects

them further produce changes in the character of the light which

cannot be accounted for except through the constraining influence of the internal structure of the mineral.
calcite as

an example.

In general,

if

you look

Take the

case of

at an object through

a clear block of calcite you will observe a double image.

mineral, in other words, has the power of doubly refracting

The
light.

Further, it can be proved that each of the two rays into which
calcite breaks up light has a definite plane of vibration, i.e., each

ray is polarized. A piece of glass similar in shape to the calcite

block would not have produced these effects, because the internal
structure of glass

and

is

heterogeneous, while that of calcite

is

definite

regular.

Regular and Constant Outward Form. If a series of objects

having the same shape and size are grouped together according to some regular arrangement, the resulting mass will have a
definite form which will bear a strict relationship to the character of the individual objects and the law which was followed
As a simple illustration, consider an ordiin assembling them.
all

nary

pile of bricks.

If

each individual brick

is

exactly like

every other in size and all of them are piled together according
to a regular plan, the shape of the resulting mass will depend
directly upon the shape of the individual bricks and the law

which governed their arrangement. Figs. A and B, Plate I, arfc

reproductions from photographs of models which are built up
All of the constituent particles of
solidly of small steel balls.
each model are exactly alike in shape and size, and they have
been piled together according to a regular arrangement. The
result has been, as is shown in the figures, to produce regularly

and definitely shaped solids. If therefore a regular arrangement of uniform particles produces a solid with a definite shape,
the converse proposition must be true. If we have a mineral
which occurs in certain characteristic and uniformly shaped
crystals (halite, for example, in cubes), it must follow that this
could only be accomplished through the mineral possessing a
regular internal structure.

PLATE

I.

A. Cube.

B.

Octahedron.

Models made

of Steel Balls.

INTRODUCTION
The Outward Crystal Form May Be Varied with the

Same

Internal Crystalline Structure. There may be several

forms possible upon crystals of the same min-

different limiting

Galena, PbS, for example, usually crystallizes in the form of

it also at times shows octahedral crystals.
The in-

eral.

a cube, but

ternal structure of galena

is

constant, but both the cube and

The
Both are built
similar particles and their arrangement is the same in each
In one, however, (Fig. A), the planes of a cube, and in

octahedron are forms that conform to that structure.

models shown on Plate

up

of

case.

I illustrate this point.

the other (Fig. B) the planes of an octahedron, limit the figure.

With the same internal structure there are, however, only a
certain number of possible planes which can serve to limit a

And

it is to be noted, B
of these possible
that
moreover,
planes there are only a com-

crystal.

<

paratively few which

The

occur.

faces of

commonly

positions

of the

a crystal are deter-

mined by those directions in

which on account of the internal structure a large

number

of the individual mineral particles

lie.

And

those

planes

which include the greater number of particles are the ones

most commonly found as faces
Fig.

1,

Fig.

1.

upon the crystals.

which might represent one layer

Consider

of particles in a certain

The particles are equally spaced from each

other and have a rectilinear arrangement. It will be observed
that there are several possible lines through this network that
crystal network.

number of the particles. These lines

would represent the cutting direction through this network of
certain possible crystal planes; and it would be found that of
these possible planes those which include the larger number
of particles, like those cutting along the lines A-B and A-C,
would be the more common in occurrence.
include a greater or less

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Law

Constancy of Interfacial Angles. Since the

any mineral is always constant, and since
the possible crystal faces of that mineral have a definite relationship to that structure, it follows that the faces must have also a
of the

internal structure of

each other. This fact

The angles between two similar faces on

be stated as
same substance

definite relationship to

may

follows:

the

The
Fig. 1 will also illustrate this point.
face which cuts the network along the line A-C must make an
angle of 45 degrees with the face which cuts along the line
are always the same.

A-B,

This law

etc.

is

the most fundamental and important in

the science of crystallography. It frequently enables one to

identify a mineral by the measurement of the interfacial angles

A mineral may be found in crystals of widely

its crystals.
varying shapes and sizes, but the angle between two similar faces
will always be the same.

on

An
in the

important part of the study of crystallography consists

measuring and classifying of the interfacial angles on the

These measurements are accomplished

known as goniometers. For accurate
in
the
case of small crystals, a type of inwork, particularly
strument known as a reflection goniometer is used. This is an
instrument upon which the
crystal to be measured is
crystals of all minerals.
by means of instruments

mounted
beams of

so
light

as

to

from

reflect

its

faces

through a telescope to the

eye.

The

size of

the angle

through which a crystal has

to be turned in order to
throw successive beams of
light from two adjacent faces
into

the

telescope

deter-

mines the angle existing

c
Fig. 2. Contact Goniometer.
between the faces. A simpler instrument used for approximate work and with larger
Its character and use
crystals is known as a contact goniometer.
.

are illustrated

by

Fig. 2.

SYMMETRY

The regular internal structure of crystals requires that the

ultimate individual mineral particles must be at least physically

A physical likeness between these particles necessitates

that they should also be the same chemically, or at least closely
similar.
Consequently we can state that in general a crystal
alike.

must be made up

of a regular assemblage of particles which are

chemically the same, and therefore that a crystallized mineral
must have a definite and uniform chemical composition. This
is a general one and will suffice for the present; certain
modifications will be found stated on page 77 under isomor-

statement

phism.

crystal

of a mineral.

is

From

a guarantee of the chemical homogeneity

this it follows that only definite chemical

compounds are capable of crystallization.

To sum up the conclusions of the preceding paragraphs:
a solid with

chemical composition which possesses

a definite internal arrangement of its mineral particles. These
internal characteristics are expressed outwardly in a definite external
crystal is

form.

And

definite

since the internal structure of the

always constant,

the angles between the similar

same substance

is

bounding planes of

the crystals of that substance are also constant.

SYMMETRY.

II.

Crystals are grouped together into different classes according

to the symmetry which they show. The symmetry of crystals
is

2.

of three kinds,

Symmetry

namely:

1.

Symmetry in respect to a plane;

3. Symmetry in respect to a

in respect to a line;

point.

Symmetry Plane. A symmetry plane is an imaginary plane

which divides a crystal into halves, each of which is the mirror
image of the other. Fig. 3 will illustrate the character of such
a plane. The shaded portion of the figure shows the position
of the one plane of symmetry that a crystal of this sort possesses.
For each face, edge or point on one side of the plane there is a
corresponding face, edge or point in a similar position on the other
side of the plane.

Symmetry

Axis.

symmetry

axis

is

through a crystal about which the crystal

an imaginary line
be revolved as

may

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

axis and repeat itself in appearance two or more times

f
during the revolution. In Fig. 4 the line C-C is an axis of
symmetry, for when the crystal represented is revolved upon it,

upon an

have, after a revolution of 180, the same appearance as

first; or in other words, similar planes, edges, etc., will appear
in the places of the corresponding planes and edges of the
it will

at

Point A' will occupy the original position of

original position.
A, B' that of B, etc. Since the crystal is repeated twice in
appearance during a complete revolution, this axis is said to
In addition to axes
be one of binary or twofold symmetry.
of binary

symmetry, we have axes

of trigonal (threefold), tet-

ragonal (fourfold) and hexagonal (sixfold) symmetry.

Fig. 3.

Symmetry

Fig. 5.

Fig. 4.

Plane.

Symmetry

Symmetry

Axis.

Center.

Center of Symmetry. A crystal has a center of symmetry

an imaginary line is passed from some point on its surface
through its center, and a similar point is found on the line at an
if

equal distance beyond the center. The crystal represented in

Fig. 5 has a center of symmetry, for the point A is repeated at
A' on a line passing from A through the center, C, of the crystal,
the distances

AC

they show.

These thirty-two

and A'C being equal.

All possible crystal forms can be grouped into thirty-two
classes depending upon the different degrees of symmetry which
classes

may

be further grouped

into six systems, the classes of each system having certain close

CRYSTAL NOTATION
relations to each other.

These systems are known as the

Iso-

metric, Tetragonal, Hexagonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic and

Triclinic Systems.
All crystals will be found to belong to one or
the other of these systems. As stated above, there are thirty-two
possible subdivisions of these six systems, but the majority of
them are only of theoretical interest, since practically all known
species can be placed in one or the other of

some ten or twelve

classes.

III.

CRYSTAL -NOTATION.

system of notation has been developed by which we can

describe the different crystal classes and the crystal forms found
in each.
One of the important conceptions to this end is that of
crystallographic axes,

Crystallographic Axes. Crystallographic axes are imaginary

within a crystal to which the crystal faces are
referred and in terms of which they are described.
In the differlines or directions

ent systems the axes vary in number (three or four), in their

relative lengths and in the angles of inclination to each other.
As a general case we will consider the crystallographic axes of

the Orthorhombic System. They are three in number, at right

angles to each other, and each has a characteristic relative length.
Fig. 6 represents such axes for the

Orthorhombic mineral sulphur.

placed in the proper position for description, or "orientated" as it is termed, one axis called a is horizontal and perpendicular to the observer, another axis, called 6, is horizontal

When

and

parallel to the observer, while the third axis, 'called c, is

The ends of each axis are designated by either a plus
or a minus sign, the front end of a, the right-hand end of b and
vertical.

the upper end of c being positive, while in each case the opposite
end is negative. When, as in the Orthorhombic System, the
three axes have different relative lengths, these values have to
be determined experimentally by making the necessary measure-

ments on

Fig. 7 would represent a

which each face of the crystal form, known
as a pyramid, intercepts each axis at what is considered as its
unit length. From the values obtained by measuring the angles

crystals of each mineral.

crystal of sulphur in

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

10

between the different faces

of this crystal

relative lengths of the three axes

an expression

of the

can be obtained by calculation.

length of the b axis is taken as unity and the lengths of the

The axial ratio for
c axes are expressed in terms of it.
sulphur is a b c = 0.813 1.00 1.903. It must be borne in

The

a and

mind that these lengths are only relative in their value. They
do not represent any actual distances. A sulphur crystal may
be of microscopic size or several inches in diameter, but in either
case the above ratio would hold true.

-C
Fig.

6.

Orthorhombic
Crystal Axes.

Fig.

7.

Orthorhombic
Pyramid.

CRYSTAL NOTATION
a distance twice

It

is

to be

are strictly relative in

actual

cutting

unit length,

it will have for paramemphasized that these parameters

their values and do not indicate any

its relative

eters la, 16, 2c.

11

lengths.

To

further

illustrate

Fig. 9, which represents a possible sulphur

present upon it are two pyramids
of different slope but each inter-

consider

this,

crystal.

The forms

secting all three of the crystal axes

when properly extended. The lower

pyramid

intersects

the two hori-

zontal axes at distances which are

proportional to their unit lengths

and if it was extended as shown by

the dotted lines would also cut the

vertical axis at

a distance propor-

The parameters of the face of this form

tional to its unit length.

which cuts the positive ends of the

would be la, 16, Ic.
Fig. 9.
The upper pyramid would cut the
two horizontal axes, as shown by the dotted lines, also at distances which, although greater than in the case of the lower
three axes

pyramid, are

still

proportional to their unit lengths. It cuts the

when considered in

vertical axis, however, at a distance which,

respect to its intersections with the horizontal axes, is proporThe parameters of a

tional to one-half of the unit length of c.
face of this

form would therefore be

la, 16, %c.

From

this ex-

do not in the two

cases represent the same actual cutting distances but express only
relative values.
The parameters of a face do not in any way
determine its size, for a face may be moved parallel to itself for
any distance without changing the relative values of its intersec-

ample

it

will

be seen that the parameters

la, 16,

tions with the crystallographic axes.

Law of Definite Mathematical Ratio.

It is to

be noted that

in general the ratio of the intercepts of a crystal face

upon the

axes can be expressed by whole numbers or

definite fractions.
These numbers, or fractions, are commonly

crystallographic

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

12

simple, such as 1, 2, 3, |, %, f etc., and in the great majority of

cases are 1 or oo.
This law, that the axial intercepts of all
crystal faces form a definite mathematical ratio, is an extremely
,

It is a necessary corollary to the theoretical

considerations given on page 5 and following.
Indices. Various methods of notation have been devised to

important one.

express the intercepts of any crystal face upon the crystal axes,
and several different ones are in common use. The most universally

employed

the system of indices of Miller.

is

While not

as simple for a beginner, perhaps, as some one of the systems in

which the parameters of the crystal faces are used, it adapts itself

so

much more

readily to crystallographic calculations

and con-

sequently has so wide a use that it seems wise to introduce it here.

The indices of a face consist of a series of whole numbers which

have been derived from

its

parameters by their inversion and,

if

necessary, the subsequent clearing of fractions. The indices of

a face are always given, so that the three numbers refer to the
a, b and c axes respectively, and therefore ordinarily the letters

which indicate the

have 111 for

which has

The

indices.

for parameters,

The pyramid

different axes are omitted.

illustrated in Fig. 7,

parameters, would
which has la, 16, ooc

la, Ib, Ic for

face, Fig. 8,

would have 110

for indices.

The

face, Fig. 9,

which has la, 16, |c for parameters, would have 112 for indices.
A face which has la, 16, 2c for parameters would have 221 for
indices.

Common
form.

use

made

is

symbol

of

of what is known as the symbol

any form consists of the indices of the

having the simplest relations to the axes.

it is

desired to refer to

some

whose indices
IV.

is

face

used when

particular crystal form,

and the sym-

form and not simply

for the single

bol then stands for the whole

face

This

of a

it is.

DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS TERMS.

Crystal Form.
the assemblage of

By

the expression

all

similar faces

"
crystal

form"

is

meant

which are possible with a

In Fig. 7 is represented a crystal

certain degree of symmetry.
form known as a pyramid. In the particular symmetry class

DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS TERMS

to which

it

13

belongs the three crystal axes are axes of binary

axial planes are planes of symmetry.
Under

symmetry and the

A we must

these conditions, if we assume the presence of the face

have the other seven faces also in order to satisfy the

demands

symmetry. In this case the assemblage of the eight

pyramidal faces constitutes the crystal form. A crystal form
of the

does not necessarily make a solid

Consider Fig. 10, which is

figure.

of a crystal of the Monoclinic Sys-

In this system the b axis is

an axis of binary symmetry and the
plane of the a and c axes is a sym-

tem.

metry plane. Under these condiif we assume the presence of

tions,

the plane 6, the symmetry demands

only the parallel face b'. So these

two

faces,

being

all

the possible
Fig. 10.

similar planes with this particular

symmetry, constitute a crystal form, There are three crystal

forms present on the crystal represented in Fig. 10.
Crystal Habit. By the crystal habit of any mineral is meant

common and characteristic form or combination of forms in

which that mineral crystallizes. Galena, for example, has a cubic,
magnetite an octahedral and garnet a dodecahedral habit.
By
the

meant that, although these minerals are found in cryswhich show other forms, such occurrences are comparatively

this is
tals

rare,

and

their "habit"

is

to crystallize as indicated.

Crystal Combinations. In the great majority of cases, a

crystal will show a combination of two or more crystal forms
rather than one single form.

In fact,

many

crystal forms, since

they do not make a solid figure by themselves, must occur in

combination with other forms. The combination in which it
quite change the appearance of a forrn, and its recogdepend upon the position and relation of its faces
rather than upon their shape. Fig. 11 is of a simple form known
as a cube, and Fig. 12 is of a simple form known as an octahedron.
Fig. 13 shows a combination of the two, in which the corners of

occurs

may

nition will

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

14

the cube are truncated by the faces of the octahedron, while

Fig. 14 shows the same two forms in a combination in which
the points of the octahedron are truncated by the faces of the
cube. When a corner or an edge of one form is replaced by a
face of another form, the first is said to be truncated by the
second.

be

If

beveled.

an edge

is

replaced

by two

similar faces

it is

said to

DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS TERMS

15

In the Figs. 15 and 16, 17 and 18, 19 and 20, are given
first ideally developed and then distorted.

angles.

various crystal forms,

Fig. 20.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Distorted Octahedron.

Dodecahedron.

Distorted Dodecahedron.

At times we

find a mineral occur-

Crystal Pseudomorphs.

which prove to be not the characteristic forms

for that mineral, but are rather the typical forms of some other
Such crystals are said to be pseudomorphs, or false
species.
The mineral may have
forms. They originate in various ways.
ring in crystals

changed in

We

form.

its

composition without, however, changing its crystal

for example, that cuprite, Cu 2 0, frequently

find,

CuC0

but without a change

would have the
composition of malachite but the crystal form of cuprite. Another mode of origin is to have one mineral deposited on the
crystals of another and so form, as it were, a cast of the second.
Smithsonite, ZnC0 3 is at times found in pseudomorphic crystals
whose forms are those of calcite. In this case the smithsonite
to malachite,

alters

in the crystal shape.

The

.Cu(OH) 2

resulting crystals

has been deposited in a thin layer over the crystal of calcite,

subsequently been removed. The resulting

a pseudomorph of smithsonite after calcite. Pseudomorphs cannot be regarded as true crystals, since their internal
structure does not correspond to the outward crystal form.

which

may have
is

crystal

Twin
ing to

Crystals.

some

When two or more

definite law, the resulting

The

crystals intergrow accord-

group

is

said to be a twin

members, ordinarily two, of a twin

have usually a plane, known as a twinning plane, or an
In
axis, known as a twinning axis, which is common to both.
Fig. 21, which represents a twin crystal of fluorite, we have two
cubes intergrown in such a way that the diagonal axis A-A' is
crystal.

crystal

different

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

16

common

to the

two

individuals.

The

individual, the faces of

which are shaded in the figure, lies as if it had been turned about
this axis from the position occupied by the other individual
through an angle of 60 degrees. The line A-A' is known as the
twinning axis. Tn Fig. 22 is represented a twinned octahedron.
The two individuals here are grown together with an octahedral

Fig. 21.

Twinned Cubes.

face in

common.

which

shaded,

Fig. 22.

Twinned Octahedron.

be noted that the composition plane,

one face of each individual. This
plane is known as the twinning plane. The twin of Fig. 21 is
known as a penetration twin, since the two individuals interpenetrate each other; while the twin of Fig. 22 is a contact twin,
is

It will

is

parallel to

two individuals
upon a certain plane.

since the

V.

lie

simply in contact with each other

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM.

Crystallographic Axes. The crystallographic axes of the Isometric System are three in number, of equal lengths, and make

-Cti
-0,2

When
right angles with each other.
properly orientated one axis is vertical
and the other two are horizontal, one
a2 being parallel and the other perpendicular to the observer, as is shown in Fig.
23.

-ct 8

Fig. 23.

Isometric Axes.

Since the three axes are identical

in character, they are interchangeable,

and any one of them may serve as the

In giving the indices

vertical axis, etc.
an isometric form, the order of the axes, etc., is the
same as described in a previous paragraph, page 9.
of a face of

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM
Normal
Symmetry and Forms.
tals of the

Normal Class

17

CJass.

The symmetry shown by

of the Isometric

System

is

the crys-

as follows.

The

three crystallographic axes are axes of tetragonal symmetry

There are also four diagonal axes of trigonal symmetry. These axes emerge in the middle of each of the octants
(see Fig. 24).

formed by the intersection of the crystallographic axes

(see

Further, there are six diagonal axes of binary symmetry, each of which bisects one of the angles between two of
the crystallographic axes, as illustrated in Fig. 26.
Fig. 25).

Fig. 25.

Fig.

26.

Axes of Symmetry, Isometric System, Normal Class.

-Ct3

Fig. 27.
Planes of Symmetry, Isometric System,

Fig. 28.

Normal

Class.

This class shows nine planes of symmetry, three of them being

as the axial planes, since each includes two crystallo-

known

graphic axes (see Fig. 27), and six being called diagonal planes,
since each bisects the angle between two of the axial
planes
(see Fig. 28).

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

18

To summarize

the

symmetry

of this class:

3 crystallographic axes of tetragonal symmetry;

4 diagonal axes of trigonal symmetry;
6 diagonal axes of binary symmetry;
3 axial planes of symmetry;
6 diagonal planes of symmetry.

This symmetry, which is of the highest degree possible in

solids with plane surfaces, defines the Normal Class of the Isometric System. Every crystal form and every combination of
forms that belongs to this class must show its complete sym-

metry.

It

is

important to remember that in this class the three

crystallographic axes are axes of tetragonal symmetry, since this

from all others and by means of it the

fact distinguishes the class

crystallographic axes can be easily located

orientated.

The forms

of the Isometric System,

and a

crystal properly

Normal

Class, are as

follows:
1.

Cube or Hexahedron.

The cube

is

a form composed of six

square faces which make 90 angles with each other, Each face
intersects one of the crystallographic axes and is parallel to the
other two.

Its

symbol is

(100).

Fig. 29 represents a simple cube.

a ,001

_>

100

010

a
i

[__.

Fig. 29.

2.

Octahedron.

Cube.

The octahedron

equilateral triangular faces, each of

Fig. 30.

Octahedron.

a form composed of eight

which intersects all three of

is

the crystallographic axes equally. Its symbol is (111). Fig. 30

represents a simple octahedron and Figs. 31 and 32 show combinations of a cube and an octahedron.

When

in

combination

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM
the octahedron

is

to be recognized

by

its

19

eight similar faces, each

which is equally inclined to the three crystallographic axes.

It is to be noted that the faces of an octahedron truncate symmetrically the corners of a cube.
of

\/

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

Cube and Octahedron.

3.

Dodecahedron.

Fig. 33.

Octahedron and Cube.

The dodecahedron

is

Dodecahedron.

a form composed of

Each face intersects two of the

twelve rhombic-shaped faces.
crystallographic axes equally and is parallel to the third. Its
symbol is (110). Fig. 33 shows a simple dodecahedron, Fig. 34
shows a combination of dodecahedron and cube, Figs. 35 and 36
combinations of dodecahedron and octahedron, and Fig. 37 a
combination of cube, octahedron and dodecahedron. It is to be
noted that the faces of a dodecahedron truncate the edges of
both the cube and the octahedron.

4.

Fig. 34.

Fig. 35.

Cube and Dodecahedron.

Octahedron and Dodecahedron.

Tetrahexahedron.

The tetrahexahedron

is

a form com-

posed of twenty-four isosceles triangular faces, each of which intersects one axis at unity, the second at some multiple, and is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

20

There are a number of tetrahexahedrons

from each other in respect to the inclination of
their faces.
Perhaps the one most common in occurrence has
the parameter relations la, 2b, <x>c, the symbol of which would
be (210). The symbols of other forms are (310), (410), (320),

parallel to the third.

which

etc.

differ

It is helpful to note that the tetrahexahedron, as its

name

indicates, is like a cube, the faces of

four others.

a cube with

which have been replaced by

Fig. 38 shows a simple tetrahexahedron and Fig. 39

its

edges beveled by the faces of a tetrahexahedron.

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM
la, 26, 2c,

21

the symbol for which would be (211).

The symbols

It will be
noted that a trapezohedron is an octahedral-like form and may
be conceived of as an octahedron, each of the planes of which has
been replaced by three faces.
Consequently it is sometimes
for other trapezohedrons are (311), (411), (322), etc.

called a tetragonal trisoctahedron.

The qualifying word, tetragonal, is used to indicate that each of its faces has four edges
and to distinguish it from the other trisoctahedral form, the

Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

Trapezohedron.

Dodecahedron and Trapezohedron.

Fig. 42.

Fig. 43.

Dodecahedron and Trapezohedron.

Cube and Trapezohedron.

description of which follows.

most commonly used.

ever,

nition of the

form when

it

Trapezohedron

is

the name, how-

The

following are aids to the recogoccurs in combinations: the three

similar faces to be found in each octant; the relations of each

face to the axes; and the fact that the middle edges between the
three faces in any one octant go toward points which are equi-

two adjacent crystallographic axes.

40 shows a simple trapezohedron, and Figs. 41 and 42 show

distant from the ends of the

Fig.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

22

each a trapezohedron in combination with a dodecahedron. It

is to be noted that the faces of the common trapezohedron (211)
(Fig. 41) truncate the edges of the dodecahedron.
a combination of cube and trapezohedron.
6.

Trisoctahedron or Trigonal Trisoctahedron.

Fig. 43

The

shows

trisocta-

hedron is a form composed of twenty-four isosceles triangular

faces, each of which intersects two of the crystallographic axes
at unity and the third axis at some multiple. There are various
trisoctahedrons the faces of which have different inclinations.

A common

trisoctahedron has for

its parameters la, 16, 2c, its

Other trisoctahedrons have the symbols
It is to be noted that the trisoctahedron,
(331), (441), (332), etc.
like the trapezohedron, is a form that may be conceived of as an

symbol being

(221).

octahedron, each face of which has been replaced by three others.

it is spoken of as the trigonal trisoctahedron, the

Frequently

modifying word indicating that

its faces have each three edges

and so differ from those of the trapezohedron. But when the
word "trisoctahedron" is used alone it refers to this form. The
following points would aid in its identification when it is found

occurring in combinations: the three similar faces in each octant;

and the fact that the middle edges

their relations to the axes;

between them go toward the ends of the crystallographic axes.

Fig. 44

Fig. 44.

Fig. 45.

Trisoctahedron.

Octahedron and Trisoctahedron.

shows the simple trisoctahedron and Fig. 45 a combinaand an octahedron. It will be noted

tion of a trisoctahedron

that the faces of the trisoctahedron bevel the edges of the octa-

hedron.

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM
7.

Hexoctahedron.

The hexoctahedron

is

23
a form composed of

forty-eight triangular faces, each of which cuts differently on all

three crystallographic axes. There are several hexoctahedrons,

which have varying ratios of intersection with the axes.

common hexoctahedron has for its parameter relations la,

A
16,

Other hexoctahedrons have the

3c, its symbol being (321).
symbols (421), (531), (432), etc. It is to be noted that the hex-

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.

Hexoctahedron.

Cube and Hexoctahedron,

Fig. 48.

Fig. 49.

Dodecahedron and Hexoctahedron.

Dodecahedron, Trapezohedron and

Hexoctahedron.

octahedron is a form that may be considered as an octahedron,

each face of which has been replaced by six others. It is to be
recognized when in combination by the facts that there are six

and that each face intercepts the

46 shows a simple hexoctahedron,
Fig. 47 a combination of cube and hexoctahedron, Fig. 48 a
combination of dodecahedron and hexoctahedron, and Fig. 49 a
similar faces in each octant

three axes differently.

Fig.

combination of dodecahedron, trapezohedron and hexoctahedron.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

24

Occurrence of the Above Forms.

The cube, octahedron and
dodecahedron are the most common of the isometric forms.
The trapezohedron is also frequently observed on a few minerals.
The other forms, the tetrahexahedron, trisoctahedron and

hexoctahedron, are rare and are ordinarily to be observed only

as small truncations in combinations.

The

following

crystals of

is

of the

list

which each form

is

commoner minerals upon the

prominent:

Cube: Galena, halite, sylvite, fluorite, cuprite.

Octahedron: Spinel, magnetite, franklinite, chromite.
Dodecahedron: Magnetite, garnet.
Trapezohedron: Leucite, garnet, analcite.

Pyritohedral Class.

The

Pyritohedral Class is one of the subordinate divisions of

the Isometric System. It differs from the Normal Class, since
its crystals commonly show forms that do not possess as high

a symmetry as those of that

derived from that of

Symmetry and Forms.

Class

is

as follows:

Fig. 50.

Symmetry

class.

The name

of the class

is

its chief

The

member, pyrite.
The symmetry of the Pyritohedral

three crystal axes are axes of binary

Fig. 51.
of Pyritohedral Class, Isometric System.

symmetry; the four diagonal axes, each of which emerges in the

middle of an octant, are axes of trigonal symmetry; the three
axial planes are planes of symmetry (see Figs. 50 and 51).

The
follows:

characteristic forms of the Pyritohedral Class are as

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM
1.

25

Pyriiohedron or Pentagonal Dodecahedron. This form contwelve pentagonal-shaped faces, each of which intersects

sists of

one crystallographic axis at unity, the second axis at some mulThere are a number of pyritotiple, and is parallel to the third.

from each other in respect to the inclination

Perhaps the most common in occurrence has
the parameter relations la, 26, ooc, the symbol of which would
be (210) (see Fig. 52). It is to be noted that the parameter relahedrons which

differ

of their faces.

tions of the pyritohedron are the

same as those

of the tetra-

hexahedron (see page 19). A pyritohedron may be considered

as derived from a corresponding tetrahexahedron by the omission
of alternate faces

and the extension

of those remaining.

Fig. 53

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

Pyritohedron.

Showing Relation between Pyritohedron and Tetrahexahedron.

shows the relations

of the

two forms, the shaded

faces of the

tetrahexahedron being those which when extended would form

the faces of the pyritohedron.
2.

Diploid.

class.

It

is

The

diploid

composed

is

a rare form found only in this

of twenty-four faces

to one-half the faces of a hexoctahedron.

which correspond

Fig. 54 represents a

diploid.

In addition to the two forms described above, minerals of

show also the cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, trapezo-

this class

hedron and trisoctahedron. Sometimes these forms may appear

alone and so perfectly developed that they cannot be told from
the forms of the Normal Class. This is often true of octahedrons
of pyrite.

Usually, however, they will

striation lines or etching figures that

show by the presence

of

they do not possess the

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

26

high symmetry of the Normal Class but conform rather to the

symmetry of the Pyritohedral Class. This is shown in Fig. 55,

which represents a cube of pyrite with characteristic striations,

which are so disposed that the crystal shows the lower symmetry.

Fig. 54.

Fig. 56.

Fig. 55.

Diploid.

Cube and Pyritohedron.

Fig. 57.

Striated Cube.

Octahedron and Pyritohedron.

Fig. 58.

Fig. 59.

Octahedron and Pyritohedron.

Pyritohedron and Octahedron.

Fig. 56 represents a combination of cube and pyritohedron, in

which it will be noted that the faces of the pyritohedron truncate

unsymmetrically the edges of the cube. Figs. 57, 58 and 59

represent combinations of pyritohedron and octahedron with

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM

27

various developments.
Fig. 60 shows a cube truncated with
and
octahedron.
Fig. 61 represents a combination
pyritohedron
of cube

and the

These figures should be studied

diploid / (421).
upon one's mind the characteristic symmetry

in order to impress
of the class.

Fig. 60.

Fig. 61.

Pyritohedron, Cube and Octahedron.

Diploid and Cube.

The chief mineral of the Pyritohedral Class is pyrite; other much

members are smaltite, chloanthite, cobaltite, gersdorfBte and

rarer

sperrylite.

Tetrahedral Class.
Another subordinate division

of the Isometric

as the Tetrahedral Class, deriving

the tetrahedron.

Fig. 62.

Symmetry

System

name from

is

known

its chief

form,

Fig. 63.
of Tetrahedral Class, Isometric System.

Symmetry and Forms.

The

its

The symmetry

of this class

is

as

three crystal! ographic axes are axes of binary symmetry; the four diagonal axes are axes of trigonal symmetry;
there are six diagonal planes of symmetry (see Figs. 62 and 63).
follows:

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

28

The

characteristic forms of the Tetrahedral Class are as fol-

lows:

Tetrahedron.

1.

The tetrahedron

is

a form composed of

four equilateral triangular faces, each of which intersects all of

the crystallographic axes at equal
It can be considered as
lengths.

derived from the octahedron of the

Normal Class by the omission of the

and the extension of
the others, as shown in Fig. 64.
This form, shown also in Fig. 65, is
known as the positive tetrahedron
and has for its symbol (111). If
alternate faces

the other four faces of the octaFig. 64.

Showing Relation between Octahedron and Tetrahedron.

had a

hedron had been extended, the

tetrahedron resulting would have

different orientation, as

shown

in Fig. 66.

as the negative tetrahedron and has for

Fig. 65.
Positive Tetrahedron.

Fig. 66.

Negative Tetrahedron.

its

This

symbol

is

known
The

(111).

Fig. 67.
Positive and Negative

Tetrahedrons.

positive and negative tetrahedrons when occurring alone are

geometrically identical, and the only reason for recognizing the
possibility of the existence of two different orientations lies in

the fact that at times they may occur truncating each other,
If a positive and negative tetrahedron
as shown in Fig. 67.
occurred together with equal development, the resulting crystal

could not be distinguished from an octahedron, unless, as is

usually the case, the faces of the two forms showed different lusters,

etchings or striations that would serve to differentiate them.

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM

29

Other possible but rare tetrahedral forms are the following:

tristetrahedron (Fig. 68), the faces of which correspond to
one-half the faces of a trapezohedron the deltoid dodecahedron

The

(Fig. 69), the

faces of

the trisoctahedron
of

which correspond to one-half those of

the hexakistetrahedron (Fig. 70), the faces

which correspond to one-half the faces of the hexoctahedron.

Fig. 68.

Fig. 69.

Fig.- 70.

Tristetrahedron.

Deltoid Dodecahedron.

Hexakistetrahedron.

Fig. 71.

Fig. 72.

Cube and Tetrahedron.

Tetrahedron and Cube.

Fig. 73.

Fig. 74.

Tetrahedron and Dodecahedron.

Dodecahedron, Cube and Tetrahedron.

The cube and dodecahedron

Tetrahedral Class.

Figs. 71

are also found on minerals of the

and 72 show combinations

of cube

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

30

and tetrahedron.

It will

be noted that the tetrahedron faces

truncate the alternate corners of the cube, or that the cube faces
truncate the edges of a tetrahedron. Fig. 73 shows the combination of tetrahedron and dode-

cahedron.

Fig.

74

represents

combination of cube, dodecahedron

and tetrahedron. Fig. 75 shows a
combination of

tetrahedron

and

tristetrahedron.

Tetrahedrite and the related ten-

Fig. 75.

Tetrahedron and

Tristetrahedron.

nantite are the only

erals that ordinarily
J

common min-

tctrahedral forms.

Sphalerite oc-

casionally exhibits them, but

complex and distorted.

commonly

its

show

distinct

crystals are quite

Characteristics of Isometric Crystals.

The striking characteristics of isometric crystals which would

aid in their recognition may be summarized as follows:
The crystals are equidimensional in three directions at right
angles to each other. These three directions in crystals of the
Normal Class are axes of tetragonal symmetry. The crystals

commonly show

faces that are squares or equilateral triangles

or these figures with truncated corners. They are characterized
by the large number of similar faces, the smallest number on

any form of the Normal Class being six. Every form by itself
would make a solid.
Important Isometric Angles. Below are given various interfacial angles which may assist in the recognition of the commoner
isometric forms:
(100) A cube (010) = 90 O'_0".
Octahedron (111) A octahedron (111) = 70 31' 44".
Dodecahedron (110) A dodecahedron (101) = 60 0' 0".
Cube (100) A octahedron (111) = 54 44' 8".
Cube (100) A dodecahedron (110) = 45 0' 0".
Octahedron (111) A dodecahedron (110) = 35 15' 52".

Cube

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

31

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM.

VI.

Crystallographic

Axes.

The crystallographic axes of the

number and make right angles

are three in

Tetragonal System
with each other. The two horizontal axes are equal in length
and interchangeable, but the vertical axis is of some different
length which varies with each tetragonal mineral.
represents the crystallographic axes
for the tetragonal mineral zircon.

The length

of the

Fig.

76

~a

horizontal axes

taken as unity, and the relative

length of the vertical axis is expressed
This
in terms of the horizontal.

is

length has to be determined for each

tetragonal mineral by measuring the

-c
Fig. 76.

Tetragonal Axes.

on a crystal and making the proper calcuFor zircon the length of the vertical axis is expressed

interfacial angles
lations.

as c

The proper

0.640.

orientation of the crystallographic

is like that of the Iso-

method of their notation

metric System and is shown in Fig. 76.
axes and the

Normal

Class.

The symmetry of the Normal Class

System is as follows: The vertical crystalan axis of tetragonal symmetry. There are

Symmetry and Forms.

of the Tetragonal

lographic axis

is

Fig. 78.

Fig. 77.

Symmetry

of

Normal

Class, Tetragonal System.

four horizontal axes of binary symmetry, two of which are coincident with the crystallographic axes, while the other two bisect

the angles between these.

Fig. 77

shows the axes

of

symmetry.

MANUAL

32

OF MINERALOGY

There are four vertical and one horizontal planes of symmetry.

Each vertical plane of symmetry passes through one of the
horizontal axes of symmetry.
The position of the planes of

symmetry is shown in Fig. 78.

The forms of the Normal Class, Tetragonal System, are
follows
1.

as

Prism of

First Order.

The prism

of the first order consists

of four rectangular vertical faces, each of

which

intersects the

two horizontal crystallographic axes equally.

The form is represented in Fig. 79.

Its

is

^"

001

symbol
001

(110).

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

33

depending upon the inclination of their faces.

pyramid which intersects all the axes at their unit
the most common, its symbol being (111). Symbols

of the first order,

The

unit

lengths is
for other pyramids of the
(113), etc.
5.

first

order are (221), (331), (112),

Fig. 82 represents the unit

Pyramid

of Second Order.

pyramid on

The pyramid

zircon.

of the second

is a form composed of eight isosceles triangular faces, each

which intersects one horizontal axis and the vertical axis and
is parallel to the second horizontal axis.
There are various pyramids of the second order, with different intersections upon the
The most common form is the unit pyramid,
vertical axis.

order
of

Fig. 82.

First

Order Pyramid.

Fig. 83.

Fig. 84.

Second Order Pyramid.

Ditetragonal Pyramid.

which has (101) for its symbol. Other pyramids of the second
order would have the symbols (201), (301), (102), (103), etc.
Fig. 83 represents a unit pyramid of the second order upon
zircon.
6.

The ditetragonal pyramid is a form

Ditetragonal Pyramid.
of sixteen isosceles triangular faces, each of which in-

composed

tersects all three of the crystallographic axes, cutting the

two

horizontal axes at different lengths.

There are various ditetragonal pyramids, depending upon the different axial intersections possible.

One

of the

(311) for its symbol.

zircon in Fig. 84.

most common
is shown as

This

is

the pyramid having

it

would appear upon

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

34

Basal Pinacoid.

7.

as

it is

faces.

The
is

variously called,
Its

symbol

is

prism in Figs. 79, 80

Zircon.

Fig. 85.

Fig. 89.

Vesuvianite.

Fig. 92.

Cassiterite.

basal pinacoid, basal plane, or base,

a form composed of two horizontal
It is

(001).

and

shown

in combination with a

81.

Fig. 86.

Fig. 90.

Zircon.

Zircon.

Vesuvianite.

Fig. 93.

Combinations.

Fig. 87.

Apophyllite.

The

Fig.

Fig. 91.

Fig. 94.

88'.

Zircon.

Rutile.

Apophyllite.

pyramids are the

only tetragonal forms that can occur alone, and even they are
Characterordinarily found in combination with other forms.
Tetragonal

istic

different

combinations are represented in Figs. 85-94.

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

35

Sphenoidal Class.

The Sphenoidal

Class corresponds in the Tetragonal System

It is characto the Tetrahedral Class in the Isometric System.

terized by the following symmetry: The three crystallographic

axes are axes of binary

symmetry (see
symmetry

vertical diagonal planes of

Fig. 95),

and there are two

(see Fig. 96).

2,

Fig. 96.
Fig. 95.
of Sphenoidal Class, Tetragonal System.

Symmetry

Sphenoid.

The

characteristic

form of the

class is

known

as

a sphenoid (from a Greek word meaning axlike): It consists of

four isosceles triangular faces which intersect all three of the
crystallographic axes, the intercepts on the two horizontal axes
The faces correspond in their position to the alter-

being equal.

Fig. 97.

Fig. 98.

Sphenoid.

Sphenoid.

Fig. 99.

Positive

and Negative Sphenoids.

nating faces of the tetragonal pyramid of the first order. There

may be different sphenoids, depending upon their varying intersections with the vertical axes.
Two different sphenoids are
shown in Figs. 97 and 98. There may also be a positive and a
negative sphenoid, the combination of the two being represented
in Fig. 99.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY
The sphenoid

differs

from the tetrahedron

in the fact that its

not of the same length as the

horizontal axes. The only common sphenoidal mineral is chalThe length of the vertical axis in chalcopyrite is very
copyrite.
In the case of
close to that of the horizontal axes, c = 0.985.
vertical crystallographic axis

is

the unit sphenoid, therefore, it would require accurate measurein order to differentiate it from an isometric tetrahedron.

ments

Chalcopyrite crystals ordinarily show only the unit sphenoid

(Fig. 98), but at times show a steeper sphenoid (Fig. 97).

Tri-Pyramidal Class.
is

Another division of lower symmetry of the Tetragonal System

known as the Tri-pyramidal Class. It is characterized by a
form known as the pyramid of the third order.
This form consists of eight faces which correspond
in their position to one-half of the faces of a ditetragonal pyramid. The minerals found in this
class are few and rare.
Moreover, their crystals
seldom show the faces of the pyramid of the third
order, and when these do occur they are usually
quite small. Therefore it seems hardly necessary

in this place to consider this class in greater detail.

Fig. 100.

Scapolite.

Fig. 100 is of a crystal of scapolite, upon which the

faces of the third-order pyramid z are shown.

Characteristics of Tetragonal Crystals.

Since the only common tetragonal mineral that does not belong to the Normal Class is chalcopyrite, which, moreover, is to
its general physical characteristics, we
confine ourselves here to the consideration only of the

be easily recognized by

may

crystals of the

Normal

Class.

The

striking characteristics of tetragonal crystals may be

summarized as follows: One axis of tetragonal symmetry; the

length of the crystal parallel to this axis is usually greater or less

than its other dimensions; the cross section of a crystal when

viewed in the direction of the axis of tetragonal symmetry conusually of a square or a truncated square.

sists

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
VII.

37

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM.

Crystallographic Axes. The crystallographic axes of the

hexagonal system are four in number. Three of these lie in the
horizontal plane, while the fourth is vertical. The three hori-

and interchangeable. They

and 120 with each other. The vertical axis
relative length for each hexagonal mineral, and this

zontal axes are of equal length

make

angles of 60

varies in its

expressed in terms of the length of the horizontal axes, which

taken as unity. Thus in the case of beryl, the vertical axis,
designated as c, has a length which in relation to the length of
the horizontal axes can be expressed as c = 0.499.
is
is

-a 2

+a 2
-a 3
-a s

-c
Fig. 101.

Fig. 102.

Hexagonal Axes.

When properly orientated, one of the horizontal crystallographic axes is parallel to the observer, and the other two make
30 angles on either side of a line perpendicular to him. Fig.
101 shows the proper position of the horizontal axes when
viewed in the direction of the vertical axis. As the three horizontal axes are interchangeable with each other, they are usually
Note that ai is to the left of the observer
designated a h a* and a 3
.

positive end at the front, that o 2 is parallel to the observer and its positive end is at the right, while a 3 is to the right

with

its

of the observer and its positive end is at the back.

Fig. 102
shows the four axes in clinographic projection. In giving the
indices of any face upon a hexagonal crystal four numbers must

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

38

be given, since there are four axes. The numbers referring

to the intercepts of the face with the three horizontal axes are
given first in their proper order, while the number referring to
the intercept on the vertical axis is given last.

Normal

Class.

Symmetry and Forms. The symmetry of the Normal Class

of the Hexagonal System is as follows: The vertical crystallographic axis is an axis of hexagonal symmetry. There are six
horizontal axes of binary symmetry, three of them being coincident with the crystallographic axes and the other three lying
midway between them (see Fig. 103). There is a horizontal

Fig. 104.

Fig. 103.

Symmetry

of

Normal

Class,

Hexagonal System.

plane of symmetry and six vertical planes of symmetry (see

The forms of the Normal Class are as follows:
Fig. 104).
1.

Prism

of First Order.

This

is

a form consisting of

six

rectangular vertical faces each of which intersects two of the

horizontal crystallographic axes equally and is parallel to the

The symbol
Fig. 105 shows the prism of the first order.
form is (1010).
This is a form consisting of six
2. Prism of Second Order.
rectangular vertical faces, each of which intersects two of the
horizontal axes equally and the intermediate horizontal axis at
one-half this distance. Fig. 106 shows the prism of the second
The symbol for the form is (1120).
order.

third.

for the

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

89

The dihexagonal prism has twelve rec3. Dihexagonal Prism.

tangular vertical faces, each of which intersects all three of the
^~

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

40
5.

Pyramid

of the Second Order.

This

is

a form composed of

twelve isosceles triangular faces, each of which intersects two of

the horizontal axes equally, the third and intermediate horizontal axis at one-half this distance,

and

also intersects the vertical

There are various pyramids of the second

order possible, depending upon the inclination of their faces. A
common form would have for its symbol (1122).
6. Dihexagonal Pyramid.
The dihexagonal pyramid is a form
of twenty-four isosceles triangular faces, each of which intersects

axis (see Fig. 109).

three of the horizontal axes differently

all

vertical axis.

This form

is

shown

and

in Fig. 110.

intersects also the

There are

differ-

ent dihexagonal pyramids which vary in their intercepts, one of

the most common having for its symbol (2131).
7. Basal Pinacoid.
The basal pinacoid is a form composed
of

two horizontal

faces.

It

is

shown in combination with the

and 107. Its symbol is (0001).

different prisms in Figs. 105, 106

?r^=

n\n

11

Fig. 112.

Fig. 111.

Fig. 113.

Fig. 114.

Beryl Crystals.

Figs. 111-114

show various combinations

of the forms of this

class.

Tri-Pyramidal Class.

division of the

Hexagonal System showing lower symmetry

than that of the Normal Class is known as the Tri-pyramidal
Class.
It has a vertical axis of hexagonal symmetry and a
horizontal plane of symmetry. It is characterized by the form
as the pyramid of the third order. This form consists

known

of twelve faces, which correspond in their position to one-half

of the faces of a dihexagonal pyramid.
The minerals of the

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

41

Apatite Group are the only ones of importance in this class, and
upon their crystals the pyramid of the third order is rarely to be

When it is observed it shows usually only small faces.

115
Fig.
represents a complex crystal of apatite with the faces
of a third-order pyramid (AI) upon it.
seen.

Fig. 115.

Fig. 116.

Apatite.

Hemimorphic

Zincite.

Class.

The crystals of certain rare minerals show the forms of the

Normal Class but with hemimorphic development. A hemimorphic crystal is one that shows different forms or combinations
of forms at the opposite ends of a symmetry axis.
Fig. 116
with
a
terminated
zincite
a
of
prism
represents
by a
crystal

pyramid above and a basal pinacoid below.

Rhombohedral
The forms

Normal

Class.

of this class are to

crystallographic axes, but

the Normal Class.

Division.

be referred to the hexagonal

show a lower symmetry than those

of

8J

Fig. 117.

Symmetry

of

Fig. 118.

Rhombohedral

Symmetry and Forms.

is

Class,

The

Hexagonal System.

vertical crystallographic axis

one of trigonal symmetry, and the three horizontal

crystallo-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

42

graphic axes are axes of binary symmetry (see Fig. 117). There
are three vertical planes of symmetry bisecting the angles between the horizontal axes (see Fig.
118).
1.

dron

Rhomhohedron.
is

The rhombohe-

a form consisting of six rhom-

bic-shaped faces, which correspond in

their position to the alternate faces of

a hexagonal pyramid of the first order.

The relation of these two forms to each
other is shown in Fig. 119. There may
Fig. 119. Showing Relation between First Order Pyramid be two different orientations of the
A positive rhomborhombohedron.
hedron is shown in Fig. 120 and a negative rhombohedron in
It is to be noted that when properly orientated the
Fig. 121.
.

Fig. 120.

Positive

Rhombohedron.

Fig. 121.

Negative Rhombohedron.

rhombohedron has one of its faces, and the negative

rhombohedron one of its edges, toward the observer. There
are various rhombohedrons, which differ from each other in

positive

the inclination of their faces.

rhombohedron

is

(lOll)

and

The symbol

of the unit positive

of the unit negative

rhombohedron

Characteristic combinations of positive and negative

rhombohedrons with each other and with other hexagonal forms
(0111).

are

shown

in Figs. 122-130.

This form consists of twelve scalene triThese

faces correspond hi their position to the
angular
alternate pairs of faces of a dihexagonal pyramid. The relation
of the two forms to each other is shown in Fig. 131.
The striking
2.

Scalenohedron.
faces.

characteristics of the scalenohedron are the zigzag middle edges

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

Fig. 122.

Caloite.

Fig. 123.

Fig. 126.

Fig. 128.

Chabazite.

Fig. 129.

Calcite.

Corundum.

Showing Relation between Dihexagonal Pyramid and Scalenohedron.

Fig. 131.

Caloite.

Fig. 132.

43

Fig. 124.

Calcite.

Fig. 127.

Calcite.

Fig. 130.

Corundum,

Scalenohedron.

MANUAL

44

Fig. 133.

Fig. 135.

Fig. 138.

OF MINERALOGY

Fig. 134.

Calcite.

Calcite.

Tourmaline.

Fig. 136.

Fig. 139.

Calcite.

Calcite.

Fig. 137.

Tourmaline.

Tourmaline.

Fig. 140

Tourmaline

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

45

it from an ordinary pyramid and the alterobtuse

and acute angles over the edges that
nating, relatively
meet at the vertices of the form. There are many different

which differentiate

upon the varying slope of

scalenohedron having the symbol (2131)
is represented in Fig. 132.
Characteristic combinations of scalenohedrons with other forms are shown in Figs. 133-136.
possible scalenohedrons, depending
their faces.

A common

Rhombohedral

Class.

Hemimorphic

Division.

Tourmaline crystals show the forms of the Rhombohedral

Class but with hemimorphic development. They are also commonly characterized by the presence of three faces of a triangular
prism. Figs. 137-140 represent characteristic hemimorphic tour-

maline crystals.

Rhombohedral
This

is

Class.

Tri-Rhombohedral Division.

a subdivision of the Rhombohedral Class, which confew and rare minerals. It is characterized by the

tains only a

forms
orders.

known
The

and third
rhombohedron correspond

as the rhombohedrons of the second

faces of a second-order

in position to one-half the faces of the second-order hexagonal

pyramid, and those of the third order to one-quarter of the faces

of the dihexagonal pyramid.

Rhombohedral

Class.

Trapezohedral Division.

The only important mineral of this class that is commonly

found in crystals is quartz, and its crystals as a rule do not show
forms other than those of the Rhombohedral Class, Normal
At times, however, small faces may occur of a form
Division.
known as a trapezohedron, which shows a lower symmetry. This
which correspond in their position to one-quarpyramid. The quartz crystals
are said to be right- or left-handed, depending upon whether these
faces are to be observed truncating the edges between prism and
rhombohedron faces at the right or at the left. Figs. 141 and
142 represent these two types.

form has

six faces,

ter of the faces of a dihexagonal

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Fig. 141.

Right-handed Quartz.

Fig. 142.

Left-handed Quartz.

Characteristics of Hexagonal Crystals.

Hexagonal crystals are most readily recognized by the followThe vertical crystallographic axis is one of either

ing facts:

hexagonal or trigonal symmetry. The crystals are commonly

prismatic in habit. When viewed in the direction of the vertical
axis,

they usually show a hexagonal cross section.

VIII.

ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM.

Crystallographic Axes. The crystallographic axes of the

orthorhombic system are three in number.
They make 90
angles with each other and are of unequal lengths. The relate

o
Fig. 143.

Orthorhombic Axes.

ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
tive lengths of the axes, or the axial ratio,

mined
axes

for each

may

be chosen as the vertical or

other two

The

orthorhombic mineral.

is

shorter of the horizontal axes

called the br achy-axis.

and the

The

has to be deterof the three

Any one

The

c axis.

taken as the b axis and

is

longer of the

called the macro-axis.

taken as the a axis and

is

and

is

taken as unity
axes are given in terms

length of the b axis

relative lengths of the a

47

is

143 represents the crystallographic axes for the

orthorhombic mineral sulphur, whose axial ratio would be as
of

it.

Fig.

follows: a

0.813

1.903.

Normal

Class.

Symmetry and Forms. The symmetry of the Normal Class,

Orthorhombic System, is as follows The three crystallographic
axes are axes of binary symmetry and the three axial planes are
planes of symmetry (see Figs. 144 and 145).
1. Pyramid.
An orthorhombic pyramid has eight triangular
each
of
which
intersects all three of the crystallographic
faces,
axes.
There are various different pyramids with varying intercepts on the axes. A unit pyramid (see Fig. 146) would have
:

for its

symbol

(111).

no

Fig. 146.

Pyramid.

no

Fig. 147.

Priam and Base.

An orthorhombic prism has four vertical rectaneach

of which intersects the two horizontal axes.
gular faces,
2.

Prism.

There are various prisms, depending upon

tions to the horizontal axes.

have

for its

symbol

(110).

A unit

their differing rela-

prism (see Fig. 147) would

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

48
3.

Macrodome.

macrodome

is

a form consisting of four

rectangular faces, each of which intersects the a and c axes and

is parallel to the b or macro-axis.
It is named from the axis to

which

it is parallel.

ent axial intercepts.

for its

symbol

There are various macrodomes with differA unit form (see Fig. 148) would have

(101).

Oil

Oil

Fig. 148.

Fig. 149.

Macrodome and Brachypinacoid.

Brachydome and Macropinacoid.

Brachydome. The brachydome consists of four rectangular

faces, each of which intersects the b and c axes and is parallel
4.

to the a or brachy-axis.
different axial intercepts.

have

for its

symbol

There are various brachydomes with

A unit form (see Fig. 149) would

(Oil).

The macropinacoid has two parallel faces,

each of which intersects the a axis and is parallel to the b and c
5.

Macropinacoid.

It derives its

axes.

name from

the

)0]

fact that

it

macro-axis.

150 and

010

6.

its

is

It

parallel to the b or
is

represented in Fig.

symbol

is

Brachypinacoid.

(100).

This

is

a form

consisting of two parallel faces, each

of which intersects the b axis and is

a (brachy) and the c

represented in Fig. 150

parallel to the
Fig. 150.

Macropinacoid, Brachypinacoid,
and Basal Pinacoid.
7.

of

Basal Pinacoid.

two horizontal

symbol

is

(001).

axes.

It

and

symbol

The

faces.

It

its

is

basal pinacoid
is

is
is

(010).

a form consisting

represented in Fig. 150 and

its

49

ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM

Fig. 151.

Fig. 152.

Sulphur.

Fig. 157.

Sulphur.

Brookite.

Fig. 159.

Fig. 153.

Fig. 158.

Fig. 160.

Barite.

Fig. 161.

Celeatite.

Staurolite.

Anglesite.

Barite.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

50

Combinations.
Practically all orthorhombic crystals consist
of combinations of two or more forms.
Characteristic combinations of the various forms are given in Figs.
151-161.

Hemimorphic

Class.

The only orthorhombic mineral of importance

When its
belonging to this class is calamine.
are
terminated
difshow
crystals
doubly
they
erent forms at either end of the vertical axis.
Fig. 162.

pig. 162 represents a characteristic crystal.

Calamine.

Characteristics of Orthorhombic Crystals.

The most

distinguishing characteristics of orthorhombic crysThe three chief directions at right angles

tals are as follows:

to each other are of different lengths. These three directions

are axes of binary symmetry. The crystals are commonly pris-

matic in their development and show usually cross sections that

are either rectangles or truncated rectangles.

IX.

MONOCLINIC SYSTEM.

Crystallographic Axes. The crystallographic axes of the

Monoclinic System are three in number. They are of unequal
lengths. The axes a and b, and 6 and c, make 90 angles with

each other, but a and

other.

The

make some

oblique angle with each

and the angle between

relative lengths of the axes

the a and c axes vary for each monoclinic mineral and have to be
determined in each case from appropriate measurements. The
a axis is known as the dino-axis, while the b axis is known as

The

length of the b axis is taken as unity and the

c axes are expressed in terms of it.
When
properly orientated the c axis is vertical, the b axis is horizontal
and parallel to the observer, and the a axis is inclined downthe ortho-axis.

lengths of the a

and

ward toward him. The smaller of the two supplementary

angles that a and c make with each other is designated as /?.

MONOCLINIC SYSTEM

51

Fig. 163 represents the crystallographic axes of the monoclinic

mineral orthoclase, the axial constants of which are
expressed
as follows: a b c = 0.658; 1 0.555; ft = 63 57'.
:

Fig. 163.

Monoclinic Axes.

Normal
Symmetry and Forms.
of the Monoclinic
axis b

is

an

axis of

Class.

The symmetry

of the

Normal Class

System is as follows: The crystallographic

binary symmetry and the plane of the a and

Fig. 164.

Symmetry

Fig. 165.
of Monoclinic System.

c axes is a plane of symmetry (see Figs. 164 and 165).

forms are as follows:

The

1. Pyramid.
monoclinic pyramid is a form consisting of
four triangular faces, each of which intersects all three of the
crystallographic axes. There are different pyramids, depending

There are, further, two indeaxial intercepts.

pendent types of monoclinic pyramids, depending upon whether
the two faces on the upper half of the crystal intersect the

upon varying

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

52

unit pyramid of
positive or the negative end of the a axis.
the first of these types is shown in Fig. 166 and has for its symbol

A unit pyramid of the second of these types is repre(111).

sented in Fig. 167 and has for its symbol (111). Fig. 168 shows
It should be
these two types in combination with each other.
emphasized that a monoclinic pyramid consists of only four
two of which are to be found intersecting the upper end

faces,

and the other two intersecting its lower end.

two types described above are entirely independent of each
of the c axis

Fig. 168.

Fig. 167.

Fig. 166.

The
other.

Monoclinic Pyramids.
2.

faces,

The monoclinic prism has four vertical rectangular

each of which intersects the a and b axes. There are

Prism.

various prisms with different axial intercepts. A unit prism is

represented in Fig. 169 and has for its symbol (110).
An orthodome consists of two parallel faces,
3. Orthodome.

each of which intersects the a and

or ortho-axis.

Its

name

is

axes and

is

parallel to the b

derived from that of the axis to which

There are different orthodomes with different

There are also two distinct and independent
types of orthodomes, depending upon whether the face upon the
upper end of the crystal intersects the positive or negative end
These two types of orthodomes are represented
of the a axis.
in combination in Fig. 170, but it should be emphasized that they
it

is

parallel.

axial intercepts.

are entirely independent of each other. The symbol of the unit

orthodome in front is (101) and that of the one behind is (T01).
4.

Clinodome.

The clinodome

each of which intersects the b and

or clino-axis.

is

a form having four faces,

is parallel to the a

axes and

There are various clinodomes with

differing axial

MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
intercepts.

have for

symbol

its

unit form

is

53

represented in Fig. 171 and would

(Oil).

The orthopinacoid has two parallel faces,

5. Orthopinacoid.
each of which intersects the a axis and is parallel to the b and c
It derives its

axes.

b or ortho-axis.

name from

the fact that

it is

It is represented in Fig. 171

parallel to the

and

its

symbol

is

(100).
6.

Clinopinacoid.

faces,

The

clinopinacoid consists of two parallel

is parallel to the a

each of which intersects the b axis and

(clino)

symbol

and the
is

c axes.

It

is

represented in Fig. 170 and

its

(010).

Fig. 169.

Fig. 170.

Fig. 171.

Prism and Base.

Orthodomes and Clinopinacoid.

Clinodome and
Orthopinacoid.

7.

Basal Pinacoid.

The

two parallel faces, each

and is parallel to the a and
and its symbol is (001).
of

Monoclinic Combinations.

is a form consisting
which intersects the vertical axis

basal pinacoid
of

b axes.

It is represented in Fig.

169

Characteristic combinations of the

forms described above are given in Figs. 172-179.

Characteristics of Monoclinic Crystals.

Monoclinic crystals are to be distinguished chiefly by their
low symmetry. The fact that they possess but one plane of
symmetry and one axis of binary symmetry at right angles to
it would serve to differentiate them from the crystals of all
other systems and classes. Usually the inclination of the crystal
faces which are parallel to the clino-axis is marked.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

54

Fig. 172.

Fig. 173.

Fig. 174.

Pyroxene.

Fig. 177.

Fig. 176.

Fig. 175.

Amphibole.

Fig. 178.

Fig. 179.

Orthoclase.

Gypsum.

X.

TRICLINIC SYSTEM.

The crystallographic axes of the

in
number. They are of unequal
are
three
System

Crystallographic Axes.
Triclinic

lengths and make oblique angles with each other. The axial
directions for each triclinic mineral are chosen arbitrarily, but in

such a

may
two

way

as to yield the simplest relations. Any one of them

The longer of the other
c, the vertical axis.

be taken as
is

designated as the b or macro-axis, while the shorter is

The relative lengths of the three

called a or the brachy-axis.

axes and the angles which they make with each other have to
be calculated for each mineral from appropriate measurements.

The

angles which the different axes

make with each

other are

TRIGLIN 1C SYSTEM

55

For exft and 7

(see Fig. 180).
designated respectively as
constants
of
the
the triclinic mineral axinite are
crystal
ample,
as follows: a b c = 0.482 1 0.480; a = 82 54'; ft = 91 52';
,

131 32'.

Normal

Class.

Symmetry and Forms. The symmetry

of the

Normal Class

consists only in a center of

of the Triclinic

System
symmetry
It has no axes or planes of symmetry.
(see Fig. 5, page 8).
All forms of the Triclinic System consist of two similar and paralIn this respect all triclinic forms might be spoken of
lel faces.
as pinacoids.
They are, however, usually designated as pyramids
when their faces intersect all three axes, as prisms or domes
when they intersect two axes and as pinacoids when they intersect but one axis.

1.

faces,

Fig. 180.

Fig. 181.

Triclinic Axes.

Pyramids.

Fig. 182.

Prisms and Basal Pinacoid.

Pyramid. A triclinic pyramid consists of two parallel

each of which intersects all three crystallographic axes.

There are four possible types, depending upon the octants in

which the faces lie. Fig. 181 shows a combination of four unit
pyramids.
2. Prisms.

A triclinic prism consists of two parallel faces,

each of which intersects the a and b axes and is parallel to the
c axis.
is

shown
3.

faces,

There are two possible types, a combination of which

in Fig. 182.

Domes.

triclinic

dome

consists of

two

similar parallel

each of which intersects the c axis and either the a or 6

axes and is parallel to the other. They are spoken of as either

macro- or brachydomes, depending upon the axis to which they
are parallel. There are two types of each. Fig. 183 represents

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

56

a combination of the two types of macrodome and Fig. 184

combination of the two brachydomes.

Fig. 183.

Fig. 184.

Macrodomes and

Brachydomes and

Brachypinacoid.

Macropinacoid.

Fig. 185.

Macropinacoid, Brachypinacoid, and Basal Pinacoid.

Fig. 186.

Fig. 187.

Fig. 188.

Axinite.

Rhodonite.

Chalcanthite.

A triclinic pinacoid is a form consisting of two

of which intersects one crystallographic axis
each
parallel faces,
and is parallel to the other two. They are designated as the
macropinacoid with the symbol (100), as the brachypinacoid
4.

Pinacoids.

with the symbol (010), and as the basal pinacoid with the symbol
A combination of the three forms is shown in Fig. 185.
(001).
Triclinic Combinations.

Figs.

186-188 represent characteristic

triclinic crystals.

Characteristics of Triclinic Crystals.

There are only a few triclinic minerals and they seldom show
When such crystals do
distinct and well-developed crystals.
occur they are to be recognized by the fact that they have no
plane or axis of symmetry and by the fact that each form consists
of only

two

similar

and

parallel faces.

II.

GENERAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF MINERALS.
STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

I.

IF by the phrase "structure of minerals" is meant their internal

or molecular structure, all minerals may be included in one of

two

classes:

(1) Crystalline;

Amorphous.

(2)

With only a few

exceptions, minerals are crystalline in their structure. This does

not signify, however, that these minerals necessarily occur in
distinct crystals, but only that their internal structure is such

that they
lize.

may

under favorable circumstances definitely crystal-

The few mineral

possess

species that are classified as amorphous

no regular internal structure and therefore cannot crys-

tallize.

Commonly, however, the expression "structure of minerals"

outward shape and form. Various descriptive

refers to their

terms are used in this connection that will need short definitions.
1. When a mineral consists of distinct crystals the following terms

may

be used:

d.

In definite crystals (see A,

In slender needlelike crystals.
In hairlike crystals.
Capillary.
In
threadlike crystals.
Filiform.

e.

Dendritic.

a.

b.
c.

Crystallized.

somewhat
f.

g.

pi. II).

Acicular.

Reticulated.

in

Arborescent,

plantlike,

made up

of

slender divergent branches,

or less distinct crystals.

more

Latticelike groups of slender crystals.

Divergent or Radiated.

Radiating crystal groups (see C,

pi. II).

A surface
h. Drusy.
very small crystals.

is

drusy when covered with a layer of

57

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

58
2.

When

a.

Columnar.

b.

Fibrous.

a mineral consists of columnar individuals the

terms
following
may be used:

may be

parallel or radiated (see

Stellated.

c.

In stout columnlike individuals.

In slender columnar individuals.

D,

The

fibers

pi. II.)

When

the radiating individuals form starlike or

When

the radiating individuals form spherical

circular groups.

Globular.

d.

or hemispherical groups.
e.

B,

When the globular forms are in groups. The

derived from the Greek for a "bunch of grapes" (see

Botryoidal.

word

is

pi. III).

Reniform or Mammillary. When a mineral is in broad

rounded masses resembling in shape either a kidney or mamma3
f.

(see

A,

pi. III).

3.

When

a.

Foliated.

a mineral consists of scales or lamellae.

When

a mineral separates easily into plates or

leaves.
b.

Micaceous.

Similar to foliated but the mineral can be split

into exceedingly thin sheets, as in the micas.

When a mineral consists of flat platec. Lamellar or tabular.
like individuals superimposed upon and adhering to each other.
d.

Plumose.

Consisting

of

fine

scales

with divergent or

featherlike structure.
4.

When

Coarse

to

a mineral consists of grains.

fine

granular.

When

a mineral

consists

of

an

aggregate of large or small grains.

5.

Miscellaneous.

Earthy.
Compact
minute particles.
a.

b.

Stalactitic.

When

uniform aggregate of exceedingly

a mineral has the shape of cylinders or

cones which have been formed by deposition from mineralbearing waters dripping from the roof of some cavity (see B,
pi. II).
c.

Concentric.

Consisting of more or less circular layers supercommon center (see C,

imposed upon one another about a

pi.

III).

PLATE

II.

A.

D.

A.

Crystallized

B.

Stalactitic

Quartz.
Limonite.

C.

D.

Radiated
Natrolite.
Fibrous
Serpentine.

PLATE

A.

Mammillary

or Reniform
C.

III.

Hematite.
B. Botryoidal
Concentric
Malachite.

Chalcedony,

CLEAVAGE, PARTING AND FRACTURE

When

Banded.

d.

59

a mineral occurs in narrow parallel bands

of different color or texture.

Geodes.

e.

When

a cavity has been lined by the deposition

more or less spherical

The mineral is often banded

of mineral material but not wholly filled, the

mineral shell

is

called a geode.

owing to successive depositions of the material, and the inner

is frequently covered with projecting crystals.
f
Massive. When a mineral is composed of compact material
with an irregular form and does not show any peculiar structure
like those described above, it is said to be massive.
surface
.

II.

CLEAVAGE, PARTING AND FRACTURE.

Cleavage. If a mineral, when the proper force is applied,

breaks so that it shows definite plane surfaces, it is said to possess
a cleavage. These cleavage surfaces resemble natural crystal
1.

faces.

They

are always parallel to

some

possible crystal face,

and usually to one having simple

axes.

They may

relations to the crystallographic

be perfect, as in the cases of the micas, calcite,

gypsum, etc., or they may be more or less obscure.

due to the fact that in the mineral

Cleavage

is

is a certain plane or
planes along which the molecular cohesion is weaker than in other direc-

structure there

minerals do not show

and
only a comparatively
cleavage,
few show it in an eminent degree.
The quality of the cleavage and its
tions.

All

crystallographic

direction

are

often

important aids in the identification of

a mineral. The cleavage of a mineral
is

Fi e- 189

Cubic Cleavage

described according to the crystal face to which

as cubic cleavage (galena, halite)

(see

Fig.

it is

189),

parallel,

octahedral

cleavage (fluorite), dodecahedral cleavage (sphalerite), rhombohedral cleavage (calcite), prismatic cleavage (amphibole), basal

cleavage (topaz), pinacoidal cleavage (stibnite), etc.

2. Parting.
Certain minerals when subjected to a strain or
pressure develop planes of molecular weakness along which they

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

60

When plane surfaces are produced

may subsequently be broken.

on a mineral

in this

way

it

is

said to have a parting.

This

phenomenon resembles cleavage, but is to be distinguished from

it by the facts that not every
specimen of a certain mineral will
exhibit

it,

but only those specimens which have been subjected

to the proper pressure, and that even in these specimens there

are only certain planes in the given direction along which the

mineral will break.

In the case of cleavage, every specimen of the

it, and it can be produced in a given

mineral will in general show

direction in all parts of a crystal.

Familiar examples of parting are the cases of the octahedral parting of magnetite, the basal

parting of pyroxene and the rhombohedral parting of corundum.

3. Fracture.
By the fracture of a mineral is meant the way
in

which

it

breaks

when

it

does not show plane surfaces as in

cleavage or parting. The following terms are commonly
used to designate different sorts
of fracture
a.

When

Conchoidal.

has

fracture

the

smooth, curved

surfaces like the interior surface

of a shell

it is

said to be con-

choidal (see Fig.

190).

This

pis most commonly observed

Fig. 190.

Conchoidal

Fracture

Vol-

canic Glass.

b.

in

Such

Substances

as glaSS,

quartz, etc.

Fibrous or Splintery.

When

the mineral breaks showing

splinters or fibers.
c.

Hackly.

When

the mineral breaks with a jagged, irregular

surface with sharp edges.

d. Uneven or Irregular.

and

When

the mineral breaks into rough

irregular surfaces.

in.

HARDNESS OF MINERALS.

Minerals vary quite widely in their hardness, and a determination of their degree of hardness is often an important aid to
their identification.

series of minerals

has been chosen as a

HARDNESS OF MINERALS
by comparison with which the

scale

mineral

may

be

told.

The

61

relative hardness of

any

scale consists of crystallized varieties

of the following minerals, each species being harder than those

preceding it in the scale.

Scale of Hardjiess.
1.

Talc.

4.

Fluorite.

8.

Topaz.

2.

Gypsum.

5.

9.

3.

Calcite.

6.

Apatite.
Orthoclase.

Corundum.
Diamond.

7.

Quartz.

10.

In order to determine the relative hardness of any mineral in

terms of this scale, it is necessary to find which ones of these
minerals

it

can and which

it

cannot scratch.

In making the

determination the following precautions should be observed:

Sometimes when a mineral is softer than another, portions of
first will leave a mark on the second which may be mistaken for a scratch. It can be rubbed off, however, while a
true scratch will be permanent. Some minerals are frequently
altered on the surface to material which is much softer than the

the

A fresh surface of the specimen to be tested

original mineral.
should therefore be used. Sometimes the physical structure of
a mineral may prevent a correct determination of its hardness.
For instance,

if

a mineral

pulverulent, granular or splintery

scratched

is

may be broken down and apparently

much softer than itself. It is always

in its structure,

it

by a mineral
when making the hardness
order of procedure.
The following materials

The

scale:

finger nail

is

test to confirm

it

by

advisable

reversing the

may

serve in addition to the above

little

over 2 in hardness, since it can

A cent is about 3 in hardness,

scratch

gypsum and not

since

it

knife

is

can just scratch calcite. The steel of an ordinary pocketjust over 5, and ordinary window glass has a hardness of

calcite.

5.5.

Crystals frequently show different degrees of hardness, dependupon the direction in which they are scratched. Ordinarily

ing

the difference

is

so small that

of delicate instruments.

it

can be detected only by the use

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

62

TENACITY OF MINERALS.

IV.

The following terms are used to describe various kinds of

tenacity in minerals
1. Brittle.
When a mineral breaks or powders easily.
:

2.

When

Malleable.

a mineral can be

hammered out

into

thin sheets.
3.

Sectile.

When

a mineral can be cut into thin shavings

with a knife.
4.

Flexible.

When

a mineral bends but does not resume

original shape when the pressure is released.

5. Elastic.
When, after being bent, the mineral
its original position upon the release of the pressure.

V.

will

its

resume

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MINERALS.

The specific gravity of a mineral is a number which expresses

the ratio existing between its weight and the weight of an equivaIf a mineral has a specific gravity of
lent volume of water.
2,
it

as

means that a given specimen of that mineral weighs twice

much as the same volume of water. The specific gravity of

a mineral which does not vary in its composition is a constant

which is frequently an important

factor, the determination of

aid to

its identification.

After a

little

experience one can frequently judge quite accuby weighing it in the hand.

rately the specific gravity of a mineral

Minerals containing the heavy metals like lead, copper, iron, etc.,
can be at once differentiated from those containing lighter elements by this means. And by practice one can become expert
enough to be able to distinguish from each other minerals that

have comparatively small differences in specific gravity; for

= 3.52) from orthoclase (sp. gr. = 2.57),
instance, topaz (sp. gr.
and fluorite (sp. gr. = 3.18) from quartz (sp. gr. = 2.6).
'In order to accurately determine the specific gravity of a
mineral, the following conditions must be observed The mineral
:

must be pure.

It

must

also be solid, with

no cracks or

cavities

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MINERALS

63

within which bubbles or films of air could be imprisoned. The

fragment used should be reasonably large, about one cubic inch
If these conditions cannot be met,
being a convenient size.
of little use to attempt a specific gravity determination by
any rapid and simple method.
The necessary steps in making an ordinary specific gravity
determination are briefly as follows The mineral is first weighed
Let this weight be represented by x. It is then immersed
in air.
it is

and weighed again. Under these conditions it weighs

since any object immersed in water is buoyed up by a force

in water
less,

equivalent to the weight of the water displaced.

in water be represented

by

y.

Then x

Let the weight

y equals the

loss of

weight caused by immersion in water, or the weight of an equal

volume

The

of water.

expression

x-y

will therefore yield

number which is the specific gravity of the mineral.

The specific gravity of a mineral may be determined

in various

ways, those most commonly used

being described below.
1.

By Means
The

method

a Chemical
most accurate

of

Balance.

of determining the specific

gravity of a mineral is by the use

To one
of a chemical balance.

beam

of the balance is suspended

a wire basket which is so arranged
that it can be immersed in a beaker

of water (see Fig. 191).

The

bas-

and then
counterbalanced by weights on the
The
opposite pan of the balance.

ket

is

hung

in the water

mineral specimen to be tested, having been first weighed on the bal-

ance in the ordinary fashion, is now

placed in the basket under the water

and weighed

again.

Flg> 191<

These two weights are the necessary data

for calculating the specific gravity as explained above.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

64
2.

By Means

of a Jolly Balance.

Fig. 192 represents the bal-

ance of Jolly, by which the specific gravity is measured through

the stretching of a spiral wire spring. From
the spring
(c

and

paratus
(d)

is

d),
is

suspended two small metal pans

one above the other.
The ap-

is

so arranged that the lower

pan

always immersed in 'a beaker of water

which, resting upon the adjustable platform

B, can be placed at any required height. On
the side of the upright A, which faces the
is a mirror with a graduated scale engraved upon it.
The position
of the balance is determined by means of a
small bead (m) which is strung on the wire

spiral wire, there

above the upper pan and which serves as an

indicator.
The eye is brought into such a
position that the bead exactly covers its
image in the mirror, and its position is then
determined by means of the scale.
Three readings must be taken first, simply
the position of the balance with the lower
:

Fig. 192.
pan in the water, x\ second, its position
when the mineral is placed in the upper pan, y; and third, its
position when the mineral is in the lower pan and covered with
water, z. The platform B with the beaker of water must be

properly adjusted for each of these readings so as to always have

the lower pan immersed in the water. The expression x
y
will give

while x
water.

a number representing the weight of the mineral in air,

z will yield a number corresponding to its weight in

From

these values the specific gravity of the mineral

can be calculated as described above.

This
3. By Means of a Beam Balance.

and quite accurate method

is

a very convenient

of determining specific gravity.

The

balance illustrated in Fig. 193 was devised by S. L. Penfield,

who describes
"The beam
6

its

operation as follows:

of

wood

and must swing

is

freely.

supported on a fine wire, or needle, at

The long arm be is divided into a

PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON LIGHT

65

decimal scale, commencing at the fulcrum 6; the short arm carries a double arrangement of pans so suspended that one of them
A piece of lead on the short
is in the air and the other in water.
serves to almost balance the long arm, and, the pans being
empty, the beam is brought to a horizontal position, marked

arm

upon the upright, near

c,

by means

A number

of a rider d.

of

counterpoises are needed, which do not have to be of any specific

Fig. 193.

denomination, as

means

on the beam and not their

The beam being adjusted by

their position

it is

actual weight which

recorded.

is

of the rider d, a

fragment of the mineral

upper pan and a counterpoise

near the end of the long arm,

The weight

is

placed in the

chosen, which, when placed

will bring it into a horizontal

is

of the mineral in air is given

by the posion the scale. The mineral is next

transferred to the lower pan, and the same counterpoise is
brought nearer the fulcrum b until the beam becomes again
position.

tion of the counterpoise

when its position gives the weight of the mineral in

From these two values the specific gravity of the min-

horizontal,

water."
eral

can be calculated.

VI.

PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON LIGHT.

A. Luster.

The
light

is its appearance due to the effect of

In general we divide minerals into three classes

luster of a mineral

upon

it.

depending upon their

luster,

namely, metallic

luster, submetallic

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

66
luster

and nonmetallic

luster.

of a metal like lead or copper

The term

A mineral
is

said to

having the appearance

have a metallic luster.

by saying that a mineral with a

opaque to light when examined on its
thinnest edges. The metallic luster of a mineral can be proved
by observing the color of its powder. If the powder is black
or very dark in color, it means that each little particle of the
mineral is still opaque to light, and therefore the mineral has a
metallic luster.
This test is made usually by the aid of what
is

further defined

metallic luster

is

strictly

called a streak plate.

This consists of a piece of unglazed
white porcelain upon which the mineral is rubbed so that a
streak of its powder is formed upon the plate. The color of this
"
streak" of the mineral, as it is called, will determine its luster
is

and

also frequently will materially help in its identification.

Examples of minerals with metallic luster would be, galena,

PbS, with a bluish gray streak; pyrite, FeS 2 with a black streak;
chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2 with a greenish black streak; and hematite, Fe 2 3 with a dark reddish brown streak.
Nonmetallic Luster. Minerals with a nonmetallic luster are
transparent to light on their thin edges. In general they are
,

light colored,

but not necessarily

from a nonmetallic mineral,

color.

so.

When

a streak

is

obtained

either colorless or very light, in

Various descriptive terms are used to further describe
it is

the appearance of nonmetallic minerals, the more

common

being

as follows:
Vitreous.

Resinous.

Having the luster of glass.

Having the appearance of

Example, quartz.
resin.

Example, sphal-

erite.

Pearly.
Having the appearance of pearl. This is usually
observed in minerals on surfaces that are parallel to cleavage

Example, basal plane on apophyllite.

Looking as if covered with a thin layer of oil.
amples, some specimens of sphalerite and massive quartz.
planes.

Greasy.

Silky.

Like

silk.

It is. the result of

Ex-

a fine fibrous structure.

Examples, fibrous malachite, serpentine, etc.

Adamantine. Having a hard, brilliant luster like that of a
diamond. It is due to the mineral's high index of refraction

PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON LIGHT

(see p. 71).

anglesite,

The transparent

show

67

lead minerals, like cerussite and

it.

Submetallic Luster. There is no sharp divisional line between

minerals with metallic and those with nonmetallic luster, and the
group of minerals lying between

is

said to have a submetallic

They show a colored streak, but one which is not black

or very dark in color.
Examples of minerals with submetallic
luster are limonite and some of the darker varieties of sphalerite.
luster.

B.

The

Color of Minerals.

color of minerals

properties.

is

one of their most important physical

In the case of

many

minerals,

especially those

showing a metallic luster, color is a definite and constant property and will serve as an important means of identification.
For example, the brass-yellow col6r of chalcopyrite, the bluegray of galena, the black of magnetite, the green of malachite,
each case a striking property of the mineral. It is to

etc., is in

be noted, however, that surface alterations may change the color

even in minerals whose color is otherwise constant. This is
shown in the yellow tarnish frequently observed on pyrite and
In noting the
marcasite, the purple tarnish on bornite, etc.
color of a mineral, therefore, a fresh surface should be examined.
Many minerals, however, do not show a constant color in their
different specimens.
This variation in color in the same species
may be due to different causes. A change in color is often produced by a change in composition. The progressive isomor-

phous replacement of zinc by iron in sphalerite (see page 77)

will change its color from white through yellow and brown to
black.
The minerals of the Amphibole Group show a similar
variation in color. The amphibole tremolite, which is a silicate
with only calcium and magnesium as bases, is very light in color,
at times almost white; while actinolite and hornblende, which
are amphiboles that contain increasing amounts of iron, range in

from green to black. Again, a mineral may show a wide

range of color without any apparent change in composition.
Fluorite is a striking example of this, since it is found in crystals
color

that are colorless, white, pink, yellow, blue, green, etc.

Such

MANUAL

68
extreme cases
colored

as jasper,

above

is

Minerals are also frequently

however, rare.

are,

by various

OF MINERALOGY

colored

by

The

red variety of quartz, known

small amounts of hematite.
From the

impurities.

seen that, while the color of a mineral is one of its important physical properties, it is not always constant, and must
therefore often be used with some caution in the identification
it is

of a species.

Play of Colors.

show a play

said to

Iridescence, Opalescence, etc. A mineral is

of colors when on turning it several prismatic

This

colors are seen in rapid succession.

diamond and precious opal.

a change of color when on turning

in the

it

is

to be seen especially
is said to show

mineral

the colors change slowly,

being different for varying positions. This is observed in labradorite.

A mineral is iridescent when it shows a series of pris-

matic colors in the interior of the crystal or on the surface. It

is usually caused by the presence of small fractures or cleavage
planes which serve to break up the light into the prismatic colors.
is a milky or pearly reflection from the interior of

Opalescence

a specimen.
mineral
differs

is

It is

said to

from that

observed at times in opal and cat's-eye.

show a

tarnish

when the

color of the surface

of the interior.

Some

Asterism.

crystals, especially those of the Hexagonal

System, when viewed in the direction of the vertical axis, present
This arises from peculiarities of texture
starlike rays of light.

along the axial directions, or from some inclusions.

able example is the star sapphire.

Phosphorescence.

Several minerals

when rubbed

remark-

or heated

give out light. This property is known as phosphorescence.

Fluorite often shows phosphorescence when fragments are gently

The

heated.

color of the emitted light

may

be green, purple,

rose, yellow, etc.

C. Refraction of Light in Minerals.

When

comes into contact with a transparent mineral,

from the surface of the mineral and part
The light which enters the mineral is in
enters the mineral.
When light passes from a rarer into a denser
general refracted.

part of

light

it is

reflected

PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON LIGHT

69

from air into a mineral, its

This change in velocity is accompanied
by a corresponding change in the direction in which the light

medium, as
velocity

is

in the case of passing

retarded.

travels,

and

known

as refraction of light.

it is

this

change in direction of propagation that

The amount

is

of refraction of a

given light ray is directly proportional to the ratio existing between the velocity of light in air and in the mineral. The ratio

between these two velocities

of the mineral

and

is

known

as the index of refraction

designated by n. That is, if the index of

refraction, or n, of a mineral is 2, light will travel in it with onehalf the velocity it has in air.
is

M-M

In Fig. 194 let

represent the surface of a crystal of fluLet N-0 be normal to that surface. Let A-0 be one of

orite.

M-M

a number of parallel light rays striking the surface

in such
way as to make the angle i (angle of incidence) with the normal

Fig. 195.

Fig. 194.

Refraction of Light.

N-0. Let 0-P be at right angles to the rays and representing the
wave front of the light in air. As the crystal is the denser medium the light will travel in it more slowly. Therefore, as each
ray in turn strikes the surface M-M, it will be retarded and the
direction of its path be changed proportionately.
In going from
a rarer into a denser medium, the direction of the ray will be bent
toward the normal N-O. To find the direction of the rays and
line of

wave

front in the crystal, proceed as follows: Since the

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

70

index of refraction of fluorite

crystal, in the

time

it

takes ray

is 1.43,

ray

the

will travel in

to travel from

to R,

of

1.43

that distance, or to some point on the circular arc the length of

whose radius OA'

is

will travel in

ray

A3

the distance P-R.

Similarly, ray

the mineral during the period of time in which

- of the distance
equal to

C travels from S to R a distance

1.43

TB

The same reasoning will hold true for

all other rays.
The wave front in the crystal can then be deto these
the line A'B'R
termined by drawing a tangent
various circular arcs; and lines perpendicular to this wave front
S-R, or the radius

which the light travels in the minand the angle NOA' or r will be the angle of refraction.
Fig. 195 shows the same construction as that of Fig. 194, only
in this case the mineral in question is assumed to be diamond.
Since the index of refraction of diamond (n = 2.42) is much
will represent the direction in
eral,

greater than that of fluorite, light will travel in

slower velocity. Consequently in diamond the
fraction will be greater.

This

is

shown

in

it

with a

still

amount of rethe two figures, in

both of which the angle of incidence is the same.

The refractive power toward light which a mineral possesses
has often a distinct effect upon the appearance of the mineral.
For example, a mass of cryolite may almost always be told at
sight, though, as is generally the case, there is no crystal shape
to aid in the identification. The mass has a peculiar appearance,
like that of wet snow, and quite different from that
of ordinary white substances and this is due to the fact that the
index of refraction of cryolite is unusually low for a mineral.

something

An instructive experiment may be tried by finely pulverizing

some pure white cryolite and throwing the powder into water,
when it will apparently disappear, as if it had instantly gone into
The powder, however, is insoluble, and may be seen
solution.
The reason
indistinctly as it settles to the bottom of the vessel.
for this disappearance of the cryolite is that its index of refraction
(about 1.34) is near that of water (1.335), hence the light travels

almost as readily through the mineral as through water, and

consequently

it

undergoes

little reflection

or refraction.

PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON LIGHT

71

Substances having an unusually high index of refraction have

an appearance which it is hard to define, and which is generally
spoken of as adamantine luster. This kind of luster may be com2.419)
prehended best by examining specimens of diamond (n
or of cerussite (n = about 3.2).
They have a flash and quality,
some diamonds almost a steel-like appearance, which is not
possessed by minerals of low index of refraction; compare, for
It is their high
1.434).
example, cerussite and fluorite (n
index of refraction that gives to many gem minerals their great
brilliancy and charm.

is

In the majority of cases the index of refraction of a mineral

not far from 1.5, and gives to minerals a luster which is desig-

nated as vitreous.
calcite (n

Quartz (n

1.55), feldspar (n

1.52)

and

1.57) are good examples.

D. Double Refraction in Minerals.

All minerals except those belonging to the Isometric
show in general a double refraction of light. That is,

System

when a

ray of light enters such

a mineral it is broken up

two rays, each of

which travels with a dif-

into

ferent velocity

through

Since each

the mineral.

own

ray has

its

teristic

velocity,

characit

fol-

lows that the angle of refraction will be different

in

each

and the
two rays will

case

paths of the

be divergent.

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

In Other

p^. 196

words, the light has undergone double refraction.

of this double refraction

is

Double Refraction

in Calcite.

In the majority of cases the amount

small, and the fact that it exists

can only be demonstrated by special and delicate instruments.

Calcite, however, shows such a strong double refraction that
Take a cleavage block of clear
it can be easily observed.
calcite (Iceland spar), for instance, and place it over an

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

72

image marked on paper.

The image

will

appear double (see

Fig. 196).

The amount

words the amount

shown by any mineral depends,

of double refraction, or in other

two

of divergence of the

rays,

upon the

refracting power of the mineral, or its strength of

as
it is called; second, upon the thickness of the
birefringence,
block of the mineral and lastly, upon the crystallographic direc-

first,

which the light is traveling in the mineral. In the case

of tetragonal and hexagonal minerals, there is one direction (that
of the vertical crystallographic axis) in which no double refrac-

tion in

tion takes place.

As soon as a ray

of light in the mineral diverges

doubly refracted, and the amount of

double refraction increases as the path of the light becomes more

from

this direction it is

and attains its maximum when it is at right angles to

Such minerals belong to the optical class known
In the case of orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic
as uniaxial.
minerals, there are two directions similar to the one described
above, in which no double refraction takes place, and the minerals
oblique,

the vertical axis.

of these systems are therefore

spoken of as optically biaxial.

In addition to doubly refracting light, all minerals except those
of the Isometric System polarize it as well.
Ordinary light is

made up of vibrations taking place in all planes.

In the case
polarized when it vibrates in a single plane.
of both uniaxial and biaxial crystals, each of the two rays into

conceived as
Light

is

which a beam of light is refracted is polarized and in planes

which are perpendicular to each other. For a fuller consideration of the optical properties of minerals, the reader must be
referred to books of a more detailed character.
VII.

PYROELECTRICITY.

Crystals of certain minerals, on cooling after being heated to

about 100

C., will develop

and a negative

different portions a positive

This can be proved by the power

upon

electric charge.

that such minerals show under these conditions to attract and

hold to themselves small pieces of paper,

etc.

Minerals which

are hemimorphic in their crystallographic character, like calamine, tourmaline, etc., exhibit this property.

III.

CHEMICAL MINERALOGY.

MINERAL may be defined

as a naturally occurring substance

a
definite
chemical
having
composition. The chemical composition of a mineral is the most fundamentally important fact
about it, for upon this all its other properties must in great

measure be dependent. The physical characteristics of a mineral

sometimes serve as means of its positive identification, and

may

in the great majority of cases they will be of material assistance;

but the final proof of its identity will more often lie in the deterits chemical character by means of chemical tests.
Consequently the study of the chemistry of minerals is the most
important single division of the subject. This section will,
therefore, be devoted to a brief and elementary discussion of

mination of

chemical mineralogy. First some general aspects of the subject

be presented, followed by a short description of the methods

will

most commonly observed.

book necessitate the assumption that

of testing for the different elements

The scope and

the reader

is

size of this

familiar with at least the essentials of chemical fact

and nomenclature.
Scientists up to the present time have established the occurrence of more than eighty different elements. The greater part
of these, however, are extremely rare and are only of scientific

Some forty-four elements are found in sufficient

or
because of their properties are of sufficient imporamount,
A considerable
tance, to warrant a discussion of them here.
interest.

proportion of this
rence.

The

list

also

must "be considered as rare in occurnames and symbols of the

following table gives the

eighteen most common elements arranged in the approximate

order of their importance as constituents of the earth's crust:
73

T4

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Oxygen

0.

Silicon

Si.

Aluminium

Al.

Iron

Fe.

Calcium

Ca.

Magnesium Mg.

Sodium

Na.

Phosphorus

P.

DERIVATION OF A CHEMICAL FORMULA

75

The silicates form the largest chemical group among

They contain various elements as bases, the most

Silicates.

minerals.

common of which are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,

aluminium and ferrous and ferric iron. They are frequently
very complex in their chemical structure. They are salts of a
of different silicic acids, the most important of which

number

are as follows:
Orthosilicate acid
dite,

Fe Al 2 (Si04) 3
3

Metasilicic acid

KAl(Si0

=H

Si04,

which

is

represented by alman-

H Si
4

or

H Si0
2

3,

represented by leucite,

3) 2 .

Polysilicic acid

=H

Si 3

8,

represented by orthoclase, KAlSi 3

8.

Niobates and Tantalates. These are combinations of various metals with the rare niobic'and tantalic acids. For example,
columbite,

FeNb

6,

and

tantalite,

FeTa

6.

Phosphates. The phosphates are salts of some phosphoric

The most common member of the group is the mineral
acid.

Ca 4 (CaF) (P0 4 )
The sulphates are salts
For example, gypsum, CaS0 4 .2H 0.
apatite,

3.

Sulphates.

H S0
2

4.

H W0

4.

of sulphuric acid,

Tungstates. These are salts of the rare tungstic acid

For example, scheelite, CaW0 4

Derivation of a Chemical Formula from the Analysis of

a Mineral.

The chemical formulas which are assigned to minerals have in

every case been calculated from chemical analyses. An analysis
gives the percentage composition of a mineral, or, in other words,
the parts by weight in one hundred of the different elements or
Consider the following analysis of chalcopyradicals present.
rite:
Percentages.

=
Gu =
Fe =
S

34.82
34.30
30.59

^
-r-r-

Atomic weights.

32.06
63.6
55.9

Ratio.

=
=
=

1.086
0.539
0.547

=
=
=

2.00
0.99 or 1.00
1.00

99.71

The percentage numbers given

indicate the proportions by

But as these

weight of the different elements in the mineral.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

76

elements have different atomic weights, the numbers do not

represent the ratio of the different atoms to each other in the

In order to derive the relative proportions

each other, the percent-

chemical molecule.
of the

atoms

of the different elements to

ages as given are divided in each case by the atomic weight of

the element. This gives a series of numbers which does repreIn the
sent the ratio of the atoms to each other in the molecule.

= 2 1 1.
analysis of chalcopyrite this ratio becomes S Cu Fe
Consequently CuFeS 2 will constitute the chemical formula for
:

the mineral.
the mineral is an oxygen compound the results of the analyare given as percentages of the oxides present, and by a calculation similar to that outlined above the ratio of these oxide
If

sis

radicals to each other in the molecule

is

determined; the only

difference in the process being that in this case the percentage

numbers are divided by the sum of the atomic weights of the

As an example con-

elements present in the different radicals.

sider the following analysis of

Molecular weights.

Percentages.

SO =
CaO =
H2 O =
3

46.61
32.44
20.74

gypsum:

+
+

Ratio.

=
=
=

83.06

-r-

56.1

18.0

0.583
0.578
1.152

= 1.00
= 0.99 or 1.00
= 1.98 or 2.00

99.79

From

this

it is

seen that the ratio of the radicals to each other

= 1 1 2, and consequently
S0 3 CaO
2
the composition of gypsum can be represented by the formula
CaO.S0 3 .2H 2 or CaS0 4 .2H 2 0.
in the molecule is

Calculation of the Percentage Composition of a Mineral

from
It frequently

Its

Chemical Formula.

happens that

it is

desirable to determine

what

the theoretical composition of a mineral is, having given its

formula. The process of calculation is the reverse of that
described in the preceding division. Take, for example, the
mineral chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2 what are the proportions by
weight of the different elements in one hundred parts of the
;

mineral?

The

process consists in

first

adding up the atomic

ISOMORPHISM

77

weights of the different elements present and so obtaining the

molecular weight of the compound, as follows:
Atomic weights.
= 63.6

Cu
Fe
S = 32.06

55.9
64.12

X2 =

Molecular weight CuFeS 2

= 183.62

obvious from the above that in 183.62 parts by weight of

chalcopyrite there are 63.6 parts of copper, etc. In order to find
It is

the parts of copper in 100 parts of the mineral, or in other words,

its percentage, the following proportion is made:
183.62

When

this equation

is

63.6

100

x.

solved, x becomes 34.64, or the percent-

age of copper in chalcopyrite. The percentages of the iron and

sulphur are to be obtained in a similar manner.

Isomorphism.
be noted frequently that the results of a mineral analydo not agree with the theoretical composition of the mineral
as calculated from its formula.
Further, it often happens that
It is to

sis

the analyses of different specimens of the same mineral will

show marked variations in the proportions of the different elements present. If the material analyzed was pure and the analysis

is

commonly to be exTo make clear what

consider some illustrative

accurately made, these variations are

by the principle of isomorphism.

plained

meant by

this term, it will

be best to

examples.

Sphalerite, for instance,

its different

specimens a wide range in

I.

is

a mineral which shows in

color, from white through

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

78

brown to black, with a corresponding variation in composition.

In column I is given an analysis of white sphalerite from Franklin Furnace, N. J., in column II is given an analysis of a brown
sphalerite from Roxbury, Conn., and in column III that of a
black sphalerite from Felsobanya.
It will be noted that in the three analyses there is a progressive
increase in the percentages of iron present and a corresponding
decrease in the amount of zinc. It would appear as if the iron

had replaced a portion of the zinc in the mineral and was playing the same part as the zinc in the molecule. Further, if the
atomic ratios are derived from each analysis by the method described in the preceding division, it will be found that in analyand III the series of numbers do not show any rational

ses II

relations to each other.

But,

if

the numbers derived in each

case from the percentages of the different metals present are

combined, their sum will equal the number derived from the per-

centage of the sulphur. In other words, the number of atoms of

zinc plus those of iron, lead and cadmium equals the number of

The formula of sphalerite could therefore be

of sulphur.
written R"S, where R" equals chiefly zinc, with smaller amounts
Another way of expressing the same
of iron and other metals.
atoms

In this case the iron is said to be

thing would be (Zn,Fe)S.
isomorphous with the zinc, since it has the power to replace the
zinc in the mineral in varying proportions without changing its

molecular structure or crystal form.

The garnets form a series of minerals with the same crystallization and general physical properties, but show quite a wide
variation in chemical composition.
sis

of

an almandine garnet
Percentages.

=
=
=
Fe
FeO =

35.92
19.18
4.92
29.47

MnO=

4.80;

SiO2
A12 O 3
2

MgO =
CaO =

3.70
2.38

100.37

Consider the following analy-

Molecular weights.
4-

4-

60.4
102.2

-M59.8
-f-

^
+
^

71.9
71.0
40.36
56.1

Ratio.

=3.00

=0.594

=
=

0.187
0.030

=0.409
=0.067

=
=

0.091
0.042

n
U 917

0.609

3.02

'

no

ISOMORPHISM

79

a silicate containing chiefly ferrous and aluminium oxides

It is

but with smaller amounts of manganese, magnesium, calcium and

If the ratio of the series of oxides to each other
ferric oxides.
in the molecule

But
that

if

is obtained, it is seen that it is not a rational one.

the ratio numbers of the similar oxides are combined,

the

is,

number from the A1 2

that from the

it will

FeO with

with that from the Fe 2

those from the

3,

and

MnO, MgO and CaO,

be found that the relationship of the different groups of

Si0 2 A1 2 3 -j- Fe 2 3 FeO
MnO

radicals can be expressed as

+ MgO

-f

CaO = 3:1:3.

From

this

it is

seen that some of

the possible A1 2 3 has been replaced by isomorphous Fe 2 3 ,

and that a part of the FeO has been replaced by the isomorphous oxides of MnO, MgO and CaO. The formula for this

R R

///

//

(Si0 4 ) 3 in which
,

///

//

3R 0.1R
.3Si0 or
R" = Fe, Mn, Mg and Ca, and R'" = A1

garnet might be written, therefore, as

and Fe.

Isomorphous Groups.

series of

compounds which have

analogous chemical compositions and closely similar crystal

forms are said to make an isomorphous group. The artificial

compounds known as the alums form a striking example. They

are double salts of sulphuric acid, similar to the following,
KA1(S0 4 ) 2 .12H 2 0, which is known as potash alum. They may

NH

4
vary, in their composition by the substitution of Na, Li,
the potassium and of Fe"' and Cr for the aluminium.

etc., for

compounds have, therefore, different but analogous

compositions, and it is found also that they all crystallize in the
Isometric System with an octahedral habit. Further, if a crystal of one alum is suspended in a saturated solution of another
All these

member

of the series, the crystal will continue to grow.

From

proved that the molecules of the different alums are

physically so closely alike that they can be substituted for each
other in any proportion. Therefore this series of compounds is
said to be an Isomorphous Group.
this

it is

Many
is

such groups are to be found in minerals, and attention

them in various places in Section IV. Reference

called to

might be made to one

of the Calcite

Group

most prominent of these in the case

page 203). This is a series of minerals

of the
(see

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

80

which are carbonates of similar bivalent metals, and therehave analogous chemical compositions.
Further, they all crystallize in the same crystal system and class,

all of

fore they can be said to

and have

between similar crystal faces.

second requirement for an
to
the
conform
Consequently they
minerals of it should show
the
that
Isomorphous Group, namely,
closely agreeing angles

similar crystal forms.

Dimorphism, Trimorphism, Etc.

A number of cases are well known among minerals in which

two or three different species have the same chemical comWhen one
position but distinctly different physical properties.
compound appears in two different forms, it is said to be dimorphous when in three different forms, trimorphous. Carbon in
the forms of graphite and diamond, calcium carbonate as calcite
and aragonite, iron sulphide as pyrite and marcasite, are familiar
examples of dimorphism. The two minerals in each case differ
;

from each other in such physical properties as

crystallization,

hardness, specific gravity, color, reactions with acids, etc. Titanium oxide, Ti0 2 is trimorphous, since it occurs in the three
,

distinct minerals, rutile, octahedrite

and

brookite.

Instruments, Reagents and Methods of Testing.

The Blowpipe and Its Use. Many of the chemical tests

made on minerals are performed by aid of an instrument known
as a blowpipe. The blowpipe consists essentially of a tapering
tube ending in a small and symmetrical opening through which
This current
air can be forced in a thin stream at high pressure.
of air, when directed into a luminous flame, converts it into a
small and very hot flame,
tests

by means

of

which many important

can be made.

The air is
Fig. 197 represents a common type of blowpipe.
forced from the lungs into the mouthpiece, c, which fits into the
upper end of the tube and issues from the small opening at the
other end.

The

tip of the blowpipe,

b, is

placed just within a

INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS, ETC.

81

flame which is rich in carbon, such as is obtained from a

candle or ordinary illuminating gas. A convenient method of
producing a blowpipe flame is to use illuminating gas in a Bunsen
burner, in which an inner tube, e (Fig. 198), has been placed so as
flat

to shut off the supply of air at the base of the burner and thus
convert the flame into a luminous one. The upper end of this

tube

is

flattened

and cut at an

angle, as

is

shown in

Fig. 198.

The

Fig. 198.

Fig. 197.

gas flame is ordinarily adjusted so that it measures about 1

inch in height and \ inch hi breadth. The blowpipe is intro-

duced into this flame as shown

in Fig. 199.

The

resulting blow-

pipe flame should be nonluminous, narrow, sharp-pointed and

clean-cut.
If illuminating gas is not available, a candle with a
flat

wick or even an ordinary candle can be used.

require,

however, more

The Art

skill in

of Blowpiping.

The

latter

manipulation.

some practice
and continuous blowpipe flame.

It usually requires

before one can produce a steady

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

82

Many

tests

can be made by means of a flame produced by ex-

hausting the supply of air in the lungs simply once. But frequently an operation takes a longer time than this would, give,
and the interruption necessary in order to fill the lungs afresh

would materially

interfere with the success of the experiment.

Consequently it often becomes important to be able to maintain

a steady stream of air from the blowpipe for a considerable time.
This is accomplished by distending the cheeks so as to form a
reservoir of air in the

lungs

is

mouth.

When

the supply of air in the

mouth into the throat

exhausted, the passage from the

Fig. 199.

by lifting the root of the tongue and while a new supply

being obtained by breathing in through the nose a steady
stream of air is also being forced out of the reservoir in the mouth.
is

closed

is

In this

way a

constant flame

may

be obtained.

however, considerable practice to do this

The Character

It requires,

skillfully.

of the Blowpipe Flame.

Fig. 199 represents

inner cone, c, which is light blue
the most distinct part of the flame, is composed of

a typical blowpipe flame.

The

in color and
unburned gas mixed with air from the blowpipe. There is no
combustion taking place in this part of the flame. Around
this cone is a narrow pale-violet cone, b, which is almost
invisible and in which the combustion does take place.
Any

used for the production of the flame will consist of

of carbon and hydrogen.
These elements
when the gas is burned are converted into their respective oxides.
gas that

is

some combination

The hydrogen burns

directly to water vapor,

H 0.
2

The carbon

83

INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS, ETC.

burns

first

to

its

lower oxide, CO,

known

as carbon monoxide.

Later this oxide will be changed by the addition of another atom

of oxygen to the higher oxide, C0 2 carbon dioxide.
The final
,

and
2
products of the combustion will, therefore, be the gases
C0 2 In cone b, where combustion is taking place, there will
.

necessarily be considerable amounts of the lower oxide of carbon,

CO. Surrounding cone b there will be an invisible cone, a, consisting of the final products of combustion,

C0 and H 0.
A good blowpipe
2

Fusion by Means of Blowpipe Flame.

flame
fully

in

it.

may reach a temperature as high as 2000 C. When skillhandled small pieces of fine platinum wire may be melted
The determination of the degree of fusibility of a mineral

Fig. 200.

an important aid to its identification. In order to make the

test, a small and if possible a sharply pointed fragment of the
is

mineral should be inserted into the blowpipe flame just beyond

the tip of the inner cone, where the combustion is most rapid

The fragment should be held

highest.
as illustrated in Fig. 200, so that it projects beyond the end of the
forceps by which it is held in such a manner that the entire heat
and the temperature the

of the flame can be concentrated

over, losing its sharp outline,

upon

it is

it.

If it

melts and rounds

said to be fusible in the blow-

pipe flame. Minerals can therefore be divided into two classes,

as to whether they are fusible or infusible in this flame. The
minerals which are fusible can be further classified according to

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

84

the degree of ease with which they fuse. To assist in this classification, a series of six minerals which show different degrees of
fusibility has been chosen as a scale to which all fusible minerals

may
is

be approximately referred.
have a fusibility of 3,

said to

For instance, when a mineral

means that it will fuse with

it

the same degree of ease as the mineral which

In making such comparative tests, it

scale.

fragments of the

same

experiments uniform.
are as follows
1.

is

listed as 3 in the

is

necessary to use
of the

size

and to have the conditions

The

minerals of the scale of fusibility

.

Stibnite.

Very

easily fusible.

A small

splinter will readily

melt in a candle flame.

2.

Chalcopyrite.

Easily fusible.

Bunsen burner flame.

Almandine Garnet. Infusible

small fragment will fuse

in the
3.

in the

Bunsen burner flame

but fuses easily in the blowpipe flame.

A sharp-pointed splinter fuses without much

blowpipe flame.
The edges of a fragment are rounded at the
5. Orthoclase.
heat
of
the
blowpipe flame.
highest
4.

Adinolite.

difficulty in the

6. Enstatite.
Practically infusible in blowpipe flame, only
the fine ends of sharp-pointed fragments being rounded.

Reducing and Oxidizing Flames. Reduction consists essentially in taking oxygen away from a chemical compound, and
oxidation consists in adding oxygen to it. These two opposite
chemical reactions can be accomplished by means of a blowpipe
flame. Cone 6, Fig. 199, as explained above, contains CO, or carbon monoxide. This is what is known as a reducing agent, since,
because of

come

C0

its

strong tendency to take up oxygen in order to beit will, if possible, take oxygen away

or carbon dioxide,

from another substance

in contact with

For instance,

it.

if

small fragment of the ferric oxide of iron, hematite, Fe 2 3 is

held in this part of the blowpipe flame, it will be reduced by the
removal of one atom of oxygen to the ferrous oxide, FeO, accord,

ing to the following equation

Fe 2

-f

CO = 2FeO + C0

2.

INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS, ETC.

This change can be proved by noting that the

ferric oxide is

and nonmagnetic, while the ferrous oxide

in color

85

is

red

black and

strongly magnetic. This cone 6 is therefore known as the reducing part of the blowpipe flame, and when it is wished to perform a reduction test the mineral fragment is placed at r, as

shown

in Fig. 199.

On

the other hand, if oxidation is to be accomplished, the

mineral must be placed entirely outside of the flame, where the

oxygen

of the air

can have free access to

it,

but where

it

can

still

Under these condiget in large degree the heat of the flame.

tions, if the reaction is possible, oxygen will be added to the
mineral and the substance will be oxidized. The oxidizing part of
the blowpipe flame is at o (Fig. 199). Pyrite, FeS 2 for instance,
if placed in the oxidizing flame, would be converted into ferric
,

oxide,

Fe 2

equation

3,

and sulphur

2FeS 2

The

dioxide,

S0

according to the following

2,

ferric oxide

+ 110 = Fe

would form a dark-red

+ 4S0

2.

residue, while the sulphur

come off as a pungent-smelling gas.

Use of Charcoal in Blowpiping. Small charcoal blocks, that
should best be about 4 inches long, 1 inch wide and | inch thick,
dioxide would

Fig. 201.

An

Oxide Coating on Charcoal.

number of blowpipe tests. They are used as

a support upon which various reactions are accomplished. For
instance, metals like lead, silver, copper, etc., may be reduced
from their minerals by means of the blowpipe flame, the experi-

are employed in a

ment being performed upon charcoal. Characteristic oxide coatings also may be obtained upon the surface of a charcoal block (see
The charcoal should be of a fine and uniform grain.
Fig. 201).
should not be so soft as to readily soil the fingers, nor should
be so hard as not to be easily cut and scraped by a knife.
The following table gives a list of the elements which yield

It
it

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

86

characteristic oxide coatings

when

the oxidizing flame on charcoal:

Oxide.

their minerals are heated in

INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS, ETC.

heats

flame

it

87

at a point just above the mineral, or in some cases the

be directly beneath the mineral. The mineral is

may

being heated under these conditions in a steady current of air,

it will be oxidized if such a reaction is possible.
Various

and

oxides may come off as gases and either escape at the end of the
tube or be condensed as sublimates upon its walls. The following table gives a list of those elements which yield characteristic
reactions

when heated

in

Element.
Sulphur.

open tubes:
Description of Test.

Sulphur dioxide, S0 2 comes out of upper end of tube

as a gas with a pungent and irritating odor.
If a
,

moistened strip of blue litmus paper is placed at the

upper end of the tube, it becomes red, due to the acid
reaction caused by the sulphurous acid.
Arsenic.

Arsenious oxide, As 2 3 condenses at a considerable

distance above the heated portion as a volatile coat,

ing of small colorless octahedral crystals.

Antimony.

Antimonious oxide, Sb 2

3,

deposits as a volatile

white ring closer to the heated portion of the tube

than the arsenious oxide. Antimony sulphides yield
also a dense nonvolatile white sublimate of antimo-

nate of antimony, Sb 2
of the tube.

4,

which

collects along the

bottom
Molybdenum.

Molybdenum

trioxide,

Mo0

collects near the

heated portion as a network of pale yellow to white

crystals.

Mercury.

Collects in minute gray globules which can be rubbed

together.

Other reactions may be obtained from some of the

Note.
above elements if the mineral is heated too rapidly or without
the establishment of a strong current of air flowing through the
tube.

Closed Tube Test.

been closed at one end

Frequently a small glass tube which has

is useful in testing minerals.
The tube

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

88
is

made out

and should have a length

of soft glass

of

about

3 1 inches and an internal diameter from

Two

closed tubes can easily be

made by

to T\ of an inch.
fusing the center of a

piece of tubing 7 inches in length and pulling it apart. The

closed tube test is used to determine what takes place when a

mineral
air.

subjected to heat practically out of contact with the

Ordinarily there is no chemical reaction involved. In
is

general, in the closed tube the mineral will break

simpler parts

if

that

is

possible,

down

but otherwise nothing

into

will

take

place except possibly a fusion of the mineral. The following

table gives a list and brief description of the important closed

tube tests

Substance.
Water,

Description of Test.

H 0.
2

All minerals containing water of crystallization or

the hydroxyl radical will give on moderate heating a

deposit of drops of water on the cold upper walls of

the tube.
All sulphides

Sulphur, S.

will give

which contain an

excess of sulphur

a sublimate of sulphur, which

hot and yellow

when

is

red

when

cold.

Native arsenic and some arsenides will give a

This consists of two
one
of
a
black and amorphous
rings,
being composed

Arsenic, As.

deposit of metallic arsenic.

material, the other lying nearer the bottom of the

tube, of a silver-gray and crystalline material.

Oxysulphide of antimony, Sb 2 S 2 0.

Sulphide of antimony and

some sulphantimonites give this sublimate in the
form of a slight coating which deposits close to the
bottom of the tube. It is black when hot and red
when cold. It is accompanied by a faint deposit of

sulphur further up the tube.

Sulphide of mercury, HgS. A black amorphous sublimate which

forms when cinnabar is heated.

89

INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS, ETC.

Mercury, Hg. Gray metallic globules of metallic mercury are

obtained when native mercury or amalgams are

heated or when the sulphide

carbonate and heated.

Flame

Test.

Certain elements

is

mixed with dry sodium

may

be volatilized when

minerals containing them are heated intensely before the blowpipe and so impart characteristic colors to the flame. The

flame color to be obtained from a mineral will often serve as an

important means of its identification. A flame test may be

made by heating a small fragment of the mineral held in the forceps, but a more decisive test is usually obtained when the fine

powder of the mineral is introduced into the Bunsen burner

flame on a piece of fine platinum wire. The following table gives
a

list

of the important elements

to be noted that a mineral

may

which yield flame colors. It is

contain one of these elements,

but because of the nonvolatile character of the chemical combination will fail to give a flame color.

Element.

Color of Flame.

Remarks.

Strontium.

Crimson.

Strontium minerals which give

the flame color also give alkaline residues after being heated.

Lithium.

Crimson.

Lithium minerals which give

the flame color do not give
alkaline

residues

after

being

heated.

Calcium.

Orange.

In the majority of cases a

dis-

tinct calcium flame will be ob-

tained only after the mineral

has been moistened with HC1.

Sodium.

Intense yellow.

very delicate reaction. The

flame should be very strong

and

persistent to indicate the

presence of sodium in the mineral

uent.

as

an

essential

constit-

MANUAL

90
Element.

OF MINERALOGY
Remarks.

Color of Flame.

Barium.

Minerals which give the barium

Yellow green.

flame also give alkaline

dues after ignition.

Obtained from the oxide or

Yellow green.

Molybdenum.

resi-

sul-

phide of molybdenum.

Yellow green.

Boron.

Minerals giving a boron flame

rarely give alkaline
after ignition.

residues

Obtained from the oxide

Emerald-green.

of

copper.

Copper.

Obtained from the chloride of

Azure-blue.

copper.

Appears usually as bright

Bluish green.

Zinc.

and threads

streaks

in

the

flame.

Tinged with green

Pale azure-blue.

Lead.

in the outer

parts.

Color Reactions with the Fluxes. Some elements, when

dissolved in certain fluxes, give a characteristic color to the
fused mass. The fluxes that are most commonly used are borax,

07.10H 2 0, sodium carbonate, Na 2 C0 3 and salt of phosphorus, HNaNH 4 P0 4 .4H 2 0. The operation is best performed by
first fusing the flux on a small loop of platinum
wire into the form of a lens-shaped bead.
The
loop on the wire should best have the shape and
size shown in Fig. 202.
After the flux has been
fused into a bead on the wire, a small amount of
the powdered mineral is introduced into it and is

Na B
2

Fig. 202. Loop

Platinum
of
wire for Bead
.

dissolved
.

whether the bead

list

by further
.

resulting bead
heated in the
is

of the important

heating.
,

The

may depend upon

color of the
.

.
,

whether

it

was

oxidizing or reducing flame and

hot or cold, The following table gives a

bead

tests

INSTRUMENTS, REAGENTS, ETC.

Table of Color Reactions with the Fluxes.
Oxides of

91

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

92
green
is

when

cold.

When

heated in the reducing flame the bead

colorless.

Dry Reagents.
The

following paragraphs give a brief description of the

important dry reagents used in testing minerals

more

Sodium Carbonate, Na C0
2

3,

as a flux to decompose minerals

rarely as a flux in a bead test.

is

a white salt that

is

used chiefly

by fusion on charcoal and more

Borax, Na2B 407.10H 2 0, is a white salt that is used chiefly in

making bead tests and more rarely as a flux on charcoal.
Microcosmic Salt or Salt of Phosphorus, HNaNH 4 P0 4 .4H 2 0,
is a white salt used in making bead tests.
Acid Potassium Sulphate, HKS0 4 is a white salt that is used
,

making a test for fluorine (see page 100).

Acid Potassium Sulphate and Fluorite Mixture is a mixture
of three parts of the former and one part of the latter.
It is used

in

making a test for boron (see page 97).

Potassium Iodide and Sulphur Mixture. A mixture of equal
parts of these two materials is used in making a test for bismuth

in

(see

page

97).

in granulated form to make certain reduction tests in hydrochloric acid solutions.

Test Papers. Blue litmus paper is a test paper which changes

Tin and Zinc are used

from blue to red when exposed to the action of an acid.

most commonly used in the open tube test for sulphur (see

in color
It is

page 109).

Yellow turmeric paper

is

a test paper that turns

brown when exposed to the action of an alkali.

commonly used in making a test for the presence

It is

of

an

most
alkali

or alkaline earth in a mineral (see under sodium, page 109;

calcium, page 98, etc.). Red litmus paper can be substituted
for the yellow turmeric.

It turns blue

when exposed

to the

action of an alkali.

Wet

Reagents.

The

following paragraphs give a brief description of the more

important wet reagents used in testing minerals
:

TESTS FOR THE ELEMENTS

93

Hydrochloric Acid, Muriatic Acid, HC1, is an acid which is

commonly used for the solution of minerals, etc. It is a non-

The ordinary laboratory acid is diluted with

oxidizing acid.
three parts of water.
Nitric Acid,
is a strong solvent and oxidizing agent.
3
It is commonly used in its concentrated form.

HN0

H S0 4 is less commonly used than the others

may be used in its concentrated form, but
diluted with four parts of water. When water is added

Sulphuric Acid,
as a solvent.

It

usually is
to the acid a large amount of heat is generated. Water should
never be added to the hot acid. The acid boils at 337 C.

Ammonium

Hydroxide,

NH OH,

minium and
ratory use

ferric

it is

Ammonium

is

chiefly to neutralize acid solutions

a strong alkali used

and as a precipitant for alupages 95 and 101). For labo-

hydroxides (see
diluted with three parts of water.

commonly

Carbonate,

(NH ) C0 and Ammonium Oxa4

)2C 2 04, are chiefly used in the form of aqueous solutions

to precipitate the alkaline earths, calcium, strontium and barium,
from their solutions (see page 98).
late,

(NH

Hydrogen Sodium Phosphate, HNaaPCX,

is used in the form

an aqueous solution to test for the presence of magnesium
(see page 103); Barium Hydroxide, Ba(OH) 2 in testing for carbon dioxide (see page 98) Barium Chloride, BaCl 2 for sulphu-

of

Ammonium

Mo0

acid (see page 110);

4,
Molybdate, (NH 4 ) 2
for phosphoric acid (see page 106); Silver Nitrate, AgN0 3 , for
chlorine (see page 99).
ric

Potassium Ferrocyanide, K 4 Fe(CN) 6 .3H 2 0, and Potassium

K6 Fe2 (CN)i 2 are used in dilute solutions to test for
Ammonium
ferric and ferrous iron respectively (see page 102).
Ferricyanide,

Sulphocyanate, NH 4 CNS, is also used to test for ferric iron.

Cobalt Nitrate, Co(N0 3 ) 2 is used in the form of a dilute solution
,

in

blowpipe tests for aluminium and zinc (see pages 95 and 112).

Tests for the Elements.

On

the following pages will be given brief descriptions of the

more important blowpipe and chemical tests for the elements
as they occur in minerals.

In order to facilitate reference to

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

94

this section, the different elements will

order.

Under each element the

be treated in alphabetical

tests will be given in the approxi-

mate order of their importance. For a fuller discussion of this

part of the subject reference must necessarily be made to the
textbooks that treat of it alone. Below is a list of the elements
whose tests are discussed, with
and atomic weights.
Element.

their chemical symbols, valence

ANTIMONY

95

Aluminium.
Precipitation by

1.

Ammonium Hydroxide.

Aluminium

is

precipitated in the form of aluminium hydroxide, A1(OH) 3 when

an excess of ammonium hydroxide is added to an acid solution.
,

The precipitate is flocculent in form and colorless or white. It is

precipitated under the same conditions as ferric hydroxide (see
page 101), and since the latter has a dark color a small amount
aluminium hydroxide might be overlooked in a mixture of
To make a further test under these conditions, filter
off the precipitate and treat it with a hot solution of sodium
hydroxide, which will dissolve any aluminium hydroxide present
but will not affect the ferric hydroxide. Filter, and to the filtrate
add hydrochloric acid in slight excess, and then make alkaline
of

the two.

ammonium hydroxide again.

may be present as

with

This

will precipitate any

aluminium
pure
hydroxide.
2. Blowpipe Test with Cobalt Nitrate.
Light colored and
infusible aluminium minerals when moistened with a drop of
cobalt nitrate and heated intensely before the blowpipe assume

aluminium that

a dark blue color.

Antimony.
1. Oxide Coating on Charcoal.
When an antimony mineral
heated in the oxidizing flame on charcoal, a heavy white coating of antimony oxide settles on the charcoal at a short distance

is

The coating is readily volatile when heated.

Open Tube Test. When metallic antimony or a compound

from the mineral.

2.

of antimony with sulphur is heated in the open tube, a white

powdery sublimate of antimony oxide, Sb 2 3 forms in a ring
on the inner wall of the tube, a short distance above the mineral.
,

is a volatile coating.
If the mineral contains sulphur, as is
usually the case, a second coating will form as a white powder
along the bottom of the tube. It is another oxide of antimony,

It

Sb 2 C>4.
the

first.

It is nonvolatile

and

is

usually

more conspicuous than

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

96

Arsenic.

The

be used for arsenic depends upon whether the

mineral contains oxygen. In the majority of cases an arsenic
test to

tests 1, 2 and 3
on the other hand, the mineral is an oxygen compound, test 4 must be used.
1.
Oxide Coating on Charcoal. When an arsenic mineral
is heated in the oxidizing flame on charcoal, a white coating of
arsenious oxide, As 2 3 is deposited on the charcoal at some distance from the mineral. The coating is very volatile. Its formation is usually accompanied by a characteristic odor of garlic.
2. Open Tube Test.
When an arsenic mineral is carefully

compound does not contain oxygen, and then

will serve.

If,

heated in the open tube a colorless or white crystalline sublimate

of arsenious oxide, As 2 3 forms in a ring on the inner wall of
,

the tube at a considerable distance above the mineral.

very

volatile.

examined with a lens the coating

It is
will

show

If the mineral
well-defined octahedral crystals.
heated too rapidly, metallic arsenic may sublime instead of the

usually
is

When

oxide (see the next test).

3. Closed Tube Test.

Many

arsenic minerals

when heated
known as

in a closed tube yield a sublimate of metallic arsenic,

This sublimate shows an amorphous black

band above and a silver-gray crystalline band below. If the
bottom of the tube be broken off and the metallic arsenic volatilthe arsenic mirror.

ized
4.

heat, the characteristic garlic odor

Closed Tube Test for an Arsenate.

by

will

be obtained.

When

arsenic occurs

form of an arsenate, i.e., an oxidized compound, none of the above tests will serve. In this case place the
mineral in a closed tube with a splinter of charcoal and then
The charcoal will act as a reducing agent and set metallic
heat.
arsenic free, which will condense on the wall of the tube as an
arsenical mirror similar 'to that described under test 3.

in a mineral in the

Barium.
1.

Flame

Test.

Barium minerals when heated intensely give

a yellowish green flame color.

BORON
Precipitation as

2.

Barium Sulphate.

tated as barium sulphate,

BaS0 from an
4,

97
Barium

is

acid solution

precipi-

by the

addition of dilute sulphuric acid. The precipitate is white and

finely divided and being very insoluble will form in a quite dilute

from calcium and strontium).

Barium is an alkaline earth metal.
When a mineral contains barium in combination with a volatile
acid, it will give, after ignition, a residue which will react alkaline
solution (distinction
3.

Alkaline Reaction.

on a piece of moistened turmeric paper.

Beryllium or Glucinum.
Beryllium is a rare element which has no simple blowpipe or
chemical test.

Bismuth.
1.

Charcoal Tests.

When

heated with sodium carbonate on

charcoal in the reducing flame, a bismuth mineral will yield a

The metal is easily
metallic globule and an oxide coating.
fusible, lead-gray when hot, but becomes covered with an oxide
It is only imperfectly~malleable, for when
hammered out it flattens at first but later breaks into small
The oxide coating, Bi 2 3 is white with a yellow ring
grains.

coating on cooling.

next the mineral.

those for lead (see
fication

is

useful.

These bismuth reactions are quite similar to

page 102), consequently the following modiIf the bismuth mineral is fused on charcoal

with a mixture of potassium iodide, KI, and sulphur (see page

This
92), a characteristic and distinctive coating is obtained.
sublimate is yellow next to the mineral and brilliant red on
the outside.

Under

similar conditions with lead a solid yellow

coating would be obtained.

Boron.

Flame Test. Some boron minerals give a yellow-green

when heated alone. Most boron minerals, however, will
only yield the flame color when their powder is mixed with acid
1.

flame

potassium sulphate and

fluorite

mixture (see page 92) and then

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

98

introduced on a platinum wire into a Bunsen burner flame. As

the mixture fuses, a momentary but distinct green flame is
obtained.

Calcium.

Flame

1.

a state that

When

Test.

calcium occurs in a mineral in such

can be volatilized by heat, it will yield a characteristic orange flame color.

Frequently the mineral has to be
moistened by hydrochloric acid before heating. The flame
it

should not be confused with the crimson and more persistent

flame of strontium or lithium.

Alkaline Reaction.

2.

When

Calcium

is

an alkali-earth metal.

a mineral contains calcium in a combination with a vola-

tile acid, it will give, after ignition,

alkaline

on a piece

a residue which will react

of moistened turmeric paper.

Precipitation as Calcium Oxalate or Carbonate.

3.

cium

is

readily

and completely precipitated from

CaC
or calcium carbonate, CaC0
ammonium oxalate, (NH C 04, or ammonium

tions as calcium oxalate,

by the addition of
4

4,

3,

4) 2

(NH ) C0

carbonate,

Cal-

alkaline solu-

3.

Both

precipitates are white

and

finely

divided.
4. Precipitation as Calcium Sulphate.
Calcium is precipitated from a concentrated hydrochloric acid solution as calcium

little dilute sulphuric acid.

The
quite readily soluble in water and therefore will
not form in a dilute solution (distinction from barium and

sulphate on the addition of a

precipitate

is

strontium).

Carbon.
Carbon

exists in minerals chiefly in the

form of carbonic acid

in the carbonates.

Test for Carbon Dioxide with an Acid.

1.

All carbonates

when

treated with a strong acid (best hydrochloric) dissolve

with a vigorous effervescence of carbon dioxide gas. In some
cases (for example, dolomite, CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 ) the acid needs to be
heated to start the reaction, and in others (for example, cerussite,

PbC0
and

3)

a dilute acid

odorless.

is

It will

necessary.

Carbon dioxide gas is colorless

is shown when

not support combustion, as

COPPER

99

a lighted match is placed in a test tube that contains it. The

gas is heavier than air and can be poured from the test tube in

which it has been generated into another in which some barium

hydroxide solution has been placed. When the contents of the
latter tube are shaken together, the carbon dioxide reacts with
the barium hydroxide to form a white precipitate of barium
carbonate,

BaC0

3.

Chlorine.
Precipitation as Silver Chloride. Chlorine is precipitated from a dilute nitric acid solution as silver chloride, AgCl,
1.

of a small

by the addition

The

amount

of silver nitrate,

AgN0

3.

very delicate, traces of chlorine being shown by a

milky appearance of the solution. When in any quantity the
It is white on precipitation but
precipitate is curdy in form.
test

is

darkens on exposure to

It

light.

is

soluble

in

ammonium

hydroxide.

Chromium.
1.
it

Bead

Chromium

Tests.

is

usually tested for

gives to the fluxes (see page 91).

The

by the

color

phosphorus bead
green color. This

salt of

when fused in the oxidizing flame yields a fine

the most characteristic chromium bead.

is

Cobalt.
1.

Bead

Tests.

cobalt mineral

when fused

in

either a

borax or salt of phosphorus bead yields a distinctive dark blue

color.

The

test

is

very delicate.

Columbium,

see

Niobium.

Copper.
1.

Flame

Tests.

An

compound of copper when

a vivid green flame color due
When the mineral is moistened

oxidized

introduced into the flame gives

to the copper oxide volatilized.

it

with hydrochloric acid and then heated, the flame color is an

intense blue.
If the mineral is a sulphide, it must be roasted in
the oxidizing flame before moistening with hydrochloric acid.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

100

Blue Solution with

2.

Ammonium

solution containing copper

is

made

Hydroxide.

alkaline with

If

an acid

ammonium

it will assume a deep blue color.

Reduction to Metal on Charcoal. When a small
amount of a copper mineral is mixed with a flux (best equal
parts of sodium carbonate and borax), placed on charcoal and

hydroxide,
3.

heated intensely in the reducing flame, metallic globules of copper will be formed. They are difficultly fusible, bright when
hot, but become coated with an oxide coating on cooling.
They

and show the characteristic copper color. Sulphides of copper must first be roasted in the oxidizing flame in
order to remove the sulphur before mixing with the flux.
are malleable

Fluorine.

Etching Tests.

1.

The ordinary

in converting it into hydrofluoric acid

test for fluorine consists

and observing the

latter's

watch glass or other piece of glass

upon glass.
may be covered with paraffin and then the coating removed
in spots.
Upon this is placed the powdered mineral with a
few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. The action of the
etching effect

acid

upon the

which

fluoride will serve to liberate hydrofluoric acid,

turn etch the glass where it has been exposed.

The action should be allowed to continue for some time, when
will in

on cleaning the

glass the etched spots will be visible.

A modification of the above test

Take a

can be

made

in a closed tube.

and made preferably

Into this introduce a powdered mixture of the
and acid potassium sulphate, and then heat in

closed tube of about j inch diameter

of hard glass.

mineral, glass

When heated, acid potassium sulconverted into the normal -potassium sulphate with
the liberation of sulphuric acid. The acid attacks the fluoride
the Bunsen burner flame.

phate

and

is

This in turn acts upon the glass

and
it.
The
etches
present
etching, however, is not readily
apparent on account of the conditions of the experiment. As a
secondary reaction, however, there will be formed in the upper
sets free hydrofluoric acid.

part of the tube a white sublimate of silicon dioxide. This

sublimate is volatile because of the presence with it of small

IRON

101

'

amounts

of hydrofluosilicic acid.
If the bottom of the tube is
broken off and its interior gently washed with water, this acid
If the tube is now dried again,
will be dissolved and removed.
the white coating will prove to be no longer volatile. This
silicon dioxide coating is a proof of the action of hydrofluoric

acid in the

bottom

of the tube

and therefore

of the presence

of fluorine in the mineral.

Glucinum,

see Beryllium.

Gold.
There

no simple blowpipe or chemical

test for gold.

Ordinarily its physical characteristics are sufficient to identify it.
For a discussion of the occurrence and tests for gold see page 126.
is

Hydrogen.
1.

Closed Tube Test for Water.

erals either as

CaS0 .2H 0) or
Mg(OH) ). In
2

Hydrogen

water of crystallization

(for

exists in

min-

example, gypsum,

as the hydroxyl radical (for example, brucite,

either case its presence

may

be detected by

heating a fragment of the mineral in a closed tube and observing

the water which condenses upon the upper cold wall of the tube.

Water

of crystallization

hydroxyl, but the test

is

is

driven

off

more

readily than water of

easily obtained in either case.

Iron.
1. Magnetic Test.
Any mineral that contains a sufficient
amount of iron to permit it to be classified as an iron mineral
will readily become magnetic when heated in the reducing part

A comparatively small fragment should

of the blowpipe flame.
be used and the test made with a magnet after it has cooled.
2.

Precipitation with

Ammonium

Hydroxide.

Ferric iron

readily and completely precipitated as ferric hydroxide,

Fe(OH) 3 from an acid solution by adding an excess of ammonium hydroxide. It is a flocculent precipitate with a reddish

is

102

'MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

brown

color.

If there is

any doubt as to the

of the iron in the original solution, a

state of oxidation

few drops

of nitric acid

should be added and the solution heated in order to

tain that the iron

make

cer-

is ferric.

OccaCyanide Tests for Ferrous and Ferric Iron.

it may be important to determine whether the iron in
a mineral is ferrous or ferric in its valence. This can be done
3.

sionally

only

when the mineral is soluble in a nonoxidizing acid like

when it is not a sulphide. If these conditions

hydrochloric and

can be fulfilled, then divide the solution into two parts. To one
add a few drops of a dilute solution of potassium /m'cyanide,
and if the solution contains any ferrous iron a heavy dark blue
precipitate will form.
If, on the other hand, it contained only
ferric iron, there would be no precipitate but only a darkening
of the color of the solution.

To

the second portion of the

add a few drops of a dilute solution of potassium ferocyanide, and if there is any ferric iron present a heavy dark blue

solution

precipitate similar to the one in the previous case will form.

if the solution contained only ferrous iron, a light blue

But

precipitate

would be formed.

The

characteristic dark blue pre-

must contain both valences of iron and will only form

when a cyanide is added containing the opposite kind of iron to
cipitate

that already in the solution.

Ammonium or potassium sulphocyanate is also

used in making
few drops of one of these reagents added to
a ferric iron solution will give it a deep red color. All of these
tests are extremely delicate and will give good results if only a
trace of iron is present.
They should never be used to determine the presence of iron in a mineral but only to differentiate
the ferric test.

ferrous from ferric iron.

Lead.
Charcoal Test. Any lead mineral when powdered and
mixed with sodium carbonate will yield a metallic globule when
the mixture is heated on charcoal in the reducing flame. The
globule is bright lead color when hot, but becomes covered with
a dull oxide coating on cooling. It is very malleable and can
1.

MAGNESIUM
be

hammered out

of lead oxide,

A coating on the charcoal

which varies in color from

into a thin sheet.

PbO,

103

will also form,

yellow next to the fused mass to white at a distance. It will be

best obtained by removing the lead globule to a fresh piece of
charcoal and heating it in the oxidizing flame.
2. Acid Tests.
Lead minerals as a rule are only slowly
attacked by acids. Dilute nitric acid is the best solvent to use.
If to a nitric acid solution a few drops of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid are added, white precipitates will form, which are

respectively lead chloride,

The

PbCl 2

and lead sulphate, PbS0 4

latter is quite insoluble.

Lithium.
1.

Flame

Lithium

Test.

is

distinguished by the persistent

it gives to the flame.

a rare element which is to be

and strong crimson color which

Magnesium.
1.

Precipitation as

The only common

Ammonium Magnesium

Phosphate.

magnesium is to precipitate it in the

form of ammonium magnesium phosphate, NH 4 MgP0 4 by the
addition of hydrogen sodium phosphate, HNa 2 P0 4 to a strongly
ammoniacal solution. The precipitate usually forms somewhat
slowly, is white in color and frequently is granular in texture.
test for

In order to

make a

As the

decisive test certain precautions are neces-

is made in an ammoniacal solution,

any precipitates formed by an excess of ammonium hydroxide
must be first filtered off. It may be necessary before adding
the ammonium hydroxide to add a few drops of nitric acid so

sary.

as to

make

precipitation

any iron in the solution is in the ferric

making the final test, any elements, such
as calcium, strontium and barium, that are precipitated in ammoniacal solution by means of ammonium oxalate, must be
removed. In any case their presence must be tested for before
adding the hydrogen sodium phosphate, because, if present, they
would be precipitated by that reagent along with the magnesium.
state.

certain that

Also, before

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

104

Manganese.
1.

Bead

Tests,

a.

Manganese

gives to the

sodium carbo-

when heated in the oxidizing flame a characteristic

bluish green color.
The bead is opaque when cold.
b. With the borax bead, when heated in the oxidizing flame
manganese gives a purple or amethystine color. The bead is
transparent when cold.
Both tests are very delicate.
nate bead

Mercury.
Closed Tube Tests. The powdered mineral is thoroughly
mixed with dry sodium carbonate and placed in a closed tube
1.

and then heated. The sodium carbonate will decompose the

mineral and liberate metallic mercury, which will volatilize and
condense in the upper part of the tube.
2. Precipitation on Copper.
Boil the powdered mineral
with hydrochloric acid, into which some powdered pyrolusite,

Mn0

2,

has been placed. The chlorine evolved by the action

on the manganese dioxide will serve to dissolve the

of the acid

mercury mineral.

If into this solution

a clean strip of copper

placed (a cent which has been cleaned with a little nitric acid
will serve), it will become covered by a thin coating of metallic

is

mercury.

The

chief

HgS, and

and only common mineral

for its distinctive physical

of mercury is cinnabar,
and chemical tests see

page 145.

Molybdenum.
The

tests for the rare element

molybdenum depend upon

an oxygen compound. See under molybdenite, page 137, and under wulfenite,
page 308, for descriptions of the various tests.
whether

it is

in combination with sulphur or in

Nickel.
1.

Borax Bead Test.

When

dissolved in a borax bead in the

If the bead
oxidizing flame, nickel will give it a brownish color.
is heated in the reducing flame for some time, it will become

OXYGEN

105

opaque because of the separation in it of metallic nickel. The

brown color due to nickel is often masked by the deep blue color
due to the presence of cobalt, which is frequently associated
with nickel in

its

occurrence.

In this case there

is

no simple

test for nickel.

In Ammoniacal Solution. A comparatively strong acid

on the addition of an excess of ammonium
hydroxide become light blue in color. The test should not be
confused with the similar but stronger test for copper.
2.

solution of nickel will

Niobium.
Niobium, or columbium, as it is sometimes called, is a rare
acid element that is associated with tantalum in the niobates
and tantalates.
1. Reduction Test with Tin.
The best test for niobium
is to fuse some of the powdered mineral with several parts of
The resulting mass is dissolved in a few
sodium carbonate.
cubic centimeters of dilute hydrochloric acid and then a few

The solution is boiled and the

grains of metallic tin are added.
set
the
action
of
free
the acid on the tin serves as
by
hydrogen
a reducing agent. The result is to form a compound of niobium
which is dark blue in color. This color does not readily change
to brown on continued boiling, and disappears on addition of
This distinguishes the niobium test from a similar one
water.
for tungsten (see

page 111).

Oxygen.

common elements in minerals,

ordinarily determined indirectly by testing for
the different oxygen acids. In the case of a few oxides in which
While oxygen

its

presence

is

one of the most

is

is an excess of oxygen, a direct test may be made.

Closed Tube Test. The powdered oxide is placed in a
closed tube with a small splinter of charcoal resting just above
it.
The tube is heated and if free oxygen is evolved the charcoal

there
1.

glow and then burn with a bright light. It is to be

noted that only a few oxides which contain an excess of oxygen
will at first

will give this test.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

106

Phosphorus.
Precipitation with Ammonium Molybdate. Phosphorus
exists in minerals in the form of phosphoric acid in the phos1.

It is best tested for by forming a dilute nitric acid

phates.
solution of the mineral and adding a few cubic centimeters of

this to

an excess

of

ammonium molybdate solution. A

of ammonium phosphomolybdate

yellow precipitate
formed. The precipitate forms slowly at
best in a warm solution.

Flame

first

canarybe

will

and comes down

Many phosphates when heated before the

blowpipe give a pale bluish green flame color. This may frequently be obtained better when the mineral has previously
2.

Test.

been moistened with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid.

Platinum.
There are no simple blowpipe or chemical tests for platinum.
The physical characteristics of the metal are usually sufficient
for its identification (see

page 132).

Potassium.
1.

Flame

Test.

Volatile potassium salts give a character-

The potassium flame will, howcommonly be obscured by the stronger yellow flame of
sodium. This difficulty can be overcome by filtering the flame
through a piece of blue glass. The sodium flame, being a monoistic

pale violet flame color.

ever,

cannot pass through the blue glass, while the

will be visible.
When the potassium does not exist in the mineral in a volatile
state, as in the case with potassium silicates, the powdered mineral must be first thoroughly mixed with gypsum (CaS0 4 .2H 2 0)
chromatic

light,

violet flame of

potassium

and the mixture introduced into the Bunsen burner flame on

a platinum wire. There will be a reaction between the two,
and the potassium will be liberated in the form of a sulphate,
which, being a volatile salt, will give the flame color. It will
be momentary in duration and must be viewed through the
blue glass.

107

SILICON
Silicon.
Silicon exists as the acid element in the large

known

as the silicates.

Some

group of minerals

of these are readily soluble in

but the greater part are quite insoluble. The tests em.-\ployed differ somewhat in the two cases.
If the silicate is soluble, it
1. Test for a Soluble Silicate.

acids,

should be powdered and dissolved in boiling hydrochloric acid.

When this solution is evaporated a jellylike material will sepaThis silica jelly, as
rate out just before dryness is reached.
it is called, is a form of silicic acid and proves the presence of

On continued evaporation it will be

dehydrated and converted into a sandy and insoluble substance
having the composition of silicon dioxide, Si0 2
In the case of an in2. Test for an Insoluble Silicate.
soluble silicate, the mineral must be decomposed by fusion
with sodium carbonate before treating it with an acid. Make

silicon in the mineral.

a mixture of one part of the powdered mineral to three parts of

sodium carbonate and fuse thoroughly before the blowpipe on a
loop of platinum wire. It is best to make two or three such
beads. The fusion serves to decompose the silicate and to
render the resulting mass wholly soluble in acids. The beads
The
are powdered and dissolved in boiling dilute nitric acid.
1
a
in
and
as
is
conducted
experiment
explained
evaporation
similar silica jelly

Frequently

is

it is

obtained.

desirable to

make

tests for the bases

which

In this case, after the formation of

are present in the silicate.
the jelly, continue the evaporation to complete dryness. This
converts the silicon into the insoluble oxide but leaves the bases
in the
test
filter

form

Treat the residue in the

of various soluble salts.

water and hydrochloric acid, warm and

from the insoluble silica. Add an excess of ammonium

tube with a

hydroxide to the

little

filtrate to precipitate

iron as their respective hydroxides.

the filtrate add a

little

ammonium

calcium as calcium oxalate.

more ammonium hydroxide

any aluminium or ferric

if necessary, and to

Filter

oxalate to precipitate any

and to the filtrate add

Filter again,
if

necessary and then a

little

hydro-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

108

gen sodium phosphate, which

present as

will precipitate

any magnesium

ammonium magnesium

phosphate.
3. Decomposition of Silicates by Acids.
Certain silicates,
when their powder is treated with boiling hydrochloric acid,
are decomposed, the bases going into solution and the silicon
In this case there would be
separating as the dioxide, Si0 2
.

formed when the solution is evaporated. The mineral

in
such cases disappears, but the solution never becomes
powder
perfectly clear owing to the silica, which remains in suspension

no

jelly

in the solution.

The
filter

It gives the solution a translucent appearance.

surest proof that the mineral has been

decomposed

is

to

the solution and test for various bases in the filtrate in a

manner to that described under test 2.

Test with the Salt of Phosphorus Bead. When the
powder of a silicate is heated in a salt of phosphorus bead, the
similar
4.

bases are dissolved, leaving the silica present as an insoluble

translucent skeleton.

Silver.

Reduction to the Metal on Charcoal. Silver can frequently be reduced to a metallic globule from its compounds
by heating the powdered mineral on charcoal with sodium carbonate. The resulting globule is bright both when hot and
No accompanying coating is formed
cold.
It is malleable.
on the charcoal. This test for silver is frequently complicated
1.

by the presence of lead, arsenic or antimony in the mineral.

Usually the mineral should be carefully roasted on charcoal in
the oxidizing flame before attempting the reduction in order to
remove the
In

many

last

two; otherwise a brittle globule

cases the only satisfactory test for silver

will result.
is

the

fire

assay.
2.
is

Precipitation as Silver Chloride. When a silver mineral

and to the solution a few drops of

dissolved in nitric acid

hydrochloric acid

is

added, a white curdy precipitate of silver

AgCl, is formed. The test is quite delicate, and if

there is only a trace of silver in the solution its presence will be
indicated by a milky-blue coloration. The precipitate is white
chloride,

109

SULPHUR
at

first

but darkens on exposure to

light.

It

is

soluble in

am-

monium

hydroxide. Frequently when a silver mineral is treated

with nitric acid a precipitate will result at once. This may be

metantimonic
off

acid, lead sulphate, etc.,

making the silver

before

and should be

filtered

test.

Sodium.
Flame

Test.

Flame

Color.

Sodium compounds when heated give a

strong and persistent yellow flame. The test is very delicate
and must be used with care, for only a trace of sodium may
If the mineral contains sodium in any
yield a distinct flame.
notable amount, it should give an intense and continuous flame
1.

color.

Strontium.
Strontium compounds give a very strong
and persistent crimson flame. The only other flame which is
similar is that obtained from lithium.
Strontium can be posidetermined
from
lithium
the
tively
by
following tests.
2. Alkaline Reaction.
When a mineral contains strontium
1.

in

combination with a volatile acid,

it

will give, after ignition,

residue which will react alkaline on a piece of moistened turmeric

paper.
3.

Precipitation as Strontium Sulphate. Strontium is prefrom a mediumly dilute solution as strontium sulphate,

cipitated

SrS0

on the addition of -a

little

dilute sulphuric acid.

The

precipitate is somewhat soluble and will not form in very dilute

solutions (distinction from calcium and barium, which see).

Sulphur.
Sulphur

exists in minerals either

without oxygen, as in the

sulphides, or with oxygen, as in the sulphates.

of sulphur compounds require different tests.

These two types

Tests for Sulphur in Sulphides.

1.

Open Tube

tube give

off

Test.
Sulphides when heated in the open
sulphur dioxide gas, which escapes with the current

HO

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY
from the upper end

of air

of the tube.

Its presence

can be de-

tected by its pungent and irritating odor. A piece of moistened

blue litmus paper inserted into the upper end of the tube will

turn red on account of the sulphurous acid formed.

2. Charcoal Test.
The odor of sulphur dioxide
obtained when a sulphide is roasted on charcoal.

may

be

3. Fusion with Sodium Carbonate.

When a sulphide is
fused on charcoal with sodium carbonate, the residue, unless the
heating has been too prolonged, will contain sodium sulphide.

If the slag is

removed and placed with a drop

of water

on a

clean silver surface (a coin will serve), there will result a dark
brown stain due to the formation of silver sulphide.
Tests for Sulphur in Sulphates.

The
is

test for sulphuric acid depends

soluble or insoluble in acids.
1.

treat

upon whether the sulphate

Test for a Soluble Sulphate. If the sulphate is soluble,

it with hydrochloric acid, and to the resulting solution add

A heavy white precipitate of barium

little barium chloride.
sulphate will result.
2. Test for an Insoluble Sulphate.
Powder the mineral,
mix with sodium carbonate and charcoal dust and fuse on chara

coal in the reducing flame.

The charcoal serves to reduce the
sulphate to a sulphide, so that the resulting slag contains sodium
When the fused mass is placed with a drop of water
sulphide.
on a clean silver surface, a dark brown stain of silver sulphide
will form.

same

It

is

to be noted that a sulphide would yield the

it is necessary to make certain that

test (see above) so that

,

the mineral being tested does not belong to that chemical group.

Tantalum.
no simple test for tantalum.
however, with niobium (see page 105).
There

is

It is usually associated,

Tellurium.
1.

Test with Sulphuric Acid.

in concentrated sulphuric acid,

it

When

a telluride

is

heated

gives a deep crimson color to

111

TUNGSTEN
the solution.
hot, or

if

The

color will disappear

after cooling

it is

if

the acid

is

heated too

diluted with water.

Charcoal Test. When heated on charcoal a white subTeO 2 is formed which somewhat resembles antimony
It is volatile and when touched with the reducing flame
oxide.
gives a pale greenish color to it.
2.

limate of

Tin.

Reduction to Metallic Globule. Take a small amount

powdered mineral and mix it with five or six volumes
of sodium carbonate and considerable charcoal dust and fuse
Small bright
intensely on charcoal in the reducing flame.
globules of metallic tin will result. They become covered with
an oxide coating on cooling. A white and difficultly volatile
If the tin globule
tin oxide coating will form on the charcoal.
1.

of the finely

is

treated with a

little

concentrated nitric acid, it will be conis metastannic acid.

verted into a white powder, which

Titanium.
1.

Reduction Test in Hydrochloric Acid.

compara-

tively concentrated hydrochloric acid solution containing titanium will become pale violet in color when it is boiled with a

few grains of metallic tin. The hydrogen liberated by the action of the acid on the tin is a reducing agent and forms TiCl 3
The color is not a strong
in the solution which gives this color.
one, and the solution may have to be evaporated nearly to dryness in order to show it distinctly. Most titanium minerals
are insoluble in hydrochloric acid and must first be thoroughly
fused with sodium carbonate in order to bring the titanium into
The fusion is best done by introducing the finely
soluble form.

powdered mineral into a sodium carbonate bead made on a

platinum wire. Several such beads should be used.

Tungsten.
Reduction Test in Hydrochloric Acid. Treat a tungsten
mineral with hydrochloric acid. If it is decomposed by the acid'
1.

a yellow precipitate of tungstic oxide,

W0

will result.

Add

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

112

to the acid a few grains of metallic tin and boil.

The hydrogen
set free by the action of the hydrochloric acid on the tin serves

W0 to a blue preW0 and W0 On

continued reduction the oxide becomes all W0 and
brown in

as a reducing agent
cipitate

which

is

and converts the yellow

a mixture of the two oxides

color.

The

test is similar to the

2.

is

one for niobium, but

is

to be

distinguished from that, since the blue color in the tungsten test
does not disappear on dilution of the solution; and further, it
turns to brown on continued reduction. If the tungsten mineral
is

not attacked by hydrochloric acid,

its

powder must

first

be

thoroughly fused with sodium carbonate. The resulting mass

is powdered and digested with water, which will dissolve the

sodium tungstate formed during the

reduction test

is

made

fusion.

After filtering the

as described above.

Uranium.
1.

Bead

Tests.

The

tests for

uranium

imparts to the fluxes (see page 91).

given to the salt of phosphorus bead
ing flame

is

consist in the colors

it

The yellowish green color

when heated in the oxidiz-

the most characteristic.

Vanadium.
1.

Bead

Tests.

The

tests for

vanadium

consist in the colors

imparts to the fluxes (see page 91). The amber color given to
the salt of phosphorus bead when heated in the oxidizing flame
it

is

the most characteristic.

Zinc.

Oxide Coating on Charcoal. Metallic zinc is easily obtained from the zinc minerals by fusing them with sodium carbonate on charcoal in the reducing flame. But, since the metal
is volatilized at a temperature considerably below that of the
blowpipe flame, no metallic globule can be formed. The metallic
1.

zinc is therefore all volatilized, and, meeting the oxygen of the

surrounding air, is converted into the oxide, ZnO, which drops
upon the charcoal as a nonvolatile coating, which is yellow when

ZINC

113

cold.
The coating deposits very close to
frequently be obtained in more distinct form
by making the fusion on a loop of platinum wire, which is held
about one-quarter of an inch from the surface of a charcoal block

hot but white

when

the fusion.

may

It

and the blowpipe flame so directed that the oxide coating is deupon the charcoal behind the bead. If the coating is
moistened with a drop of cobalt nitrate and then heated intensely
by the blowpipe flame, it will become dark green in color.
posited

2. Flame Color.
Some zinc minerals, when a fragment is
held in the forceps and heated in the reducing flame, will show
a characteristic flame color. This is due to the burning in the

flame of the metallic zinc which has been volatilized.

It takes

the form of

and has

momentary

streaks or threads in the flame

a pale greenish blue color.

DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY.

IV.

INTRODUCTION.
DESCRIPTIVE Mineralogy should include first of all a description of the crystallographic, general physical .and chemical characters of each mineral species, and should further give an account
of its

mode

localities at

of occurrence and characteristic associations.

The
which a mineral occurs in notable amount or quality

In the case of minerals possessing an

economic value, a brief statement of their uses is of interest. The
order in which these various items are given under each mineral
should also be mentioned.

in this Section

is

as follows:
1.

Chemical Composition.

2.

Crystallization.

3.

Structure.

4.

General Physical Properties.

5.

Tests.

6.

Occurrence.

7.

Use.

Descriptive Mineralogy should also point out the chemical

relationships existing between the different mineral

and physical
species.

It will

be noted that

many

minerals

fall

into definite

members of which have chemical and crystallographic

The most scientific classification of minfeatures in common.
erals recognizes these facts and places the minerals having analogous chemical compositions together, and further groups them
according to crystallographic and physical similarities. Short
groups the

paragraphs
explain

will

more

be found in various parts of this Section which

The prominent chemical

fully these relationships.

114

ELEMENTS

115

groups of this classification and the order in which they are

treated are given below:
1.

Sulphides,

3.

Sulpharsenites,

4.

Chlorides,

etc.

etc.

etc.

5.

Oxides.

6.

Carbonates.

7.

Silicates, Titanates.

8.

Niobates, Tantalates.

9.

Phosphates,

10.

At the end

Native Elements.

2.

etc.

Borates.

11.

Uranates.

12.

Sulphates,

13.

Tungstates, Molybdates.

etc.

matter descriptive of individual species will

(a) Minerals of economic
importance arranged according to the chief elements they contain; (b) Occurrence and association of minerals; (c) Table of
of the

be found small sections devoted to

minerals arranged according to the systems of crystallization.

ELEMENTS.
Comparatively few of the elements are found in the native
and moreover, these are in general rare in occurrence. The

state,

elements occurring as minerals may be divided into three classes

The important
(1) Nonmetals, (2) Semimetals and (3) Metals.
:

among the nonmetals are diamond, graphite and sulThe semimetals

tellurium, arsenic, antimony and bisbelong together in a crystal group, all of them showing

minerals
phur.

muth

rhombohedral crystals with closely agreeing fundamental angles.

is the most important one among the metals,

The Gold Group

including the isometric minerals,

gold, silver and copper.
other group contains the rare metals platinum and iron.

An-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

116

NONMETALS.

I.

Diamond.
Composition.

Pure carbon.

Crystallization. Isometric tetrahedral. Crystals are usually

octahedral in habit, but the faces are commonly curved or pitted
;

Fig. 203.

(Fig. 203).

observed

Fig. 204.

Curved faces

(Fig.

204).

Fig. 205.

of the hexoctahedron are frequently

Cubic and dodecahedral planes rare.

Fig. 206.

Twins, with the octahedron as twinning plane (Fig. 205) ; often

flattened.

Structure. Usually in crystals, but commonly distorted into

elongated and irregular forms. At times in spherical forms with
radiating structure. Rarely massive.

Physical Properties. Perfect cleavage parallel to the octaG. = 3.5.

hedral faces. H. = 10 (hardest substance known).
Luster adamantine or greasy. Usually colorless or pale yellow.

DIAMOND

117

Also pale shades of red, orange, green, blue and brown. Rarely
in deep shades of blue, red or green; at times black.
Usually
transparent but may be translucent or opaque. Very high index
of refraction

(diamond =

sion of light.

Electrified

when rubbed with a

2.42, quartz

by

friction

cloth.

Some

Strong disper-

1.55).

and becomes phosphorescent

stones after exposure to sun-

glow in the dark.

In rounded crystals, some of which are

light give off a phosphorescent

Varieties.

Ordinary.

Others are
perfectly transparent and colorless (first water).
contain
in
shades
and
incluvarious
colored
frequently
faintly
sions

and are flawed.

Sort.

radiating structure or
gates; usually gray,

opaque.

Fragments

In rounded spherical forms with

of confused crystalline aggre-

made up

brown or black

in color

and translucent to

of crystals that are unavailable for cutting

Carbonado or black diamond.

are also frequently called bort.
Massive with crystalline structure or granular to compact without cleavage.

Black or grayish black; opaque.

To be

distinguished by its great hardness, its adaBurns at a high

its octahedral cleavage.
temperature to C0 2 gas, leaving no ash. Will burn readily in
oxygen gas, giving off a brilliant light.
Tests.

mantine luster and

Occurrence.
in

The diamond

is

a rare mineral.

It

has been found

many different localities, but only a few have furnished the mineral

amount. Most commonly the diamond is found in the

sands and gravels of stream beds, where it has been preserved by its
In South Africa
great hardness and fairly high specific gravity.
and recently in Arkansas it has been found embedded in masses of

in notable

an igneous rock, known as peridotite.

Three countries have up to

the present furnished practically the entire world's output of diamonds, namely, India, Brazil, and South Africa.
The important diamond fields of India are located in the eastern
and southern portions of the. peninsula. Many of the famous old
diamond fields in this region are now abandoned, but work is still
carried on by the natives in the mines in a district lying to the south
of Allahabad and Benares.
Many of the world's famous diamonds
were found in India, but at present the yield is small.
Diamonds were discovered in Brazil in the first half of the eighteenth century, and have been mined there ever since. At present,
however, the production is comparatively small. They are found in
the stream gravels in several different districts, the two most im-

118

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

portant being located in the provinces of Minas Geraes and Bahia.

of Diamantina, Minas Geraes, is situated in the center of the
most productive field, the diamonds being found chiefly in the gravels
of the Rio Jequitinhonha and Rio Doce.
Extensive upland deposits
of diamond-bearing gravels and clays are also worked.
About 96 per cent of the world's output of diamonds comes at
present from South Africa. The first diamonds were discovered in
the gravels of the Vaal River in 1867. The diamond-bearing gravels
covered a considerable area but were not very thick. Later the
diamonds were discovered embedded in the rock of several volcanic
necks located near the present town of Kimberly in GriqualandWest, south of the Vaal River, near the boundary of the Orange
Free State. The diamonds in this district were first discovered in the
soil resulting from the disintegration of the underlying diamond-

The city

bearing rock. This soil was colored yellow by iron oxides, and was
as the "yellow ground."
The underlying, undecomposed
peridotite rock from which the diamonds are obtained at present
is called the "blue ground."
The principal mines are the Kimberly,
Du Toitspan, De Beers and Bultfontein, near Kimberly, the Jagersfontein in the Orange Free State, and the Premier in the Transvaal.

known

The mines were

originally worked as open pits, but, as they have

increased in depth, underground methods have been adopted. The
blue rock containing the diamonds is brought to the surface, crushed
into coarse fragments and spread out on platforms to gradually dis-

integrate under atmospheric influences. The resulting gravel is

washed over and concentrated, the diamonds being finally separated
on shaking tables that have been coated with grease, to which the
diamond crystals stick, while the rest of the material is washed
away. Diamonds have also recently been discovered in alluvial

German Southwest Africa.

Diamonds have been found sparingly in various parts

deposits near Liideritzbuchte,

of the

United States. Small stones have occasionally been discovered in

the stream sands along the eastern slope of the Appalachian MounDiamonds have also been
tains from Virginia south to Georgia.
reported from the gold sands of northern California and southern
Oregon. Sporadic occurrences of diamonds have been noted in the
In 1906 the first
glacial drift in Wisconsin, Michigan and Ohio.
diamond was found at a new locality situated near Murfreesboro,
Pike County, Arkansas. The stones are found here not only in the
detrital soil but also embedded in the underlying peridotite rock in
a manner quite similar to that of the South African occurrence.
General. The diamond is the most important of the gem stones.
Its value depends upon its hardness, its brilliancy, which is due to
its high index of refraction, and to its "fire," which is due to its strong
dispersion of light into the prismatic colors. In general the most

DIAMOND

119

valuable stones are those which are flawless and colorless or possess
A faint straw-yellow color, which diamond
color.
often shows, detracts much from its value.
Deep shades of yellow,
red, green or blue are greatly prized, and fine stones of these colors

a "blue-white"

bring very high values.

The diamond is cut by first cleaving off any undesirable or flawed
portions of the crystal and then grinding facets upon it by use of
diamond powder. The crystal is fixed at the end of a stick by means
of soft solder, leaving the part projecting which is to be cut.
A circular plate of soft iron is then charged with diamond dust, and this
its revolution grinds and polishes the stone.
Most diamonds are
cut into the form known as the brilliant (see Fig. 206). This is a

by

stone cut with a large eight-sided facet on top and a series of small
inclined faces around it.
The lower half consists of steeply inclined
faces giving the stone on this side a pyramidal shape.
The depth
of a brilliant is nearly equal to its breadth, and it, therefore, can only
be cut from a thick stone. Thinner stones, in proportion to the
breadth, are cut into what is known as the rose diamond. This is
a stone which has its upper surface covered with small triangular
facets.
Its lower surface may be one plane face, or the cutting of
the upper half may be duplicated. With exceptional-shaped stones
other cuttings are used.
The value of a cut diamond depends upon its color and purity,
upon the skill with which it has been cut and upon its size. A onecarat stone weighs 205 milligrams, and if cut in the form of a brilliant
would be 6.25 millimeters in diameter and 4 millimeters in. depth,

and

if of good color would be valued from $150 to $175.

twocarat stone of the same quality would have a value three or four
times as great.
Famous Stones. The older famous diamonds include the following: the Kohinoor, weighing 106 carats, is one of the crown jewels of
Great Britain; the Regent or Pitt, weighing 136 carats, belonging to
France; the Orloff, which is mounted in the Russian imperial scepter,
weighs 193 carats; Austria owns the Florentine yellow diamond,
which weighs 139 carats; the Star of the South, weighing 125 carats,
is said to be in India.
Large stones found more recently in South Africa include the
following: The Victoria or Imperial, which weighed 457 carats when

found, and 230 when cut. It was, however, later recut, its present
weight being 180 carats. The Stewart weighed before and after
cutting 288 and 120 carats respectively. The Tiffany diamond,
which is of a brilliant yellow color, weighs 125 carats. The Colenso
diamond, presented to the British Museum in 1887 by John Ruskin,
weighs 129| carats. The Excelsior diamond, found at Jagersfontein
in 1903, is now known as the Jubilee, and weighs 239 carats.
The

120

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Cullinan or Premier diamond was found at the Premier Mine, Transvaal, and was the largest stone ever found, weighing 3024 carats or
1.7 pounds troy, and measured 4 by 2\ by 2 inches.
This stone was

presented to King Edward VII by the Transvaal Government and

has been cut into 9 large stones, the larger ones weighing 516, 309,
92 and 62 carats respectively, and into 96 smaller brilliants.

Name.

The name diamond comes from the Greek word

"

adamas, meaning in vincible."

Use. In addition to its wide use as a gem, the diamond is
extensively used as an abrasive.
Crystal fragments are used to
cut glass. The fine powder is employed in grinding and polishThe noncrystalline, opaque
ing diamonds and other stones.
varieties, especially that known as carbonado, are used in the
bits of diamond drills.
These drills are frequently employed

mining operations to explore the rocks and to determine the

position and size of ore bodies.
Recently the diamond has been
used in wiredrawing and in the making of tungsten filaments
in

for electric lights.

Graphite.
Composition. Carbon, like the diamond. Sometimes impure with iron oxide, clay, etc.
Crystallization. Hexagonal-rhombohedral. In tabular crysProminent basal plane. Distinct
tals with hexagonal outline.
Rhombohedral symmetry
planes of other forms very rare.
sometimes shown by triangular markings on base.
Structure. In foliated masses; scaly; granular to compact;
Sometimes in globular forms with radiated structure.
earthy.
Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 1-2 (readmarks paper and soils the fingers). G. = 2.2. Luster metalBlack color with brownish tinge.
lic, sometimes dull earthy.
Black streak. Greasy feel. Folia flexible but not elastic.
Tests.
Infusible.
Very refractory in its chemical nature.
Recognized by its color, foliated structure and softness. Distinguished from molybdenite by the brownish tinge to K black
color (molybdenite has a blue tone) and the lack of cnemical

Physical Properties.

ily

tests.

GRAPHITE
Occurrence.

121

Graphite most commonly occurs in metamorphic

It may
rocks, such as crystalline limestones, schists and gneisses.
occur as large crystalline plates inclosed in the rock or disseminated

amount

to form a considerable proportion

has probably been derived from carbon
material of organic origin which has been converted into graphite
during the metamorphism of the rock. Instances are known in
which coal beds, under influence of strong metamorphic action, such
as the intrusion into them of an igneous rock, have in a greater or
less degree been converted into graphite.
Examples of such an
occurrence are to be found in the graphitic coals of Rhode Island,
and in the coal fields of Sonora, Mexico. Graphite also occurs in
fissure veins associated with calcite, quartz, orthoclase, pyroxene,
An example of such veins is to be found in the deposits at
etc.
Ticonderoga, New York. Here the veins traverse a gneiss and
besides the graphite contain quartz, biotite, orthoclase, tourmaline,
in small flakes in sufficient

In these cases,

of the rock.

it

The graphite may have been formed

apatite, pyrite, titanite, etc.
in these veins from hydrocarbons introduced into them during the
of the region and derived from the surrounding
carbon-bearing rocks. Graphite occurs occasionally as an original
constituent in igneous rocks. It has been observed in the basalts
of Ovifak, Greenland, in an elasolite syenite from India, in a granite
pegmatite from Maine, in meteorites, etc.
The most productive deposits of graphite at present are on the
island of Ceylon, where it occurs in coarsely foliated masses in veins
in gneiss.
It occurs in large amounts in various localities in Austria,
The chief deposits in the United States
Italy, India, Mexico, etc.
are in the Adirondack region of New York, in Essex, Warren, Wash-

metamorphism

ington and Saratoga counties.

Artificial graphite is manufactured on a large scale in
Artificial.
the electrical furnaces at Niagara Falls. Anthracite coal with a
small amount of evenly distributed ash is subjected to the intense
heat of the electrical current and converted into graphite. The
output of artificial graphite is considerably in excess of that of the
natural mineral.

Name.
Use.

the

Derived from the Greek word "to write."

in the manufacture of refractory crucibles for

Used

steel,

brass

used in this

way

and bronze
is

industries.

Most of the graphite

Used widely, when

imported from Ceylon.

mixed with oil, as a lubricant. Mixed with fine clay, it forms

the "lead" of pencils. Much of the graphite used in the United
States for this purpose comes from Sonora, Mexico. Used in
the manufacture of a protective paint for structural iron and

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

122

Used in the coating of foundry facings, for elecstove

trodes,
polishes, in electrotyping, etc.
steel

works.

Sulphur.
Sulphur; often impure with clay, bitumen, etc.
Orthorhombic. Pyramidal in habit (Fig.
Crystallization.

Composition.
207).

Often with two pyramids, brachydome and base in com-

bination (Figs. 208 and 209).

Fig. 209.

Fig. 207.

Structure.

Often in irregular masses imperfectly crystallized.

Massive, reniform, stalactitic, as incrustations, earthy.

G. = 2.05-2.09.
ResPhysical Properties. H. = 1.5-2.5.
inous luster. Color sulphur-yellow, varying with impurities to

Transparent to opaque.
yellow shades of green, gray and red.
Imperfect conductor of heat. When a fragment is held in the

hand

close to the ear

it will

be heard to crack.

This

is

due to

the expansion of the surface layers because of the heat from the
hand, while the interior, on account of the slow heat conductivity,
is

unaffected.

Crystals of sulphur should, therefore, be handled

with care.
Tests.

Fusible at

and burns with a blue flame giving strong

odor of sulphur dioxide.

yellow liquid

when

Sublimes in C. T. giving a red to dark

hot, yellow solid

yellow color and the ease with which

when

it

cold.

Told by

its

burns.

Occurrence. Found either associated with beds of gypsum, as

an alteration product of a sulphate, or in connection with active or
Sometimes in
extinct volcanoes, as a result of fumerole action.
connection with sulphides in metallic veins and derived from their

ARSENIC

123

oxidation.
Found in large deposits and in fine crystals near Girgenti, Sicily, associated with celestite, gypsum, calcite, aragonite,
also in connection with the volcanoes of Mexico, Hawaii,
etc.;

Japan, Iceland, etc.

Parish, Louisiana,

and

In the United States is mined in Calsasieu

in Wyoming and Utah.

Use. Used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, in the manufacture of matches, gunpowder, fireworks, insecticides, for vulcanizing rubber and in medicine.

II.

SEMIMETALS.
Tellurium.

Native tellurium with sometimes a small amount of selenium,

Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals rare; usually
gold, iron, etc.
minute hexagonal prisms with rhombohedral terminations. Commonly massive, columnar to fine granular. Perfect prismatic cleavH. = 2-2.5. G. = 6.1-6.3. Metallic luster. Tin-white color.
age.

On

charcoal

and gives a white oxide coating.

with concentrated sulphuric acid gives deep red color to

solution.

Gray

streak.

Wholly

volatile B. B.

Fusible at

tinges reducing flame green

1.

Heated

rare species, found usually associated with the rare teilurides

and silver. Occurs with sylvanite near Zalathna, Transylvania, at the Good Hope Mine, Vulcan, Colorado, and in other districts in that state.
Tellurium has little commercial value.
of gold

Arsenic.

Composition.

Arsenic, often with

some antimony and

traces

of iron, silver, gold, bismuth, etc.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals rare.

Usually granular massive, sometimes reniform

Crystallization.

Structure.

and

stalactitic.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. H.=3.5. G.=5.7.

Metallic luster.
Color tin-white on fresh fracture, tarnishes

on exposure to dark gray.

Gray

streak.

B. B. on charcoal gives
white volatile coating of arsenious oxide and odor of garlic. In
0. T. gives volatile crystalline deposit of arsenious oxide. In
Tests.

Volatile without fusion.

C. T. gives arsenic mirror.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

124

A comparatively rare species found

Occurrence.

in veins in crys-

with antimony minerals, the ruby silvers,

Found in the silver mines of
realgar, orpiment, sphalerite, etc.
Saxony, in Bohemia, Norway, Zmeov in Siberia, Chile, Mexico.
Sparingly in the United States.
talline rocks associated

Name. The name arsenic is derived from a Greek word

meaning masculine, a term first applied to the sulphide of arsenic
on account of its potent properties.
Use. Very minor ore of arsenic.
Antimony.
Antimony, with

Composition.

(at times) small

amounts

of

arsenic, iron or silver.

Crystallization.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral.

Distinct crystals

rare.

Structure.
age;

Usually in granular masses showing distinct cleav-

radiated;

botryoidal.
Perfect

Physical Properties.

G.

6.6-6.7.

Metallic luster.

Easily and completely

Tests.

basal

cleavage.

Tin-white color.
volatile.

H. = 3-3.5.

Gray

Fusibility

1.

streak.

When

heated on charcoal gives a dense white coating of antimony

Heated in 0. T. gives a white, slowly volatile sublitrioxide.

mate

of

antimony

trioxide.

Occurrence. A rare species, found usually in connection with

and associated with arsenic and antimony compounds.
Occurs at Sala, Sweden; Andreasberg, Harz Mountains; at Pfibram,
Bohemia; Allemont, France; Chile; South Ham, Canada; York
County, New Brunswick, etc.

silver veins

Use.

Minor

ore of antimony.

Bismuth.
Composition.

Bismuth, with sometimes small amounts of

arsenic, sulphur, tellurium.

Crystallization.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral.

Distinct

crys-

tals rare.

Structure.

Usually laminated and granular; sometimes re-

ticulated or arborescent.

125

GOLD

=
Physical Properties. Basal and rhombohedral cleavage. H.
=
Color
luster.
Metallic
Brittle.
9.8.
Sectile.
G.
2-2.5.
Streak silver-white,
silver-white with decided reddish tone.
shining.
Tests.

Fusible at 1. B. B. on charcoal gives metallic globule

and yellow to white coating of bismuth oxide. The globule is
somewhat malleable but cannot be hammered into as thin a
Mixed with potassium iodide and
sheet as in the case of lead.

sulphur and heated on charcoal gives a brilliant yellow tp red

Recognized chiefly by its laminated structure, its
Boating.
reddish silver color and its sectility.

Occurrence. A comparatively rare mineral, occurring usually in

connection with ores of silver, cobalt, lead and zinc. Found in the
Saxony; in Norway and Sweden; Cornwall, England;
with the silver and cobalt minerals at Cobalt, Ontario, Canada; only
sparingly in the United States.
silver veins of

Use.

Ore of bismuth. The greater part of the bismuth of

is produced from the sulphide, bismuthinite, or from

commerce

It is
other ores that contain a small per cent of the metal.
chiefly employed in the manufacture of low-fusing alloys which
are used as safety plugs in boilers and in automatic fire sprinklers,
etc.

Its salts are

used in medicine.
III.

METALS.

GOLD GROUP. ISOMETRIC.

Gold.
Composition. Gold, commonly alloyed with small amounts
and at times with traces of copper and iron. Ordinarily,
native gold contains varying amounts of alloyed silver up to
16 per cent. California gold contains between 10 and 15 per
cent of silver. The greater part of native gold is about 90 per
cent "fine" or contains 10 per cent of other metals. Gold containing unusually high percentages of silver (25 to 40 per cent)
of silver

is

known

as electrum.

Crystallization.
dral in habit,

Isometric.

Crystals are

commonly octahe-

showing also at times the faces of the dodeca-

126

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Often in arboreshedron, cube, etc. (see Figs. 210, 211 and 212)
cent crystal groups with crystals elongated in the direction of an
.

Fig. 210.

Fig. 211.

Dodecahedron.

Octahedron.

octahedral axis.

Fig. 212.

Cube and Octahedron.

Crystals irregularly distorted and passing into

and dendritic shapes.

filiform, reticulated

Structure.

Seldom

Usually in irregular plates, scales or masses.

definitely crystallized.

Physical Properties. H. = 2.5-3. G. = 15.6-19.3 (becomes

greater as the percentages of the other metals present decrease).
Color various shades of yellow,
Very malleable and ductile.
depending upon purity, becoming paler with increase in the percentage of silver present.
Tests.

Easily fusible at 2.5-3.

Insoluble in ordinary acids

but soluble in a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids. To

be distinguished from certain yellow sulphides (particularly pyrite

and chalcopyrite) and from yellow flakes of altered micas by

malleability, its insolubility and its great weight.

its

Occurrence. Although gold is a rare element, it is to be found

widely distributed in nature, occurring in small amounts. Its presence as a primary constituent of igneous rocks, more particularly of
the acidic type, has been abundantly proved. It is to be found most
commonly in quartz veins. It occurs in detrital sands and gravels
in what are known as placer deposits.
It is present in small amounts
in sea water.
It is important to note that gold occurs almost wholly
as the native metal, the only class of compounds which it forms in
nature being the tellurides.
The chief source of gold is the gold-quartz veins. It occurs in
these veins usually as very small specks scattered uniformly throughout the quartz gangue. The contents of these veins are in general

GOLD

127

considered to have been deposited from ascending mineral-bearing

That gold is capable of solution and subsequent precipitation by means of underground waters has been repeatedly demonstrated.
In the majority of veins the gold is so finely divided and
uniformly distributed that its presence in the ore cannot be detected
with the eye. It is interesting to note that with the value of gold
at $20.67 a troy ounce, ore which contains one per cent of gold by
weight would be worth $6028 to the ton, while an ore containing
only 0.01 per cent of gold would still be a rich ore, having a value of
$60 per ton. Ores are mined at a profit sometimes which contain
only 0.001 per cent of gold and yield but $6 to the ton. So it might
be quite impossible x> detect the presence of gold in a valuable ore
by any ordinary tests. A definite estimation of the amount of gold
present by means of a careful assay is the only way usually to determine the value of an ore. But occasionally, under favorable conditions, the gold may collect in larger amounts, in nests and pockets
in the veins, occurring usually as irregular plates and masses between
the crystals of quartz. In the quartz veins the gold is frequently
associated with sulphides, particularly with pyrite. It is thought
that the gold does not exist in any chemical combination with the
pyrite, but has ,the same mechanical relation to it that it has to the
The upper portions of the gold-quartz veins as a rule have
quartz.
been enriched in their values. The gold present in this upper zone
was in part deposited contemporaneously with the formation of the
vein, but frequently the greater part has been transported, either
in solution or by mechanical settling, from that upper portion of the
vein which has been gradually eroded away! And so the gold in
this part of the vein represents the concentration in a small space
of the original gold content of a much greater length of vein.
By
the oxidation of the gold-bearing sulphides originally deposited in
this portion of the vein the gold embedded in them has been set free,
rendering the gold easy of extraction. Ores that contain the gold
free from intimate association with sulphides are known as "freemilling" because their gold content can be recovered by amalgamation with the mercury of the plates over which the finely crushed ore
runs from the stamp mill. Where sulphides are present in any
quantity all of the gold cannot be recovered by amalgamation and a
chemical process, either the cyanide or chlorination process, must
be used, either alone, or in addition to the amalgamation.
In addition to occurring with quartz and pyrite, gold has been
found associated with chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, stibnite,
solutions.

cinnabar, arsenopyrite, limonite, calcite, etc.

Gold, on account of its great weight, is mechanically sorted in
running water from the lighter material of the sands and gravels in
which it may occur. In this way a concentration frequently takes

128

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

place in stream beds and gold placer deposits are formed. In general
these deposits will be found where the current of the water has been
suddenly checked and the heaviest particles of its load dropped in
the bottom of the stream. Sand bars, etc., formed in this way may
contain rich placer deposits. Irregularities in the bottom of a
stream frequently act as natural riffles and catch behind them the
heavier gold traveling along the bottom of the stream. In general,
also, such deposits will be richer as the stream is ascended and the
original veins from which the gold has been derived are approached.

The

larger masses of gold which have been rolled together by the

action of the stream are called nuggets. These sometimes attain
considerable size. The very fine gold which is known as float gold
may be carried by the streams for long distances.
In California, at the close of the glacial epoch, large amounts of
gold-bearing gravels were deposited in the stream beds. Subsequent changes in the elevation of the country and extensive lava
flows have caused a rearrangement of the drainage, and in places
these old gravel beds are to be found to-day upon the liillsides and
are known as the hill gravels. In places they have been covered
over with lava flows and so preserved from erosion. At Cape Nome,
Alaska, the beach sands contained gold, where by the action of the
waves the gold has been concentrated to form placer deposits.
The important gold-producing states and territories of the
United States, in their approximate order of importance, are Colo-

rado, Alaska, California, Nevada, South Dakota, Utah, Montana,

Arizona and Idaho. There are several other states that also produce
the metal, but in comparatively small amounts. The most im-

portant gold-producing districts of California are those of the series

of gold-quartz veins known as the Mother Lode which lie along the
western slope of the Sierras in Nevada, Amador, Calaveras, Eldorado,

Tuolumne and Mariposa

Between one-third and one-half

comes from placer deposits, mostly
worked by dredging operations in Butte and Yuba counties. The
gold of Alaska has been derived chiefly from placer deposits, but
recently the vein deposits have been of .increasing importance. The
counties.

of California's gold production

chief producing districts are the

Yukon

Basin, the Fairbanks Dis-

and the Seward Peninsula, including Nome. Although Colorado is one of the first states in the production of gold, about onehalf of its output comes from the Cripple Creek District in Teller
County, where the gold occurs only sparingly native, but chiefly in
the form of the tellurides, sylvanite and calaverite. The other
chief producing counties are San Miguel and Ouray in the San Juan
District, and Lake County, containing the Leadville District, and
Gilpin, Clear Creek and Boulder counties in the Clear Creek District.
The chief gold districts of Nevada are Goldfield and Tonopah and
trict

129

SILVER

camps in Nye and Esmeralda counties. The gold

from South Dakota comes from the Black Hills, the Homestake Mine
The gold-producing districts
at Lead being the largest producer.
of Utah are the Tintic and Bingham districts in Juab and Salt Lake
counties respectively, and the Mercur District in Tooele County.
Important foreign gold-producing countries are as follows: South
The region known
Africa, Australia, Russia, Mexico and Canada.
as the Rand, near Johannesburg in the Transvaal, South Africa, is
the most productive gold district in the world. The gold occurs
"
here scattered throughout inclined beds or
reefs" of a quartzose
conglomerate, which has been mined in enormous amounts and to
great depths. Australia has the following chief gold districts:
Kalgoorlie in western Australia (largely tellurides), Ballarat and
Bendigo in Victoria, Mount Morgan in Queensland and various fields
in New South Wales.
In Russia gold is mined in western Siberia
and the Urals, in the Irkutsk Province, in Transbaikalia and Amur.
The production of Mexico comes chiefly from the districts of Guanajuato, El Oro and Dolores.
other smaller

Silver.

Composition. Silver, frequently containing small amounts of

alloyed copper and gold, more rarely traces of platinum, anti-

mony, bismuth, mercury.

Crystallization.

Isometric.

Crystals

commonly distorted and

in branching, arborescent or reticulated groups.

Structure. Commonly in irregular masses, plates, scales, etc.;

at times as coarse or fine wire.

Physical Properties.
Malleable and ductile.

H.

= 2.5-3.

G.

10.1-11.1, pure 10.5.

Color silver-white, often tarnished to

brown or gray-black.
Tests.
No oxide coatEasily fusible at 2 to bright globule.
ing on charcoal. Easily soluble in nitric acid, giving on addition
of hydrochloric acid a curdy white precipitate of silver chloride,

which turns dark on exposure to light.

tion by action of a clean copper plate.

Deposited from

its solu-

Occurrence. Occurs usually as small irregular flakes and masses

disseminated through various vein minerals, often invisible. Found
associated with native copper, galena, argentite, chalcocite, the ruby
While native silver is not
silvers, tetrahedrite, calcite, barite, etc.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

130

an uncommon mineral, the larger part of the world's output of the

metal is obtained from its various compounds with sulphur, anti-

mony, arsenic, etc. Most of the native silver occurring in nature is

probably secondary in its origin, having been derived by reduction
from some of its compounds.
Native silver has been found in the United States with native
copper in the copper mines of Lake Superior; in crystal groups at
the Elkhorn Mine, Montana; in large masses in the silver mines at
Aspen, Colorado. Is found, at present, in large quantities as platy
masses, associated with various cobalt and nickel minerals, at Cobalt,
An important silver ore in the mines of ChihuaOntario, Canada.
hua, Guanajuato, Durango, Sinaloa and Sonora, Mexico. Occurs
commonly in the mines of Peru. Was found in large masses, one
of which weighed 500 pounds, in the mines at Kongsberg, Norway.
One of the ores of the silver mines of Saxony and Bohemia.
Use.

Silver

plating, etc.

used for ornamental purposes, for coinage,

with copper. The standard

is

It is usually alloyed

silver coin in the

United States contains one part of copper to

nine parts of silver.

Copper.
Composition.

Copper, often containing small amounts of

bismuth, mercury,

silver,

Crystallization.

on

etc.

Isometric.

crystals, (see Fig. 213).

Tetrahexahedron faces

common

Also cube and dodecahedron. Crys-

and in branching
and arborescent groups, (see PL IV).

tals usually distorted

Structure. Usually in irregular masses,

In twisted and wire-

plates, scales, etc.

like forms.

G.

Physical Properties. H. = 2.5-3.

= 8.8-8.9. Highly ductile and mal-

leable.
Fig. 213.

Cube and Tetra-

Color copper-red, usually dark

dull luster on account of

and with a

hexahedron

tarnish.

Tests.

Fuses at 3 to a globule, which becomes covered with

an oxide coating on
the solution

is

cooling. Dissolves readily in nitric acid, and

colored a deep blue on addition of ammonium

hydroxide in excess.

PLATE

IV.

Arborescent Copper, Lake Superior.

131

PLATINUM

Occurrence. A mineral found widely distributed in copper veins,

but usually in small amount. Associated with various copper minerals, most commonly with the oxidized ores, cuprite, malachite and
azurite.
Ordinarily is strictly a secondary mineral and is to be
found only in the upper parts of copper veins.
The most notable deposit of native copper known in the world
is on Keweenaw Peninsula in northern Michigan, on the southern
shore of Lake Superior. The region is occupied by a series of igneous
flows of trap rock interbedded with sandstone conglomerates. The
whole series dips toward the north. The copper is found in veins
intersecting this rock series; in the amygdaloidal belts at the top
of the various trap flows; and as a cementing material in the sandstone conglomerate. This last type has furnished the most important ore deposits, some of which have been worked for considerably
over a mile in vertical depth. -Not only does the copper act as a cement to bind the conglomerate together, but it has often penetrated
the quartz boulders of the rock to a depth of a foot or more. It is
associated with such minerals as epidote, datolite, calcite and various
zeolites.
The mines were worked superficially by the Indians, and
have been actively developed since the middle of the eighteenth

Most

century.

of the copper of the district occurs in very small

but notable large masses have been found, one

weighing 420 tons being discovered in 1857.
Sporadic occurrences of copper similar to that of the Lake Superior
District have been found in the sandstone areas of the eastern
United States, notably in New Jersey, and in the glacial drift overNative copper occurs in small
lying a similar area in Connecticut.
amounts, associated with the oxidized ores of Arizona, New Mexico
and northern Mexico.
irregular specks,

The most important

Use.
as

an

uses to which the metal

is put are
manufacture of brass (an alloy
of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin with

electrical conductor; in the

of copper

and

zinc),

frequently zinc);

which

is

for sheet copper;

and as copper sulphate,

used in calico printing, in galvanic

cells, etc.

Mercury, Amalgam (Ag,Hg) and Lead are rare metals.

PLATINUM-IRON GROUP.
Platinum.
Composition. Platinum, usually alloyed with several per cent
and with smaller amounts of iridium, osmium, etc. The
amount of metallic platinum present seldom exceeds 80 per cent.
of iron

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

132

Crystallization.

Isometric.

Crystals very rare.

Commonly

distorted.

Structure.

Sometimes in
and nuggets of larger size.
Physical Properties. H. = >4.5 (unusually high for a'metal)
Usually in small grains or scales.

irregular masses

G.

= 14-19

and

native; 21-22

ductile.

Tests.

when chemically

its

Malleable

Color steel-gray, with bright luster.

B. B. infusible.

Unattacked by ordinary reagents;

soluble in a mixture of hydrochloric

mined by

pure.

and

nitric acids.

Deter-

high specific gravity, infusibility and insolubility.

Occurrence.

Platinum is a rare metal which occurs almost exone rare compound, sperrylite, PtAs 2 being
known). It is found in quantity in only a few localities, and then
only in the stream sands, as placer deposits, where it has been preserved on account of its great weight and hardness. Occurs in the
alluvial deposits associated with the rarer metals of the Platinum
Group, gold, iron-nickel alloys, chromite, etc. Its original source
is probably usually in peridotite rocks or the serpentine rocks reIt occurs so sparingly dissemisulting from their metamorphism.
nated through such rocks, however, that it is only after their disintegration and the subsequent concentration of the platinum in the
resulting sands that workable deposits of the metal are formed.
Placer deposits of platinum are therefore to be looked for in the
vicinity of masses of such peridotite rocks.
Practically the entire world's supply of platinum at present comes
from the Ural Mountains in Russia. The central and northern end
of this range has large masses of altered peridotite rocks, and in the
sands of the streams descending from it, chiefly on the eastern slope
The chief
in Siberia, platinum is found in considerable quantity.
districts are Nizhni Tagilsk, Bissersk and Goroblagodat, and farclusively native (only

ther to the north, Bogoslowsk.

Platinum was first discovered in the United States of Colombia,
South America, where it received its name platina from plata (silver)
The
It is to be found there in two districts near the Pacific coast.
chief district covers the greater part of the intendencia of Choco,
while the second, that of Barbacoas, is in the department of Cauca.
The platinum occurs here with gold in placer deposits, and, while
the fields are not largely productive at present, they may become so.
The only platinum found in the United States comes from the
gold placer deposits of Oregon and California, but the yearly yield
amounts to only a few thousand dollars in value.
.

133

SULPHIDES
The

Use.

uses of the metal depend chiefly upon its insoluand superior hardness. It is used for various

bility, infusibility

scientific

instruments such as crucibles, dishes, etc., in the chemito line the distilling apparatus in the manufac-

cal laboratory;

ture of sulphuric acid; in the electrical industry for contacts,

in jewelry, chiefly as the setting for diamonds; as anodes
in the electrolytic chemical industry; for electric heating appaetc.;

for the

ratus;

measurement

incandescent electric lights;

and

in fillings for teeth;

are facilitated

by

of high temperatures

by the use

for sparking plugs in explosive motors;

thermoelectricity;

and

in the

manufacture of

of
in

false teeth

in various chemical reactions

which

the use of finely divided platinum.

Iron.
iron, with always some nickel and usually small amounts
and frequently traces of copper, manganese, sulphur, carphosphorus, etc. Isometric. Practically always massive.

Native
of cobalt

bon,

H. = 4-5.

G.
gray to black.

7.3-7.8.

Malleable.

Metallic luster.

Color

steel-

Strongly magnetic. Occurs very sparingly as terrestrial iron, and in the form of meteorites.
Found, included in basalt,
on the west coast of Greenland, varying in size from small disseminated grains to large masses. Has been noted in a few other localiNickel-iron alloys have been found
ties with a similar association.
in the gold sands of New Zealand (awaruite), from Josephine County,
Oregon (josephinite) and from the Fraser River, British Columbia
Most meteorites contain native iron. The metal some(souesite).
times forms practically the entire body of the meteorite, while at
other times it forms a cellular mass, inclosing grains of chrysolite, etc.
In the stony meteorites, iron is found disseminated through them
in the shape of small grains.
Meteorites are to be recognized usually
by their fused and pitted exterior. At first they are coated with a
film of iron oxide, which disappears, however, on continued exposure
to the weather.
,

Indium, Iridosmine, an alloy of iridium and osmium, and

Palladium are rare metals in the Platinum-Iron Group.

SULPHIDES.
The

sulphides form an important gi*oup of minerals which inWith them are classed
cludes the majority of the ore minerals.

the similar but rarer selenides, tellurides, arsenides and anti-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

134

monides. The sulphides may be divided into two groups depending upon the character of the metal present: (1) Sulphides
of the Semimetals, (2) Sulphides of the Metals.

SULPHIDES OF THE SEMIMETALS.

Realgar.
Arsenic monosulphide,

Composition.

AsS = Sulphur

19.9,

arsenic 70. 1.

Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Short prismatic crystals, ver-

tically striated.

(See Fig. 214.)

Structure.
In crystals, coarse to fine granular, often earthy and as an incrustation.

Physical

Properties.

clinopinacoid.

ous

H.

1.5-2.

Cleavage parallel to
G. = 3.55.
Resin-

Color and streak red to

luster.

orange.

Transparent to opaque.
Tests.

Fusible at

on charcoal yields a

1.

Easily volatile.

Heated

volatile white sublimate of

arsenious oxide with characteristic garlic odor.

Fig. 214.

Roasted in 0. T. gives volatile, crystalline sublimate of arsenious oxide and odor of sulphur dioxide. Characterized chiefly

by deep red

color

and resinous

luster.

Occurrence. A rare mineral, occurring usually with orpiment,

As 2S 3 Found associated with silver and lead ores in Hungary,
Bohemia, Saxony, etc. Found in good crystals at Nagyag, Transylvania; Binnenthal, Switzerland; Allchar, Macedonia. Occurs
in Iron County, Utah.
Found deposited from the geyser waters in
.

Yellowstone Park.

Name.

The name

powder of
Use.

is

derived from the Arabic, Rahj al ghar,

the mine.

Was used in fireworks to give a brillant white light when

mixed with saltpeter and

ignited.

Artificial arsenic sulphide is

at present used for this purpose.

Orpiment.
Composition.
nic 61.

Arsenic trisulphide, As 2 S a

Sulphur 39, arse-

135

STIBNITE
Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Crystals small and rarely dis-

tinct.

Structure. Usually foliated.

Physical Properties. Very perfect cleavage parallel to clinoFolia flexible but not elastic. Sectile. H. = 1.5-2.
pinacoid.
G. = 3.4-3.5. Resinous luster, pearly on cleavage face. Color
lemon-yellow. Translucent.
Tests.
Same as for realgar (which see). Characterized by
its

yellow color, perfect cleavage and foliated structure.

Occurrence.

rare mineral, associated usually with realgar.

in various places in Hungary; in Kurdistan; in Peru, etc.
Occurs at Mercur, Utah. Deposited from geyser waters in the

Found

Yellowstone Park.

Name. Derived from the Latin, auripigmentum, "golden paint."

Use. For a pigment, in dyeing and in a preparation for the
removal of hair from skins. Artificial arsenic sulphide is largely
used in place of the mineral.

Stibnite.

Antimony

Composition.

antimony

71.4.

Sometimes

Crystallization.

trisulphide,

Sb 2 S 3 = Sulphur

28.6,

carries gold or silver.

Orthorhombic.

Slender

prismatic

habit,

prism zone vertically striated. Crystals often steeply termiOften in radiating groups.
nated.
Crystals
(See Fig. 216.)
sometimes curved or bent (Fig. 215).
Structure. In radiating crystal groups or in bladed forms with

prominent cleavage. Massive, coarse to fine columnar.

Physical Properties. Perfect cleavage parallel to brachyH. =2. G. = 4.55. Metallic luster, splendent on
pinacoid.
cleavage surfaces. Color and streak lead-gray.
Tests.
Very easily fusible at 1. B. B. on charcoal gives dense

white coating of antimony trioxide and odor of sulphur dioxide.

When roasted in 0. T. gives nonvolatile white sublimate on
bottom of tube and a white volatile sublimate as ring around

Heated in C. T. gives a faint ring of sulphur and below

a red (when cold) deposit of oxysulphide of antimony. Char-

tube.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

136
acterized

by

its

bladed structure, perfect cleavage in one direcand soft black streak.

tion, its lead-gray color

Fig. 215.

Fig. 216.

Occurrence. Deposited by alkaline waters in connection usually

with quartz. Found in quartz veins or beds in granite and gneiss.
Associated with other antimony minerals, as the products of its
decomposition, and with galena, cinnabar, sphalerite, barite and
sometimes gold. Found in various mining districts in Saxony, and
Bohemia, Mexico, New South Wales, China, etc. Occurs in magnificent crystals in Province of lyo, island of Shikoku, Japan.
Found in quantity only sparingly in the United States, the chief
deposits being in California, Nevada and Idaho.
Use.

Used

friction metal.

in various alloys, as type metal, pewter and antiThe sulphide is employed in the manufacture

of fireworks, matches, percussion caps, etc.

Used in vulcanizing
Used in medicine as tartar emetic and other compounds.

rubber.

Antimony

trioxide

is

used as a pigment and for making

glass.

Bismuthinite.
Composition,

muth

Bismuth

trisulphide, Bi 2 S 3

= Sulphur

18.8, bis-

81.2.

Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

In acicular

crystals.

137

MOLYBDENITE
Usually massive, foliated or bladed.

Structure.

Physical Properties.
H. = 2. G.
pinacoid.
streak lead-gray.
Tests.
Easily fusible

Perfect cleavage parallel to brachyMetallic luster. Color and

6.4-6.5.

Roasted in 0. T. or B. B. on charMixed with potassium iodide

(1).

coal gives odor of sulphur dioxide.

and sulphur and heated on charcoal gives

to red coating.

Resembles

stibnite;

characteristic yellow

recognized by the test for

bismuth.

Occurrence. A rare mineral, found in Cumberland, England; in

Saxony, Sweden, Bolivia, Beaver County in Utah, etc.
Use.

An

See under native bismuth.

ore of bismuth.

Molybdenite.
Composition.

molybdenum

Molybdenum

disulphide,

MoS =
2

Sulphur

40,

60.

Crystallization.

Hexagonal.

Crystals in hexagonal-shaped

plates or short, slightly tapering prisms.

Structure. Commonly foliated massive or in scales.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. Laminae

= 1. G. = 4.75. Greasy
but not elastic. Sectile.
Color lead-gray. Grayish black streak.
Metallic luster.

ible

Tests.

Infusible.

Heated B. B. gives yellowish green

flexfeel.

flame.

Roasted in 0. T. gives odor of sulphur dioxide and deposit of

thin plates of molybdenum oxide, crossing the tube above the
mineral.

Heated on charcoal

molybdenum

oxide;

when

turns to deep blue color.

in 0. F. gives a white coating of

is touched with R. F.
Resembles graphite but is distin-

this coating

guished from it by having a blue tone to color, while graphite

has a brown tinge, and by its reactions for sulphur and molyb-

denum.
Occurrence. Occurs in granite, gneiss and granular limestone,
Found in the
either as nests or disseminated through the rock.
United States in many localities, but usually not in commercial quan-

Found at Blue Hill and Cooper, Maine; Westmoreland, New

Hampshire; Pitkin, Colorado; in Okanogan County, Washington.

tity.

Use.

An

ore of

molybdenum.

See under wulfenite.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

138

SULPHIDES, ETC., OF THE METALS.

The

sulphides of the metals are divided into the following

groups: A. Basic Division; B. Monosulphide Division; C. Intermediate Division;

D. Disulphide Division.

A.

BASIC DIVISION.

This division includes several rare compounds of silver or copper with antimony or arsenic such as dyscrasite, Ag 3 Sb to Ag 6 Sb;
domeykite,

Cu

As;

Cu

As; whitneyite,

MONOSULPHIDE

B.
1.

algodonite,

DIVISION.

GALENA GROUP. ISOMETRIC.

Argentite.

Silver Glance.

Silver sulphide,

Composition.

Ag S = Sulphur
2

12.9, silver

87.1.

Crystallization.

hedron the most

Isometric.

common

Cube, dodecahedron and octa-

forms.

Crystals often distorted and

arranged in branching or reticulated groups.

Structure. Commonly massive, platy, earthy or as a coating.

More

rarely in crystals.

Physical Properties.
can be cut with a knife

H. = 2-2.5.
like lead.

G. = 7.3. Easily sectile,

Metallic luster.
Color and

Streak shining. Bright on fresh

surface but on exposure becomes dull black, due to the formastreak blackish lead-gray.
tion of

an earthy sulphide.

Easily fusible at 1.5 with intumescence. When fused

alone on charcoal in 0. F. gives off odor of sulphur dioxide and
Distinguished by these tests
yields a globule of pure silver.
Tests.

and by

its color, sectility

and high

common

specific gravity.

ore of silver. Usually found in

Associated
silver veins as small masses, often earthy or as a coating.
with native silver, the ruby silvers, stephanite and other silver minIn the United States it was an important ore
erals; also galena.
in the mines of the Comstock Lode, Nevada; at present found in
Nevada at Tonopah and elsewhere. Found also in some of the silver

Occurrence.

fairly

139

GALENA

An important ore in the silver mines of Guandistricts of Arizona.

ajuato and elsewhere in Mexico; in Peru, Chile and Bolivia. Important European localities for its occurrence are Freiberg in Saxony,
Annaberg
Kremnitz

Hungary, Kongsberg

An

Use.

Austria, Joachimsthal in Bohemia, Schemnitz

in
in

important ore of

in

silver.

Galena.

Galenite.

Lead sulphide, PbS = Sulphur

Composition.
Almost always carries traces of
to

make

amounts

it

13.4, lead 86.6.

silver sulphide, frequently

a valuable silver ore.

of selenium, zinc,

and

Norway.

At times

enough

also contains small

cadmium, antimony, bismuth and

copper.

Most common form is the cube,

Isometric.
Crystallization.
octahedron sometimes as truncations to cube, more rarely as the

Fig. 217.

Fig. 219.

Fig. 218.

Cube and Octahedron.

Cube.

Octahedron and Cube.

simple form (Figs. 217, 218 and 219; see also A, pl.V.).
cahedron and trisoctahedron rare.

Structure.

Commonly

crystallized

or

massive

Dode-

cleavable;

coarse or fine granular.

Physical Properties.
G.

7.4-7.6.

Perfect cubic cleavage,

Bright metallic luster.

H. =

2.5-2.75.'

Color and streak lead-

gray.
Tests.

Easily fusible at 2. Reduced on charcoal to lead

globule with formation of yellow to white coating of lead oxide.
When heated rapidly in the 0. F. the coating is heavier and consists chiefly of

a white volatile combination of oxides of lead and

sulphur, which resembles the antimony oxide coating.

sulphur dioxide when roasted on charcoal or in 0. T.

Odor

of

When

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

140

treated with strong nitric acid

is

Determined chiefly by its high

streak and cubic cleavage.
Alteration.

By

oxidation

oxidized to white lead sulphate.

specific gravity, softness,] black

it is

converted into the sulphate,

anglesite, the carbonate, cerussite, or other

Occurrence.

very

common

compounds.

metallic sulphide, associated with

sphalerite, pyrite, marcasite, chalcopyrite, cerussite, anglesite, dolo-

Frequently found with

mite, calcite, quartz, barite, fluorite, etc.
silver minerals, often containing that metal itself and so becoming
an important silver ore.
large part of the supply of lead comes
as a secondary production from ores mined chiefly for their silver.
Occurs most commonly in connection with limestones, either as

veins or irregular deposits, or as replacement deposits.

The following are the important lead producing localities in the
United States: Southeastern Missouri, in which the ore occurs in
the form of beds with the mineral disseminated through the limestone; southwestern Missouri, where it is associated with zinc ores,
and is found in irregular veins and pockets in limestone and chert;
Idaho, where the lead is derived chiefly from lead-silver deposits,

the greater part of which come from near Wallace in Shoshone

County; Utah, in connection with the silver deposits of the Tintic
and Park City districts; Colorado, chiefly from the lead-silver ores
of the Leadville District.
The most famous foreign localities are, Freiberg, Saxony; the

Harz Mountains; Pfibram, Bohemia;

Cumberland, England.

Cornwall, Derbyshire and

Name. The name galena is derived from

name originally given to lead ore.

the Latin galena, a

Use. Practically the only source of lead and an important

ore of silver. Metallic lead is used chiefly as follows: for conversion into white lead (a basic lead carbonate), which is the
principal ingredient of the best white paints, or into the oxides

used in making glass and in giving a glaze to earthernware; as

pipe and sheets; for shot; it is one of the ingredients of solder
(an alloy of lead and tin), of type metal (an alloy of lead and

antimony) and of low-fusion alloys consisting of lead, bismuth

and

tin.

The

Ag2Te;

following rare tellurides belong in this "group;

petzite

(Ag,Au) 2Te; dtaite, PbTe.

hessite,

PLATE

A.

V.

Galena with Dolomite, Joplin, Missouri.

B.

Fluorite,

Cumberland, England.

141

CHALCOCITE

2.

CHALCOCITE GROUP. ORTHORHOMBIC.

Copper Glance.

Chalcocite.

Cuprous sulphide, Cu 2 S = Sulphur

Composition.

20.2, cop-

per 79.8.
Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

crystals with hexagonal outline.

Usually in small tabular

Striated parallel to the brachy-

Fig. 220.

Fig. 221.

Often twinned in pseudohexagonal forms (Fig.

axis (Fig. 220).

221).

Structure.

Massive.

Physical Properties.

Crystals very rare.

Conchoidal fracture.

H. =

2.5-3.

G.

Metallic luster.

Color shining lead-gray, tarnishing on exposure to dull black. Streak grayish black.
Tests.
Easily fusible at 2-2.5. In 0. T. or B. B. on charcoal
5.5-5.8.

gives odor of sulphur dioxide.

Roasted mineral, moistened with

azure-blue
flame.
Soluble in nitric acid;
hydrochloric acid, gives
and the solution with an excess of ammonia turns dark blue.
Recognized by
its color,

its

softness

massive structure,

and black

its

high specific gravity,

streak.

Found in crystals in Cornwall, England, and BrisConnecticut. Occurs as a mineral of secondary origin in the enriched zone of copper veins associated with bornite, chalcopyrite,
Found as an ore at Monte Catini,
enargite, malachite, pyrite, etc.
Occurrence.

tol,

Tuscany;

Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Chile,

etc.

Occurs in immense

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

142
deposits

at

Butte,

Copper River
Use.

An

Montana.

Found

in

Alaska at Kennecott,

District.

important copper

ore.

Stromeyerite.

A sulphide of

and copper (Ag,Cu) 2 S or Ag 2 S.Cu 2 S. Orthorhombic. Commonly massive. H. = 2.5-3. G.= 6.15-6.3. Metallic luster.
Color and streak grayish black. Fusible at 1.5. In
O. T. gives odor of sulphur dioxide. Roasted mineral with hydrosilver

chloric acid gives azure-blue flame.

Nitric acid solution with hydrochloric acid gives precipitate of silver chloride.
rare silver mineral

found with other

3.

silver ores.

SPHALERITE GROUP. ISOMETRIC, TETRAHEDRAL.

Sphalerite.

Zinc Blende, Black Jack.

Composition. Zinc sulphide, ZnS = Sulphur 33, zinc 67. Almost always contains at least a small percentage of iron replacing the zinc, but the amount of iron may rise as high as 15 to
18 per cent. Also frequently contains small amounts of manganese,

cadmium, mercury,

Crystallization.
222),

etc.

Isometric; tetrahedral.

dodecahedron and cube

Fig. 222.

common

Tetrahedron

(Fig.

forms, but the crystals

Fig. 223.

frequently highly complex and usually distorted or in rounded

forms. Often twinned.

Structure.

Usually massive cleavable, coarse to fine granular.

Also in rounded crystal masses.

Compact, botryoidal.

143

SPHALERITE

Physical Properties. Perfect dodecahedral cleavage. H. =

G. = 4-4.1. Nonmetallic and resinous to submetallic

3.5-4.

also adamantine.

luster;

Color white when pure,' and green

yellow, brown to black, darkening

with increase in the amount of iron present. Transparent to
translucent.
Streak white to yellow and brown.

when nearly

Commonly

so.

Tests.
Infusible with pure zinc sulphide to difficultly fusible
with increase in amount of iron. Gives odor of sulphur dioxide

when heated on charcoal

or in 0. T.

Decomposed

in

powder by

warm

hydrochloric acid with evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas,

which may be detected by its disagreeable odor. When heated

on charcoal gives a coating of zinc oxide (yellow when hot, white

when cold) which is nonvolatile in oxidizing flame. Recognized
The
usually by its striking resinous luster and perfect cleavage.
dark varieties (black jack) can be told by noting that a knife
scratch leaves a reddish

Occurrence.

brown

streak.

most important ore of zinc, is an

mineral, especially as a constituent of metallic
Found widely distributed, but chiefly in veins and irregular
veins.
bodies in limestone rocks. Associated with galena, pyrite, marcasite,
chalcopyrite, smithsonite, calcite, dolomite, siderite, etc.
May carry
silver or gold.
Large deposits are found in the United States in
Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Colorado.
The chief locality for its production is the Joplin District in southwestern Missouri. Found in large quantities in connection with the
extremely

Sphalerite, the

common

lead-silver deposits of Leadville, Colorado.

Noteworthy European
localities are at Alston Moor and other places in the lead-mining districts of

northern England; Binnenthal, Switzerland, in fine crystals;

and other localities in the gold and silver-mining dis-

at Schemnitz
tricts of

Hungary.

Name.

The name blende is from the German, blind or decepbecause

while often resembling galena it yielded no lead.
tive,
Sphalerite, for the same reason, is derived from a Greek word
meaning
Use.

treacherous.

The most important

ore of zinc.

The

chief uses for

metallic zinc, or spelter, are in galvanizing iron, making brass,

an alloy of copper and zinc, in electric batteries, and as sheet
zinc.

Zinc oxide, or zinc white,

is

used extensively for making

MANUAL

144

OF MINERALOGY

Zinc chloride is used as a preservative for wood. Zinc

sulphate is used in dyeing and in medicine. Sphalerite also
serves as the most important source of cadmium.

paint.

Alabandite.

Manganese
ular massive.
tallic

luster.

MnS.

Isometric; tetrahedral. Usually gransulphide,

Cubic cleavage. H. = 3.5-4. G. = 3.95. SubmeColor iron-black, tarnished to brown on exposure.

Streak olive-green. Fusible at 3. Gives odor of sulphur dioxide

when roasted in O.T. Soluble in hydrochloric acid with evolution
With sodium carbonate in O. F. gives
of hydrogen sulphide gas.
opaque greenish blue bead (manganese). A rare mineral, occurring
usually with gold or silver ores.

Pentlandite.

A sulphide of iron and nickel (Ni,Fe)S. Isometric. Massive

= 3.5-4. G. = 4.55-5. Metalgranular. Octahedral cleavage. H.
Yellowish bronze color. Black streak. Fusible at 1.5-2.
lic luster.
Gives odor of sulphur dioxide in O. T. Magnetic on heating in
R. F. Roasted mineral in O. F. colors borax bead reddish brown
(nickel).
Closely resembles pyrrhotite in appearance but to be
distinguished by the octahedral cleavage. A rare mineral, found
with chalcopyrite near Lillehammer, Norway, and with pyrrhotite
and chalcopyrite in the nickel deposits at Sudbury, Canada.

Other minerals which are rare in occurrence that belong in

this

group

are, metacinnabarite,

HgS;

tiemannite,

HgSe;

onofrite,

Hg(S,Se); coloradoite, HgTe.

4.

CINNABAR-MILLERITE GROUP. HEXAGONAL.

Cinnabar.
Mercuric sulphide, HgS = Sulphur 13.8, merUsually impure from admixture of clay, iron oxide,

Composition.
cury 86.2.
etc.

Crystallization.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral;

usually rhombodedral,
Trapezohedral faces rare.
Crystals

Structure.

often

in

trapezohedral.
penetration twins.

Usually fine granular massive; also earthy and

as incrustations.

Crystals rare.

145

COVELLITE

H. = 2-2.5. G. = 8.10. Adamantine

when pure, to dull and earthy when impure. Color vermilion-red when pure, to brownish red when impure.
Scarlet
Physical Properties.

luster

streak.

Transparent to opaque.

Wholly volatile when free from gangue. Gives black

sublimate of mercury sulphide when heated alone in C. T.
When carefully heated in C. T. with dry sodium carbonate gives
Tests.

globules of metallic mercury.

Carefully roasted in 0. T. gives
odor of sulphur dioxide and sublimate of metallic mercury.

Recognized usually by
Occurrence.

color, streak

The most important

and high

specific gravity.

ore of mercury, but found in

quantity at comparatively few localities. Occurs filling fissures,

cavities, etc., usually in sedimentary rocks; frequently as impregnations in sandstone or limestone.
Associated with pyrite, marcasite,

Always found
neighborhood of igneous rock masses from which it is thought
that the mercury was derived. Deposited probably through the
agency of ascending hot waters. Deposits of mercuric sulphide are
being' formed to-day by the hot springs at Steamboat Springs, Nesulphur, calcite, barite, gypsum, opal, quartz, etc.

in the

vada, and at Ohaiawai, New Zealand. The important localities for

the occurrence of cinnabar are at Almaden, Spain; Idria in Carniola;
Huancavelica in southern Peru; Kwei Chaw, China; New Idria in
San Benito County, Napa County, and New Almaden in Santa Clara
County, California; Terlingua, Brewster County, Texas. Hepatic
cinnabar is an inflammable variety with liver-brown color and sometimes a brownish streak, usually granular or compact.

Name.

The name cinnabar

India, where

Use.

The

is

supposed to have come from

applied to a red resin.

only important source of mercury.

it is

Covellite.
Cupric sulphide, CuS. Hexagonal. Rarely in tabular hexagonal
crystals with prominent basal plane.
Usually massive. Perfect
basal cleavage. H. = 1.5-2. G. = 4.59.
Metallic luster. Color
Fusible at 2.5. Gives odor of sulphur dioxide in
O. T. and much sulphur in C. T. The roasted mineral, moistened
with hydrochloric acid and ignited, gives a blue flame (copper).
When moistened with water shows a strong purple color. A rare
mineral, found only in the enriched sulphide zone of copper deposits,
associated with chalcocite, bornite, etc.
indigo-blue.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

146

Greenockite.
Composition.

mium

Cadmium sulphide, CdS = Sulphur 22.3,

cad-

77.7.

Crystallization.
Hexagonal; hemimorphic. Crystals hemimorphic, showing prism faces and terminated usually below with
base and above with pyramids.

Structure.

Usually pulverulent, as thin powdery incrustaCrystals small and rare.

tions.

Physical Properties. H. = 3-3.5. G. = 4.9-5.

mantine to resinous, earthy. Color yellow.
Tests.

Infusible.

Yields

odor

of

sulphur

Luster adadioxide

when

heated B. B. or in 0. T.

Decomposed by hydrochloric acid

with the evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas, which may be deGives a reddish brown coating
tected by its disagreeable odor.
of cadmium oxide when heated with sodium carbonate on charcoal.
Characterized by its yellow color and pulverulent form.
Occurrence. Most common mineral containing cadmium but
found only in a few localities and in small amount. Associated
usually with zinc ores, often as a coating on sphalerite and smith-

Found in crystals at Bishopton, Renfrewshire, Scotland;

with the zinc ores of southwestern Missouri and in Arkansas, also
sonite.

in various localities in

Use.

Bohemia and Greece.

A source of cadmium.

Cadmium-bearing zinc ores

fur-

Cadmium is used
nish the greater part of the metal produced.
The sulphide serves as
in alloys for dental and other purposes.
a yellow pigment.
Millerite.

Composition.

Capillary Pyrites.

Nickel sulphide, NiS

= Sulphur

35.3, nickel

64.7.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral.
Usually in hairlike tufts and radiating groups of

Crystallization.

Structure.

slender to capillary crystals.

Sometimes

in velvety incrusta-

tions.

Physical Properties.

G.

5.65.

Cleavage rhombohedral. H. = 3-3.5.

Pale brass-yellow; with a green-

Metallic luster.

PYRRHOTITE
ish tinge

when

in fine hairlike masses.

147
Streak black, somewhat

greenish.

Tests.

'Fusible at 1.5-2 to magnetic globules. Gives odor

when heated on charcoal or in 0. T. The

of sulphur dioxide

roasted mineral colors the borax bead reddish

brown

in 0. F.

Occurrence.

Occurs in various localities in Saxony and Bohemia;

with hematite and siderite at Antwerp, N. Y.; with
pyrrhotite at the Gap Mine, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania; in
calcite at St. Louis, Missouri, Keokuk, Iowa, etc.

in Cornwall;

Use.

subordinate ore of nickel.

Copper Nickel.
= Arsenic
arsenide, NiAs

Niccolite.

Nickel

Composition.
43.9.

Usually with a

little iron,

frequently replaced in part

cobalt

56.1, nickel

and sulphur.

Arsenic

by antimony.

Hexagonal; hemimorphic (?).

Usually massive. Crystals rare.
Physical Properties. H. = 5-5.5. G. = 7.5. Metallic lusColor pale copper-red, (hence called copper-nickel) with
ter.
Crystallization.

Structure.

Brownish black streak.

heated B. B. on charcoal a white
volatile deposit of arsenious oxide forms and a garlic-like odor
Gives to borax bead a reddish brown color (nickel).
is given off.
gray to blackish tarnish.
Fusible

Tests.

(2).

Characterized chiefly by

Occurrence.

its color.

Associated usually with cobalt, silver and copper

Found in the silver mines of Saxony,

Not very common.

minerals.
in

When

Sweden, at Cobalt, Canada,

Use.

minor ore of

etc.

nickel.

Pyrrhotite.

Magnetic Pyrites.

Composition. A sulphide of iron, varying in composition from

Fe 6S 6 up to FeieSn. FenSi 2 is the usually accepted formula.
Often carries a small amount of nickel.
Crystallization.
Hexagonal.
sometimes pyramidal.

Crystals usually tabular,

or

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

148
Structure.

Practically always massive with granular or lamel-

lar structure.

G. = 4.65.
Metallic luster.
Physical Properties. H. = 4.
Brownish bronze color. Black streak. Usually slightly magnetic, but sometimes scarcely at all so.
Tests. Easily fusible.
Strongly magnetic after heating.
B. B. or in 0. T. gives odor of sulphur dioxide. Little or no

sulphur in C. T.

Decomposed by hydrochloric

acid, giving off

hydrogen sulphide gas.

Recognized usually by
structure and bronze color.

A common

Occurrence.

its

massive

minor constituent of igneous rocks.

Occurs in large masses in intimate association with basic igneous

rocks and is thought by many to have been formed through magmatic differentiation. This view is doubted by many and is still
open to question. Associated with the ferromagnesian minerals of
the rocks in which it occurs, and also with chalcopyrite, and nickel

Found in large quantities

minerals, as pentlandite, millerite, etc.
in Norway and Sweden, at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada; at Stafford
and Ely, Vermont; at Ducktown, Tennessee. Was found at the

Gap Mine, Lancaster County,

Name.
Use.

Pennsylvania.

Derived from a Greek word meaning reddish.

Serves as an important ore of nickel, particularly at

Sudbury, Ontario.
In this group belongs also the rare mineral, wurtzite, ZnS, which
differs

from

sphalerite, since

C.

it is

Hexagonal

in crystallization.

INTERMEDIATE DIVISION.

Bornite.

Purple Copper Ore, etc.

Composition. Cu 5FeS 4 = Sulphur 25.5, copper 63.3, iron
11.2.
Analyses of different specimens show quite a wide variation in the percentages of the elements present, copper ranging
cent.
Analyses of the purest material, how-

from 55 to 71 per

ever, agree with the

Crystallization.

above formula.
Isometric.

Structure.

Commonly

Usually in rough
Dodecahedron and octa-

Crystals rare.

cubes, sometimes in penetration twins.

hedron at times.

massive.

LINNMITE

149

Physical Properties. H. = 3. G. = 4.9-5.4. Metallic lusColor brownish bronze on fresh fracture but quickly tar-

ter.

nishing on exposure to variegated purple and blue

almost black. Streak grayish black.

and

finally to

Easily fusible at 2.5. Gives odor of sulphur dioxide

in 0. T.
Yields only a very little sulphur in C. T.

Tests.

on charcoal or

Becomes magnetic in R. F. If, after roasting, it is moistened

with hydrochloric acid and heated, it gives an azure-blue flame
Easily soluble in nitric acid with separation of sul(copper).
phur; solution neutralized with
cipitate of ferric hydroxide

terized chiefly

by

its

ammonia

and blue

gives red-brown pre-

color to filtrate.

Charac-

purple tarnish.

Occurrence. An important and widely occurring ore of copper,

but usually with other copper minerals and in subordinate amount.
It has been found as a primary constituent in igneous rocks and in
pegmatite veins. Bornite and chalcopyrite are the two common
original copper minerals, from which other copper minerals have
been derived through secondary action. It is also frequently, itself,
a secondary mineral, formed in the upper, enriched zone of copper
veins through the action of descending copper-bearing solutions,
upon chalcopyrite. The minerals with which it is commonly associated are chalcopyrite, chalcocite, enargite, malachite, azurite,
It frequently occurs in intimate mixture with chalpyrite, etc.
copyrite and chalcocite. Found in the United States at Butte,
Montana; in the copper mines of Virginia and North Carolina. It

was found

unusual crystals, associated with crystallized chalcocite

Connecticut. Occurs at Acton,. Canada. Found in
Cornwall; Monte Catini, Tuscany, and in various other European
An important ore in Chile, Peru, Bolivia and Mexico.
countries.

at

in

Bristol,

Name. Bornite was named after the mineralogist von Born

(1742-1791). Sometimes called horseflesh ore in reference to
the color on the fresh fracture, or variegated copper ore or peacock
ore because of its purple tarnish.
Called for the latter reason
erubescite

Use.

by English

An

mineralogists.

important ore of copper.

Linnagite.

A sulphide
in

of cobalt, Co 3 S 4 or CoS.Co 2 S 3 with the cobalt replaced

varying amount by nickel. Isometric. In small octahedral
,

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

150

H. = 5.5. G. = 4.9. Metallic lusColor pale steel-gray. Grayish black streak.

Fusible at 2.
Gives odor of sulphur dioxide in O. T. Fuses in R. F. to a magnetic
Roasted mineral colors the borax bead blue (cobalt). A
globule.
rare mineral, found with chalcopyrite near Riddarhyttan, Sweden;
with barite and siderite at Miisen, Prussia; with lead ores at Mine La
crystals or granular massive.
ter.

Motte, Missouri.

Chalcopyrite.

Composition.

phur

Copper

Pyrites.

Yellow Copper Ore.

sulphide of copper and iron,

CuFeS 2 =

Sul-

35, copper 34.5, iron 30.5.

Crystallization. Tetragonal; sphenoidal. Crystals usually in

unit sphenoids (Fig. 224), which because the vertical axis is close
to unity (c = 0.985) are very near to the isometric tetrahedron

Fig. 224.

Fig. 225.

Steeper sphenoids (Fig. 225), and other more complex

forms occasionally observed.
Structure. Usually massive, compact; at times in crystals.
in angles.

Physical Properties. H. = 3.5. G. = 4.2-4.3. Metallic lusColor brass-yellow; often tarnished to bronze or iridescent.

ter.

Streak greenish black.

Easily fusible to a magnetic globule. Gives odor of
dioxide
when heated B. B. or in O. T. Gives sulphur in
sulphur
C. T. After roasting, and moistening with hydrochloric acid,
Tests.

gives

an azure-blue flame.

Readily decomposed by nitric acid,

giving separated sulphur; solution

brown

made ammoniacal

precipitate of ferric hydroxide

gives red-

filtrate (copper).

its brass-yellow color, greenish black streak and

Distinguished from pyrite by its being softer than

Recognized by
its softness.

and blue

PYRITE
steel

151

and from gold by its being brittle. Known sometimes as

term which is also applied at times to pyrite.

"fool's gold/' a

Occurrence. The most common ore of copper. Occurs widely

distributed in metallic veins associated with pyrite, pyrrhotite,
bornite, chalcocite, tetrahedrite, malachite, azurite, sphalerite,
galena, quartz, calcite, dolomite, siderite, etc.
May carry gold or
silver and become an ore of those metals.
Often in subordinate
amount with large bodies of pyrite, making them serve as low-grade

Chief ore of copper mines at Cornwall, England;

Rio Tinto, Spain; Sudbury, Canada; in South
Found widely in the United States but usually
Africa, Chile, etc.
in connection with other copper minerals in equal or greater amount;
found at Butte, Montana; Bingham, Utah; various districts in

copper ores.

Falun, Sweden;

California, Colorado, Arizona, etc.

Name.

Derived from Greek word meaning brass and from

pyrites.

Use.

Most important

ore of copper.

Stannite.

A sulphide of copper, tin and iron, Cu 2S.FeS.SnS 2 Zinc at

times also present. Tetragonal, sphenoidal, but pseudo-isometric
through twinning. Practically always massive. H. = 4. G. = 4.4.
Metallic luster.
Color steel-gray. Streak black. Fusible at 1.5.
Slightly magnetic after heating in R. F. After roasting, and moistening with hydrochloric acid, gives when ignited a blue flame (copFused alone on charcoal gives a nonvolatile white coating
per).
of tin oxide.
A rare mineral, found in various places in Cornwall
and with the tin ores of Bolivia.
.

D.
1.

BISULPHIDE DIVISION.
ISOMETRIC; PYRITOHEDRAL.

PYRITE GROUP.

Pyrite.

Iron Pyrites.

Composition. Iron disulphide, FeS 2 = Sulphur 53.4, iron 46.6.

Sometimes contains small amounts of nickel, cobalt and copper.
Frequently carries minute quantities of gold (auriferous pyrite)

Most common
Isometric; pyritohedral.
crystal forms are the cube, the faces of which are usually striated,
the striae on adjacent faces being perpendicular to each other
Crystallization.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

152
(Fig. 226)

the octahedron, and the pentagonal dodecahedron,

as the pyritohedron (Fig. 227). Figs. 228 to

known commonly

Fig. 226.

Striated Cubes.

Fig. 228.

Fig. 227.

Fig. 229.

Pfyritohedron

Fig. 230.

Cube

Octahedron

Octahedron

and Pyritohedron.

and Pyritohedron.

and Pyritohedron.

230 show characteristic combinations of these forms. Fig. 231

shows a penetration twin that is at
times observed.

Often in crystals.

Structure.

Also

massive, granular, reniform, globular

and

stalactitic.

Physical Properties.

Brittle.

H. = 6-6.5 (unusually hard

for a sul-

phide).

G.

4.95-5.10.

Luster me-

Color pale brasstallic, splendent.

Fig. 231. Twinned
Pyritohedrons.
yellow, becoming darker at times on
account of tarnish. Streak greenish or brownish black.

PYRITE

153

Easily fusible (2.5-3) to a magnetic globule. Yields

sulphur in C. T. Gives off sulphur dioxide in 0. T. or
B. B. on charcoal.
Insoluble in hydrochloric acid.
Fine powTests.

much

der completely soluble in nitric acid, but

sulphur when too rapidly decomposed.

may

yield separated

Distinguished from
paler color and the fact that it cannot be

chalcopyrite by its
scratched by steel; from gold by

its

being

brittle.

Occurrence. Pyrite is the most common of the sulphides. It is

a common vein mineral, occurring in rocks of all ages and associated
with many different minerals. Found frequently with chalcopyrite,
Is widely distributed as an accessory rock
sphalerite, galena, etc.
mineral in both igneous and sedimentary rocks. Important deposits of pyrite in the United States are in Prince William, Louisa
and Pulaski counties, Virginia, where it occurs in large lenticular
masses which conform in position to the foliation of the inclosing
schists; in St. Lawrence County, New York; at the Davis Mine,
near Charlemont, Massachusetts; in various places in California.
Largo deposits occur at Rio Tinto and other mines in Spain, also in
Portugal.

Alteration.
limonite.

It

Pyrite
is,

is

easily altered to oxides of iron, usually

however, in general

much more

stable than

marcasite.

Pseudomorphic crystals of limonite after pyrite are

common. Pyrite veins are usually capped by a cellular deposit
of limonite, termed gossan.
Rocks that contain pyrite are unsuitable for structural purposes because the ready oxidation of
the pyrite in them would serve both to disintegrate the rock

and to

stain

Name.

it

with iron oxide.

The name

pyrite

in allusion to the fact that

is from a Greek word meaning fire,

when struck with steel it gives off

brilliant sparks.
is often mined for the gold or copper associated
Because of the large amount of sulphur present in the
mineral it is never used as an iron ore. It is chiefly used to fur-

Use.

with

Pyrite

it.

nish sulphuric acid and copperas (ferrous sulphate).

Sulphuric
acid is perhaps the most important of all chemicals, being used
for many different purposes, some of the more important being

and in the preparation of mineral

derived either through burning sulphur

in the purification of kerosene

fertilizers.

The

gas

S0

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

154

by roasting pyrite is used extensively in the preparation

wood pulp for manufacture into paper. Copperas is used

or

of
in

dyeing, in the manufacture of inks, as a preservative of wood,

and

for a disinfectant.

Smaltite-Chloanthite.
Smaltite

cobalt arsenide, CoAs2; chloanthite, nickel arsenide,

are isomorphous and all gradations
between the two species occur. Isometric; pyritohedral. Usually
G. = 6.3massive, granular. Octahedral cleavage. H. = 5.5-6.
Color tin-white. Streak black. Fusible at
6.8.
Metallic luster.
2-2.5.
Roasted on charcoal give a volatile coating of arsenious
oxide with characteristic garlic odor. In borax bead in O. F. give
blue color (cobalt). Rare species, occurring with other cobalt and
nickel minerals, often associated with silver and copper ores.

NiAs 2

is

The two molecules

Cobaltite-Gersdorffite.
Cobaltite is a sulpharsenide of cobalt, CoAsS; gersdorffite a
The two molecules are isomorsulpharsenide of nickel, NiAsS.
phous with each other, and may occur together in varying amounts.
Usually, however, any specimen will be found to be near one or the
other ends of the series. Iron is frequently present, replacing the
cobalt or the nickel, and sometimes in considerable amount. IsoCobaltite commonly in cubes, pyritohedrons
metric; pyritohedral.
and octahedrons, also massive. Gersdorffite usually massive. Cubic
H. = 5.5-6. G. = 5.8-6.2. Metallic luster. Color, tincleavage.
Streak black. Fusible
white, in cobaltite inclining to reddish tone.
On charcoal give a volatile white sublimate of arsenious oxide
2-3.
with characteristic garlic odor. In O. T. give volatile crystalline
sublimate of arsenious oxide with odor of sulphur dioxide. In O. F.
in borax bead give deep blue color (cobalt) if gersdorffite contains
;

brown bead (nickel). Rare minerals, cobaltite

being the commoner. Found associated with other cobalt and
Notable occurnickel minerals and with silver and copper ores.
rences of cobaltite are at Tunaberg, Sweden, and Cobalt, Ontario,
no

cobalt,

gives

Canada.
Sperrylite.

platinum arsenide,

PtAs 2

Isometric; pyritohedral.

Usually

H.
in small grains, or in almost microscopic crystal fragments.
Black streak.
Metallic luster. Tin-white color.
6-7.
G.
10.6.
Fusible at 2. Roasted on charcoal gives volatile white coating of

MARCASITE

155

arsenious oxide with characteristic garlic odor. Roasted in O. T.,

at first very gently, a platinum sponge is left, which is insoluble in
any single acid. A very rare mineral and the only known compound
of platinum occurring in nature.
Found with chalcopyrite in a
gold-quartz vein near Sudbury, Canada, and with covellite at the

Rambler Mine, Encampment, Wyoming.

2.

MARCASITE GROUP. ORTHORHOMBIC.

Marcasite.

Composition.

White Iron

Pyrites.

Iron disulphide, like pyrite, FeS 2

Sulphur

53.4, iron 46.6.

Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

Crystals

commonly tabular

showing also short prisms and low brachyThe brachydomes usually striated parallel

parallel to basal plane,

domes

(Fig. 232).

Fig. 233.

Fig. 232.

to the brachy-axis.

shaped groups

Often twinned, giving coxcomb and spearClosely related in crystal forms and

(Fig. 233).

habit to arsenopyrite.
Structure. Usually in radiating forms. Often stalactitic,
having an inner core with radiating structure and covered on the
outside with irregular crystal groups.
etc.

More

Also globular, reniform,

rarely in crystals.

Metallic
Physical Properties. H. = 6-6.5. G. = 4.85-4.9.
Color pale yellow to almost white, yellow to brown tar-

luster.

nish.

Streak grayish black.

B. B. on charFusible (2.5-3) to a magnetic globule.

Much sulphur in
coal or in 0. T. gives odor of sulphur dioxide.
Tests.

'MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

156
C. T.

When

fine

powder

is

treated

by

cold nitric acid,

and the

solution allowed to stand until vigorous action ceases and then

boiled, the mineral is decomposed with separation of sulphur.

Pyrite treated in the

dissolved.

same manner would have been completely

Recognized usually by

its

pale yellow color,

its

crys-

tals or its fibrous structure.

Occurrence. Marcasite is found in metalliferous veins, frequently

with lead and zinc ores. Also at times in sedimentary rocks. It
is more unstable than pyrite, being easily decomposed, and is not
nearly as

common

in its occurrence.

Found abundantly

in clay

near Carlsbad and elsewhere in Bohemia; in various places in

Saxony; in the chalk marl of Folkestone and Dover, England; with
zinc and lead deposits of Joplin, Missouri, and of Mineral Point,
Wisconsin.

Name.

Derived from an Arabic word, at one time applied

generally to pyrite.

Use.

To

a slight extent as a source of sulphuric acid,

Arsenopyrite.
Composition.

Mispickel.

Sulpharsenide of iron, FeAsS

sulphur 19.7, iron 34.3.

iron (danaite).

etc.

Arsenic 46,
of the

Sometimes cobalt replaces a part

Crystallization. Orthorhombic. Usually in tabular diamondshaped crystals, formed by a short prism terminated by low
brachydomes. The brachydomes are usually striated parallel

Fig. 234.

Fig. 235.

Twinned at times, giving stellate

individuals
of the twin groups being disdifferent
the
groups;
to the brachy-axis (Fig. 234).

SYLVANITE
tinguished from each other

upon them

157

by the direction

of the striations

Agrees closely in angles and crystal habit

(Fig. 235).

with marcasite.
In crystals.

Structure.

Physical Properties.
Silver-white color.

ter.

Massive, granular to compact.

Metallic lus-

H. = 5.5-6. G. = 6-6.2.
Black streak.

Fusible at 2 to a magnetic globule. B. B. on charcoal

a
volatile
coating of arsenious oxide and a characteristic
gives
In 0. T. gives odor of sulphur dioxide and a volatile
garlic odor.
In C. T. gives arsenic mirror. Recogring of arsenious oxide.
Tests.

nized usually

by

its

silver-white color, its crystals

and a

test for

arsenic.

Occurrence. Arsenopyrite is the most common mineral containFound in veins in crystalline rocks, associated with
ing arsenic.
ores of tin, silver, lead and with pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, etc.
Sometimes it is auriferous and serves as a gold ore. Occurs in quantity at Freiberg and Munzig, Saxony; in the Harz Mountains; with
tin ores in Cornwall, England; in various places in Bolivia; New
South Wales; Deloro, Canada, where it is mined as a gold ore; Roxbury, Connecticut, etc.

Use.

An ore of arsenic.

Arsenious oxide

is

used in the manu-

Paris green, an
facture of glass, as a poison and a preservative.
arsenate and acetate of copper, is used as a poison and a pigment.
Sulphides of arsenic are used for paints and fireworks.

3.

SYLVANITE GROUP.
Sylvanite.

Composition. Telluride of gold and silver (Au,Ag)Te 2 .

ratio of the amounts of gold and silver varies somewhat;

Au Ag =
:

= Tellurium

Crystallization.

The
when

62.1, gold 24.5, silver 13.4.

Monoclinic.

Distinct crystals rare.

Structure.

Usually bladed or granular. Often in skeleton

forms deposited on rock surfaces and resembling writing in
appearance.

Physical Properties. Perfect cleavage parallel to clinopinaH. =1.5-2. G. =8-8.2. Brilliant metallic luster. Color

coid.

silver-white.

Streak gray.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

158
Tests.

Easily fusible

(1).

If

little

of the

powdered mineral

heated in concentrated sulphuric acid the solution assumes a

deep red color (tellurium). When decomposed in nitric acid
is

leaves a rusty-colored, spongy mass of gold, and the solution

with hydrochloric acid gives white precipitate of silver chloride.

With sodium carbonate on charcoal

Determined, by above

silver.

tests,

gives a globule of gold and

by its silver color and good

cleavage.

Occurrence. A rare mineral, found with gold ores at Offenbdnya

and Nagydg in Transylvania; Kalgoorlie, West Australia; Cripple
Creek, Colorado.

Name.

Derived from Transylvania, where

An

Use.

it

was

first

found.

ore of gold.

Calaverite.

Composition.
44.03.

Gold

AuTe 2 = Tellurium

telluride,

55.97, gold

Silver usually present isomorphous with the gold, to a

small extent.
Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Crystals

usually

developed

and the faces of the orthodome zone

deeply striated. Terminated at the ends of the ortho-axis with
a large number of faces. Crystallization complicated. Twinparallel to the ortho-axis

ning frequent.
Structure. Usually granular. Distinct crystals rare.
Physical Properties. H. = 2.5. G. = 9.35. Metallic luster.
Silver-white color, sometimes with yellowish tarnish.
Streak
gray.
Tests.

Easily fusible

(1).

If

little

of the

powdered mineral

heated in concentrated sulphuric acid the solution assumes a

deep red color (tellurium). When decomposed by nitric acid

is

leaves a rusty-colored, spongy mass of gold, and on addition of

hydrochloric acid gives only a slight precipitate of silver chloride.

Distinguished from sylvanite by small amount of silver present

its lack of a cleavage.

and by

Occurrence. Found with sylvanite and other tellurides in the

Cripple Creek District, Colorado, and at Kalgoorlie, West Australia.

JAMESONITE
Name.

Found

159

originally at the Stanislaus

Mine, Calaveras

County, California, whence name.

Use.

An

ore of gold.

Other rare tellurides belonging to this group

AuTe and
2,

nagyagite, a sulpho-telluride of lead

are, krennerite,

and

gold.

SULPHARSENITES, ETC.
The minerals

in this division are considered to

be salts of the

sulpho-acids of trivalent arsenic, antimony and bismuth.

ous types of these acids are found, such as
3 AsS 3

Vari-

H AsS
2

2,

subdivision includes the sulpharsenates, etc.,

The metals observed are
3 AsS 4
being chiefly salts of the acid
most commonly copper, silver and lead; also at times iron, zinc
13^8285, etc.

and mercury.

Jamesonite.

Feather Ore.

Composition.
Sulphantimonite
3PbS.Sb 2 S 3 = Sulphur 19.7, antimony

of

lead,

Pb Sb 2 S 6
3

or

29.5, lead 50.8.

Orthorhombic.
Crystallization.
Structure. Usually in acicular crystals or in capillary forms.
Also fibrous to compact massive.
G.

Basal cleavage. Brittle. H. = 2-3.

Physical Properties.
= 5.5-6. Metallic luster. Color and streak steel-gray to

grayish black.
Tests.
Fusible at

On charcoal gives a combination coat1.

Roasted in 0. T. gives subing of lead and antimony oxides.
Heated on charcoal with a mixture
limates of antimony oxides.
of potassium iodide and sulphur gives a chrome-yellow coating
of lead iodide.
Recognized by above tests and characteristic
fibrous structure.

Difficult to distinguish

from similar species

(see below).

Occurrence. Found in Cornwall, England, and from various

Hungary, Saxony, etc.; from Bolivia. Noted in the
United States from Sevier County, Arkansas, and the Montezuma
Mine, Nevada.

localities in

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

160

There are a number of minerals similar

Similar Species.

to jamesonite in composition and general physical characteristics whose relations to each other in many cases are not

These include such minerals as zinkenPbS.Sb

S
5PbS.4Sb 2 S 3 warrenite, 3PbS.2Sb 2 S 3
2
3
plagionite,
ite,
4PbS.Sb 2 S 3 geocronite,
boulangerite, 3PbS.Sb 2 S 3
meneghinite,
5PbS.Sb 2 S 3

thoroughly understood.
;

Bournonite.
of
lead
and copper
Composition.
Sulphantimonite
The relative amounts of
(Pb,Cu 2 ) 3 Sb 2 S 6 or 3(Pb,Cu 2 )S.Sb 2 S 3
the lead and copper present vary, but in general correspond
.

Pb

closely to the ratio,

Crystallization.

matic to tabular.

Cu =2:1.
2

Orthorhombic.

Crystals usually short pris-

Sometimes quite complex with many prism,

pyramid and dome faces. Frequently
twinned, giving tabular crystals with
recurring reentrant angles in the prism

zone (Fig. 236), whence the

name

common

of cogwheel ore.

Structure.
Massive; granular to
compact; in crystals.
H. = 2.5-3.
Physical Properties.
G. = 5.7-5.9.
Metallic luster.
Color

Fig. 236.

and streak steel-gray to black.

B. B. on charcoal gives a combination
Roasted in 0. T. gives
coating of antimony and lead oxides.
sublimates of antimony oxides. Heated on charcoal with a
mixture of potassium iodide and sulphur gives a chrome-yellow
Tests.

Fusible at

1.

coating of lead iodide.

turns blue with excess of

by

Decomposed with nitric acid, solution

ammonia (copper). Recognized either

characteristic crystals or

above

tests.

Occurrence. A rare mineral. Found at Neudorf and other localithe Harz Mountains; Kapnik in Hungary; Liskeard in CornHas been found, also, in various places in the United
wall, etc.
States, but not in notable amount or quality.
ties in

161

PROUSTITE
Dark Ruby

Pyrargyrite.

Composition.
SAgaS.SbaSs

Sulphantimonite

= Sulphur

of

Silver.

Sometimes contains a small amount

Ag SbS
3

silver,

antimony

17.8,

silver

22.3,

of

arsenic.

or

59.8.

Compare

proustite.

Crystallization.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral

hemimorphic.

Crystals prismatic with rhombohedral and scalenohedral terminations.

Usually distorted and often with complex develop-

ment.

Frequently twinned.
Structure. In crystals or massive; compact; in disseminated

grains.

Physical Properties. Rhombohedral cleavage. H. = 2.5. G.

5.85.
Luster adamantine. Color usually dark red to black,

in thin splinters

deep ruby-red.

Fusible at

Tests.

On

1.

Indian-red streak.

charcoal gives dense white coating

After prolonged heating, coating becomes

trioxide.
a
reddish
color
near assay due to a small amount of
with
tinged
of

antimony

Odor of sulphur
when heated in 0. T.

volatilized silver.

mony

oxides

dioxide and coatings of antiDecomposed by nitric acid

and solution with hydrochloric acid gives white precipitate

Characterized chiefly by its dark red color
of silver chloride.
and streak.
Occurrence.

rare silver mineral associated with proustite,

Found in the silver mines at Andreasberg, Harz Mountains; at Freiberg, Saxony; Pfibram, Bohemia;
in Hungary; Transylvania; Norway; in Guanajuato, Mexico; at
Found in various silver veins in the San Juan
Chanarcillo, Chile.
Mountains and elsewhere in Colorado; in the silver districts of
argentite, galena, calcite, etc.

Nevada,

New

Name.
Use.

Mexico,

etc.

Derived from two Greek words meaning fire-silver.

An

ore of silver.

Proustite.

Light

Ruby

Composition. Sulpharsenite of silver,

= Sulphur 19.4, arsenic 15.2, silver 65.4.

amount

of antimony.

Compare

Silver.

Ag AsS
3

May

pyrargyrite.

or

3Ag 2 S.As 2 S

contain a small

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

162

Crystallization.

Crystals

Hexagonal-rhombohedral;

commonly with prominent

Often distorted and frequently complex in

scalenohedrons.

development.
Structure.

hemimorphic.

steep rhombohedrons and

Commonly

massive, compact, in

disseminated

grains.

Physical Properties.

G.

Adamantine

5.55.

Red

to translucent.
Tests.

Fusible at

Rhombohedral cleavage.

streak.
1.

H. = 2-2.5.

Color ruby-red. Transparent

High index of refraction.

luster.

Heated on charcoal gives

volatile sub-

limate of arsenious oxide with characteristic garlic odor.

In O.T.
odor
of
dioxide
and
volatile
sublimate
sulphur
gives
crystalline

In C. T. gives abundant sublimate of arsenic

of arsenious oxide.

when hot, reddish yellow when cold.

With sodium carbonate on charcoal gives a globule of silver.
Characterized chiefly by its ruby-red color and streak and its
sulphide, reddish black

brilliant luster.

Occurrence.

rare mineral, occurring in silver veins associated

with various other sulpharsenites and sulphantimonites. Found in

the silver mines of Saxony; Bohemia; at Chaftarcillo, Chile, in fine
Found
crystals; common in the silver mines of Peru and Mexico.
in Colorado in the silver mines of the San Juan Mountains and else-

where; in various

Use.

An

silver districts in

Nevada,

etc.

ore of silver.

Tetrahedrite-Tennantite.

Gray Copper.
Cu Sb S or 4Cu

Fahlore.

= Sul2 S.Sb 2 S 3
2
7
Composition.
8
Tetrahedrite,
As
52.1.
Cu
2 S 7 or
8
Tennantite,
phur 23.1, antimony 24.8, copper
4Cu2 S.As 2 S 3 = Sulphur 25.5, arsenic 17.0, copper 57.5. Antimony and arsenic are usually both present and the two species
graduate into each other, so that no sharp line can be drawn
between them. The copper is often replaced in varying amounts
by

iron, zinc, silver,

Crystallization.

Tetrahedron
the

common

mercury, lead,

etc.

(Fig. 237), tristetrahedron,

forms.

Habit tetrahedral.
dodecahedron and cube

Isometric; tetrahedral.

163

STEPHANITE
Structure.

Frequently in crystals.

Also massive, coarse or

fine granular.

H. = 3-4.

Physical Properties.

G.

4.7-5.

Metallic lus-

Color grayish black to black.

often splendent.
black.

ter,

Streak

Easily fusible at 1.5. On charcoal or in O. T. gives

antimony or arsenic, or both. After roasting, and

Tests.
tests for

moistening with hydrochloric acid, gives

azure-blue flame. Decomposed by nitric
acid with separation of sulphur and antimony trioxide; solution made alkaline

with ammonia turns

blue.

The two

species are only to be told apart

by

test-

ing for the presence of antimony and

arsenic, and as both are often present in

Fig 237

the same specimen a quantatitive analysis

may be necessary in order to positively determine to which end
of the series it belongs.
or

when massive by

its

Recognized by

its

tetrahedral crystals,

fine-grained structure

and by

its

gray

color.

Occurrence. Found in metallic veins usually associated with

chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, galena and various other silver, lead
and copper ores. May carry sufficient silver to become an important
ore of that metal (the highly argentiferous variety is known as
Is found in the United States in various silver and
freibergite)
copper mines in Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, etc. Found in Corn.

England; the Harz Mountains, Germany; Freiberg, Saxony;

Pfibram in Bohemia; various places in Hungary; in the silver mines
of Mexico, Chile, Peru and Bolivia.
wall,

Use.

An

ore of silver

and copper.
Stephanite.

Composition. Sulphantimonite of
Ag 6 SbS 4 or
silver,
5Ag 2 S.Sb 2 S 3 = Sulphur 16.3, antimony 15.2, silver 68.5.
Crystallization. Orthorhombic. Crystals usually short prismatic and tabular parallel to the base. Edges of crystals truncated by various pyramids. Prism zone usually shows the four
prism faces and the two of the brachypinacoid,

all

making

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

164

nearly 60 angles with each other and so giving the crystals a

Also twinned in pseudohexagonal crystals.

hexagonal aspect.

Crystals usually small.

Structure. Massive, in disseminated grains; crystallized.
G. = 6.2-6.3.
Metallic
Physical Properties. H. = 2-2.5.

Color and streak iron-black.

luster.

Tests.

Fusible at

1.

B. B. on charcoal gives dense white

sublimate of antimony trioxide and odor of sulphur dioxide.

Decomposed by nitric acid, and if after filtering a little hydrochloric acid is
silver chloride.

and the above

Occurrence.

added to

gives a white precipitate of

stout hexagonal crystals

its

tests.

A rare silver mineral.

sulphantimonites of
ties in

filtrate, it

Recognized by

silver, etc.

Found associated with other

Occurs at Freiberg and other locali-

Saxony; in Bohemia and Hungary; at Guanajuato and Arizpe,

In the United States was
etc., Mexico; in Peru and Chile.

Sonora,

an abundant ore at the Comstock Lode and other

Nevada.
Use.

An

silver deposits in

ore of silver.

Polybasite.

Composition.
Sulphantimonite of silver, Ag 9 SbS 6 or
9Ag 2 S.Sb 2 S 3 = Sulphur 15, antimony 9.4, silver 75.6. Copper replaces a part of the silver and arsenic replaces the antimony.
Crystallization. Monoclinic. Crystals are pseudorhombohedral in symmetry, occurring in short hexagonal prisms, often thin
tabular.

Basal planes show triangular markings.

In crystals. Granular.

Structure.

H. = 2-3.
Physical Properties.
Color steel-gray to iron-black.

ter.

Tests.

coating of

Fusible at

antimony

1.

G.

6-6.2.

Metallic lus-

Streak black.

B. B. on charcoal gives dense white

After

trioxide with odor of sulphur dioxide.

decomposition by nitric acid, the filtrate with hydrochloric acid

To be distinguished
gives white precipitate of silver chloride.

from other similar species

chiefly

by

its crystals.

Occurrence. A comparatively rare silver mineral, associated with

other sulphantimonides of silver and with silver ores in general.

165

CHLORIDES
Found
Found

mines of Mexico, Chile, Saxony and Bohemia.

United States at the Comstock Lode, Nevada; near

in the silver
in the

Ouray, Colorado,

etc.

Name is in allusion to the many bases contained in the

Name.
mineral.

Use.

An

ore of silver.

Enargite.
of
Composition. Sulpharsenate
copper,
3Cu 2 S.As 2 S 5 = Sulphur 32.6, arsenic 19.1, copper

mony may

replace in part the arsenic,

toward famatinite (3Cu 2 S.Sb 2 S 5 ).

Orthorhombic.
Crystallization.

Cu AsS 4
3

48.3.

or

Anti-

and the species graduate

Prismatic crystals with

prism zone vertically striated.

Structure. Columnar, bladed, massive.
Physical Properties.

G.

Perfect

Metallic

4.43-4.45.

prismatic

luster.

H. =

cleavage.

3.

Color and streak grayish

black to iron-black.
Tests.
Easily fusible (1). B. B. on charcoal gives volatile
white sublimate of arsenious oxide and characteristic garlic odor.

In 0. T. gives white crystalline sublimate of arsenious oxide and

odor of sulphur dioxide. Roasted on charcoal, then moistened

with hydrochloric acid and again ignited, gives azure-blue flame.
Characterized by

Occurrence.

its color, its

cleavage and the above tests.

A comparatively rare mineral, found associated with

other copper minerals, as chalcocite, bornite, tennantite, etc. Found

abundantly at Morococha, Peru; also in the United States of Col-

ombia; Argentine Republic; island of Luzon, Philippines.

Found

in considerable quantity with the copper ores at Butte, Montana.

Occurs in the silver mines of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado.

Use.

An

at Butte,

ore of copper.

Arsenic oxide also obtained from

it

Mont.

CHLORIDES, ETC.
The

chlorides with the related bromides, iodides

and

fluorides

are grouped into the following divisions: (1) Anhydrous Chlorides, etc.;

(2) Oxychlorides, etc.;

(3)

Hydrous Chlorides,

etc.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

166

1.

ANHYDROUS CHLORIDES,

ETC.

HALITE GROUP.
The
sylvite,

Halite Group includes the isometric minerals halite,

KC1;

cerargyrite,

AgCl;

embolite, Ag(Cl,Br);

NaCl;

bromyrite,

AgBr.

Common

Halite.

Composition.

dium

39.4.

Salt.

= Chlorine 60.6, sochloride, NaCl

contains impurities, such as calcium

Sodium

Commonly

sulphate and calcium and magnesium chlorides.

Isometric. Habit cubic
Other forms very rare.
Structure. In crystals or granular crystal-

Crystallization.
(Fig. 238).

line,

in

known

masses showing cubical cleavage,

salt.
Also massive, granular

as rock

to compact.

Physical Properties. Perfect cubic cleavH. = 2.5. G. = 2.1-2.6. Transparent

age.
to translucent.

Tests.

sodium.

when impure may have

Readily soluble in water.

Colorless or white, or

shades of yellow, red, blue, purple.

Salty taste. Diathermous.

Easily fusible at 1.5, giving strong yellow flame of

After intense ignition B. B. residue gives alkaline re-

action to moistened
solution

made

test paper.
Readily soluble in water;
acid with nitric acid gives with silver nitrate a

heavy white precipitate of silver chloride. Salty taste. Distinguished from sylvite (KC1) by its yellow flame color and by
the latter having a somewhat more bitter taste.
Occurrence. A common and widely disseminated mineral, occurring often in extensive beds and irregular masses, intersfcratified
in rocks of all ages, in such a manner as to form a true rock mass.
Associated with gypsum, sylvite, anhydrite, calcite, clay, sand, etc.
Occurs also dissolved in the waters of salt springs, salt seas and the
ocean.
The deposits of salt have been formed by the gradual evaporation
and ultimate drying up of inclosed bodies of salt water. The salt

HALITE

167

beds formed in this way have subsequently been covered by other

sedimentary deposits and gradually buried beneath the rock strata
formed from them. The salt beds range from a few feet up to one
hundred in thickness and have been found at depths of two thousand
The history of the formation of
feet and more from the surface.
these salt beds is as follows: River waters contain a small but
appreciable amount of various soluble salts. When these waters
are collected in a sea which has no outlet, or in other words, a sea
where the evaporation equals or exceeds the amount of water flowing
in, there is a gradual concentration in the sea of the salts brought
into it by the rivers.
The sea water, therefore, in time becomes
heavily charged with soluble salts, particularly sodium chloride.

When

the points of concentration of the various salts held in solube deposited progressively upon the sea
bottom, commencing with the most insoluble. This process may
continue for a long period of time and ultimately a thick layer of
The
salt and other soluble minerals be formed on the bottom.
process may be interrupted by seasons of flood in which the sea
water becomes freshened beyond the concentration point. Silt
materials may be brought in at such times and deposited upon the
bottom and so form beds of clay alternating with -those of salt.
Such deposits of salt have been formed whenever favorable conditions occurred, and are now to be found buried in rock strata of all
At the present time similar deposits are being formed in the
ages.
Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea.
In the United States salt is produced, on a commercial scale, in
tion are reached, they will

some

fifteen states, either

of salt lake or sea waters.

from rock-salt deposits, or by evaporation

Beds of rock salt are found in New York

State from the Oatka Valley in Wyoming County east to Morrisville,

Madison County, and south of this line wherever wells have been
driven deep enough to reach the beds. The important producing
localities are near Syracuse, Ithaca, Watkins and Ludlowville, and
at various places in Wyoming, Genesee and Livingston counties.
Extensive deposits of salt occur in Michigan, chiefly in Saginaw,

Bay, Midland, Isabella, Detroit, Wayne, Manistee, and Mason

Notable deposits are also found in Ohio, Kansas, Louisiana. Salt is obtained by the evaporation of saline waters in California, Utah and Texas.
Important foreign localities for the production of salt are to be
found in Austrian Poland, Hungary, Bavaria, Prussia, Spain and
Great Britain.
counties.

Use.

The

and preservaused also in the manufacture of soda ash

chief uses of salt are for culinary

tive purposes.

It

is

(sodium carbonate) which

,

is

used in glass making, soap making,

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

168

bleaching, etc., and in the preparation of sodium salts in general.

Salt is used also in the extraction of gold by the chlorination
process.

Sylvite.

Composition. Potassium chloride, KC1

Sometimes contains sodium

tassium 52.4.

Crystallization.

Chlorine 47.6, po-

chloride.

Isometric.

Cube and

oc-

tahedron frequently in combination (Fig. 239).

Structure. Usually in granular crystalline

masses showing cubic cleavage; compact.

Physical Properties. Perfect cubical cleavH. = 2. G. = 1.9. Transparent when
age.
Colorless or white; also shades of blue,
pure.

Fig 239

yellow or red from impurities.

taste but

more

bitter

Readily soluble in water.

than in the case of halite.

Salty

1.5, giving violet flame of potassium,

obscured by yellow flame due to sodium present.
The yellow sodium flame may be filtered out by use of a blue
After
glass, and the violet of the potassium rendered visible.

Tests.

which

Easily fusible at

may be

intense ignition, residue gives alkaline reaction on moistened

Readily soluble in water; solution made acid with
nitric acid gives with silver nitrate a heavy precipitate of silver
test paper.

chloride.
Distinguished from halite by the violet flame color of
potassium and its slightly bitter taste.

Occurrence.

Has the same

origin,

mode

of occurrence

and

asso-

ciations as halite (which see) but is much more rare.

Found in
some quantity and at times well crystallized in connection with the
salt deposits at Stassfurt, Prussia.

Name. Potassium chloride is the sal digestivus Sylvii of early

chemistry, whence the name for the species.
Use. One source of potassium compounds which are extenOther potassium minerals that are
sively used as fertilizers.
found in Germany in sufficient amount to make them valuable
as sources of potassium salts are, carnallite, KCl.MgCl 2 .6H 2

page

(see

K S0
2

173);

kainite,

.MgS0 .2CaS0 4 .2H 2 0.

4

MgS0

.KC1.3H 2 0;

polyhalite,

169

EMBOLITE
Cerargyrite.

Silver chloride,

Composition.
24.7.

Some

AgCl

Silver.

Silver 75.3, chlorine

varieties contain mercury.

Crystallization.

Structure.

and

Horn

Isometric.

Habit cubic.

Usually massive, resembling wax; often in plates

crusts.

= 5.8-6. Sectile, can be

Physical Properties. H. = 2-3. G.
cut with a knife like horn. Transparent to translucent. Color
Rapidly darkens to violet-brown on
pearl-gray to colorless.
exposure to
Tests.

globule
in

light.

Very

B. B. on charcoal gives a
easily fusible at 1.
Insoluble in nitric acid, but slowly soluble

of silver.

ammonium

hydroxide.

When

heated with galena in C. T.

Distinguished chiefly
gives a white sublimate of lead chloride.
by its horny or waxlike appearance and its sectility.
is an important secondary ore of silver.
only to be found in the upper, enriched zone of silver veins where
descending waters containing small amounts of chlorine have acted
upon the oxidized products of the primary silver ores of the vein.
Found associated with other silver ores, galena, etc.; with native silWas an important
ver, cerussite and secondary minerals in general.
mineral in the mines at Leadville and elsewhere in Colorado, at the
Comstock Lode in Nevada, in crystals at the Poorman's Lode in
Idaho. Notable amounts have been found in Peru, Chile and
Mexico, and in the silver mines of Saxony.

Occurrence. Cerargyrite

It is

Cerargyrite is derived from two Greek words meanhorn

and
silver, in allusion to its hornlike appearance and
ing

Name.

characteristics.

Use.

Silver ore.

Embolite.
Composition, Ag(Cl,Br). Crystallization, structure and physical
properties, like those of Cerargyrite (which see). Tests, same as for
cerargyrite, except that, when heated in C. T. with galena, it gives
a lead bromide sublimate, which is yellow when hot and white when
Occurrence, same as for cerargyrite, with which it is usually
found, but much rarer.
cold.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

170

Other similar silver -compounds which are still rarer in their

occurrence are, bromyrite, AgBr; iodobromite, Ag(Cl,Br,I); Myrite, Agl.

Fluor Spar.

Fluorite.

Calcium

Composition.
cium 51.1.
Crystallization.

twinned cubes

fluoride,

CaF2 =

Fluorine 48.9, cal-

Habit cubic (Fig. 240) often in

and 242). Other forms are rare, but
examples of all the forms of the Normal
Class have been observed; the tetrahexahedron (Fig. 243) and hexoctahedron (Fig.
Isometric.

(Figs. "241

244) are characteristic.

Structure.
Also
Usually crystallized.
massive; coarse or fine granular, columnar.

most commonly

Perfect octahedral

Physical Properties.
G.

H. = 4.
cleavage.
ent to sub translucent. Vitreous luster.
Fig. 240.

3.18.
TransparColor widely various;

light green, yellow, bluish green or purple, also

Fig. 242.

Fig. 241.

colorless, white, rose, blue,

brown.

single crystal

varying bands of color; the massive variety

in color.

(green

The

is

bluish green varieties often

by transmitted

varieties phosphoresce

light,

when

may show

also often

show

banded

fluorescence

blue by reflected light).

Some

heated, giving off variously colored

171

FLUORITE
lights

which are independent of the actual color

of the specimen.

variety affording a green light is known as chlorophane.

Tests.
Fusible at 3, and residue gives alkaline reaction to
moistened test paper. Gives a reddish flame (calcium). When

The

mixed with potassium bisulphate and heated in C.

Fig. 243.

T., hydro-

Fig. 244.

glass, and a white deposit

upon the walls of the tube. Determined usually
by its cubic crystals and octahedral cleavage, also vitreous luster
and usually fine coloring, and by the fact that it can be scratched

fluoric acid is

evolved which etches the

of silica forms

with a knife.

Occurrence. A common and widely distributed mineral. Usually

found either in veins in which it is the chief mineral or as a gangue
mineral with metallic ores, especially those of lead and tin. Common in dolomites and limestone and has been observed also as a
minor accessory mineral in various igneous rocks. Associated with

many

different minerals,

barite,

quartz,

galena,

as calcite, dolomite, gypsum, celestite,

cassiterite, topaz, tourmaline,

sphalerite,

apatite.

The more important

deposits in the United States are in southern

near Rosiclare, and in the adjacent part of Kentucky. The
fluorite occurs here in limestone, in fissure veins which at times
become 40 feet in width. Fluorite is found in quantity in England,
chiefly from Cumberland, Derbyshire and Durham; the first two
Illinois

localities

being famous for their magnificent crystallized specimens.

in the mines of Saxony.

Found commonly
Use.

Fluorite

is

used mainly as a flux in the making of

steel,

in the manufacture of opalescent glass, in enameling cooking

utensils, for the preparation of hydrofluoric acid, and occasionally

as an ornamental material in the form of vases, dishes, etc.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

172

Cryolite.

A fluoride of

Composition.

sodium and aluminium,

Na AlF

Fluorine 54.4, aluminium 12.8, sodium 32.8.

Monoclinic. Prominent forms are
Crystallization.

and

prism

Crystals rare, usually cubic in aspect, and in parallel

groupings growing out of massive material.
Structure. Usually massive.
base.

Physical Properties.

H.=

2.5.

G.=

2.95-3.

Vitreous to

Colorless to snow-white.

Transparent to transgreasy
lucent.
A low index of refraction, giving the mineral an appearance of watery snow or of paraffin. Powdered mineral almost
luster.

disappears when immersed in water.

Tests.
Easily fusible (1.5), with strong yellow sodium flame.
After intense ignition, residue gives alkaline reaction on moist-

Fused in C. T. with potassium bisulphate,

evolves hydrofluoric acid and gives a volatile white ring of
silica.
Characterized by its massive structure, white color and
ened test paper.

peculiar luster.

Occurrence. Occurs in a large vein lying in granite at Arksukon the west coast of Greenland. The following minerals are
found in small amounts associated with the cryolite: quartz, siderite,
fiord

galena, sphalerite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, wolframite, fluorite, cassitFound also in very

molybdenite, arsenopyrite, columbite.
small amounts at Miask, Ilmen Mountains, Siberia, and at foot of
erite,

Pike's Peak, Colorado.

Name is derived

Name.
and

from two Greek words meaning frost

stone, in allusion to its icy

Use.

It is

appearance.
used for the manufacture of sodium

salts, of

certain

kinds of glass and porcelain, and as a flux in the electrolytic

process for the production of aluminium.

2.

OXYCHLORIDES, ETC.
Atacamite.

Composition.

CuCl 2 .3Cu(OH) 2
water

12.7.

Copper chloride with copper hydroxide,

Chlorine 16.6, copper 14.9, cupric oxide 55.81.

CARNALLITE
Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

173

Commonly

matic in habit, with vertical striations.

slender pris-

Also tabular parallel

to brachypinacoid.

In confused crystalline aggregates; fibrous; gran-

Structure.
ular.

As sand.

Physical Properties.

H.=

pinacoid.

ous luster.

3-3.5.

Cleavage perfect parallel to brachyG. = 3.75-3.77. Adamantine to vitre-

Color various shades of green.

Transparent to

translucent.

Fusible (3-4), giving an azure-blue flame of copper

B. B. on charcoal with sodium carbonate gives globule
Nitric acid solution with silver nitrate gives white
of copper.
precipitate of silver chloride with ammonia in excess gives blue
Tests.

chloride.

Gives acid water in C. T.

solution.

Characterized by

its

green color and granular crystalline structure. Distinguished

from malachite by its lack of effervescence in acids.

A comparatively rare copper mineral. Found

sand in the province of Atacama in Chile. Occurs with

Occurrence.
originally as

other copper ores in various localities in Chile and Bolivia. Found

in some of the copper districts of Australia; occurs sparingly in the
copper districts of Arizona.

Use.

minor ore

3.

of copper.

HYDROUS CHLORIDES, ETC

Carnallite.

hydrous chloride of potassium and magnesium, KCl.MgCl 2

6HaO. Orthorhombic.
Massive, granular. Crystals rare. LusColor milk-white, often reddish,
ter nonmetallic, shining, greasy.
due to included hematite. Transparent to translucent. H. = 1.
G.= 1.6. Bitter taste. Deliquescent. Fusible at 1-1.5 with vioAfter ignition gives an alkaline reaction on moistened
let flame.
test paper.
Easily and completely soluble in water; on addition of
nitric acid and silver nitrate gives a white precipitate of silver
Acid solution neutralized with ammonia and sodium
chloride.
phosphate added gives a white precipitate of ammonium magnesium
Found associated with halite, sylvite, etc., in the salt
phosphate.
Used as a source of potassium
deposits at Stassfurt, Prussia.

compounds.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

174

OXIDES.
The

oxides are subdivided into three sections:

Silicon;

(2)

Oxides of the Semimetals;

46.7.

(1)

Oxides of

Oxides of the Metals.

OXIDES OF SILICON.

1.

Composition.

(3)

Quartz.
Si0 2

Silicon dioxide,

= Oxygen

53.3, silicon

Often with various impurities.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral; trapezohedral.
with prism faces horizontally
striated.
Terminated usually by a combination of a positive
and negative rhombohedron, which often are so equally develCrystallization.

Crystals

commonly

oped as to give the

Fig. 245.

prismatic,

effect of

a hexagonal pyramid (Fig. 245).

Fig. 246.

Fig. 247.

Sometimes one rhombohedron predominates or occurs alone

At times the prism faces are wanting, and the com(Fig. 246)
bination of the two rhombohedrons gives what appears to be a
.

doubly terminated hexagonal pyramid (known as a quartzoid)

Crystals at times very much distorted, when the
(Fig. 247).
recognition of the prism faces by their horizontal striations will
assist in the orientation of the crystal.
The trapezohedral faces
are to be occasionally observed as small truncations between a
prism face and that of an adjoining rhombohedron either to the
right or left, forming what are known as right- or left-handed

and 249). Crystals are often elongated in

tapering and sharply pointed forms, due to an oscillatory combination between the faces of the different rhombohedrons and
crystals (Figs. 248

175

QUARTZ

those of the prism (A, PI. VI). Sometimes twisted and bent.
Crystals frequently twinned. The twins at times are so inti-

Fig. 248.

Fig. 249.

Right-handed Crystal.

Left-handed Crystal.

mately intergrown that they can only be determined by the

irregular position of the trapezohedral faces, by etching the
crystal or by the pyroelectric phenomena that they show.
Structure.
Commonly in crystals. From large crystals

usually attached at one end, to finely crystalline coatings, forming "drusy" surfaces. Also common in massive forms of great
From coarse- to fine-grained crystalline to flintlike or
variety.
cryptocrystalline varieties.
mammillary, etc. As sand.

Sometimes

in concretionary forms,

Physical Properties. H.= 7. G. = 2.65-2.66. Vitreous lussometimes greasy, splendent to nearly dull. Color widely
various.
Usually colorless or white, but frequently colored by

ter,

various impurities, yellow, red, pink, amethyst, green, blue,

Transparent to opaque. Conchoidal fracture.
brown, black.
Tests.

Infusible.

Insoluble.

Yields a clear glass

when the

fused with an equal volume of sodium

carbonate. Usually told by its glassy luster, conchoidal fracture,
hardness (7) and crystal form.

finely

powdered mineral

is

Varieties.
A great many different forms of quartz exist to
which varietal names have been given. The more important
varieties with a brief description of each follow.

A.
1.

Rock

crystals.

CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES.

Crystal.

Colorless

quartz,

commonly

in

distinct

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

176
2.

Quartz colored purple or

Amethyst.

violet,

often crys-

tallized.
3. Rose Quartz.
Usually massive, color a rose-red or pink.
Often fades somewhat on exposure to light.
4. Smoky Quartz; Cairngorm Stone.
Crystallized quartz of a

smoky yellow to brown and almost black color. Named cairngorm from the locality of Cairngorm in Scotland.
5. Milky Quartz.
Milky white in color and nearly opaque.
Sometimes with greasy
6.

luster.

A stone,

Cat's-eye.

which when cut

in a

round shape (en

cabochon) exhibits an opalescent or chatoyant effect, as it is

termed, is called a cat's-eye. Quartz among other minerals gives
at times this effect, which is due either to fibrous inclusions or

The latter is seen in

to a fibrous structure of the quartz itself.
the tiger's-eye, a yellow fibrous quartz from South Africa, which
is pseudomorphic after another fibrous mineral, crocidolite.
7.

With Inclusions.

Many

other minerals occur at times as

Rutilated quartz has fine needles of rutile

Tourmaline and other minerals are found in

inclusions in quartz.

penetrating it.
quartz in the same way. Aventurine is quartz including brilliant
scales of hematite or mica.
Liquids and gases at times occur
as inclusions;

both liquid and gaseous carbon dioxide exist in

some quartz.

CRYPTOCRYSTALL1NE VARIETIES.
Chalcedony. An amorphous quartz material, translucent
B.

1.

with a waxy luster. White, yellowish brown to dark-brown in

Often mammillary, stalactitic, etc., in structure. Decolor.
posited from aqueous solutions and found lining or filling cavities
in rocks (see Fig. B, pi. III).
2.

Cornelian.

3.

Chrysoprase.

4.

Agate.

red chalcedony.

An

apple-green chalcedony.

variegated chalcedony.

The

different

colors

usually in delicate, fine parallel bands which are commonly

The color is
curved, sometimes concentric (Fig. B, pi. VI).

sometimes strengthened or even changed by artificial means.

agates have the different colors arranged not in bands but

Some

PLATE

A.

Smoky

B.

VI.

Quartz, Pike's Peak, Colorado.

Agate, Oberstein, Germany.

177

QUARTZ

Moss agate is a variety in which the

irregularly distributed.
variation in color is due to visible impurities, often manganese
oxide.
5.

Onyx.

banded chalcedony

like agate,

except the bands

are arranged in straight parallel lines.

6.

Flint.

a sharp edge.
7.

like chalcedony but of dull, often dark

with a prominent conchoidal fracture and gives

Something

It breaks

color.

Jasper.

Used

implements by early man.

quartz, usually colored red from hematite

for various

Opaque

inclusions.

Occurrence.

Quartz

is

the most

common

of minerals.

Occurs

as an important constituent of the acid igneous rocks, such as

It is a common mineral of sedigranite, rhyolite, pegmatite, etc.

Occurs
rocks, forming the chief mineral in sandstone.
largely also in metamorphic rocks, as gneisses and schists, while it
forms practically the only mineral of quartzites. Deposited often
from solution and forms the most common vein and gangue mineral.

mentary

In rocks it is associated chiefly with feldspar and muscovite; in

veins with practically the entire range of vein minerals. Often
Occurs
carries gold and becomes an important ore of that metal.
in large amount as sand in stream beds and upon the seashore and
as a constituent of soils.
Rock crystal is found widely distributed, some of the more notable
localities being: the Alps; Minas Geraes and Goyoz, Brazil; on the
The best quartz crystals from the
island of Madagascar; in Japan.
United States are found at Hot Springs, Arkansas, and Little Falls,
New York. Important occurrences of amethyst are located in the
Ural Mountains and in Brazil. Found at Thunder Bay on the north
shore of Lake Superior and in the United States in Oxford
County, Maine; Delaware and Chester counties, Pennsylvania;
Black Hills, South Dakota, etc. Smoky quartz is found in large and

Canton Uri, Switzerland; at Pike's Peak, Colorado;

Alexander County, North Carolina; at Auburn, Maine, etc. The
chief source of agates at present is a district in southern Brazil and
northern Uruguay. They are mostly cut at Oberstein, Germany,
itself a famous agate locality.
Found in Laramie County, Wyoming,
and numerous other places in the United States. Massive quartz,
occurring in quartz veins or with feldspar in pegmatite veins, is
mined for its various commercial uses in Connecticut, New York,
Maryland, Wisconsin, etc.
fine crystals in

Use.

Widely used

in its various colored

forms as ornamental

material, as amethyst, rose quartz, cairngorm, cat's-eye, tiger's-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

178

Used for abrading

purposes either as quartz sand or as sandpaper. Used in the
manufacture of porcelain, of glass, as a wood filler, in paints,
eye, aventurine, carnelian, agate, onyx, etc.

scouring soaps, etc.

As sand

is

used in mortars and cements.

As

quartzite, sandstone, and in its various other rock forms as

a building stone, for paving purposes, etc. Large amounts of

quartz sand are used as an acid flux in certain smelting operations.

Opal.
Silicon dioxide, like quartz, with

Composition.

amount

of water,

a varying

Si0 2 nH 2 0.

Crystallization. Amorphous.
Structure. Massive; often botryoidal, stalactitic, etc.
G. = 1.9-2.3. VitrePhysical Properties. H. = 5.5-6.5.
ous luster; often somewhat resinous. Colorless, white, pale

shades of yellow, red, brown, green, gray and blue. With

darker colors, which are due to various impurities. Often has
.

a milky or "opalescent" effect and sometimes shows a fine play

of colors.
Transparent to opaque.
Tests.
Infusible.
Insoluble.
Reacts like quartz. Gives a

water upon intense ignition in C. T.

Precious Opal.
White, milky blue, yellow. Sometimes dark, as in so-called black opal.
Translucent, with an
little

Varieties.

internal play of colors.

This phenomenon

is

said to be due to

thin curved laminae which refract the light differently from the
mass of the material, and so serve to break it up into the various

prismatic colors.
red reflections.

Common

Fire opal

Opal.

is

a variety with intense orange to

Milk-white, yellow, green, red,

etc.,

without

internal reflections.
Hyalite.

Clear and colorless opal with a globular or botry-

oidal structure.
Geyserite.
Opal deposited by hot springs and geysers. Found
about the geysers in the Yellowstone Park.
Wood Opal. Fossil wood with opal as the petrifying material.
Fine-grained deposits, resemTripolite, or Infusorial earth.

179

CUPRITE
Formed by the accumulation

bling chalk in appearance.

of the

siliceous shells of small sea organisms.

Occurrence. Opal is found lining and filling cavities in igneous

and sedimentary rocks, where it has evidently been deposited through
the agency of hot waters. In its ordinary variety it is of widespread
occurrence. Precious opals are found at Czernowitza, Hungary;
in Queretaro and other states in Mexico; in Honduras; and from
various localities in Australia, the chief district being White Cliffs,
New South Wales. Recently black opal has been found in Idaho.
Use. As a gem. The stones are usually cut in round shapes,
en cabochon, and gems of one-carat size are valued up to $20.
Stones of large size and exceptional quality are very highly
prized.

OXIDES OF THE SEMIMETALS.

2.

The minerals

of this division are all rare in occurrence.

Some

more important species are, arsenolite, As 2 3 senarmonSb

2
3
valentinite, Sb 2 3 tellurite, Te0 2 tungstite, W0 3 cer~
tite,
vantite, Sb 2 4
of the

3.

OXIDES OF THE METALS.

oxides of the metals are grouped into two main divisions:

A. Anhydrous Oxides; B. Hydrous Oxides. Further, the Anhydrous Oxides are further subdivided into: (1) Protoxides; (2)

The

Sesquioxides; (3) Intermediate Oxides; (4) Dioxides.

A.

ANHYDROUS OXIDES.
1.

Ruby

Cuprite.

Composition.

PROTOXIDES.
Copper.

Cuprous

oxide,

Red Copper Ore.

Cu = Oxygen 11.2, copper
2

88.8.

Crystallization.

Isometric.

Common

forms are cube, octahedron and dodecahedron,

Somefrequently in combination (Fig. 250).
times in much elongated cubic crystals, capillary in size;
chalcotrichite.

known

as "plush copper" or
Fig. 250.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

180
Structure.

Usually massive, more rarely in crystals or capil-

lary forms.

Physical Properties.

H. = 3.5-4.

G.

6.

Luster adaman-

and earthy in
Ruby-red in
Indian-red. High

tine in clear crystallized varieties to submetallic

massive varieties.

Color red of various shades.

transparent crystals. Streak brownish red,

index of refraction, giving brilliant luster to transparent variety.
Tests.
Easily fusible at 3, giving emerald-green flame, or,

moistened with hydrochloric acid and then heated, flame is

Gives globule of copper on charcoal in R. F.
When dissolved in small amount of concentrated hydrochloric
if

azure-blue.

acid and solution diluted with cold water gives a white precipitate of cuprous chloride (test for cuprous copper).
Usually to
be determined by its color and streak.

Occurrence.

Found

An

important ore of copper of secondary

origin.

in the upper, oxidized portions of copper veins, associated

with the other secondary copper minerals, native copper, malachite,

Found in the United States in connection
with the copper deposits at Bisbee, Morenci, etc., Arizona. Found in
small amount with the native copper from Lake Superior. An important ore in Chile, Peru and Bolivia. Fine crystals come from
Bisbee, Arizona; Cornwall, England; Chessy, France; the Urals.
azurite, chrysocolla, etc.

Name.
Use.

Derived from the Latin, cuprum, copper.

Ore of copper.
Zincite.

Composition. Zinc oxide, ZnO

Manganese protoxide often present.

= Oxygen

19.7,

zinc 80.3.

Terminated
Crystallization.
Hexagonal; hemimorphic.
above by faces of a steep pyramid and below with a basal
Sometimes shows short prism.
plane.
Structure. Usually massive with platy or granular structure.
Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 4-4.5.

Color deep red to orangeLuster subadamantine.

Translucent
to almost opaque.
Streak
yellow.
orange-yellow.
Tests.
Infusible.
Soluble in hydrochloric acid. When the

G.

finely

5.5.

powdered mineral is mixed with sodium carbonate and

and intensely heated B. B., gives a nonvolatile

charcoal dust

CORUNDUM

181

Usually
coating of zinc oxide, yellow when hot, white when cold.
with borax bead in 0. F. gives a reddish violet color (manganese).

Told

chiefly

by

its

color

and

streak.

Found in the zinc deposits at Franklin Furnace,

Jersey, associated with franklinite and willemite, often in an
intimate mixture. Sometimes embedded in pink calcite.
Occurrence.

New

An

Use.

ore of zinc, particularly used for the production of

zinc white (zinc oxide).

In this division also belong water,

in crystallization,

and

ice,

H 0, which
2

tenorite or melaconite,

2.

is

hexagonal

CuO.

SESQUIOXIDES.

HEMATITE GROUP.
The Hematite Group

includes the closely related

dral minerals, corundum, A1 2

(Fe,Ti) 2

3,

hematite,

Fe 2

3,

rhomboheand ilmenite

3.

Corundum.
Composition.

minium

Aluminium

oxide, A1 2

= Oxygen

47.1, alu-

52.9.

Crystallization. Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals usually

prismatic in habit or tapering hexagonal pyramids (Figs. 251 and

Fig. 252.

Fig. 251.

252).

Often rounded into barrel shapes (Fig. 253).

with deep horizontal striations.

and pyramidal

faces.

Fig. 253.

Frequently

At times shows rhombohedral

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

182

Structure. Rudely crystallized or massive with parting planes

nearly cubic in angle; coarse or fine granular.
Physical Properties. Parting basal and rhombohedral, the

H. = 9 (next to the diamond

3.95-4.1 (unusually high for a nonmetallic
Adamantine to vitreous luster. Color various. Usu-

latter giving nearly cubic blocks.

G.

in hardness).

mineral).
ally

some shade

of

brown, pink or blue.

green, ruby-red or sapphire-blue.

Tests.
Infusible.
Insoluble.

May

be white, gray,

Transparent to opaque.
Finely pulverized material

moistened with cobalt nitrate and intensely ignited assumes a

blue color (aluminium). Characterized chiefly by its great
hardness, adamantine luster and high specific gravity.
Varieties.
Ordinary Corundum. In translucent to opaque
masses, showing often the nearly cubical parting; also granular
to compact.

Gem Corundum.

dum

When

furnishes various

gem

transparent and finely colored, corunstones.

The ruby is deep red corun-

dum; sapphire is blue corundum. Stones of other colors are

sometimes spoken of as yellow, violet, etc., sapphires or are
designated by prefixing the word oriental to the name of some
other mineral similar in color; thus, oriental topaz is a brownish
yellow corundum; oriental amethyst, a reddish violet corundum,
etc.

Emery.

Is a fine-grained

erals, chiefly

corundum mixed with other min-

magnetite.

Occurrence.

Common

in the

metamorphic

rocks, such as crys-

talline limestone, mica-schist, gneiss, etc.

Found also as an original
constituent of certain igneous rocks, usually those deficient in silica.
Found sometimes in large masses, evidently the product of magmatic

differentiation.

detrital soil
its

Found frequently

hardness.

and rolled pebbles in

has been preserved through

in crystals

and stream sands, where

it

Associated minerals are

commonly

chlorite micas,

chrysolite, serpentine, magnetite, spinel, cyanite, diaspore, etc.

Rubies are found chiefly in Burmah, Siam and Ceylon.

The

most important locality in Burmah is near Mogok, 90 miles north

of Mandalay. The stones are found here chiefly in the soil resulting
from the decay of a metamorphosed limestone. They have also
been found in situ in the limestone. The rubies of Siam are found
near Bangkok, on the Gulf of Siam, where they occur in a clay,

CORUNDUM

183

derived from the decomposition of a basalt. The rubies of Ceylon

are found with other gem stones in the stream gravels.
few
rubies have been found in the gravels and in connection with the

larger

corundum

deposits of

North Carolina.

Sapphires are found associated with the rubies of Siam and Ceylon.
They occur also at Banskar in Cashmere, India. In the
United States small sapphires of fine color are found in various -localities in Montana.
They were first found in the river sands east

Helena when washing them for gold. They have since been
found embedded in the rock of lamprophyre dikes. The rock is
quarried and after exposure to the air for a time it gradually decomposes, setting the sapphires free. Sapphires are also found
over an extensive area in central Queensland, Australia.
Massive corundum is found in the United States in various localities along the eastern edge of the Appalachian Mountains from North
Carolina south. It has been extensively mined in southwestern
North Carolina. It occurs here in large masses lying at the edges
of intruded masses of a chrysolite rock (dunite) and is thought to
have been a separation from the original magma. Found as an
original constituent of a nepheline syenite in the Province of Ontario,
Canada. At times the corundum is so abundant as to form more
than 10 per cent of the rock mass.
The impure corundum, known as emery, is found in large quantities on Cape Emeri on the island of Naxos and in various localities
in Asia Minor.
In the United States emery has been extensively
mined at Chester, Massachusetts.
of

Artificial corundum is now being made in the elecfurnaces at Niagara. Small synthetic rubies and sapphires,
colored with minute amounts of chromium, have been success-

Artificial.

trical

Also small grains of the natural stone have been

fully made.
fused together into larger masses, from which stones of two or
three carats in size can be cut.
These are known as reconstructed rubies arid sapphires.
Use. As a gem stone. The ruby at times yields the most
valuable of gems; a stone of the deep red known as "pigeon's
blood" may bring $1500 to $2000 a carat. The blue sapphire is

ranging at times, however, as high as $125 a carat.

stones of various other color are valued up to $30

less valuable,

Corundum
a carat.

Used also as an abrasive, either ground from the pure massive

Artificial corundum
material, or in its impure form as emery.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

184

and carborundum, which in composition is a carbide of silicon,

are now manufactured on a large scale in electric furnaces and
are being used in considerable amount as abrasives instead of
the naturally occurring corundum.

Hematite.
Composition. Iron sesquioxide, Fe 2 3 = Oxygen 30, iron 70.
Sometimes with titanium and magnesium, passing into ilmenite.
Crystallization. Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals usually
thick to thin tabular. Basal planes prominent, often showing

Fig. 255.

Fig. 254.

and 255). Edges of plates sometimes beveled with rhombohedral and pyramidal forms (Fig.

triangular markings (Figs. 254

Fig. 257.

Fig. 256.

256).

Thin plates at times grouped

in rosette

forms (iron roses)

More

rarely crystals are distinctly rhombohedral,

often with nearly cubic angles.
Structure. Usually earthy or in botryoidal to reniform shapes
(Fig. 257).

At times micaceous; crystallized.

Physical Properties. Rhombohedral parting with nearly cubic
Color
Metallic luster.
G. = 4.8-5.3.
H. = 5.5-6.5.
angles.
with radiating structure.

reddish

brown to

Tests.

black.

Infusible.

Streak light to dark Indian-red.

Becomes strongly magnetic on heating

in

Slowly soluble in hydrochloric acid; solution with potassium ferrocyanide gives dark blue precipitate (test for ferric
Told chiefly by its characteristic Indian-red streak.
iron).

R. F.

HEMATITE

185

Varieties.
Specular Hematite. Black hematite with brilliant
splendent luster (whence name, specular, mirrorlike), in crystals
or in foliated masses with micaceous structure.

Columnar to Reniform Hematite, Kidney Ore. Brownish black

columnar to reniform shapes with radiating structure,

color, in

having fibrous appearance (A,

pi. III).

Impure hematite in small globular or

At times with fossils.
lenticular concretions.
Earthy Hematite. In pulverulent, earthy form of various
Often somewhat hydrated and passshades of reddish brown.
Oolitic

and Fossil Ore.

ing into limonite.

Occurrence. Hematite is a widely distributed mineral in rocks

and forms the most abundant ore of iron. Occurs as an

of all ages

accessory mineral in feldspathic igneous rocks, such as granite.

Found from microscopic scales to enormous masses in connection
with metamorphic rocks. It is found in red sandstones as the
cementing material that binds the quartz grains together.
The crystallized variety is found at many places, more particularly from the island of Elba; St. Gothard, Switzerland, in "iron
"
in the lavas of Vesuvius; at Cleator Moor, Cumberland, etc.
roses
In the United States the columnar and earthy varieties are found
in enormous beds that furnish a large proportion of the iron ore of
The chief iron-ore districts of the United States are
the world.
grouped around the southern and northwestern shores of Lake
;

The chief disSuperior in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.

tricts, which are spoken of as iron-ore ranges, are, from east to west,
the Marquette Range in northern Michigan; the Menominee Range
in Michigan to the southwest of the Marquette; the PenokeeGogebic Range in northern Wisconsin; the Mesabi Range, north
of Duluth in Minnesota; and the Vermillion Range farther north
The iron ore of these
in Minnesota, near the Canadian boundary.
different ranges varies from the hard black micaceous specular
All of the ore bodies lie in rock
variety to the soft red earthy type.
troughs which furnish impervious underlying basements to the
In all of the districts, except the Mesabi, these underdeposits.
lying rocks are in the nature of altered igneous dikes, known aa
soapstone dikes. The ore bodies lie in more or less broken quartz
material, frequently colored red by inclusions of hematite and called
The origin of these deposits is attributed to the slow conjasper.
centration of the iron content of a siliceous carbonate rock by downward moving waters. These waters were at last collected in the
impervious rock troughs and there deposited their iron content by

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

186

a replacement of the quartz of the overlying rock. The ores are

mined in part by underground methods, and in part, where the ore is
soft and lies sufficiently near the surface, by the use of steam shovels.
Hematite is also found in the United States in various places in
connection with the outcrop of rocks of the Clinton formation, from
central New York south along the line of the Appalachian MounThe most important deposits of the
tains to central Alabama.
series lie in eastern Tennessee and northern Alabama, near Birmingham. Hematite has been found at Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob
in southeastern Missouri.
Deposits of considerable importance are
located in Wyoming, in Laramie and Carbon counties.

Name.

Derived from a Greek word meaning

to the color of the

Ilmenite.

Composition.

nium
ratio

blood, in allusion

powdered mineral.

Menaccanite.

Titanic Iron Ore.

Ferrous titanate, FeTi0 3 = Oxygen 31.6, titaBy the introduction of ferric oxide, the

31.6, iron 36.8.

between the titanium and iron often varies widely.

Some-

times contains magnesium replacing the ferrous iron.

tri-rhomboheCrystallization.
Hexagonal-rhombohedral
;

Crystals usually thick tabular with prominent basal planes

and small rhombohedral truncations. Faces of the third order
dral.

rhombohedron

rare.

Crystal angles,

etc.,

close to those for

hematite.

Structure.
sand.

Usually massive, compact;

Often in thin plates.

also in grains or as

Metallic to
H. = 5.5-6.
G.=4.7.
Physical (Properties.
Color iron-black. Streak black to brownish

submetallic luster.

Sometimes magnetic without heating.

Infusible.
May be magnetic without heating. Fine
in
F.
with sodium carbonate yields a magnetic
fused
R.
powder
mass. After fusion with sodium carbonate the fusion can be
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and when the solution is boiled
with tin it assumes a violet color (titanium).
red.

Tests.

Occurrence. Occurs as beds and lenticular bodies enveloped in

and other crystalline metamorphic rocks. Often associated
with magnetite.
Also as an accessory mineral in eruptive rocks.
Found in large quantities at Kragero and other localities in Norway;

gneiss

SPINEL
at

Miask

in the

Found

Canada.

New

York,

Ilmen Mountains; at Bay St. Paul in Quebec,

at Washington, Connecticut; in Orange County,

etc.

Has

Use.
ent in a

187

body

little of it prespractically no commercial use.

of magnetite iron ore makes the ore so difficult to

smelt as to render

3.

it

of little value.

INTERMEDIATE OXIDES.
SPINEL GROUP.

group of oxides which in composition are combinations of a

bivalent oxide with a trivalent oxide, the general formula being,

R"O.R2 '"0 3 R"0 may be MgO, ZnO, FeO, MnO, while 2 /// 3

may

be A1 2

3,

Fe 2

3,

Mn

3,

Cr2

The

3.

chief

members

of the

group are as follows:

Spinel,

Mg O.A1

or

MgAl

4.

Gahnite, ZnO.Al 2 3 or ZnAl 2 4

Magnetite, FeO.Fe 2 3 or FeFe 2

4.

(Fe,Mn,Zn)0.(Fe,Mn) 2 3
or (Fe,Mn,Zn)(Fe,Mn) 2 O 4
Chromite, (Fe,Mg)O.Cr2 3 or (Fe,Mg)Cr 2

Franklinite,

The

4.

members of the group is octaThe dodecahedron is sometimes present, but other forms

crystalline habit of all the

hedral.

are rare.

Spinel.

Composition.

MgAl

or

MgO. A1 2

= Alumina

71.8,

The magnesium may be,

in part, replaced by ferrous iron or
manganese and the aluminium by
nesia 28.2.

ferric iron

and chromium.

Crystallization.

Isometric.

Habit

strongly octahedral (Fig. 258). Sometimes in twinned octahedrons (spinel

Dodecahedron at
twins) (Fig. 259).

times as small truncations (Fig. 260).

Other forms rare.

Fig 258 '

-

mag-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

188

Structure. Usually crystallized.

H.= 8. G. = 3.5-4.1. Nonmetallic.
Physical Properties.
Vitreous luster.
Color various,
red, lavender, blue, green,

brown, black, sometimes almost white. Streak white.

translucent to opaque, at times clear and transparent.

Fig. 260.

Fig. 259.

Tests.

The

Infusible.

Usually

finely

powdered mineral dissolves

completely B. B. in the salt of phosphorus bead (proving the

absence of silica). Recognized chiefly by its hardness (8), its
octahedral crystals and vitreous luster.
Varieties.

Clear red;

Ruby

1.

Spinel.

Nearly pure magnesian

When

transparent to translucent.

rose-red

spinel.

known

as balas ruby, yellow or orange-red, rubicelle; violet-red, almandine ruby.

2.

Pkonaste.

to black.
3.

Iron-magnesia spinel.

Opaque

Chlorospinel.

Color dark green, brown

or nearly so.

Magnesia-iron spinel.

ing to the presence of copper.

4. Picotite, or Chrome Spinel.
iron replacing magnesium.
Translucent to opaque.

Color grass-green ow-

Contains chromium and has

Color yellowish or greenish brown.

Occurrence. A common metamorphic mineral occurring embedded in granular limestone, associated with calcite, serpentine,
Occurs also as an accessory mineral in many basic igneous
etc.

Found frequently as rolled pebbles in

has been preserved on account of its hardThe ruby spinels are found in this way, often associated with

rocks, as peridotites, etc.

stream sands, where

ness.

it

MAGNETITE

189

the corundum ruby, in the sands of Ceylon, Siam, Upper Burmah,

Australia and Brazil.
Ordinary spinel is found in various localities
in New York, New Jersey and Massachusetts.

When transparent and finely colored is used as a gem.

in color and known as the spinel ruby, balas ruby,
red
Usually
etc.
Some stones are blue in color. The largest cut stone
Use.

known weighs

in the neighborhood of 80 carats.

The

stones

usually are comparatively inexpensive, although a stone of exceptionally fine color may bring as high as $100 per carat.

Gahnite.

A zinc spinel, ZnAl2O 4 or ZnO.Al2 O 3 with ferrous iron and manganese isomorphous with the zinc and ferric iron with the aluminium.
Isometric.
Commonly octahedral, also rarely showing dodecaheDark
Vitreous luster.
drons and cubes. H. =7.5-8. G. =4.55.
green color. Infusible. The fine powder fused with sodium carbonate on charcoal gives a white nonvolatile coating of zinc oxide.
A rare mineral. Found in the United States in notable crystals at
Franklin, New Jersey, and Rowe, Massachusetts.
,

Magnetite.
Composition.

Fe 3

or

FeO.Fe 2

Iron sesquioxide 69.0,

iron protoxide 31.0 or oxygen 27.6, iron 72.4.

is

The

ferrous iron

sometimes replaced by magnesium,

rarely nickel; also* at times titaniferous.

Isometric. -OctaCrystallization.

hedral

habit

sometimes
Dodecahedron

261),

(Fig.

twinned octahedrons.

at times (Fig. 262) either alone or with

octahedron (Fig. 263) Other forms rare.

Structure.
Usually granular massive, coarse or fine; sometimes as sand;
.

also frequently crystallized.

Physical Properties.

H. = 6.
dral parting.
black.
Streak black.

Often under pressure develops octaheG. = 5.18. Metallic luster. Color ironStrongly magnetic; sometimes a natural

magnet, known as lodestone.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

190
Tests.

Slowly soluble in

Infusible.

acts for both ferrous

and

its

strong magnetism,

HC1 and

Distinguished chiefly by its

black color and streak, and its hardness (6).

Fig. 262.

Occurrence.

Fig. 263.

A common ore of

mineral in rocks of

solution re-

ferric iron.

all classes

found as an accessory
and sometimes becomes their chief
iron.

It

is

Most commonly associated with crystalline metamorphic rocks, also frequently in rocks that are rich in ferromagnesium minerals, such as diabase, gabbro, peridotite. In many cases
forms large ore bodies that are thought to be the result of magmatic
Occurs
differentiation; such bodies are often highly titaniferous.
at times in immense beds and lenses, inclosed in old metamorphic
Found in the black sands of the seashore. Occurs as thin
rocks.
Often intiplates and dendritic growths between plates of mica.
mately associated with corundum, forming the material known as
emery.
In the United States, found in large beds with the Archaean rocks
of the Adirondacks in Warren, Essex and Clinton counties of northern New York; in various places in New Jersey; at Cornwall,
Important foreign localities are in Norway and
Pennsylvania.
Natural magnets or lodeSweden, where it is the chief iron ore.
stones are found in Siberia; in the Harz Mountains, Germany;
at Magnet Cove, Arkansas.
constituent.

Name.

Probably derived from the locality Magnesia, border-

ing on Macedonia.

fable, told

by

Pliny, ascribes its

name

to

a shepherd named Magnes, who first discovered the mineral on

Mount Ida by noting that the nails of his shoes and the iron
ferrule of his staff

Use.

adhered to the ground.

An important iron ore.

191

CHROMITE
Franklinite.

Composition.

(Fe,Zn,Mn)0.(Fe,Mn) 2

3.

Shows wide

vari-

ation in the proportions of the different elements present, but conforms to the general formula, RO.R 2 3
.

Habit strongly octahedral. Dodecahedron sometimes as truncations. Other forms rare. CrysCrystallization.

tals often

Isometric.

rounded.

Massive, coarse or fine granular, in rounded grains

Structure.
or crystallized.

Metallic luster.
Physical Properties. H.= 6. G.= 5.15.
Color iron-black. Streak dark brown. Not magnetic.
Infusible.
Becomes strongly magnetic on heating in
Gives a bluish green color to sodium carbonate bead in
0. F. (manganese)
When very fine powder is mixed with sodium

Tests.

R. F.

carbonate and heated intensely on charcoal gives a coating of

zinc oxide.
Distinguished by above tests and its black color

and brown

streak.

Occurrence. Found practically only in the zinc deposits at FrankFurnace, New Jersey, which are in the form of large beds, inAssociated chiefly with zincite and
closed in granular limestone.
willemite, with which it is often intimately intergrown.
lin

and manganese. The zinc is converted

and the residue is smelted to form an alloy of
and manganese, spiegeleisen, which is used in the manu-

Use.

As an

ore of zinc

into zinc white

iron

facture of steel.

Chromite.

Chromium sesquiComposition. FeCr2 4 or FeO.Cr 2 3

oxide 68.0, iron protoxide 32.0. The iron may be replaced by
magnesium and the chromium by aluminium and ferric iron.
Crystallization.

and

Isometric.

Habit octahedral. Crystals small

rare.

Structure. Commonly massive, granular to compact.

Physical Properties. H. = 5.5. G. = 4.6. Metallic to subColor iron-black to brownish black.
metallic luster.
Streak

dark brown.

192

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Infusible.
When finely powdered and fused on charsodium carbonate gives a magnetic residue. Imparts
a green color to the borax and salt of phosphorus beads (chromium).

Tests.

coal with

Occurrence.
common constituent of peridotite rocks and the
One of the first minerals to separate
serpentines derived from them.
from a cooling rock magma, and its large ore deposits are thought to
have been derived by such magmatic differentiation. Associated
with chrysolite, serpentine, corundum, etc.
Found only sparingly in the United States. Pennsylvania, Maryland, North Carolina and Wyoming have produced it in the past.
California is the only producing state at present (1910).
The
important countries for its production are New Caledonia, Greece

and Canada.
Uses.

Chromium

hardness to

used with various other metals to give

is

Chromite bricks are used to a considerable

for metallurgical furnaces, on account of their

steel.

extent as linings
neutral and refractory character.
of crude chromite

and

The

bricks are usually

made

coal tar but sometimes of chromite with

Chromium
kaolin, bauxite, milk of lime or with other materials.
is a constituent of certain green, yellow, orange and red pigments
and

of similarly colored dyes.

Chrysoberyl.
Composition.

Beryllium aluminate, BeAl 2

= Alumina 80.2,

beryllium oxide 19.8.

Orthorhombic. Crystals usually tabular parto macropinacoid, which face is vertically striated. Commonly twinned, often in pseudohexagonal forms.
Crystallization.

allel

Structure.

Usually in crystals.
Prismatic cleavage.
G.= 3.65-3.8. Vitreous luster.

Physical Properties.

usually high).
shades of green, brown, yellow, sometimes red

H. = 8.5 (unColor various

by transmitted

light.

Tests.

Infusible.

Insoluble.

The

finely

powdered mineral

wholly soluble in the salt of phosphorus bead (absence of silica).

Mineral, moistened with cobalt nitrate and ignited, turns blue

is

193

CASSITERITE
(aluminium). Characterized by its extreme hardness,
lowish to emerald-green color and its twin crystals.
Varieties.

1.

its

yel-

Color pale green, yellow; some-

Ordinary.

times transparent.
2. Alexandrite.
Emerald-green variety, but red by transmitted light and generally also by artificial light.

A variety which when polished

3. Cat's-eye, or Cymophane.
shows an opalescent luster, and across whose surface plays a
long narrow beam of light, changing its position with every
movement of the stone. This effect is known as chatoyancy,
and is best obtained when the stone is cut in an oval or round
form (en cabochori). This property of the mineral is thought
to be due to numerous minute tubelike cavities, arranged in a
parallel position.
Chrysoberyl is the true cat's-eye, and is not
to be confused with various other minerals possessing similar

properties

(e.g.,

quartz).

Occurrence. A rare mineral. Found in the alluvial gem deposits

of Brazil and Ceylon; the alexandrite variety comes from the Ural
Mountains. In the United States it has been found at Norway and
Stoneham, Maine; Haddam, Connecticut; and in North Carolina.

Name.

means golden beryl. Cymophane is detwo Greek words meaning wave and to appear, in
Alexanallusion to the chatoyant effect of some of the stones.
drite was named in honor of Alexander II of Russia.
Chrysoberyl

rived from

Serves as a

Use.

stones are valued

gem

The ordinary

stone.

up to $5 a

as $60 for a one-carat stone.

yellowish green
Alexandrite brings as high
one-carat cat's-eye may have a

carat.

value up to $50.

Two rare manganese minerals belong in the section of Intermediate Oxides: hausmannite, MnO.Mn 2 3 and braunite, 3Mn 2 3
.

MnSi0

3.

4.

DIOXIDES.

Cassiterite.

Tin

Composition.
first

Sn0 2 = Oxygen

21.4, tin 78.6.

Tetragonal. Common forms are prisms and

and second orders (Fig. 264). Frequently in

Crystallization.

pyramids of

dioxide,

Tin Stone.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

194

elbow-shaped twins; twinning plane being a pyramid of the

second order (Fig. 265).

195

RUTILE

Carolina; in the Black Hills, South Dakota; near El Paso, Texas.

world's supply of tin ore comes from Tasmania, from New
South Wales, Queensland and other states of Australia, from Bolivia

The

and from the Malay States. Cornwall, England, has produced

amounts of tin ore in the past.

large

Use. Only ore of tin. Chief use of tin is in coating or "tinning" metals, particularly iron, to form what is known as sheet
tin.
Tin is also used in various alloys: solder, containing tin

and

lead;

bell-metal

and bronze, containing copper and

tin.

Rutile.

Composition.

60.

little

iron

Titanium dioxide, Ti0 2 = Oxygen 40, titanium

usually present and may amount to 10 per

is

cent.

Crystallization.

mid terminations

Tetragonal.
(Fig. 266).

Fig. 266.

in

Usually prismatic with pyra-

Vertically striated.

Fig. 267.

.Frequently

Fig. 268.

elbow twins, often repeated (Figs. 267 and 268). Twinning

is pyramid of second order.
Crystals sometimes slender

plane

acicular.

Structure.

Usually crystallized.

Sometimes compact mas-

sive.

H.=

Physical Properties.

adamantine to submetallic.
Usually nearly opaque,

may

6-6.5.

G.=

4.18-4.25.

Luster

Color red, reddish brown to black.

be transparent.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

196
Tests.

Infusible.

Insoluble.

Fused with sodium carbonate,

then fused mass dissolved in hydrochloric acid and boiled with

tin, the solution assumes a violet color.

Occurrence. Rutile is found in granite, gneiss, mica schist, metamorphic limestone and dolomite, sometimes as an accessory mineral
in the rock, sometimes in quartz veins traversing it.
Often occurs
Remarkable crystals come
as slender crystals penetrating quartz.
from Graves Mountain, Lincoln County, Georgia. Also found in
Alexander County, North Carolina, in Randolph County, Alabama,
and at Magnet Cove, Arkansas. Has been mined near Roseland,
Nelson County, Virginia. Notable European localities are Kragero,
Norway; Yrieux, near Limoges, France; in the Ural Mountains.
Use.

Source of titanium.

Titanium

is

used to a small extent

and

cast iron; for electrodes in arc lights; to give a yellow color to porcelain and false teeth.
in steel

Octahedrite.

Anatase.

Titanium dioxide, TiC>2, same as rutile and brookite. Tetragonal.

Usually in pyramidal crystals, also tabular parallel to base. H. =
5.5-6.
G. = 3.8-3.95. Adamantine luster. Color yellow, brown,
Tests same as for rutile (which
blue, black, transparent to opaque.
A comparatively rare mineral, found usually as an accessory
see).
mineral in metamorphic rocks.

Brookite.
Titanium dioxide, TiO 2 like rutile and octahedrite. OrthorhomHabit varied. Tabular parallel to macropinacoid, square
bic.
prismatic and at times by an equal development of 4 prism and 8
pyramid faces resembles a hexagonal pyramid. Occurs only in crysLuster adamantine to submetallic.
tals.
H. = 6. G. = 4-4.07.
Color hair-brown to black. Translucent to opaque. Tests, same
A rare mineral, occurring with one of the other forms
as for rutile.
of titanium dioxide, rutile or octahedrite.
Occurs in good crystals
,

at St. Gothard, Switzerland; in the Tyrol; Trenadoc, Wales; Ellenville,

New

York; Magnet Cove, Arkansas.

Pyrolusite.

Composition.

Manganese

dioxide,

Mn0

2.

Commonly

con-

tains a little water.

Crystallization.
after manganite.

Crystals probably always pseudomorphous

PYROLUSITE
Structure.

197

Radiating columnar to fibrous (Fig. A,

often in reniform coats.

pi.

VII);

also granular massive;

H.

Physical Properties.

G.

Metallic luster.

4.75.

tery fracture.
Infusible.
Tests.

2-2.5 (often soiling the fingers).

Iron-black color and streak.

small

amount

of

Splin-

powdered mineral

gives in 0. F. a reddish violet bead with borax or a bluish green

opaque bead with sodium carbonate. Gives oxygen in C. T.,

which will cause a splinter of charcoal to ignite when placed in

tube above the mineral and heated. Only a small amount of
water in C. T. In hydrochloric acid, chlorine gas evolved.
Occurrence.

A secondary mineral.

Manganese

is

dissolved out

which it is almost always present in small

amounts, and redeposited under various conditions, chiefly as pyro-

of the crystalline rocks, in

Dendritic coatings of pyrolusite are frequently observed

Nodular deposits of pyrosurfaces, coating pebbles, etc.
Nests and beds of manganese
lusite are found on the sea bottom.
ores are found inclosed in residual clays, derived from the decay
As the rock has weathered and its
of manganiferous limestones.
soluble constituents -been taken away, the manganese content has
been concentrated in nodules and masses composed chiefly of
Also found in veins with quartz and various metallic
pyrolusite.
lusite.

on rock

minerals.

Moravia, Transylvania, Bohemia, WestNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia. In

the United States, manganese ores are found in Virginia, Georgia,
Arkansas and California.

Mined

in

Thuringia,

phalia, Australia, Japan, India,

Name.

Pyrolusite

is

derived from two Greek words meaning

fire
wash, because it is used to free glass through its oxidizing effect of the colors due to iron.
Uses. Most important manganese ore. Manganese is used
in the manufacture of the alloys with iron, spiegekisen and ferro-

and

to

manganese, employed in making steel; also in various alloys

with copper, zinc, aluminium, tin, lead, etc. Pyrolusite is used
as an oxidizer in the manufacture of chlorine, bromine and oxygen; as a disinfectant in potassium permanganate; as a drier
in paints, a decolorizer of glass, and in electric cells and batteries.
Manganese is also used as a coloring material in bricks,

pottery, glass, etc.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

198
Polianite,

Mn0

is

2,

a rare mineral, occurring in minute

tet-

ragonal crystals.
B.

HYDROUS OXIDES.
Hydrohematite.

Turgite.
Composition

is

Fe4O 5 (OH) 2 or 2Fe 2 O 3 .lH 2 O.

Compare

and

Reniform and stalactitic, with radiating

goethite.
structure.
Sometimes earthy. H. = 5.5-6. G. = 4.14.
tallic

luster.

Color black to reddish black.

limonite
fibrous

Subme-

Streak Indian-red.

Difficultly fusible at 5-5.5.

Strongly magnetic after heating in R. F.
In C. T. gives 5 percent of water and generally decrepitates. Dis-

tinguished from limonite by red streak and from hematite by giving

water in C. T. Found usually associated with limonite. Occurred
in considerable amount at Salisbury, Conn., where it often formed
an outer layer an inch or more in thickness on the masses of limonite.

Diaspore.
Composition. AIO(OH) or A1 2

.H 2

= Alumina 85, water

15.

Orthorh.ombic.
Crystallization.
Usually in thin crystals,
tabular parallel to the brachypinacoid.
Structure. Bladed; foliated massive.

Physical Properties.
pinacoid.

H. =

6.5-7.

on cleavage face, where

Perfect- cleavage parallel to

G.=
it is

3.35-3.45.

pearly.

brachyVitreous luster except

Color white, gray, yellowish,

greenish.

Insoluble.
Fine powder wholly soluble
phosphorus bead (absence of silica). Ignited with
Gives water in C. T.
cobalt nitrate turns blue (aluminium).

Tests.

Infusible.

in salt of

Characterized by
hardness (6.5-7).

its

good cleavage, scaly structure and

its

Occurrence. Usually a decomposition product of corundum and

found associated with that mineral in dolomite, chlorite-schist, etc.
Found in the Urals; at Schemnitz, Hungary; Campolongo in SwitIn the United States in Chester County, Pennsylvania;
zerland.
at Chester, Massachusetts; near Franklin, North Carolina, etc.

Name.

Derived from a Greek word meaning

allusion to its decrepitation

when

heated.'

to

scatter, in

PLATE

A.

B.

VII.

Pyrolusite, Negaunee, Michigan.

Manganite,

Ilefeld,

Harz Mts.

MANGANITE

199

Goethite.

FeO(OH)

Composition.
62.9,

water

Fe 2

.H 2

Oxygen

26, iron

10.1.

Crystallization.
ated.

or

Orthorhombic.

Prismatic, vertically striIn acicular

Often flattened parallel to brachypinacoid.

crystals at times.

Structure.

Foliated.

Physical Properties.

H.=

pinacoid.

with radiating

Massive, reniform, stalactitic,

fibrous structure.

5-5.5.

Rarely in distinct crystals.

Perfect cleavage parallel to brachy-

G.

4.37.

Adamantine

to dull luster.

Color
Silky luster in certain fine scaly or fibrous varieties.
Streak yellowish brown (same
yellowish brown to dark brown.
as for limonite).
Tests.
Becomes magnetic in R. F.
Difficultly fusible (5-5.5).
Water in C. T. Told chiefly by the color of its streak and dis-

tinguished from limonite by its tendency to crystallize

smaller amount of water which it contains.

and the

Occurrence.

Occurs with the other oxides of iron, hematite and

at Eisenfeld in Nassau; near Bristol, England;
at Lostwithiel, Cornwall.
In the United States in connection with
the Lake Superior hematite deposits, particularly at Negaunee,

Found

limonite.

Michigan.

Use.

A minor

ore of iron.

Manganite.
Composition.
MnO(OH)
manganese 62.4, water 10.3.

or

Mn

.H 2

= Oxygen

27.3,

Orthorhombic. Crystals usually long prisCrystallization.

matic with obtuse terminations, deeply striated vertically (Fig. B,
Often twinned.
pi. VII).
Usually in radiating masses crystals often grouped
Also columnar.

Structure.
in bundles.

Physical Properties. Perfect cleavage parallel to brachyH. = 4. G. = 4.3.

Metallic luster.
Steel-gray to

pinacoid.

iron-black color.

Dark brown

streak.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

200
Tests.

Infusible.

small

amount

of the

powdered mineral

gives in 0. F. a reddish -violet bead with borax or a bluish green

opaque bead with sodium carbonate. Much water when heated

Told chiefly by its black color, prismatic crystals, hardness (4) and brown streak. The last two will serve to distinguish
it from pyrolusite.
in C. T.

Occurrence. Found in connection with pyrolusite and other manOccurs at Ilefeld, Harz
ganese minerals and with iron oxides.
Mountains, in fine crystals; also at Ilmenau, Thuringia; Cornwall,
England; Negaunee, Michigan, etc.

Use.

minor ore

of

manganese.

Brown Hematite.

Limonite.

Fe 4

Composition.
iron 59.8, water

14.5.

(OH)

or 2Fe 2

Often impure.

Bog-iron Ore.
3

= Oxygen 25.7,
Compare turgite and

.3H 2

goethite.

Crystallization.

Noncrystalline.

In mammillary to stalactitic forms with radiat-

Structure.

ing fibrous structure (Fig. B, pi. II); also concretionary; some-

times earthy.

Physical Properties. H. = 5-5.5. G. = 3.6-4. Submetallic

Color dark brown to nearly black.
Streak yellowish

luster.

brown.
Tests.

Difficultly fusible (5-5.5).

heating in R. F.
terized chiefly

by

Much
its

Strongly magnetic after

water in C. T. (15 per cent). Charac-

structure

and yellow-brown

streak.

Limonite is a common ore of iron and is always

secondary in its origin, formed through the alteration or solution
of previously existing iron minerals.
Pyrite is often found altered
to limonite, the crystal form being at times preserved, giving limonite
pseudomorphs. Sulphide veins are often capped near the surface,
where oxidation has taken place, by a mass of cellular limonite,
which is known as gossan, or an iron hat. Iron minerals existing in

Occurrence.

the first to undergo decomposition, and their

often dissolved by percolating waters through the
agency of the small amounts of carbonic acid which they contain.
The iron is transported as a carbonate by the waters to the surface
and then often carried by the streams finally into marshes and
stagnant pools. There, under the effect of the evaporation of the
the rocks are

iron content

among

is

201

BAUXITE

water and its consequent loss of the carbonic acid, which served to
keep the iron carbonate in solution, and through the agency of the
reducing action of carbonaceous matter present, the iron carbonate
is changed to an oxide, which separates from the water and collects
first as an iridescent scum on the surface of the water, and then later
sinks to the bottom.
In this way, under favorable conditions, beds
of impure limonite can be formed in the bottom of marshes and bogs.
Such deposits are very common and are known as bog-iron ores,
but, because of the foreign materials deposited along with the
limonite, are seldom of sufficient purity to be worked.
Limonite deposits are also to be found in connection with ironbearing limestones. The iron content of the limestone is gradually
dissolved out by circulating waters and transported by them to
some favorable spot, and there the iron is slowly redeposited as
limonite, gradually replacing the calcium carbonate of the rock.
Or, by the gradual weathering and solution of the limestone, its iron
content may be left in the form of residual masses of limonite, lying

above the limestone formation.

Such deposits are often of considerable size, and because of their
greater purity are much more often mined than the bog-iron ores.
Deposits of this type are to be found chiefly along the Appalachian
Mountains, from western Massachusetts as far south as Alabama.
These ores have been of considerable importance in western Massachusetts, northwestern Connecticut, southeastern New York, and
in New Jersey.
To-day they are chiefly mined in Alabama, Virginia,
Tennessee and Georgia. Limonite deposits of various kinds are
found throughout the western country, but as yet they have not been
in clay

extensively developed.
Limonite is the coloring material of yellow clays and soils, and
mixed with fine clay makes what is known as yellow ocher. Limonite is commonly associated in its occurrence with hematite, turgite,
pyrolusite, calcite, siderite, etc.

Name.

Derived from the Greek word meaning meadow, in

allusion to its occurrence in bogs.

Use.

As an

iron ore.

As a pigment,

in yellow ocher.

Bauxite.
Composition.
water 26.1.

Crystallization.

Structure.

A1 2 0(OH) 4

or

A1 2

.2H 2

= Alumina

73.9,

Often impure.
Noncrystalline.

In round concretionary grains; also massive,

earthy, claylike.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

202

Physical Properties. G. = 2-2.55.

Color white, gray, yellow, red.

Dull to earthy luster.

Tests.
Infusible.
Insoluble.
Assumes a blue color when
moistened with cobalt nitrate and then ignited (aluminium).
Gives water in C. T.

Occurrence. Probably usually a secondary mineral derived from

the decomposition of rocks containing aluminium silicates. Sometimes as a residual deposit, preserving evidences of the original rock
structure; sometimes oolitic and concretionary in character and
evidently deposited from water.
May, perhaps, at times, be deOccurs at Baux, near Aries,
posited by waters from hot springs.
France, in disseminated grains in limestone; at Allauch, near Marseilles, France, in oolitic form with calcite as cement.
In the
United States the chief deposits are found in Georgia, Alabama and
Arkansas.

As an

Use.

ium

ore of aluminium, in the manufacture of aluminabrasives and bauxite brick.

salts; artificial

Brucite.

Composition.

Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH) 2 = Magnesia

water 31.0. Iron and manganese sometimes present.

Crystallization.
Hexagonal-rhombohedral.
Crystals usually tabular with prominent basal planes, showing at times small
69.0,

rhombohedral truncations.
Structure.

Commonly

foliated, massive.

Folia flexible
Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage.
but not elastic. Sectile. H. = 2.5. G. = 2.39. Luster on base
Color white, gray, light
pearly, elsewhere vitreous to waxy.

Transparent to translucent.
B. B. glows. Gives water in C. T.
Infusible.

green.

Tests.

soluble in hydrochloric acid,

ammoniacal an addition of

granular precipitate of
for

magnesium).

color
talc

and pearly

by

its

ammonium magnesium phosphate

Recognized by

Found

its

on cleavage
and lack

luster

greater hardness

Occurrence.

Easily

and after solution has been made

sodium phosphate gives a white
foliated

face.

Distinguished from

of greasy feel.

associated with serpentine, dolomite,

nesite, chromite, etc., as

(test

structure, light

mag-

a decomposition product of magnesium

CARBONATES

203

Notable localities for its occurrence are at Unst, one of

the Shetland Islands; Aosta, Italy; at Tilly Foster Iron Mine,
Brewster, New York; at Wood's Mine, Texas, Pennsylvania.

silicates.

Gibbsite.

Hydrargillite.

Aluminium hydroxide, A1(OH) 3

Monoclinic. Rarely in hexagonal-shaped tabular crystals. Stalactitic or botryoidal. Basal

H. = 2-3.5. G. = 2.3-2.4. Luster pearly, vitreous or
cleavage.
Insoluble in hydrochloric acid.
Color white. Infusible.
dull.
Moistened with cobalt nitrate and ignited assumes a blue color.
Water in C. T. A rare species, most commonly found with corun.

dum.

Psilomelane.
Of uncertain composition, chiefly manganese oxides, MnO 2 with
and H^O, also small amounts of barium oxide, cobalt oxide,
etc.
Massive, botryoidal, stalactitic. H. = 5-6.
Noncrystalline.
G. = 3.7-4.7. Submetallic luster. Black color. Brownish black

MnO

streak.

Infusible.

small

amount

of mineral fused in O. F. with

sodium carbonate gives an opaque bluish green bead. Gives much

water in C. T. Distinguished from the other manganese oxides
by its greater hardness. An ore of manganese, occurring usually
with pyrolusite.

CARBONATES.
The carbonates are grouped into two divisions: (1) Anhydrous
(2) Add, Basic and Hydrous Carbonates.

Carbonates;

1.

ANHYDROUS CARBONATES.
CALCITE GROUP.

The

Calcite

Group consists

of a series of carbonates of the

bivalent metals, calcium, magnesium, ferrous iron, manganese

and zinc. They all crystallize in the rhombohedral class of the

Hexagonal System with closely agreeing crystal constants. They

all show a perfect rhombohedral cleavage, with the angle between
The Calcite
the cleavage faces varying from 105 to 108.
Group forms one of the most marked and important groups of
isomorphous minerals,

its chief

Calcite,

members being

CaC0

8.

Dolomite, (Ca,Mg)CO,.

as follows:

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

204

Magnesite,
Siderite,

MgC0

FeC0

Rhodochrosite,

Smithsonite,

3.

3.

MnCO

ZnC0

s.

Calcite.

Composition.
44.0, lime 56.0.

Calcium carbonate, CaC0 3 = Carbon dioxide

Small amounts of magnesium, ferrous iron,

manganese and

zinc may replace the calcium.

Crystallization. Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals are very
varied in habit, often highly complex. Over 300 different forms

have been described. Three important habits: (1) Prismatic, in

which the prism faces are prominent, in long or short prisms with

Fig. 269.

Fig. 270.

Fig. 271.

basal plane or rhombohedral terminations (Figs. 273 and 274);

(2)

Rhombohedral,

in

which rhombohedral forms predominate,

Fig. 272.

Fig. 273.

both low and steep rhombohedrons, the unit (cleavage) form is

not common (Figs. 269, 270, 271 and 272); (3) Scalenohedral, in
which the scalenohedrons predominate, often with prism faces

205

CALCITE

(Figs. 275, 276, 277, 278 and

All possible combinations and variations of these

and rhombohedral truncations

A,

pi.

VIII).

Fig. 276.

Fig. 275.

Fig. 277.

Twinning according to several different laws frequent.

279
Fig.
represents one type of twinning in which the basal
types.

plane

is

the twinning plane.

Fig. 279.

Fig. 278.

Structure.

Crystallized or crystalline granular, coarse to fine.

Also fine-grained to compact, earthy.

In stalactitic forms,

etc.

Physical Properties. Perfect cleavage parallel to unit rhomH.= 3.

bohedron (angle of rhombohedron = 105 and 75).
Color usually white or
G. = 2.72. Luster vitreous to earthy.
colorless.

yellow,

May

etc.

be variously tinted, gray, red, green, blue,

Usually
Also, when impure, brown to black.
to translucent.
Opaque when impure. Strong

transparent
double refraction, hence the
Tests.

Infusible.

line reaction to

name

doubly-refracting spar.

After intense ignition, residue gives alka-

moistened test paper.

Fragment moistened with

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

206

hydrochloric acid and heated gives orange-red flame. FragConcenfreely in cold dilute hydrochloric acid.

ments effervesce

trated solution gives precipitate of calcium sulphate when a few

drops of sulphuric acid are added; no precipitate will form if
solution

is

dilute.

Distinguished by

its

softness (3), its perfect

Distinguished from
dolomite by the fact that fragments of calcite effervesce freely
in cold hydrochloric acid, while those of dolomite do not.
cleavage, light color, vitreous luster, etc.

Ordinary. Calcite in cleavable or crystalline

transparent and colorless known as Iceland spar,
because of its occurrence in quantity in Iceland.
Calcite exists in enormous
2. Limestone, Marble, Chalk.
Varieties.

masses.

1.

When

quantities in the form of limestone rocks, which form a large

part of the sedimentary strata of the earth. When these rock

masses have been subjected to great heat and pressure they

develop a crystalline structure, usually showing cleavage faces
of greater or less size.

Crystalline limestones are

known

as

On

account of various impurities and through the

presence in them of other minerals, they assume a wide range of
colors, and form a long series of ornamental stones to which
marble.

various names are given. Chalk is a very fine-grained, pulverulent deposit of calcium carbonate, occurring at times in large

been formed through the slow accumulation on

It has

beds.

the sea bottom of fragments of shells and of the skeletons of

minute sea animals.
3.

Cave Deposits,

in the

form of

etc.

Calcareous waters often deposit calcite

stalactites, concretions, incrustations, etc.

usually semitranslucent, of light-yellow colors.

limestone regions are lined with such deposits.
spring waters

may form

around their mouths.

Mammoth Hot
4.

Many
Hot

It

is

caves in

calcareous

a deposit of calcite, known as travertine,

Such a deposit is being formed at the

Springs, Yellowstone Park.

Calcite crystals may inclose consider-

Siliceous Calcites.

amounts

sand (up to 60 per cent) and form what

Such occurrences are found
at Fontainebleau, France (Fontainebleau limestone), and in the
Bad Lands, South Dakota.
able
are

known

of quartz

as sandstone crystals.

CALCITE

207

Occurrence. Calcite is one of the most common and widely

diffused of minerals.
It occurs as enormous and
widespread sedimentary rock masses, in which it is the predominant, at times pracSuch rocks are the limestones,
tically the only mineral present.
marbles (metamorphosed limestones), chalks, calcareous marls, calcareous sandstones, etc. The limestone rocks have, in great part,
been formed by the deposition on a sea bottom of great thicknesses
of calcareous material in the form of shells, skeletons of sea animals, etc. A smaller proportion of these rocks have been formed
It occurs as a
directly by precipitation of calcium carbonate.
secondary mineral in igneous rocks as a product of decomposition
of lime silicates.
It is found lining the amygdaloidal cavities in
lavas.
It occurs in many sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in
greater or less proportion. It is the cementing material in the lightcolored sandstones.
Calcite is also one of the most common of
vein minerals, occurring as a gangue material, with all sorts of
metallic ores.
It

would be quite impossible to specify

all of the important disthe occurrence of calcite in its various forms. Some of
the more notable localities in which finely crystallized calcite is
found are as follows: Andreasberg in the Harz Mountains; various

tricts for

places in Saxony; in Cumberland, Derbyshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, Lancashire, England; Iceland; Guanajuato, Mexico; Joplin,

Missouri; Lake Superior copper district; Rossie,

The most important

New

York,

etc.

manufacture of lime for mortars and cements.

Limestone when
heated to about 1000 F. loses its carbonic acid, and is converted
.into quicklime, CaO.
This, when mixed with water (staked
lime), swells, gives off much heat, and finally by absorption of
Use.

use for calcite

is

for the

carbon dioxide from the

air hardens, or, as commonly termed,

Quicklime when mixed with sand forms the common
mortar used in building.
Certain limestones contain various

"sets."

clayey materials as impurities. Cements made from these limestones have the valuable property of hardening under water,

and are known as hydraulic cements.

are made up artificially by combining

Many

hydraulic cements

their ingredients in experi-

mentally determined proportions. The chemistry of the process

of their hardening is not fully understood, but various silicates
calcium and aluminium are probably formed.
Portland
cement, used so largely in concrete construction, is a mixture
of about 6 parts of lime, 2 parts of silica, and 1 part of alumina.
of

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

208

fertilizer, for whiting and whitewash, for

found in many places in Europe, the chalk
cliffs of Dover being famous.
Limestone is largely used as a building material, and is obtained in the United States chiefly from Pennsylvania, Indiana,
Limestone is
Ohio, Illinois, New York, Missouri, Wisconsin.
A
largely used as a flux for smelting various metallic ores.
in
limestone
is
used
fine-grained
lithographing.
Marbles are used very extensively as ornamental and building
material.
The most important marble quarries in the United
States are found in Vermont, New York, Georgia, Tennessee, etc.
Iceland spar is valuable for optical instruments, being used in
the form of the Nicol prism to produce polarized light. Obtained
at present only from Iceland.

Chalk

is

used as a
It

crayons, etc.

is

Dolomite.
Carbonate

Composition.

of

calcium

and

magnesium,

CaMg(C0 3) 2 = Carbon

dioxide 47.8, lime 30.4, magnesia 21.7.

Varieties occur in which the proportion of CaC0 3 to
3

MgC0

is

not as

replace

1.

some

Small amounts of ferrous carbonate frequently

of the

magnesium carbonate.

Manganese

is

also

present at times.

Fig. 280.

Fig. 281.

Crystals are
Hexagonal-rhombohedral.
Crystallization.
usually the unit rhombohedron (cleavage rhombohedron) (Fig.
Faces often curved, and sometimes so acutely as to form
280).

"saddle-shaped" crystals (Fig. 281). Other forms rare.

Structure. In coarse, granular, cleavable masses to
grained and compact and in crystals.

fine-

PLATE

B.

VIII.

Aragonite, Cleator Moor, England.

MAGNESITE

209

Physical Properties. Perfect rhombohedral cleavage (cleav= 106 15'). H. = 3:5-4. G. = 2.85. Vitreous lus-

age angle
ter;

pearly in some varieties (pearl spar). Color usually some

may be colorless, white, gray, green,

shade of pink, flesh color;

brown and

Transparent to translucent.
After intense ignition a fragment will give
an alkaline reaction to moistened test paper. Readily soluble,
Tests.

black.

Infusible.

with effervescence in hot hydrochloric acid; fragment only slowly

attacked by cold dilute acid (difference from calcite). Solution
oxidized by nitric acid and then made ammoniacal (may precipitate ferric hydroxide) will with ammonium oxalate give a
white precipitate of calcium oxalate; nitrate with sodium phosphate gives granular white precipitate of ammonium magnesium

phosphate.

Crystallized variety told

dral crystals

and usually by

its

by

its

curved rhombohe-

flesh-pink color.

Occurrence. Dolomite occurs chiefly in widely extended rock

masses as dolomite limestone and marble. Occurrence same as for
The two varieties can only be told apart by tests,
calcite rocks.
the simplest being to see if a drop of cold hydrochloric acid placed
on the rock will produce effervescence (if so, rock is calcite; if not,
Occurs also as a
dolomite). Often intimately mixed with calcite.
vein mineral, chiefly in the lead and zinc veins that traverse limestone.
Found in large rock strata in the dolomite region of southern

Tyrol; Binnenthal, Switzerland; northern England;

Joplin, Mis-

souri, etc.

Use. As a building and ornamental stone. For the manuFor the manufacture of magnesia
facture of certain cements.

used in the preparation of refractory linings of the converters in

the basic steel process.
Ankerite, CaC0 3 .(Mg,Fe,Mn)C0 3 is a subspecies
diate between calcite, dolomite and siderite.
,

interme-

Magnesite.
Composition.

Magnesium carbonate,

oxide 52.4, magnesia 47.6.

Crystallization.
dral crystals.

MgC0 =
3

Carbon

di-

Iron carbonate also often present.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral.

In rhombohe-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

210

Structure.
Compact earthy forms common, also less frequently in cleavable granular masses, coarse to fine. Also compact.

Crystals rare.

Physical Properties. Perfect rhombohedral cleavage, sometimes distinct.

H. = 3.5-4.5. G. = 3-3.1. Vitreous luster.
Color white, gray, yellow, brown. Transparent to opaque.
After intense ignition gives a faint alkaline
Tests.
Infusible.
reaction on moistened test paper.
Scarcely acted upon by cold
but dissolves with effervescence in hot hydrochloric acid. Solution, after the precipitation of any iron and calcium, gives in
the presence of an excess of ammonia, with sodium phosphate, a
white granular precipitate of ammonium magnesium phosphate.

Occurrence. Found associated with serpentine rocks

nesite used in the United States

is

as a product

mined
magimported, coming chiefly from

of their alteration, with dolomite, brucite, etc.

to a small extent in Tulare County, California.

Magnesite

Most

is

of the

Stryia in Austria-Hungary and from Greece.

Use.

Magnesite

is

chiefly used

in the preparation of

nesite bricks for refractory linings in metallurgical

Also used in the preparation of magnesium salts (Epsom

magnesia,

mag-

furnaces.
salts,

etc.).

Siderite.

Spathic Iron.

Ferrous carbonate,
= 48.2.
37.9, iron protoxide 62.1, iron

Composition.

and calcium may be present

in small

Chalybite.

FeC0 = Carbon
3

dioxide

Manganese, magnesium
amounts.

Crystallization.
Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals usually
unit rhombohedrons (same as cleavage form), frequently with

curved faces.
Structure.

Usually cleavable granular.

compact and earthy.

More

At times botryoidal,

rarely in crystals.

Perfect rhombohedral cleavage (cleav=

H.
3.5-4.
G. = 4.5-5. Vitreous luster.
107).
age angle
Color usually light to dark brown. Transparent to opaque.
Becomes strongly magTests.
Difficultly fusible (4.5-5).
Heated in C. T. decomposes and gives a
netic on heating.
black magnetic residue. Soluble in hydrochloric acid with

Physical Properties.

RHODOCHROSITE

211

effervescence; solution gives with potassium ferricyanide a dark

blue precipitate (test for ferrous iron).
Recognized usually by
its

color

and cleavage.

Varieties.

1. Crystallized.

In crystals or granular cleavable

masses.

In globular concretions.
Impure by admixture with clay materials.
Sometimes in concentric layers. Forms stratified bodies with
2.

3.

Concretionary.
Clay Ironstone.

coal formations, etc.

4. Black-band Ore.
An impure stratified deposit of siderite,
containing considerable carbonaceous matter. Associated with

coal beds.

Occurrence. Found in the form of clay ironstone and black-band

ore in extensive stratified formations associated with coal measures.
These ores are the chief source of iron in Great Britain and are found
in Staffordshire, Yorkshire and Wales.
Clay ironstone is also abundant in the coal measures of western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio,
but it is not used to any great extent as an ore. Siderite, in its
crystallized form, is a common vein mineral associated with various
metallic ores, as silver minerals, pyrite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite,
galena, etc.

Name.

The

original

name

for the mineral

was

spherosiderite,

given to the concretionary variety and subsequently shortened

to siderite to apply to the entire species.
Spathic ore is a com-

mon name. Chalybite, used by some mineralogists, was derived

from the Chalybes, who lived on the Black Sea, and were in
ancient times workers in iron.

Use. An ore of iron. Important in Great Britain, but of

very subordinate value in the United States.

Rhodochrosite.

MnC0 = Carbon

Composition. Manganese protocarbonate,

dioxide 38.3, manganese protoxide 61.7. Iron
ent, replacing a part of the

magnesium,

is

usually pres-

manganese and sometimes calcium,

zinc, etc.

Crystals unit
Crystallization.
Hexagonal -rhombohedral.
rhombohedrons (same as cleavage rhombohedron), frequently
with curved faces.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

212
Structure.

Usually cleavable massive; granular to compact.

Rarely in crystals.
Physical Properties.

Perfect rhombohedral cleavage (cleavH. = 3.5-4.5.

G. = 3.45-3.6.
Vitreous
age angle = 107).
luster. Color usually some shade of rose-red; may be light pink
to dark brown. Transparent to translucent.
Tests.

Soluble in hot hydrochloric acid with

Gives reddish violet color to borax bead when

Infusible.

effervescence.

Told usually by its pink color, rhombohedral

cleavage and hardness (4). Distinguished by its hardness from
rhodonite (MnSi0 3 ) (H. = 5.5-6.5).
heated in 0. F.

Occurrence.

comparatively rare mineral, occurring in veins

lead and copper, and with other manganese
minerals.
Found in the silver mines of Hungary and Saxony. In
the United States at Branch ville, Connecticut; Franklin, New
with ores of

silver,

Jersey; in good crystals at Alicante, Colorado, etc.

Name.

Derived from two Greek words meaning rose and

color, in allusion

Use.

to its rose-pink color.

minor ore of manganese.

Smithsonite.
Composition.

Zinc carbonate,

ZnC0 3 = Carbon

dioxide 35.2,

Iron and manganese often replace a part

zinc protoxide 64.8.
of the zinc; also at times calcium and magnesium.
Crystallization. Hexagonal-rhombohedral.
rhombohedral or scalenohedral crystals.

Structure.

Rarely in small

Usually reniform, botryoidal or stalactitic and in

honeycombed masses known as

crystalline incrustations or in

dry-bone ore.

Also granular to earthy.

Distinct crystals rare.

Physical Properties. Perfect rhombohedral cleavage, which,

on account of the usual structure, is seldom observed. H. = 5
(unusually high for a carbonate).
Color usually dirty brown.

luster.

= 4.30-4.35. Vitreous
May be white, green, blue,
G.

pink, etc. Translucent to opaque.

Tests. Infusible. Soluble in hydrochloric acid with effer-

vescence.

A fragment

heated B. B. in R. F. gives bluish green

ARAGONITE GROUP

213

streaks in the flame, due to the burning of the volatilized zinc.

Heated in R. F. on charcoal gives a nonvolatile coating of zinc
oxide, yellow

when

hot, white

when

cold;

with cobalt nitrate and again heated

guished by
ness (5)

its

and

effervescence in acids,

its

coating is moistened
turns green.
Distin-

if

it

its tests for zinc, its

hard-

high specific gravity.

Occurrence. It is a zinc ore of secondary origin. Found in connection with zinc deposits near the surface, and where the oxidized
ores have been acted upon by carbonated waters.
Common in
connection with zinc deposits lying in limestone rocks. Associated
with sphalerite, galena, calamine, cerussite, calcite, limonite, etc.
Often found in pseudomorphs after calcite. "Dry-bone ore" is a
honeycombed mass, with the appearance of dried bone, whose
structure has resulted from the manner of deposition of the mineral.

Some

calamine, the silicate of zinc, is included under the term.

Occurs, as an ore, in the zinc deposits of Missouri, Arkansas, WisFound at times in translucent green or
consin, Virginia, etc.
greenish blue material which is available for ornamental uses. Such
smithsonite is found at Laurium, Greece, and at Kelly, New Mexico.

Name. Named in honor

who founded the Smithsonian

of

James Smithson (1754-1829),

Institution at Washington.
English mineralogists call the mineral calamine, using either electric
calamine or hemimorphite as the name for the silicate.

Use.

An

ore of zinc.

ARAGONITE GROUP.
The Aragonite Group consists of a series of carbonates of the
bivalent metals, calcium, strontium, barium and lead, which
crystallize in the Orthorhombic System with closely related crystal constants

and

similar habits of crystallization.

All of

them

appear at times in twin crystals which are pseudohexagonal in

character.
The members of the group are:
Aragonite,

CaC0

Strontianite,

3.

SrC0 8

Witherite,

BaC0

Cerussite,

PbCO,.

8.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

214

Aragonite.
Composition. Calcium carbonate, like calcite, CaC0 3 = Carbon dioxide 44, lime 56. May contain a little strontium or lead,
rarely zinc.

Orthorhombic.

Crystallization.
crystallization:

(1)

Three prominent habits of

consisting of a prism
a very steep pyramid and

Acicular pyramidal;

terminated by a combination of

brachydome (see Fig. 282; and B, pi. VIII). Usually in radiating groups of large to very small crystals.
(2) Tabular; consisting of

prominent brachypinacoid faces modified by a prism

rA

Fig. 282.

Fig. 284.

Fig. 283.

and a low brachydome

(Fig. 283)

Fig. 285.

Often twinned with a prism

(3) In pseudohexagonal

face as a twinning plane (Fig. 284).

twins (Fig. 285). This type shows a hexagonal-like prism terminated by a basal plane, and is formed by an intergrowth of
three individuals with basal planes in common and their prism
faces falling partly in the same plane, and partly with only
The crystals are distinguished from
slightly different positions.
true hexagonal forms by noting that the basal plane is striated
in three different directions, and also by the fact that, because
the prism angle of the simple crystals is not exactly 60, the
composite prism faces for the twin will often show slight re-

entrant angles.
Structure. In crystals.
etc.

Also reniform, columnar,

stalactitic,

WITHERITE

215

Physical Properties. Vitreous luster. Colorless, white, pale

yellow and variously tinted. Transparent to translucent. H.=
G.= 2.95 (harder and heavier than calcite).
3.5-4.
Tests.

Infusible.

Decrepitates.

After intense ignition the

powder gives an alkaline reaction on moistened test paper.

Fragments fall to powder (change to calcite) when heated at low
redness in C. T. Chemical tests same as for calcite (page 205).
Distinguished from calcite by its lack of cleavage, and the fact
that fragments

fall

to

powder when heated

in C. T.

Less stable than calcite and much less common in

occurrence.
Usually found as a vein mineral. Experiments have
shown that carbonated waters containing calcium more often deposit
aragonite when they are hot and calcite when they are cold. Some sea

Occurrence.

its

shells are

of

many

composed

The pearly layer

entirely or in part of aragonite.
It has been noted that the aragonite

shells is aragonite.

not readily preserved as fossils, being easily dissolved or

or at times apparently slowly changing to calcite.
Aragonite is most commonly found associated with beds of gypsum and
deposits of iron ore (where it sometimes occurs in forms resembling
At times found lining
coral, and is called flos Jerri, flower of iron).
amygdaloidal cavities in basalt. Found frequently with pyrite,
Notable localities for the
chalcopyrite, galena, malachite, etc.
various crystalline types are as follows: Pseudohexagonal twin
crystals are found at Aragon, Spain; Bastennes, in the south of
shells are

disintegrated,

The tabular type of crystals is

France; and at Girgenti, Sicily.
found near Bilin, Bohemia. The acicular type is found at Alston
Moor and Cleator, Cumberland, England. Flos ferri is found in
the Stryian iron mines. Stalactitic forms occur in Buckinghamshire

and Devonshire, England, and Lanarkshire, Scotland.

banded form of a delicate blue color comes from Chile.

fibrous

Witherite.

Composition. Barium carbonate, BaC0 3

Carbon dioxide 22.3, barium oxide 77.7.
Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

Crystals

always twinned, forming pseudohexagonal pyramids by the intergrowth of three individuals

terminated by brachy domes (Fig. 286).
Crystals sometimes doubly terminated often deeply
striated horizontally and by a series of re;

Fig. 286.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

216

entrant angles have the appearance of one pyramid capping

another.

Structure. In twin
columnar or granular.
Physical Properties.
Colorless, white, gray.

crystals, also

H. =

3.5.

botryoidal to globular;

G. =

4.3.

Vitreous luster.

Translucent.

Tests.

Easily fusible at 2.5-3, giving a yellowish green flame

After intense ignition gives an alkaline reaction on
moistened test paper. Soluble in hydrochloric acid with effer(barium).

All solutions, even the very

barium sulphate with sulphuric acid
and strontium). Heavy.

vescence.

dilute, give precipitate of

(difference

from calcium

A comparatively rare mineral. Found in fine crys-

Occurrence.
tals at

Hexham

land.

Occurs at Tarnowitz in

Northumberland and Alston Moor in CumberSilesia; Leogang in Salzburg; near

Lexington, Kentucky; Thunder Bay, Lake Superior.
Use.

in

minor source

of

barium compounds.

Strontianite.

Strontium carbonate, SrC0 3 = Carbon dioxide

A little calcium sometimes present.
Orthorhombic. Crystals usually acicular,
Crystallization.
like type (1) under aragonite.
Twinning also frequent, giving

Composition.

29.9, strontia 70.1.

at times pseudohexagonal forms.

Structure.

Radiating crystallized, also columnar;

fibrous

and granular.
Physical Properties.

H.=

3.5-4.

G.=

3.7.

Vitreous luster.

Transparent to translucent.
Tests.
Infusible.
On intense ignition throws out fine
branches and gives a crimson flame (strontium) and residue
Effervescence
gives alkaline reaction on moistened test paper.
White, gray, yellow, green.

in hydrochloric acid, and the mediumly dilute solution will give

precipitate of strontium sulphate on addition of a few drops of

sulphuric acid; no precipitate will form in the very dilute solu-

from calcium and barium). Usually necessary

the above tests to determine the mineral.

tion (difference

to

make

PLATE

Cerussite,

Broken

Hill,

IX.

New

South Wales.

217

CERUSSITE

Occurrence. A comparatively rare mineral. Originally found

at Strontian in Argyllshire.
Occurs also with lead ores at Pateley
and Miinster, Westphalia; at Schoharie,
Bridge Yorkshire; at

Hamm

New

York, etc.

Use. Has no great commercial use. A minor source of strontium compounds, used in fireworks and in the separation of
sugar from molasses.

Cerussite.

Composition.
16.5, lead,

Lead carbonate,

PbC0 = Carbon
3

dioxide

oxide 83.5.

Habit varied and crystals

Crystallization.
Crystals often tabular parallel to brachy-

show many forms.

Frequently twinned,
pinacoid (Fig. 287).
forming lattice-like groups with the plates
crossing each other at 60 angles (pi. IX).
Sometimes pyramidal in habit; also twinned
in

pseudohexagonal pyramids, frequently

with deep reentrant angles in the prism
zone.

Structure.
crystalline

In crystals or in

aggregates;

fibrous;

granular

granular

Fig. 287.

massive; compact; earthy.

Physical Properties. H.= 3-3.5. G.= 6.55 (high for a

mineral with nonmetallic luster). Adamantine luster. ColorTransparent to almost opaque.
less, white or gray.
With sodium carbonate B. B.
fusible
Tests.
(1.5).
Easily

on charcoal gives globule

lead oxide.

Soluble in

of lead

and yellow to white coating

warm dilute nitric

of

acid with effervescence.

In C. T. usually decrepitates and is changed to lead oxide, which

is dark yellow when hot.
Recognized by its high specific gravity,
white color and adamantine luster.

Occurrence. An important and widely distributed lead ore of

secondary origin, formed by the oxidation of galena in the presence
Found in the upper and oxidized zone of
of carbonated waters.
lead veins, associated with galena, anglesite, sphalerite, smithsonite,
Notable localities for its occurrence are Ems in
silver ores, etc.
Nassau; Mies, Bohemia; Nerchinsk, Siberia; Broken Hill, New

MANUAL

218
South

Wales; Phoenix ville,

OF MINERALOGY
Pennsylvania;

Leadville,

Colorado,

various districts in Arizona, etc.

An

Use.

important ore

of lead.

Phosgenite, a chlorocarbonate of lead (PbCl) 2

in crystallization, is a rare

member

of the

C0

3,

tetragonal

Anhydrous Carbonate

Division.

ACID, BASIC

2.

AND HYDROUS CARBONATES.

Malachite.

Basic carbonate of copper, (Cu.OH) 2 C0 3 or

19.9, cupric oxide 71.9, water

Composition.

.Cu(OH) 2 = Carbon dioxide

Copper = 57.4.

CuC0
8.2.

Green Copper Carbonate.

Crystallization.

matic but seldom

Structure.

Monoclinic.

Crystals usually slender pris-

distinct.

Usually radiating fibrous with botryoidal or stalOften granular or earthy.

actitic structure (see Fig. C, pi. III).

Physical Properties.

G.

3.9-4.03.

Perfect basal cleavage.

Adamantine to vitreous

H.

3.5-4.

luster in crystals; often

silky in fibrous varieties; dull in earthy type.

Translucent to opaque.
Tests.
Fusible (3), giving a green flame.

Color bright green.

With

fluxes in R. F.

on charcoal gives copper globule.

with effervescence.

Soluble in hydrochloric acid

Solution turns deep blue with excess of

ammonia. Much water in C. T. .Recognized by

green color and radiating fibrous structure.

its

bright

Occurrence. An important and widely distributed copper ore of

secondary origin. Found in the oxidized portions of copper veins
associated with azurite, cuprite, native copper, iron oxides and the
various sulphides of copper and iron.
Usually occurs in copper
Notable localities for its occurrence
veins that lie in limestones.
are at Nizhni Tagilsk in the Ural Mountains; at Bembe on west
coast of Africa; in the copper mines in Chile; in New South Wales.
In the United States, an important copper ore in the southwestern
copper
in

New

Morenci, and other localities in Arizona;

Mexico; at Cannanea, in northern Mexico.

districts; at Bisbee,

GAY-LUSSITE
Name.
to

219

Derived from the Greek word for mallows, in allusion

green color.
Use. An important ore of copper. Has been used to some
extent as an ornamental material for vases, veneer for table tops,
its

etc.

Azurite.

Chessylite.

Blue Copper Carbonate.

Composition. A basic carbonate of copper, Cu(Cu.OH) (C0 )

or 2CuC0 .Cu(OH) = Carbon dioxide 25.6, cupric oxide 69.2,
water 5.2. Copper = 55.3.
2

Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Habit varied.

Crystals

fre-

quently complex and distorted in development, sometimes in

radiating spherical groups.

Structure.

Crystallized.

In radiating botryoidal structure.

Earthy.

Physical Properties.
Intense azure-blue

ter.

Same

Tests.
chiefly

by

its

G.

Vitreous lus-

3.77.

Transparent to opaque.

as for malachite (which see).

Characterized

azure-blue color.

Occurrence.

Found

H. = 3.5-4.
color.

Origin

and associations same as

in fine crystals at Chessy, France;

for malachite.

at Copper
Widely distributed with copper
Queen Mine, Bisbee, Arizona.
ores.
Not so common as malachite.

Name.
Use.

in Siberia;

Named in allusion to its color.

An important ore of copper.
Aurichalcite.

A basic carbonate of zinc and copper, 2(Zn,Cu)CO

3 .3(Zn,Cu)(OH) 2
2.
G. =
In acicular crystals, forming drusy incrustations.
3.6.
Pearly luster. Color pale green to blue. Infusible. Soluble
Solution turns blue with
in hydrochloric acid with effervescence.
ammonia in excess. Fused in R. F. on charcoal with sodium carbonate gives a nonvolatile coating of zinc oxide (yellow when hot,
white when cold). Water in C. T. A rare mineral, found in the
oxidized zones of copper veins.
.

H=

Gay-Lussite.

A hydrous carbonate of calcium and sodium, CaCO

Monoclinic.

In rude crystals with uneven surfaces.

.Na2CO 3 .5H 2 O.
Often wedge-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

220

2-3.
G.
1.99.
Vitreous lusPrismatic cleavage. H.
Fusible at 1.5, giving yellow flame
Colorless, white, gray.
of sodium.
Gives alkaline reaction after ignition. Effervesces in
acids.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid solution gives precipitate of

shaped.
ter.

A rare species, found in saltcalcium sulphate with sulphuric acid.

lake deposits at Merida, Venezuela, and near Ragtown, Nevada.
Other

ZnC0

rarer

species

.2Zn(OH) 2

3MgC0 .Mg(OH)

nesite,

in

division

this

include

Na C0 .HNaC0

trona,

hydrozincite,

.2H 2 0;

hydromag-

.3H 2 0.

SILICATES.
The

form the largest

silicates

Classification of Minerals.

hydrous Silicates,

(2)

Hydrous

may

into (1)

An-

Silicates.

ANHYDROUS
This section

Chemical

single section of the

They may be divided

SILICATES.

be subdivided into

H Si

(1) Disilicates,

Poly sili-

or polysilicic acid,
metasilicic
salts
of
2 Si0 3 ;
4 Si 3
8
acid,
(2) Metasilicates, being
4 Si0 4
(4) Sub(3) Orthosilicates, being salts of orthosilicic acid,

cates,

being salts of di silicic acid,

6,

silicates,

including various basic species.

DISILICATES, POLYSILICATES.

1.

The only representative of the disilicates of sufficient importance to warrant mention here is the rare lithium mineral, petalite,

LiAl(Si 2

6) 2 .

THE FELDSPAR GROUP.

The
groups.

feldspars form one

They

of the

are polysilicates of

most important of mineral

aluminium with either potas-

sium, sodium and calcium and rarely barium. They may belong
to either the monoclinic or the triclinic systems but with the
crystals of the different species resembling each other closely in
They
angles, habits of crystallization, and methods of twinning.

show cleavages in two. directions which make an angle of 90,

Hardness is about 6 and speor closely 90, with each other.
all

cific

gravity 2.6.

221

ORTHOCLASE

MONOCLINIC SECTION.
Potash Feldspar.

Orthoclase.

Potassium-aluminium

Composition.
alumina

Silica 64.7,

18.4,

potash

16.9.

KAlSi 3
Soda sometimes

silicate,

=
re-

places a portion of the potash.

Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Crystals are usually prismatic

and have as prominent forms clinopinacoid, base, prism,

with often smaller orthodomes (Figs. 288, 289 and 290). Fre-

in habit

Fig. 289.

Fig. 288.

Fig. 290.

quently twinned; Carlsbad with clinopinacoid as twinning plane

as twinning plane (Fig. 292);
(Fig. 291); Baveno with clinodome

Manebach with base

as twinning plane (Fig. 293).

Fig. 291.

Fig. 292.

Fig. 293.

Carlsbad Twin.

Baveno Twin.

Manebach Twin.

Structure. Usually crystallized or coarsely cleavable to granumassive and cryptocrystalline.

lar; more rarely fine-grained,

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

222

Physical Properties. Two prominent cleavages (one parallel

to base, perfect: the other parallel to clinopinacoid, good), making an angle of 90 with each other. H. = 6-6.5. G. = 2.5-2.6.
Luster vitreous. Colorless, white, gray, flesh-red, more rarely
Streak white.
green.
Varieties.
Common feldspar is the usual opaque variety.
is white or colorless and translucent to transparent.
adularia shows an opalescent play of colors, and is called
moonstone. Most of the moonstones, however, belong to the

Adularia

Some

members

of the plagioclase feldspar series.

feldspar,

is

Sanidine, or glassy

a variety occurring in glassy, often transparent,

phenocrysts in eruptive rocks.

Tests.

Difficultly

fusible

(5).

Insoluble in acids.

When

mixed with powdered gypsum and heated on platinum wire gives

the violet flame of potassium.
color, hardness and cleavage.

Usually to be recognized by its

Distinguished from the other

feldspars by its right-angle cleavage

on the best cleavage surface.

and the lack

of striations

Alteration. When acted upon by waters carrying carbon

dioxide in solution, orthoclase alters, forming a soluble carbonate
of potassium and leaving as a residue either a mixture of kaolin

(H4Al 2 Si 2

9)

and quartz.

and quartz (Si0 2 ), or

of muscovite (H 2 K(AlSi0 4 ) 3 )
Kaolin forms the chief constituent of clays and

has been derived in this manner.

Occurrence. One of the most common of minerals. Widely distributed as a prominent rock constituent, occurring in all types of
rocks; igneous, in granites, syenites, porphyries, etc.; sedimentary,
in certain sandstones and conglomerates; metamorphic, in gneisses.
Also in large crystals and cleavable masses in pegmatite veins, associated chiefly with quartz, muscovite and albite. These veins are
to be found where granite rocks abound.
Large veins of this character from which feldspar is quarried in considerable amounts occur
in the New England and Middle Atlantic states, chiefly in Maine,
Connecticut,

Name.
possessed

word

New

York, Pennsylvania and Maryland.

The name orthoclase refers to the right-angle cleavage

by the mineral. Feldspar is derived from the German

j'eld, field.

223

MICROCLINE
Use.

Orthoclase
It

lain.

is

is

manufacture
and mixed with kaolin, or

chiefly used in the

ground very

fine

of porceclay,

and

When heated to high temperature the feldspar fuses

quartz.
and acts as a cement to bind the material together. Fused
feldspar also furnishes the major part of the glaze on porcelain

ware.

rare

barium

feldspar, hyalophane

(K 2 ,Ba)Al 2 Si40 w belongs

,

here.

TRICLINIC SECTION.
Microcline.
Like orthoclase, KAlSi 3

Composition.

mina

18.4,

Silica 64.7, alu-

potash 16.9.

Crystallization.
slightly different

Triclinic.

from those

Axial lengths and angles only

Ordinarily the crys-

of orthoclase.

the two species cannot be told apart except by very

Microaccurate measurements or a microscopical examination.
cline crystals are usually twinned according to the same laws
tals of

as orthoclase.

Also microscopically twinned according to the

and

pericline laws, characteristic of the triclinic feldspars.

thin section of microcline under the microscope in polarized

albite

shows a characteristic grating structure, caused by

the crossing at nearly right angles of the twin lamellae formed
according to these triclinic twinning laws. Orthoclase, being
light usually

monoclinic, could not show such twinning.

Structure. In cleavable masses or in crystals.

Physical Properties.

Cleavage parallel to base and brachy-

pinacoid, with angle of 89 30' (orthoclase would have 90).

Color white
Vitreous luster.
H. = 6-6.5. G. = 2.54-2.57.
to pale yellow. Also sometimes green
Transparent to translucent.

Tests.

Same

as for orthoclase.

distinguished from each other

by

(Amazon

The two

stone) or red.

species only to be

careful examination (see above)

Same as for orthoclase. Much

that passes as orthoOccurrence.

Occurs with a green color in the Ural
clase in reality is microcline.
Mts. and at Pike's Peak, Colorado, and is known as Amazon stone.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

224
Name.

Microcline

and inclined,
angle from 90.
little

Use.

Same

is

derived from two Greek words meaning

referring to the slight variation of the cleavage

Amazon

as for orthoclase.

stone

is

at times

polished and used as an ornamental material.

THE PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPARS. ALBITE-ANORTHITE

SERIES.

The triclinic soda-lime feldspars embrace a series of isomorphous minerals varying in composition from albite, NaAlSi 3 8 to
These two molecules can replace each
anorthite, CaAl 2 Si 2 8
other in any proportion, and as a consequence a practically complete series may be found from the pure soda feldspar, and then
with gradually increasing amounts of the anorthite molecule,
to the pure lime feldspar.
Definite names have been given to
,

various mixtures of these

two molecules, the more important

being listed below:

NaAlSi 3 8
3NaAlSi 3 8 .lCaAl 2 Si 2
lNaAlSi 3 8 .lCaAl 2 Si 2
Andesine,
Labradorite, lNaAlSi 3 8 .3CaAl 2 Si 2
CaAl 2 Si 2 8
Anorthite,

Albite,

Oligoclase,

8.
8.
8.

These triclinic feldspars crystallize in forms closely resembling

those of the monoclinic orthoclase, and the axial lengths and inThis similarity in the crysclinations are also closely the same.
between the monoclinic and triclinic feldspars is
shown by a comparison of the cleavage angles of the different
species, that of orthoclase being 90, of albite 86 24', and of
anorthite 85 50'. The triclinic feldspars are often known as

tal structure

best

the plagioclase feldspars, because of their oblique cleavage.

The crystals of the plagioclase feldspars are frequently twinned
according to the various laws governing the twins of orthoclase,
i.e.,

the Carlsbad, Baveno and

Manebach

laws.

They

are also

practically always twinned according to one or both of two laws,

known as the albite and pericline laws. The twinning plane

law is the brachypinacoid, which corresponds to

the clinopinacoid in orthoclase. The angle between the basal

in the albite

ALBITE

225

plane and this twinning plane is not 90, but about 86; so that
if one imagines a triclinic feldspar crystal cut in two
along this
plane and one-half revolved 180 from its original position

upon an axis perpendicular to the plane, there would then be

formed a shallow trough along the upper surface of the crysbecause the basal planes of the two adjacent halves would
lie in the same plane, but rather slope at a slight angle
toward each other. This sort of twinning is commonly repeated
many times in a single crystal, and gives rise to thin lamellae, each
one in twin position in respect to those on either side (see Figs.
tal,

not

296 and 297). Consequently a basal plane or cleavage surface

of such a twinned crystal will be crossed by a number of parallel
groovings or striations (Fig. 298). Many times these striations
are so fine as not to be visible to the unaided eye, but also at

times they are coarse and easily seen. The presence of these
upon the better cleavage surface of a feldspar is

striation lines

one of the best proofs that it belongs to the plagioclase series.

In the pericline law the twinning axis is the b crystallographic
axis,

and when

this results in polysynthetic twins the

striations are to

consequent

be seen on the brachypinacoid.

Albite.

Soda-feldspar.

Composition. Sodium-aluminium silicate, NaAlSi 3 8 = Silica

Calcium is usually present in
68.7, alumina 19.5, soda 11.8.
small amount in the form of the anorthite molecule, CaAl 2 Si 2 8
.

Crystallization.

Triclinic.

Fig. 294.
lei

Usually in tabular crystals paral-

Fig. 295.

to brachypinacoid (Fig. 294).

to 6 crystal axis (Fig. 295).

Fig. 296.

Albite Twin.

Sometimes elongated

parallel

Twinning very common, according

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

226

to the albite law (see above) and evidenced

on the better cleavage surface (Figs. 297

by fine striation lines

and 298). Twinning

according to the other laws frequent.

Fig. 297.

Fig. 298.

Albite Twinning.

Structure. Commonly massive, either lamellar with lamellae

often curved or in cleavable masses.
Distinct crystals rare.
Physical Properties. Perfect cleavage parallel to base; good
cleavage parallel to brachypinacoid. Cleavage angle 86 24'.
H.= 6. G.= 2.62. Vitreous luster; sometimes pearly on cleav-

age surface. Colorless, white, gray. Transparent to opaque.

Tests.
Fusible at 4-4.5, giving yellow flame (sodium). Insoluble in acids.

Characterized by

cleavage, frequently curved

better cleavage .surface, etc.

its hardness, white color,

lamellar structure, striations on

Occurrence. Like orthoclase, a widely distributed and important

rock-making mineral. It occurs in all classes of rocks, but particularly in those of igneous origin, such as granites, syenites, porphy-

Found commonly,

also, in pegmatite veins.

be found in Switzerland and the
Tyrol; in the United States at Paris, Maine; Chesterfield, Massachusetts; Haddam and Branch ville, Connecticut; Amelia Court
ries arid felsite lavas.

Notable

localities for albite are to

House, Virginia,

etc.

From the Latin albus, white, in allusion to its color.

Use. Has the same uses as orthoclase, but not so commonly
employed. Some varieties, when polished, show an opalescent
play of colors and are known as moonstones. Other members
Name.

OLIGOCLASE
of the plagioclase series

227

and orthoclase show at times

this

same

The

stones are usually cut in round or oval shapes and

are valued up to $3 a carat.
The finest moonstones come from
effect.

Ceylon, but they are chiefly orthoclase.

Oligoclase.

Composition. Intermediate between

chiefly near 3NaAlSi 3 8 .lCaAl 2 Si 2 8

albite

and anorthite,

Crystallization.

Structure.

Like

Triclinic.

albite.

Usually massive, cleavable to compact.

Crystals

rare.

Cleavage in two directions at 86 32'.

than the other, and on

Physical Properties.

One cleavage

(parallel to base) is better

due to twinning are commonly to be

Vitreous to pearly luster. Color usually whitish with faint tinge of grayish green, also reddish white,
Translucent to opaque.
etc.
this parallel striation lines

seen.

H. =

Tests.

6.

G.

= 2.66.

Fusible at 4-4.5.

Insoluble

in

hydrochloric

acid.

To

be told from albite only by a test for calcium. Briefly, the

test is made as follows: Fuse powdered mineral with sodium
carbonate;

dissolve fusion in hydrochloric acid

and evaporate

to dryness, moisten residue with water and a little nitric acid,

boil and then filter off insoluble silica; to filtrate add ammonium

hydroxide in excess,

filter off

precipitate of aluminium hydroxcalcium oxalate upon addition

ide; in filtrate get precipitate of

of

ammonium

oxalate.

To

desine and labradorite only

examination.

be positively distinguished from an-

by a chemical

analysis or

an optical

Occurrence. Like albite, but not so common. Found in various

Norway, notably at Tvedestrand, where it contains inclusions of hematite, which give the mineral a golden shimmer and
Such feldspar is called aventurine oligoclase, or sunstone.
sparkle.
Occurs in the United States at Fine and Macomb, St. Lawrence
County, New York; Danbury and Haddam, Connecticut; Bakersville, North Carolina, etc.
localities in

Name.
fracture.

Derived from two Greek words meaning

little

and

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

228
Use.

Occasionally used as an ornamental material, in the

varieties sunstone

and moonstone.

Andesine.
Intermediate between albite and anorthite,
corresponding chiefly to lNaAlSi 3 8 .lCaAl 2 Si 2 8
Crystallization. Triclinic. Like albite.

Composition.

Structure.

In cleavable masses.

Crystals rare.

Cleavage in two directions at 86 14'.

to base) better than the other, and on this

Physical Properties.

One

cleavage (parallel

due to twinning are commonly to be seen.

Color white,
Vitreous to pearly luster.
exhibits
a beautiful
flesh-red.
Often
yellowish,
gray, greenish,
play of colors, due partly to the intimate twinning and partly to
parallel striation lines

H. = 6.

G.= 2.69.

inclusions.

Tests.
Same as for oligoclase. To be positively distinguished
from oligoclase and labradorite only by a chemical analysis or
an optical examination.

Occurrence. Same as for albite, but less common. More frequently found in somewhat more basic igneous rocks, i.e., those
containing less silica and more lime and magnesia.

Name.

Occurs in a rock called andesite, found in the Andes

Mountains.

Labradorite.

Composition.

Intermediate between albite and anorthite,

corresponding chiefly to lNaAlSi30 8 .3CaAl 2 Si208.

Crystallization. Triclinic. Like albite.

Structure.

In cleavable masses.

Crystals rare.

Cleavage in two directions at 86 5'.

One cleavage (parallel to base) better than the other, and on this
parallel striation lines due to twinning are commonly" shown.
Physical Properties.

H. = 6. G. = 2.73. Vitreous luster. Usually gray, brown or

Often shows a beautiful
greenish; sometimes colorless or white.
play of colors, due in part to the intimate twinning structure,
in part to inclusions.
Transparent to ODaque.
Tests. Same as for oligoclase.

LEUCITE

229

Occurrence. Like albite, but more commonly in the darker

colored basic igneous rocks, and usually associated with pyroxene
or amphibole.
Found on the coast of Labrador in large amounts,
associated with hypersthene and magnetite, and when polished
showing a fine iridescent play of colors.

As an ornamental

Use.

stone.

Anorthite.

Composition. Calcium-aluminium silicate, CaAl 2 Si 2 8 = Silica

alumina 36.7, lime 20.1. Soda is usually present, in small
amount, in the albite molecule, NaAlSi 3 8
43.2,

Crystallization.
lel

to vertical axis.

Triclinic.

Crystals usually prismatic paralTwinning common according to albite and

pericline laws (see above).

Massive cleavable.

Structure.

Crystals rare.

Cleavage in two directions at 85 50'.

One cleavage (parallel to base) better than the other. H.= 6.
G. = 2.75. Vitreous to pearly luster. Color white, grayish,
Physical Properties.

Transparent to opaque.

reddish.

Tests.

Fusible at 4.5.

Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid

and

Gives a strong test

yields a silica jelly upon evaporation.
for calcium (see under oligoclase) and only a slight yellow flame
(sodium).

Occurrence.

rock-making mineral, particularly in the darkAssociated with various calcium and

colored basic igneous rocks.

magnesium
Japan,

silicates.

Found

in the lavas of

Mount

Vesuvius;

of

etc.

Name.
cause of

Derived from the Greek word meaning

oblique, be-

its triclinic crystallization.

2.

METASILICATES.
Leucite.

Composition. A metasilicate of aluminium and potassium,

KAl(Si0 3 ) 2 = Silica 55.0, alumina 23.5, potash 21.5.
Crystallization.

Other forms

rare.

Isometric.

Trapezohedral habit (Fig. 299).

Strictly isometric only at temperatures of

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

230
500 C. or over.

On

cooling below this temperature

it

under-

goes an internal molecular rearrangement to that of some other

crystal system, but the external form does

formed in lavas at
is then isometric
in internal structure as well as outward
It

not. change.

is

high temperatures and

form.

Structure.
tals, also in

Fi

Usually in distinct crysdisseminated grains.

Properties.
Physical
G. = 2.5. Vitreous to dull

299

H.

luster.

5.5-6.

Color

Translucent to opaque.
Tests.
Infusible.
Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with
the separation of silica but without the formation of a jelly.
white to gray.

Addition of ammonia to the solution gives precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. When mixed with powdered gypsum and
fused gives violet potassium flame (best observed through a
blue glass).

Occurrence.

rather rare mineral, occurring almost wholly in

which the amount of potassium in the
magma was in excess of the amount necessary to form feldspar. Is
not observed, therefore, in rocks that show quartz. Chiefly found
in the rocks of central Italy; notably as phenocrysts in the lavas
of Vesuvius.
Pseudomorphs after leucite are found in syenites of
lavas.

Found

in rocks in

Arkansas, Montana, Brazil,

Name.

etc.

From a Greek word meaning

Pollucite, H Cs2Al
2

same group

(Si03) 6

is

white.

a rare mineral that belongs in the

as leucite.

PYROXENE GROUP.
The Pyroxene Group includes a series of related metasilicates
which have calcium, magnesium and ferrous iron as the important bases, also manganese and zinc. Further certain molecules contain the alkalies and aluminium and ferric iron.
They

belong to either the orthorhombic, monoclinic or triclinic

systems, but the crystals of the different species are closely

may

similar in

many

respects.

PYROXENE

281

ORTHORHOMBIC SECTION.
Enstatite, Bronzite, Hypersthene.

members of the pyroxene group, enbeing magnesium metasilicate, MgSiO 3 bronzite, the same as
enstatite, with small amounts of iron replacing the magnesium;
Dishypersthene, an iron-magnesium metasilicate, (Mg,Fe)SiOs.
tinct crystals rare.
Usually foliated massive with good cleavage;
Color from white in enstatite to green and brown with
fibrous, etc.
increase in iron.
Rock-making minerals, occurring like the monoFound in basic igneous rocks,
clinic pyroxenes but much rarer.
such as peridotite, gabbro, etc.
of orthorhombic

group

statite

Pyroxene.
a metasilicate, varying in its comcalcium and magnesium,
with smaller amounts of ferrous iron. In some varieties, however, molecules are introduced in which are the alkalies (chiefly

Composition.

position.

Pyroxene

is

It contains as bases chiefly

sodium), aluminium and ferric iron. The more important variepyroxene with the formulas assigned to them follow.

ties of

CaMg(Si0
Common pyroxene, Ca(Mg,Fe)(Si0
with MgAl Si0 and NaAlSi
Augite, CaMg(Si0
Diopside,

3) 2.

3) 2.

3)2

with

isomorphous with both the magnesium and the aluminium.

These varieties form an isomorphous series, and all gradations
between them appear. Other varieties of less common occurrence are hedenbergite, CaFe(Si0 3 ) 2
schefferite, a manganese
iron

pyroxene;

a manganese-zinc pyroxene.
Monoclinic. Crystals prismatic in habit;

jeffersonite,

Crystallization.

prism faces make angles of 87 and 93 with each other. The

prism zone commonly shows the prism faces truncated by the
faces of both vertical pinacoids, so that the crystals show, when
viewed parallel to the vertical axis, a rectangular cross section

The interfacial angles in the prism

zone are either exactly or very closely 90 and 45. The terminations vary, being made up frequently of a combination of
with truncated corners.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

232

the basal plane with pyramids both in front and behind (Figs.

300-302).

Fig. 300.

Fig. 301.

Structure.

In crystals.

Fig. 302.

Often lamellar.

Coarse to

fine gran-

ular.

Physical Properties. Prismatic cleavage sometimes good,

often interrupted.
Sometimes basal parting observed, often
A, pi. X). H. = 5-6.
Color varying from white and
light green in diopside, to green in pyroxene, through dark green
to black in augite.
Color deepens with increase in the amount

shown by twinning

G.=

of iron present.

Tests.

To

lamellae

(see Fig.

Vitreous luster.

3.2-3.6.

Transparent to opaque.

Fusible from 4 to 4.5.

test for bases : fuse with

Insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

dissolve in nitric

sodium carbonate

evaporate to dryness; notice the formation of silica jelly;

moisten residue with water and hydrochloric acid; boil and
acid;

filter

from insoluble silica; add ammonium hydroxide in

aluminium and ferric hydroxide; to boiling

precipitate of

excess,
filtrate

add ammonium oxalate, precipitate of calcium oxalate; to filtrate

add sodium phosphate, precipitate of ammonium magnesium
phosphate.

Recognized usually by

its

characteristic crystals.

Occurrence. The pyroxenes are common and important rockmaking minerals, being found chiefly in the dark colored igneous
rocks, especially those whose magmas were rich in iron, calcium and
magnesium.

much

quartz.

They

are seldom to be found in rocks that contain

is found in basaltic lavas, and in the dark

Augite

PLATE

X.

A.

Pyroxene showing Twinning Lamellae due

Spodumene Crystal from Huntington, Massachusetts.

Garnet Crystals

in Mica-Schist.

to Basal Parting.

SPODUMENE

233

known

generally as trap, in gabbros and peridoare found sometimes in

syenites and similar rocks; also as metamorphic minerals in impure
Common pyroxene also occurs
recrystallized dolomitic limestones.
In the limestones, pyroxene is often associated
in some gneisses.

colored intrusions

Diopside and

tites.

common pyroxene

with tremolite, scapolite, vesuvianite, garnet, titanite, phlogopite,

In igneous rocks it is found with orthoclase, the plagioclase
feldspars, nephelite, chrysolite, leucite, amphibole, magnetite, etc.
Some of the notable localities, particularly for fine crystals, are the
etc.

For diopside. Ala, Piedmont; Traversella; Nordmark,

Sweden; in various localities in Orange County, New York; for
augite, in the lavas of Vesuvius at Fassathal, Tyrol Bilin, Bohemia
hedenbergite from Sweden and Norway; schefferite from Sweden;
jeffersonite from Franklin, New Jersey.
following:

Names. The name pyroxene, stranger to fire, is a misnomer,

and was given to the mineral because it was thought that it did
not occur in igneous rocks. Diopside comes from two Greek
words meaning double appearance. Augite comes from a Greek
word meaning luster.
Use.
ally

Clear green diopside or

used as a

gem

common pyroxene

is

occasion-

material.

^Egirite or Acmite.

A soda-ferric

NaFe"'(SiO 3 ) 2 Monoclinic. Slender

prismatic crystals, often with steep terminations. Faces often imImperfect prismatic cleavage with 93 angle. H. = 6-6.5.
perfect.
G. = 3.5-3.55. Vitreous luster. Color brown or green. TransFusible at 3.5, giving yellow sodium flame.
lucent to opaque.
Fused globule slightly magnetic. A comparatively rare rock-makiron pyroxene,

ing mineral found chiefly in nephelite-syenite

and

phonolite.

Spodumene.
Composition. Lithium-aluminium metasilicate, LiAl(SiO s )2 =
Silica 64.5, alumina 27.4, lithia 8.4.
Usually has a small amount
of sodium replacing the lithium.
Monoclinic.
Prismatic crystals, flattened
Crystallization.
frequently parallel to the orthopinacoid. Deeply striated verCrystals usually coarse and with
tically (see Fig. B, pi. X).

roughened faces. Sometimes very large.

Structure. In crystals or cleavable masses.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

234

7.

Physical Properties. Perfect prismatic cleavage. H. = 6.5G. = 3.18. Vitreous luster. Color white, gray, pink, yel-

low, green.
Transparent to translucent when unaltered.
Tests.
Fusible at 3.5, throwing out fine branches at first,

then fusing to a clear

glass.

and

Gives a crimson flame (lithium).

Insoluble in acids.

Color white or gray, sometimes pink.

prismatic crystals, often very large.
Frequently altered to other minerals.
Hiddenite. A clear, transparent variety ranging in color from
Varieties.

Commonly

Ordinary.

in flattened

Found

yellow-green to deep emerald.

etched crystals.

Kunzite.

in small striated

and

transparent variety ranging from pale pink to

deep amethystine purple. Has been found in flattened crystals

8 to 10 inches in length, 5 to 6 in breadth.
Alteration.

becoming

dull

Spodumene very easily alters to other species,

The alteration products include

and opaque.

albite, eucryptite

(LiAlSi0 4 ), muscovite, microcline.

comparatively rare species, but found occasionvery large crystals in pegmatite veins. Occurs at Goshen,
Chesterfield, Chester, Huntington and Sterling, Massachusetts;
Branchville, Connecticut; Etta tin mine, Pennington County, South
Hiddenite
Dakota, in crystals measuring many feet in length.
occurs with emerald beryl at Stony Point, Alexander County,
North Carolina. Kunzite is found with pink beryl in San Diego
County, California.

Occurrence.

ally in

Spodumene comes from a Greek word meaning ash

is named for Mr. W. E. Hidden; kunzite for
Dr. G. F. Kunz.
Use. The varieties hiddenite and kunzite furnish very beauti-

Names.

colored.

Hiddenite

ful

gem

stones but are limited in their occurrence.

Jadeite.

sodium-aluminium metasilicate, NaAl(SiO 3 )2. Massive, granG. = 3.33-3.35. Vitreous

H. = 6.5-7.
ular to closely compact.
Color white, gray to light green. Translucent to opaque.
Fuses at 2.5, coloring the flame yellow (sodium).
Forms in part the material known as jade and highly prized by
Made into finely carved
oriental peoples as an ornamental material.
luster.

Very tough.

235

PECTOLITE
ornaments and

utensils,

and when

mands a high price. Found

China and in Thibet.

of fine color

chiefly in

and translucent com-

Upper Burmah,

in

southern

Wollastonite.

Composition.

Calcium metasilicate, CaSi0 3

Silica 51.7,

lime 48.3.

Monoclinic. Usually in tabular crystals,

Crystallization.
with either base or orthopinacoid prominent.
Structure. Commonly massive, cleavable to fibrous; also

compact.
Physical Properties.
H. = 5-5.5. G.
coid.

Perfect cleavage parallel to orthopina-

2.8-2.9.
Vitreous luster, pearly on
Sometimes silky when fibrous.
cleavage surfaces.
Colorless,
white or gray. Translucent to opaque.
Tests.
Fusible at 4 to a white, almost glassy globule. De-

composed by hydrochloric

acid, with the separation of silica

without the formation of a

jelly.

Filtered solution with

nium hydroxide and ammonium carbonate

but

ammo-

gives white precipi-

tate of calcium carbonate.

Occurrence. Commonly found in crystalline limestones which

have been metamorphosed either through the heat and pressure
attendant upon the intrusion into them of igneous rocks or upon
movements of the earth's crust. An impure limestone, containing
quartz for instance, under these conditions will become crystalline,
and new minerals, such as wollastonite, be formed. Associated with
calcite, diopside, lime garnet, tremolite, lime feldspars, vesuvianite,
epidote, etc.
May at times be so plentiful as to constitute the chief
mineral of the rock mass. Such wollastonite rocks are found in

California, the Black Forest, Brittany, etc.

feldspathic schists.

More

rarely found in

Pectolite.

Composition.
9.3, water 2.7.
Crystallization.

HNaCa

(Si0 3 ) 3

Monoclinic.

Silica 54.1, lime 33.8,

soda

Crystals usually elongated

parallel to the ortho-axis.

Usually in aggregates of acicular crystals. Frequently radiating, with fibrous appearance. Sometimes comStructure.

pact.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

236

Physical Properties.
H. = 5. G.

pinacoid.

Perfect cleavage parallel to the ortho2.7-2.8.

Vitreous to pearly luster.

Colorless, white or gray.

Fuses quietly at 2.5-3 to a glass; colors flame yellow

Tests.
Decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with the separa(sodium).
Filtered solution of silica but without the formation of a jelly.

ammonium hydroxide and ammonium carbonate gives

white precipitate of calcium carbonate. Water in C. T.
tion with

Occurrence. A mineral of secondary origin similar in its occurrence to the zeolites. Found lining amygdaloidal cavities in basalt,
associated with various zeolites, phrenite, calcite, etc. Found at
Bergen Hill and West Paterson,

New

Jersey.

TRICLINIC SECTION.
Rhodonite.
Composition. Manganese metasilicate, MnSi0 3 = Silica 45.9,
manganese protoxide 54.1. Iron, calcium and sometimes zinc
replace a part of the manganese.

Crystallization.

commonly tabular
303)

Structure.
a

'

nice'

N?w

jSy

Vitreous luster.

Crystals

Crystals often rough with rounded

Commonly massive,

able to compact; in
Fig

Triclinic.

parallel to base (Fig.

embedded

cleav-

grains.

Fur~

Physical Properties. Prismatic cleavage at about 92. H. = 6-6.5. G. = 3.63.

Color rose-red, pink, brown. .Translucent to

opaque.
Fusible (3-3.5) to a nearly black glass. Insoluble in
hydrochloric acid. In 0. F. gives clear reddish violet color to
borax bead.
Tests.

Found at Langban, Sweden, with iron ore; found

masses near Ekaterinburg, Urals; from Broken Hill, New
South Wales. A zinciferous variety, known as foivlerite, occurs in
good-sized crystals in limestone with franklinite, willemite, zincite,
etc., at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.
Occurrence.

in large

AMPHIBOLE
Name.

237

Derived from the Greek word for a

rose, in allusion

to the color.

Use. Sometimes polished for use as an ornamental stone.

Obtained chiefly from the Urals.

AMPHIBOLE GROUP.
The

minerals of the Amphibole Group crystallize in either the

orthorhombic, monoclinic or triclinic systems, but the crystals
of the different species are closely similar in

Chemically they form a

many

respects.

series parallel to that of the

Pyroxene

Group (page 230), being metasilicates with calcium, magnesium

and ferrous iron as important bases, and also with manganese
and the alkalies. Certain molecules that are present in some
varieties contain aluminium and ferric iron.

ORTHORHOMBIC SECTION.
Anthopyllite.

An

orthorhombic amphibole, corresponding to the orthorhombic

bronzite
hy persthene. An iron-magpryoxene group, enstatite
nesium metasilicate, (Mg,Fe)SiO3. Rarely in distinct crystals.
Commonly lamellar or fibrous. Perfect prismatic cleavage. Color
gray to various shades of green and brown. A comparatively rare
mineral, occurring in mica-schist, etc.

Composition.

Amphibole.
The amphiboles consist

metasilicates of calcium

of a series of minerals

to the pyroxenes.

many ways

analogous in

They

are chiefly

and magnesium with ferrous iron

re-

placing the magnesium. Other molecules are at times introduced, in which are the alkalies, aluminium and ferric iron.

The more important varieties

assigned to them follow.

of

Tremolite,

CaMg

Actinolite,

Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (Si0 8 )4.

(Si0 3 )4.

with NasAl,(SiOOi and Mg2Al 4 isomorphous with the magnesium and

iron with the aluminium.

Hornblende,
(Si0 6 )2.
ferric

amphibole with the formulas

CaMg

Ferrous iron

(SiO,) 4
is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

238

These varieties form an isomorphous

between them occur.

series

and

all

gradations

Monoclinic. Crystals prismatic in habit;

Crystallization.
the prism faces make angles of 55 and 125 with each other
(compare the 87 and 93 angles of pyroxene). The prism zone
shows, in addition to the prism faces, usually those of the
clinopinacoid

and sometimes

also those of

Fig. 304.

the orthopinacoid.

Fig. 305.

Prism zone frequently vertically striated and imperfectly developed. When the prism faces are distinct, the cross section
of the crystal, when viewed in a direction parallel to the vertical
axis, does not have the rectangular shape .shown by the crystals

The termination

of pyroxene.

formed by the two faces

Structure.

of a

In crystals.

of the crystals is almost always

low clinodome (Figs. 304 and 305).
Often bladed and frequently in radi-

ating columnar aggregates. Sometimes in silky fibers.

to fine granular.
Compact.

Coarse

Physical Properties. Perfect prismatic cleavage at angle of

= 5-6. G. = 3-3.3.
125, often yielding a splintery surface. H.
Vitreous luster. Often with silky sheen in the prism zone. Color
varying from white and light green in tremolite, to green in
Color
actinolite, through dark green to black in hornblende.

deepens with increase in the amount of iron present.

parent to opaque.
Fusible 3-4.
Tests.

tests

which

its

see.

Chemical
Told from pyroxene by

same as

Trans-

for pyroxene,

better prismatic cleavage,

AMPHIBOLE

239

by the difference in the prismatic angle and by the characteristic

presence on the crystals of the low clinodome.
Occurrence. Amphibole is an important and widely distributed
rock-making mineral, occurring both in igneous and mctamorphic
The
rocks, being particularly characteristic, however, of the latter.
fact that amphibole frequently contains hydroxyl and fluorine indicates that, in some degree, it is often of pneumatolytic origin.
Tremolite is most frequently found in impure, crystalline, dolomitic
limestones, where it has been formed during the crystallization of
the rock, while undergoing metamorphism. Actinolite commonly
occurs in the crystalline schists, being often the chief constituent of
green-colored hornblende-schists and greenstones. Frequently the
amphibole of such rocks has had its origin in the pyroxene contained
in the igneous rock from which the metamorphic type has been
Common hornblende is found in igneous rocks, such as
derived.
granites, syenites, diorites, gabbros, and in some peridotites; it
It also occurs in the
rarely occurs in the dark traps and basalts.

metamorphic rocks, such as gneisses and hornblende

schists.

Notable localities for the occurrence of crystals are: tremolite

from Campolongo, Tessin; from Russell, Gouverneur, Amity, Pierrepont, De Kalb, etc., New York; actinolite from Greiner, Zillerthal,
Tyrol; hornblende from Bilin, Bohemia; Monte Somma, Italy.
Actinolite frequently comes fibrous, and is the material to which
the name asbestos was originally given. Has been found in the

metamorphic rocks
tains.

Nephrite

supplies

much

is

in various states along the Appalachian

a tough, compact variety of actinolite

Mounwhich

known

as jade (see also under jadeite).

occurrence is in the Kuen Lun Mountains,

of the material

A famous locality for its

on the southern border of Turkestan.
Names.
St.

Tremolite

Gothard.

a ray and

is

Actinolite

derived from the Tremola Valley near

comes from two Greek words meaning

somewhat radiated

stone, in allusion to its frequently

structure.

The fibrous variety is used to some extent as asbestos

The fibrous variety of serpentine furnishes more
and usually a better grade of asbestos. The compact variety,
Uses.

material.

is

nephrite,

peoples and

Among
phibole

used largely for ornamental material by oriental

is

called jade.

the other rarer monoclinic

Group

are

glaucophane,

members

of

the

Am-

NaAl(Si0 3 )j.(Fe,Mg)SiOj;

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

240
riebeckite,

2NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 .FeSi0 3

arfvedsonite,

Na

crocidolite,

NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 .FeSi0 3

(Ca,Mg) 3 (Fe,Mn) 14 (Al,Fe) 2 Si2i045.

TRICLINIC SECTION.
The only member
Group

is

of the Triclinic Section of the

the rare mineral cenigmatite,

Na Fe AlFe"
4

Amphibole
(Si,Ti) I 20 38 .

Beryl.
3
Analyses show a small amount
Small amounts of the alkali oxides, often in part

Composition.
of water.

Be Al

2 Si 6 Oi 8

consisting of caesium oxide, frequently replace the beryllium

oxide.

Crystallization.

Hexagonal.

quently vertically striated

Strong prismatic habit.

and grooved.

Fre-

Forms usually present

Fig. 307.

Fig. 306.

and base (Fig. 306). Small

and second orders sometimes

consist only of prism of first order

pyramid

faces of both the first

occur, but the

pyramid faces are rarely prominent

(Fig. 307).

Dihexagonal forms quite rare. Crystals frequently of considerable size with rough faces.
Structure. In crystals. Also massive, with indistinct columnar structure or granular.
Physical Properties. H. = 7.5-8. G. = 2.75-2.8. Vitreous
Color commonly bluish green or light yellow; may

luster.

be deep emerald-green, golden yellow, pink, white or colorless.

Transparent to subtranslucent. Frequently the larger, coarser

BERYL

241

crystals show a mottled appearance due to the alternation of

clear transparent spots with cloudy, almost opaque portions.

B. B. whitens and fuses with difficulty at 5-5.5 to an

little water on intense ignition.
Insoluble in

Tests.

Yields a

enamel.

Recognized usually by

acids.

its

hexagonal crystals,

its

hard-

ness, color, etc.

Ordinary Beryl. In coarse translucent to opaque

or
masses, usually of a pale greenish blue or yellow color.
crystals
Sometimes in very large crystals; one from Grafton, New Hampshire, measured over 4 feet in length with a diameter between
Varieties.

20 and 30 inches, weight 2900 pounds.

Aquamarine. Name given to the pale greenish blue transparent stone. Used as a gem.
Golden Beryl. A deep golden yellow variety, which, when
clear, is used as a gem.
rose.

named

morganite.

Emerald.
beryl and
is

variety varying in color from pale pink to

Beautiful gem material from Madagascar has been

Rose Beryl.

deep

is

The true emerald is the deep green transparent

among the most highly prized of gems. The color

due to small amounts .of chromium.

Occurrence. Beryl, although containing the rare element berylIt occurs

lium, is a rather common and widely distributed mineral.
usually as an accessory mineral in pegmatite veins. It is also found
Emeralds of gem quality occur in a
in clay-slate and mica-schist.
dark bituminous limestone at Musa, 75 miles northwest of Bogota,
United States of Colombia. This locality has been worked almost
continually since the middle of the sixteenth century, and has furnished the greater part of the emeralds of the world. Another
famous locality for emeralds is in Siberia on the river Takovaya,
45 miles east of Ekaterinburg.
They occur in a mica-schist associated with phenacite, chrysoberyl, rutile, etc.

have been found

in small

Rather pale emeralds

amount from Alexander County, North

Carolina, associated with the green variety of spodumene, hiddenite.

Beryl of the lighter aquamarine color is much more common, and

found in gem quality in Brazil, Siberia, and many other

In the United States they have been found in various places
is

New Hampshire,

localities.

in

Maine,

Massachusetts, Connecticut, North Carolina, ColoThe golden beryl has been found in Maine, Connectirado, etc.
cut, North Carolina and Pennsylvania; also in Siberia and Ceylon.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

242
The

San Diego County, Caliwith pink tourmaline and the pink spodurnene,
similar occurrence in Madagascar has furnished mag-

rose-colored beryl has been found in

fornia, associated

kunzite.

nificent rose-colored stones (morganite).

Use.

Used

as a

gem

stone of various colors.

The emerald

ranks as one of the most valuable of stones, at times being of

much greater value than the diamond. Perfect and deeply
colored stones have been sold as high as $1000 per carat.
Aquamarines range in value from $1 to $15 a carat. Golden
The rose beryl is valued
beryls bring from $1 to $10 a carat.
from $5 to $20 a carat.
lolite.

Cordierite.

A complex silicate of magnesium, ferrous iron and aluminium.

Orthorhombic. Usually in short pseudohexagonal twinned crysVitreous luster. Color differtals; as embedded grains; massive.
ent shades of blue. Most commonly altered into some form of
mica, becoming opaque and of various shades of grayish green.
Found as an accessory mineral in granite, gneiss (cordierite gneiss),
schists, etc.
3.

ORTHOSILICATES.
Nephelite.

Sodium-aluminium silicate, approximately

Composition.
NaAlSi0 4 There is always a few per cent of potash present,
sometimes also lime, replacing the soda.
.

Crystallization. Hexagonal. Rarely in small prismatic cryswith basal plane; sometimes shows pyramidal planes.

tals

Structure.

bedded

grains.

Almost invariably massive, compact, and in emMassive variety often called elceolite.

Distinct cleavage parallel to prism.

Physical Properties.
= 5.5-6. G. = 2.55-2.65. Vitreous luster in the clear crys-

H.

tals to

greasy luster in the massive variety. Colorless, white

In the massive variety gray, greenish and reddish.

or yellowish.

Transparent to opaque.
Tests.
Fusible at 4 to a colorless
yellow flame of sodium.

glass.

B. B. gives strong

Readily soluble in hydrochloric acid

and on evaporation yields a silica jelly.

LAZURITE

243

Alteration. Easily alters into various other minerals, such as

the zeolites, natrolite, analcite, hydronephelite, thomsonite; also
sodalite, muscovite, kaolin, etc v

Occurrence. Nephelite is rarely found except in igneous rocks.

some recent lavas as glassy crystals, such as are found

It occurs in

The opaque, massive or coarsely crystalfound in the older rocks and is called elaeolite. Phonolite, elseolite-syenite and nephelite-basalt are important rocks in
which nephelite is an essential constituent. It is only to be found
in rocks whose magmas contained an excess of soda over the amount
required to form feldspar. It is therefore seldom found in rocks
that contain free quartz. Extensive masses of nephelite rocks,
Massive and crystallized
elaeolite-syenites, are found in Norway.
nephelite is found at Litchfield, Maine, associated with cancrinite.
Found at Magnet Cove, Arkansas.
in the lavas of Vesuvius.
line variety is

Name.

Nephelite

is

derived from a Greek work meaning a

because when immersed in acid the mineral becomes

cloudy. Elceolite is derived from the Greek word for oil, in

cloud,

allusion to its greasy luster.

is a rare
6 Na6Ca(NaCOs) 2 Al 8 (Si04)9,
Cancrinite,
similar to nephelite in occurrence and associations.

mineral

SODALITE GROUP.
Sodalite.

Na

Isometric.
Crystals rare,
(AlCl)Al 2 (SiO 4 )3.
Composition,
Commonly massive, in embedded grains.
usually dodecahedrons.
Dodecahedral cleavage. H.= 5.5-6. G.= 2.15-2.3. Vitreous lus4

Color usually blue, also white, gray, green. Transparent to

opaque. Fusible at 3.5-4, to a colorless glass, giving a strong
yellow flame (sodium). Soluble in hydrochloric acid and gives
Nitric acid solution with silver
gelatinous silica upon evaporation.
A comparatively
nitrate gives white precipitate of silver chloride.
rare rock-making mineral associated with nephelite, cancrinite, etc.,
ter.

Found in transparin nephelite-syenites, trachytes, phonolites, etc.

ent crystals in the lavas of Vesuvius. Similar minerals, but rarer in
their occurrence, are hauynite, (Na2.Ca)ji(Al.NaSO 4 )Al 2 (SiO 4 )3, and
noselite, Na4 (NaSO 4 Al)Al 2 (SiO 4 ) 3
.

Lazurite.

Na

Lapis-lazuli.

(Al.NaS s )Al 2 (SiO 4 )3, with small amounts of the

Composition,
IsoBodalite and haiiynite molecules in isomorphous replacement.
4

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

244

Crystals rare, usually dodecahedral.

metric.

Commonly

massive,

H. = 5-5.5.
G. = 2.4-2.45.
Vitreous luster.
Color
compact.
deep azure-blue, greenish blue. Translucent. Fusible at 3.5, giving strong yellow flame (sodium). Soluble in hydrochloric acid
with slight evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas, and gives gelatinous

A rare mineral, occurring usually in crysa product of contact metamorphism. Lapislazuli is usually a mixture of lazurite with small amounts of calcite,
pyroxene, etc. It commonly contains small disseminate particles
of pyrite.
It is used as an ornamental stone, for carvings, etc.
The
best quality of lapis-lazuli comes from northeastern Afghanistan.
Also found at Lake Baikal, Siberia, and in Chile.
silica

upon evaporation.

talline limestones as

GARNET GROUP.
Composition. The garnets are orthosilicates which conform
//
///
to the general formula R 3 R 2 (8104)3.
R" may be calcium,
iron
ferrous
and
manganese; R'" may be aluminium,
magnesium,
ferric iron and chromium.
The formulas of the chief varieties
are given below;

many

of

them, however, grade more or

less into

each other.
Grossularite,

Pyrope,

Almandite,
Spessartite,

Andradite,

Ca3Fe 2 (Si0 4 ) 3

Uvarovite,

Ca 3 (Cr,Al) 2 (Si0 4 )3.

(Figs.

Isometric. Common forms dodecahedron

and trapezohedron (Fig. 309), often in combination
310 and 311). Hexoctahedron observed at times (Fig.

312).

Other forms

Crystallization.
(Fig. 308)

rare.

Usually distinctly crystallized; also in rounded

grains; massive granular, coarse or fine.
H.= 6.5-7.5. G. = 3.15-4.3, varying
Physical Properties.
with the composition. Luster vitreous to resinous. Color varyStructure.

ing with composition; most commonly red, also brown, yellow,

white, green, black. White streak. Transparent to almost

opaque.
Tests.

With the exception

to 3.5; uvarovite

is

of uvarovite, all garnets fuse at 3

almost infusible.

The

iron garnets, alman-

GARNET GROUP

245

Fig. 309.

Fig. 308.

Fig. 311.

Fig. 310.

Fig. 312.

dite and andradite, fuse to magnetic globules.' Spessartite when

fused with sodium carbonate gives a bluish green bead (manga-

nese).

Uvarovite gives a green color to salt of phosphorus bead

Andradite is somewhat difficultly soluble in hydro-

(chromium)

and gelatinizes imperfectly on evaporation. All the

other garnets are practically insoluble in acids. All of them,
with the exception of uvarovite, may be dissolved in hydrochloric
acid after simple fusion and the solutions will gelatinize on evapochloric acid

ration.
Garnets are usually recognized by their characteristic
It frequently reisometric crystals, their hardness, color, etc.
between
the different
an
to
quires
positively distinguish
analysis

members

of the group.

CalciumGrossularite, Essonite, Cinnamon Stone.

aluminium garnet. Often contains ferrous iron replacing calColor white, green,
cium and ferric iron replacing aluminium.
Varieties.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

246

Name derived from the

yellow, cinnamon-brown, pale red.
botanical name for gooseberry, in allusion to the light green color
of the original grossularite.

Precious garnet in part.

Pyrope.
garnet.

Calcium and iron

Magnesium-aluminium
Color deep red to

also present.

nearly black. Often transparent and then used as a gem.

Name derived from Greek, meaning firelike. Rhodolite is name
given to a pale rose-red or purple garnet, corresponding in composition to

two parts

part.

of

pyrope and one of almandite.

Common

garnet in

Ferric iron replaces

aluminium

Precious garnet in part.

Almandite.

Iron-aluminium garnet.

and magnesium replaces ferrous

Color fine deep red, transiron.

parent in precious garnet; brownish red, translucent to opaque
in common garnet.
Name derived from Alabanda, where in
ancient times garnets were cut and polished.

Manganese-aluminium garnet. Ferrous iron reSpessartite.

Color
places the manganese and ferric iron the aluminium.
brownish to garnet-red.

Common

Andradite.

Aluminium
sometimes

garnet in part.

Calcium-iron garnet.

replaces the ferric iron; ferrous iron,

magnesium replace the calcium.

shades of yellow, green, brown to black.

Portuguese mineralogist, d'Andrada.
Uvarovite.

Named

after

Calcium-chromium
Count Uvarov.

garnet.

manganese and
Color various

Named

after the

Color emerald-green.

Garnet is a common and widely distributed minoccurring as an accessory constituent of metamorphic and
sometimes of igneous rocks. Its most characteristic occurrence is
in mica-schists (see Fig. C, pi. X), hornblende-schists and gneisses.
Found in pegmatite veins, more rarely in granite rocks. Grossularite is found chiefly as a product of contact or regional metamorphism in crystalline limestones. Pyrope is often found in peridotite
rocks and the serpentines derived from them. Spessartite occurs
in the igneous rock, rhyolite. Melanite, a black variety of andraUvarovite is found
dite, occurs mostly in certain eruptive rocks.
in serpentine associated with chromite.
Garnet frequently occurs
as rounded grains in stream- and sea-sands.
Almandite, of gem quality, is found in northern India, Brazil,
Fine crystals, alAustralia, and in several localities in the Alps.

Occurrence.

eral,

CHRYSOLITE

247

though for the most part too opaque for cutting, are found in a micaon the Stickeen River, Alaska.
Pyrope of gem quality is
found associated with clear grains of chrysolite (peridot) in the
surface sands near Fort Defiance, close to the Utah-Arizona state
line.
Famous localities for pyrope gems are near Teplitz and Bilin,
Bohemia. Grossularite is only a little used in jewelry, but essonite
or cinnamon stones of good size and color are found in Ceylon. A
green andradite, known as demantoid, cornes from the Urals and
schist

yields fine

gems known as Uralian emeralds.

Alteration.

Garnet often

larly talc, serpentine

Name.

Garnet

is

and

alters to other minerals, particu-

chlorite.

derived from the Latin granatus, meaning

a grain. Carbuncle, an old name for garnet and other red

stones, was derived from the Latin word carbo, coal, and is used
like

at present to designate garnets cut in oval form-

Use.
Sometimes
Chiefly as a rather inexpensive gem stone.
ground and used on account of its hardness for abrading purposes, as sand for sawing and grinding stone, or for making sandpaper.

CHRYSOLITE GROUP.
Chrysolite or Olivine.

Peridot.

Composition. Orthosilicate of magnesium, with varying

amounts of ferrous iron, (Mg,Fe) 2 Si0 4 The ratio between the
magnesium and iron varies widely.
.

Orthorhombic. Crystals usually a combiCrystallization.

nation of prism, macro- and brachypinacoids and domes, pyramid and base. Often flattened parallel to either the macro- or
brachypinacoid.
Structure. Usually in embedded grains or in granular masses.

Physical Properties. H. = 6.5-7. G. = 3.27-3.37. Vitreous luster. Olive to grayish green, brown. Transparent to
translucent.

Tests.

and

Infusible.

Rather slowly soluble

in hydrochloric acid

After evaporayields gelatinous silica upon evaporation.

tion to dryness, take up residue in water with nitric acid, filter

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

248

add ammonia in excess to precipitate ferric hydroxide,

add ammonium oxalate to prove absence of calcium, add
sodium phosphate and obtain precipitate of ammonium-magnesium phosphate (test for magnesium). Distinguished usually
by its glassy luster, green color and granular structure.
off silica,

filter,

Occurrence. A rather common rock-making mineral, varying

from an accessory character to that of a main constituent of the rock.
It is found principally in the dark colored ferro-magnesium igneous
rocks such as gabbro, peridotite and basalt. A rock, known as
Found also at times
dunite, is made up almost wholly of chrysolite.
as glassy grains in meteorites.
Occasionally in crystalline dolomitic
Associated often with pyroxene, the plagioclase feldlimestones.
The transspars, magnetite, corundum, chromite, serpentine, etc.
parent green variety, known as peridot, and used as a gem material,

was found in ancient times in the East, the exact locality for the
stones not being known. At present peridot is found in Upper
Egypt, near the Red Sea, and in rounded grains associated with
pyrope garnet in the surface gravels of Arizona and New Mexico.
Crystals of chrysolite are found in the lavas of Vesuvius. Larger
crystals, altered to serpentine, come from Snarum, Norway. Chrysolite occurs in granular masses in the volcanic bombs in the Eifel.
Dunite rocks are found at Dun Mountain, New Zealand, and with
the corundum deposits of North Carolina.
Alteration.

Very readily altered to serpentine; magnesium

etc., may form at the same time.
Name. Chrysolite means golden stone. Olivine derives its
name from the usual olive-green color of the mineral, and is
the term usually given to the species when speaking of it as a
rock-making mineral. Peridot is an old name for the species.
carbonate, iron ore,

Use. As the clear green variety, known usually as peridot, it

has some use as a gem. A one-carat stone may be valued up
to $5.

Other members of the Chrysolite Group which are rarer in

CaMgSi0 4 fosterite, Mg 2 Si0 4 and

occurrence are Monticellite,

Fe 2 Si0 4

Ordinary chrysolite is intermediate in comAnother member which has been

position between the last two.
found in the zinc deposits at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, is
tephroite, Mn 2 Si0 4

fayalite,

PHENACITE

249

PHENACITE GROUP.
Willemite.
Composition. Zinc orthosilicate, Zn 2 Si0 4 = Silica 27, zinc
oxide 73, zinc 58.6. Manganese often replaces a considerable
part of the zinc (manganiferous variety called troostite), iron
also present at times in small

amount.

Crystallization. Hexagonal-rhombohedral tri-rhombohedral.

;

In hexagonal prisms with rhombohedral terminations.

of third-order

rhombohedrons

Faces

rare.

Structure. Usually massive to granular.

except in variety troostite.

Rarely crystallized

Physical Properties. H. = 5.5. G. = 3.89-4.18. Vitreous

Color white, yellow-green, blue, when pure;

to resinous luster.

with increase of manganese becomes apple-green, flesh-red and

brown. Transparent to opaque.
Willemite infusible, troostite

Tests.

difficultly fusible (4.5-5).

Soluble in hydrochloric acid and yields gelatinous silica on evapoGives a coating of zinc oxide when heated with sodium
ration.

carbonate on charcoal; coating yellow when hot, white when

cold; if coating is moistened with cobalt nitrate and heated again
Troostite will give reddish violet color to the
it turns green.
borax bead in 0. F. (manganese).
Varieties.

White or

Ordinary.

light colored.

Contains a
Apple-green, flesh-red or gray color.
considerable amount of manganese.
Found at Franklin FurTroostite.

nace,

New

Jersey, in quite large crystals.

Occurrence.

Found

at Altenberg, near Moresnet, Belgium, and

at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.

At the latter locality it is associated with franklinite and zincite, often in an intimate mixture;
also

embedded

in calcite.

Occurs sparingly at Merritt Mine,

New

Mexico.

Use.

valuable zinc ore.

Phenacite.
Beryllium orthosilicate, Be2 SiO 4
Hexagonal-rhombohedral; trirhombohedral. Crystals usually rhombohedral in form, sometimes
with short prisms. Often with complex development and fre.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

250

quently showing the faces of the third-order rhombohedron. Prismatic cleavage. H. = 7.5-8. G. = 2.96. Vitreous luster. Colorwhite.
Transparent to translucent. Infusible and insoluble.
rare mineral, found associated usually with topaz, chrysoberyl,
Fine crystals are found at the emerald mines
beryl, apatite, etc.
in the Urals, at Pike's Peak and Mount Antero, Colorado, and in
Minas Geraes, Brazil. Occasionally cut as a gem stone.
less,

Dioptase,

H CuSi0

of minerals varying in composition

4,

is

a rare mineral belonging in this group.

SCAPOLITE GROUP.
group
phous mixture in different amounts of the
Ca4Al 6 Si 6 02 5 (Me) and Na 4Al 3 Si 9 24 Cl,(Ma).
molecule (Me) alone is present, the subname of
when the second molecule (Ma) represents the

name

marialite

is

Wernerite, or

used.

by the isomortwo molecules,

When

the

meionite

first

is

used;
composition, the

common

scapolite }

shows

a combination of the two molecules according to the ratios of

Me Ma as 3 1 to 1 2; while mizzonite corresponds to the
:

ratios of

may

Me Ma
:

as 1

2 to

3.

Mixtures in

all

proportions

exist.

Wernerite.
Composition.
Crystallization.
prismatic.

Common

Scapolite.

See above.
Tetragonal; tripyramidal. Crystals usually
of the first and second

Prominent forms are prisms

Fig. 313.

Fig. 314.

pyramid of first (Fig. 313). Rarely shows the faces of

the pyramid of the third order (Fig. 314).

orders,

VESUVIANITE
Structure.
often large.
ance.

251

Crystals are usually coarse, with rough faces and

Also massive, granular, or with faint fibrous appear-

H.=
Physical Properties. Imperfect prismatic cleavage.
G. = 2.68. Vitreous luster when fresh and unaltered.

5-6.

Color white, gray or pale green.

Tests.

Fusible.

Varieties

Transparent to opaque.

containing sodium

give

yellow

flame on ignition.

Imperfectly decomposed by hydrochloric

acid, yielding separated silica but without the formation of a
jelly.

Alteration.

Easily altered into various other minerals, such

as mica, epidote, talc, kaolin, etc.

Occurrence. The scapolites occur in the crystalline schists,

and amphibolites, and in many cases have probably been
derived by alteration from plagioclase feldspars. They also characteristically occur in crystalline limestones formed through the contact metamorphic action of an intruded igneous rock.
Associated
gneisses

with light colored pyroxene, amphibole, garnet, apatite, titanite,

Found in various places in Massachusetts; Orange,
zircon, etc.
Essex, Lewis, Jefferson and St. Lawrence counties,
Grenville, Templeton, Algona, etc., Canada.

The

New

York; at

members of the group, meionite, mizzonite and

are
much rarer in occurrence. Their crystals are
marialite,
usually smaller and of better quality than those of wernerite.
Meionite and missonite are found in limestone blocks on Monte
other

Somma.

Vesuvianite.

Composition. A basic silicate of calcium and aluminium.

Contains usually also iron oxides, magnesia and fluorine. For-

mula uncertain.
Crystallization.
tically striated.

orders,

Some

Tetragonal.

Prismatic in habit.

Often ver-

Common

forms are prisms of first and second

order and base (Figs. 315 and 316).

pyramid of first
show a more complex development with other

crystals

prisms, pyramids, ditetragonal forms, etc.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

252

In crystals, also massive, columnar, granular.

H. = 6.5. G. = 3.35-4.45. Vitreous to

Structure.

Physical Properties.
resinous luster.

Usually green or brown in color; also yellow,

subtransparent to translucent. Streak

Commonly

blue, red.

white.

771

Fig. 315.

Fuses with intumescence to a greenish or brownish

slightly soluble in acids but gelatinizes in hydrochloric acid after simple fusion.
Tests.

glass.

Only

Occurrence. Usually to be found in crystalline limestones where

they have been metamorphosed by the contact action of igneous
Formed probably by the action upon impure limestone of
rocks.
hot vapors containing water and fluorine given off by the igneous
Associated with other contact minerals, such as garnet,
rock.
pyroxene, tourmaline, chondrodite, etc. Was originally discovered
in the ancient ejections of Vesuvius and in the dolomitic blocks of

Monte Somma.
zoni,

Urals;

Important

localities are,

Ala, Piedmont;

Vesuvius;

and Rumford, Maine; near Amity,

New

York; Inyo County, Cali-

Canada at Litchfield, Pontiac County; at

Ontario; at Temple ton, Quebec.
fornia;

Mon-

Christiansand, Norway;
Achmatoosk,
River Wilui, Siberia; in the United States, at Phippsburg

Tyrol;

in

Grenville,

ZIRCON GROUP.
Zircon.

Composition.
Crystallization.

ZrSi0 4

Silica 32.8, zirconia 67.2.

Tetragonal.

Crystals usually show a simple

first order (Figs. 317

combination of prism and pyramid of the

253

ZIRCON
and

The prism

318).

of the second order

and a ditetragonal
Base very rare.

also at times observed (Fig. 319).

pyramid

Fig. 317.

Fig. 318.

Fig. 319.

Crystal forms and axial ratio prove a close relationship between

zircon

and

cassiterite

and

rutile.

Structure.

Usually crystallized; also in irregular grains.

Physical Properties. H. = 7.5. G. = 4.68. Luster adamantine.
Usually nearly opaque, sometimes transparent. Color

commonly some shade of brown; also colorless, gray, green, red.

Streak uncolored. High refractive index.
Infusible.
A small fragment when intensely ignited
Tests.
glows and gives off a white light. When fused with sodium carbonate and fusion then dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, the
solution will turn a piece of turmeric paper to an orange color
(zirconium).
color, luster,

Recognized usually by its characteristic crystals,

hardness and high specific gravity.

Occurrence. Zircon is a common and widely distributed accessory mineral in all classes of igneous rocks. It is especially frequent
in the more acid types such as granite, syenite, diorite, etc.
Very
common in nephelite-syenite. It is the first one among the silicates
to crystallize out from a cooling magma. Found also commonly in

Found frequently as
crystalline limestone, in gneiss, schist, etc.
zircons
rounded pebbles in stream sands; often with gold.

Gem

are found in the stream sands at Matura, Ceylon. Occurs in the

gold gravels in the Urals, Australia, etc. Found in the nepheliteIn considerable
syenites of Norway and of Litchfield, Maine.
quantity in the sands of Henderson and Buncombe counties, North
Carolina.
.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

254

When

Use.

transparent serves as a

gem

stone, valued usu-

$10 or less per carat. It is sometimes colorless, but more

often of a brownish and red-orange color, called hyacinth or jaally at

cinth.

The

colorless, yellowish or

gon, because while resembling the

smoky

stones are called jar-

diamond they have

little

value;

and thence the name zircon. Serves as the source of zirconium

oxide, which with other rare oxides is used in the manufacture
of the Welsbach incandescent mantle.
Thorite.

Thorium

ThSiO 4 always with some

water, probably from

Tetragonal. Crystal forms
resemble those of zircon. Also massive. Resinous to greasy luster.
H. = 4.5-5.
Color orange-yellow, brown, black.
G. = 4.8-5.2.
Transparent to opaque. Infusible. Soluble in hydrochloric acid
alteration,

silicate,

and sometimes uranium.

and gives gelatinous silica upon evaporation. A rare mineral, found

For uses of thorium see
chiefly in Norway, commonly altered.
under monazite.

DANBURITE-TOPAZ GROUP.
Danburite.
Calcium-boron silicate, CaB 2 (Si0 4 ) 2
Orthorhombic. Prismatic crystals, closely
Crystallization.
related to those of topaz in habit.
Structure. Commonly in crystals.

Composition.

Physical Properties. H.= 7-7.25. G.= 2.97-3.02. Vitreous luster. Colorless or pale yellow. Transparent to translucent.

Tests.

Fusible (3.5-4), giving a green flame.

Insoluble in

acids.

Occurrence. Found in crystals at Danbury, Conn.;

York; eastern Switzerland; Japan.

Russell,

New

Topaz.
(Al.F) Si0 4 with isomorphous(A1.0H) 2 Si0 4
Crystallization. Orthorhombic. In prismatic crystals terminated by pyramids, domes and basal plane (Figs. 320, 321 and

Composition.

TOPAZ
322).

Often highly modified (Fig. 323).

255
Prism faces often ver-

tically striated.

Fig. 320.

Fig. 321.

Fig. 322.

Fig. 323.

In crystalline masses; also granular, coarse or

Structure.
fine.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 8 (unusuG = 3 52-3 57 Vitreous luster. Colorless, yellow,
ally high)
.

yellow-brown, pink, bluish, greenish.

Transparent to trans-

lucent.

Tests.
tals, its

Infusible.

Insoluble.

basal cleavage,

its

Recognized chiefly by its cryshardness (8) and high specific gravity.

Occurrence. A mineral formed through the agency of fluorinebearing vapors given off during the last stages of the solidification
of igneous rocks.
Found in cavities in rhyolite lavas and granite;
a characteristic mineral in pegmatite veins. Associated with otHer
pneumatolytic minerals, as tourmaline, cassiterite, apatite, fluorite,
Found at times as rolled
etc.; also with quartz, mica, feldspar.
pebbles in stream sands. Notable localities for its occurrence are
the Nerchinsk district in Siberia in large wine-yellow crystals; from
Adunchilon and Mursinka, Siberia, in pale blue crystals; from
various tin localities in Saxony: from Minas Geraes, Brazil; Mino
Province, Japan; San Luis Potosi, Mexico; Pike's Peak and Nathrop, Colorado;

Thomas Range, Utah; Stoneham, Maine.

Name. Derived from the name of an island in the Red Sea

but originally probably applied to some other species.
Use. As a gem stone. A number of other inferior stones are
also frequently called topaz.
The color of the stones varies,
being colorless, wine-yellow, golden brown, pale blue and pink.

The pink

color

is

usually

artificial,

being produced by gently

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

256

The

heating the dark yellow stones it is permanent, however.

value of topaz ranges up to $10 for a one-carat stone.
;

Andalusite.

Aluminium

Composition.

mina

Chiastolite.
silicate,

Al 2 Si0 6 =

Silica 36.8, alu-

63.2.

Orthorhombic. Usually in coarse, nearly

Crystallization.
square prisms. Closely related crystallographically to topaz.
Structure. In crystals; massive.

H.=

Physical Properties.
luster.

7.5.

G.

3.16-3.20.

Vitreous

Often with dark

Flesh-red, reddish brown, olive-green.
colored carbonaceous inclusions forming a
cruciform design, lying parallel to the axial
directions (variety chiastolite or made) (see
Transparent to opaque. At times
Fig. 324).
strongly dichroic, appearing, in transmitted
light, green in one direction and red in another.
Tests.

Cross Section of Chiastohte Crystal,

Infusible.

made

Insoluble.

When

fine

a paste with cobalt

nitrate and intensely
J ignited it turns blue

powder

Fig. 324.

is

into

(aluminium).

Found

in schists.
Often impure and commonly,
Notable localities are in Andalusia, Spain;
the Tyrol; in water-worn pebbles from Minas Geraes, Brazil. In
the United States at Standish, Maine; Westford, Lancaster and
Sterling, Massachusetts; Litchfield and Washington, Connecticut;
Chiastolite is found in Morihan,
Delaware County, Pennsylvania.
Brittany; Bimbowrie, South Australia; and Massachusetts.

Occurrence.

at -least partly altered.

Use.

When

clear

and transparent may serve as a gem

Sillimanite.

stone.

Fibrolite.

An aluminium silicate like andalusite, Al 2 SiO 5 An orthorhombic

mineral, occurring in long slender crystals without distinct terminaPerfect pinations; often in parallel groups; frequently fibrous.
coidal cleavage.
H. = 6-7. G. =3.23. Color hair-brown to pale
Infusible.
Insoluble.
green.
Transparent to translucent.
comparatively rare mineral, found as an accessory constituent of
.

metamorphic rocks;

gneiss, mica-schist, etc.

257

DATOLITE
Cyanite.

Aluminium

Composition.
manite, Al 2 Si0 5

silicate, like

andalusite and

silli-

Triclinic.

Crystallization.
terminations rare.

Usually in long tabular crystals;

In bladed forms.

Structure.

5
Perfect pinacoidal cleavage. H.
parallel to length of crystals, 7 at right angles to this direction.
G. = 3.56-3.66. Vitreous to pearly luster. Color usually blue,
often of darker shade toward the center of the crystal. Also at

Physical Properties.

times white, gray or green.

Tests.

Infusible.

Insoluble.

fragment moistened with

and ignited assumes a blue color (aluminium).

Characterized by its bladed crystals, good cleavage, blue color
and the fact that it is softer than a knife in the direction parallel
cobalt nitrate

to the length of the crystals but harder than a knife in the

direction at right angles to this.

Occurrence. An accessory mineral in gneiss and mica-schist,

Notable
often associated with garnet, staurolite, corundum, etc.
localities for its occurrence are St. Gothard, Switzerland; in the
Tyrol; Litchfield, Connecticut; Chester and Delaware counties,
Pennsylvania; Gaston, Rutherford and Yancey counties, North
Carolina.

Name.

Derived from a Greek word meaning

Datolite.

Composition.

A basic ortho-

of calcium

silicate

Ca(B.OH)Si0 4 =

and boron,

Silica 37.6, bo-

ron trioxide 21.8, lime 35, water

5.6.

Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Habit varied.

Crystals usually
equidimensional in the

nearly
three axial directions and often

complex
325).

in

development

(Fig.

blue.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

258

In crystals.

Structure.

compact.
Physical Properties.

H.

Coarse to

fine granular.

G.

5-5.5.

2.8-3.

Sometimes
Vitreous lus-

Often with faint greenish tinge.

Transparent to translucent, rarely opaque.
Tests.
Fuses at 2-2.5 to a clear glass and colors the flame
ter.

Colorless, white, yellow.

Soluble in hydrochloric acid and yields gelation evaporation. Gives a little water in C. T. Characterized by its glassy luster, pale green color, and its crystals
with many and usually irregularly developed faces.

green (boron).

nous

silica

Occurrence.

mineral of secondary origin, found usually in

and similar rocks. Associated with various
Occurs associated with the
zeolites, with calcite, prehnite, etc.
trap rocks of Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Jersey, particucavities in basalt lavas

Massachusetts, and Bergen

larly at Westfield,

Found

associated with the copper deposits of

Name.

Hill,

New

Jersey.

Lake Superior.

Derived from a Greek work meaning

to divide,

allud-

ing to the granular structure of a massive variety.

rare mineral belonging to the Datolite

Be 3 FeY2 Si20 10

Group

is

gadolinite,

EPIDOTE GROUP.
Zoisite.

HCa Al

Composition.
water 2.0.

Si 3 Oi2

= Silica 39.7,

alumina

33.7, lime

24.6,

Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

without distinct terminations.

Structure.

Prismatic crystals usually

Vertically striated.

In crystals; also massive.

Physical Properties. H. = 6-6.5. G. = 3.25-3.37. Vitreous luster. Color grayish white, green, pink. Transparent to
almost opaque.
Tests.
Fuses at 3-4 with intumescence to a light colored
Yields a little water on intense ignition in C. T.

Occurrence.
phiboles.

slag.

Usually in crystalline schists with one of the amis a rose-pink variety.

Thulite

ALLANITE

259

Epidote.

Ca 2 (A1.0H)(Al,Fe) 2 (Si0 4 )3. Iron occurs in

Composition.
amounts
isomorphous with both the aluminium and calvarying
cium.
Monoclinic. Crystals are often much elonCrystallization.
gated parallel to the ortho-axis with a prominent development
of the faces of the orthodome zone,
giving them a prismatic aspect.
Striated parallel to the ortho-axis.

Terminated usually only at one end

of the ortho-axis and most commonly by the two faces of a pyra-

mid

(Fig.

326).

Structure.

Twinning shown

</

\
\

r
Fig 326
-

at times.

Usually coarse to fine granular.

In crystals.

At

times fibrous.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 6-7. G. =

Vitreous luster. Color usually pistachio-green or

3.37-3.45.

yellowish to blackish green, sometimes gray. Transparent to

opaque.
Transparent varieties often show strong dichroism,

appearing dark green in one direction, and brown in a direction

at right angles to the first.
Tests.
Fuses at 3-4 with intumescence to a black slag.
intense ignition in C. T. yields a little water.

On

Occurrence. Epidote occurs commonly in the crystalline metaIs

morphic rocks; as gneiss, amphibolite and various schists.
formed frequently also during the metamorphism of an impure
Is the product of alteration of such minerals as feldspar,
pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, scapolite, etc. Often associated with
chlorite.
Notable localities for its occurrence in fine crystals are

limestone.

Knappenwand, Unterzulzbachthal, Tyrol; Bourg d'Oisans, Dauphine, the Ala Valley and Traversella, Piedmont; Prince William
Island, Alaska; Haddam, Connecticut; Riverside, California.
Allanite.

mineral similar to epidote in composition, but containing considerable amounts of the cerium metals, cerium, lanthanum and
didymium, and sometimes with smaller amounts of yttrium and
erbium. Composition complex and widely varying. Monoclinic,

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

260

habit of crystals often similar to epidote. Commonly massive and

in embedded grains.
H. = 5.5-6. G. = 3.5-4.2. Submetallic to
pitchy and resinous luster. Brown to pitch-black color. Fuses at
Sometimes magnetic after heating. Gelati2.5 with intumescence.
nizes in acids.
Occurs as a minor accessory constituent in many
igneous rocks. Frequently associated with epidote.

Axinite.

Ca Al4B

with varying amounts of fer2 (Si04) 8

7
Composition.
rous iron, manganese, magnesium and hydrogen isomorphous
with the calcium, and ferric iron with the
;

aluminium.
Triclinic.
Crystallization.
Crystals
usually thin with sharp edges but varied
in habit (Fig. 327).

Structure.

In

crystals.

Massive,

la-

mellar to granular.
Fig. 327.

age.

H.=

Physical Properties. Pinacoidal cleav3.27-3.35.

Vitreous luster.
Color

G.=

6.5-7.

clove-brown, gray, green, yellow. Transparent to opaque.

Tests.
Fusible at 2.5-3 with intumescence. When mixed

with potassium bisulphate and fluorite and the mixture heated

on platinum wire gives a green flame (boron).

Occurrence. Notable localities for its occurrence are Bourg

d'Oisans in Dauphine; St. Just, Cornwall; Obira, Japan; Franklin
Furnace, New Jersey, etc.

Name.

Derived from a Greek word meaning ax,

in allusion

to the wedgelike shape of the crystals.

Prehnite.
Composition.

H Ca Al Si30i =
2

Silica

43.7,

alumina

24.8,

lime 27.1, water 4.4.

Crystallization.

Structure.

Orthorhombic.

Reniform,

stalactitic.

Distinct crystals rare.

In rounded groups of tab-

ular crystals.

Physical Properties. H. = 6-6.5. G. = 2.8-2.95. Vitreous

luster.
Color usually light green, passing into white. Translucent.

CALAMINE

261

Fuses at 2.5 with intumescence to an enamel. Heated

Slowly acted upon by hydrochloric acid

Tests.

in C. T. yields water.

but gelatinizes after simple fusion.

Occurrence. As a mineral of secondary origin lining amygdaloidal

cavities in basalt, etc.
Associated with zeolites, datolite, pectolite,
Occurs in the United States at Farmington, Connecticalcite, etc.
cut; Paterson and Bergen Hill, New Jersey; Somerville, MassaFound also in various
chusetts; Lake Superior copper district.

European

localities.

4.

SUBSILICATES.

HUMITE GROUP.
The

three minerals, humite,

6

[Si0

4] 4 ,

They

Mg [Mg(F,OH)] [Si04]2,
Mg
2

chondro-

7 [Mg(F.OH)] 2
[Si0 4 ]3, and clinohumite,
are closely related chemically and crystallographically.
are characteristically found in crystalline limestones.

^e,-Mg [Mg(F,OH)]

Chondrodite

is

the most

Ilvaite, or lievrite,

common

HCaFe2

in occurrence.

'Fe "Si 2 09,

is

a rare mineral be-

longing in this section.

Calamine.
Composition.
oxide 67.5, water

Silicate of zinc,

(Zn 2 0)Si0 4

= Silica

25, zinc

7.5.

Crystallization. Orthorhombic hemimorphic. Crystals usuThey show prism

ally tabular parallel to the brachypinacoid.
;

and are terminated above usually by a

of
macrodomes and brachydomes and base, and below by a pyramid

faces

combination
(Fig. 328).

Structure. Usually in crystal groups with

the individuals attached at their lower (pyramidal) ends and lying with their brachypinacoid
in common.
Crystals often divergent,

faces

giving rounded groups with slight reentrant

notches between the individual crystals, forming knuckle or

coxcomb masses.

massive and granular.

Also mammillary,

Fig. 328.

stalactitic,

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

262

Physical Properties. Prismatic cleavage. H. = 4.5-5. G.=

Vitreous luster. Color white, sometimes with faint
3.4-3.5.
bluish or greenish shade; also yellow to brown.
Transparent
to translucent.
Strongly pyroelectric.
Tests.
Fusible with difficulty at 5. Soluble in hydrochloric

Fused on
acid and yields gelatinous silica on evaporation.
charcoal with sodium carbonate gives a nonvolatile coating of
Gives water in
zinc oxide (yellow when hot, white when cold).
C. T.

Recognized usually by the characteristic grouping of its

but may be obscure and to be determined only by above

crystals,
tests.

Occurrence. A mineral of secondary origin, found in the oxidized

portion of zinc deposits, associated with smithsonite, sphalerite,
Usually with limestone rocks.
cerussite, anglesite, galena, etc.
Occurs at Altenberg and Moresnet, Belgium; Aix-la-Chapelle, Gerin Carinthia; Hungary; Cumberland, England; Sterling
near Ogdensburg, New Jersey; Friedensville, Pennsylvania;
Wythe County, Virginia; with the zinc deposits of southwestern

many;
Hill,

Missouri.

Name.
by

mineral
tric

Supposed to be derived from cadmia, a name given

the ancients to the silicate and carbonate of zinc.

is

called

by English mineralogists hemimorphite

The

or elec-

calamine.

Use.

An

ore of zinc.

Tourmaline.
Composition. A complex silicate of boron and aluminium, conamounts of ferrous iron, magnesium, magnanese,
calcium, sodium, potassium, lithium, hydroxyl and fluorine.

taining varying

Crystallization.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral

hemimorphic.

Crystals usually prismatic, vertically striated. A triangular

prism, with three faces, prominent, which with the tendency of

the prism faces to be vertically striated and to round into each

other gives the crystals usually a cross section like a spherical
triangle (Fig. 329).

Crystals are

commonly terminated by base

and low positive and negative rhombohedrons

scalenohedrons are present.

When

sometimes

the crystals are doubly ter-

TOURMALINE

263

minated they usually show different forms at the opposite ends

(hemimorphism) (Figs. 330 and 331).

of the vertical axis

Fig. 329.

Structure.

Fig. 330.

Usually in crystals.

Fig. 331.

Sometimes massive com-

pact; also coarse to fine columnar, either radiating or parallel.

Vitreous to resinous luster.
Physical Properties.
Color
varied, depending

much

upon the composition.

Common

tourmaline

More rarely light

black, sometimes brown.
colored in fine shades of red, pink, green, blue, yellow, etc.
Rarely white or colorless.
single crystal may show several
with

iron

is

different colors either arranged in concentric bands about the

center of the crystal or in transverse layers along its length.
i.e., when cooling from being heated to
develops positive electricity at one end of the
crystal and negative at the other, which enables the crystal to
attract and hold bits of paper, etc.
Strongly dichroic; i.e., light

Strongly pyroelectric

about 100 C.

it

traversing the crystal in one direction may be of quite a different

color or shade of color from that traversing the crystal in a

direction at right angles to the first. H.

2.98-3.2.
7-7.5; G.
Tests.
To be recognized usually by the characteristic rounded
triangular cross section of the crystals; absence of prismatic

cleavage, coal-like fracture of black variety.

Tourmaline is one of the most common and characminerals formed by pneumatolytic action. That is, it is a
mineral that has been formed at high temperatures and pressures
through the agency of vapors carrying boron, fluorine, etc. It is
found, therefore, commonly as an accessory mineral in pegmatite

Occurrence.

teristic

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

264

Associated with
veins, or dikes, occurring with granite intrusions.
the ordinary minerals of granite pegmatite, orthoclase, albite, quartz
and muscovite; also with lepidolite, beryl, apatite, fluorite, etc.
Found also as an accessory mineral in metamorphic rocks, such as
gneisses, schists

and

crystalline limestones.
is of widespread occurrence as

The black tourmaline

an accessory
mineral in metamorphic rocks. The light colored gem varieties
Famous localities for the occurare found in the pegmatite dikes.
rence of the gem tourmalines are the island of Elba; in the state of
Minas Geraes, Brazil; Ural Mountains near Ekaterinburg; Madagascar; Paris and Auburn, Maine; Haddam Neck, Connecticut; Mesa
Grande, Pala, Rincon and Ramona in San Diego County, California.

Name.

The name

tourmaline comes from turamali, a

name

given to the early gems from Ceylon.

Use. Tourmaline forms one of the most beautiful of the semiprecious

gem

stones.

The

color of the stones varies, the princi-

pal shades being olive-green, pink to red and blue. Sometimes

a stone is so cut as to show different colors in different parts. The
green-colored stones are usually known by the mineral name,

tourmaline, or as Brazilian emeralds. The red or pink stones

are known as rubellite, while the rarer dark blue stones are called
indicolite.

Staurolite.

Composition.
Si 2

ferrous iron-aluminium silicate,

HAl 6 Fe-

13 .

Orthorhombic. Habit prismatic, showing

Crystallization.
usually a combination of prism with large angle (130), brachy-

Fig. 332.

Fig. 334.

Fig. 333.

pinacoid, base and macrodome (Fig. 332).

very common; of two types,

(1)

in

Cruciform twins

which the two individuals

APOPHYLLITE
cross at nearly 90

60

(Fig. 334).

265

(Fig. 333), (2) in which they cross at nearly

Sometimes both types are combined in one

crystal.

Structure. Usually in crystals.

Physical Properties. H. = 7-7.5. G. = 3.65-3.75. Resinous to vitreous luster, for pure and fresh material; often dull to

earthy
black.

when

Tests.

Insoluble.

Infusible.

and

characteristic crystals

Occurrence.
in

Staurolite

crystalline

On

intense ignition in C. T.

Often very impure.

yields a little water.

rocks;

Color red-brown to brownish

altered or impure.
Translucent to opaque.

Recognized by

its

twins.
is

schists,

an accessory mineral in metamorphic

slates, and sometimes in gneisses.

Often associated with garnet, cyanite, sillimanite, tourmaline.

Notable localities for its occurrence are Monte Campini, Switzerland;
in Brittany;

and Lisbon,

Minas Geraes, Brazil; Windham, Maine; Francoriia

Hampshire; Chesterfield, Massachusetts; Fannin

New

County, Georgia.

Name.

Derived from a Greek word meaning

cross, in allusion

to its cruciform twins.

Use.

Occasionally a transparent stone from Brazil

is

cut as a

gem.

HYDROUS

SILICATES.

ZEOLITE DIVISION.

INTRODUCTORY SUBDIVISION.
Apophyllite.

Composition.
small

amount

HyKCa/SiOs^.^^O.

Usually contains a

of fluorine.

Crystallization.

Tetragonal.

Usually shows a combination

prism of second order, pyramid of first and basal plane (Figs.

335 and 336). Small faces of a ditetragonal prism sometimes
of

Prism faces show vertical striations and

Crysluster, while base shows pearly luster.
resemble an isometric combination of cube and octa-

observed (Fig. 337).

have a vitreous
tals

may

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

266

hedron, but are shown to be tetragonal by difference

between faces of prism and base.

Fig. 336.

Fig. 335.

in luster

Fig. 337.

In crystals; also massive and lamellar.

Structure.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 4.5-5.

G. = 2.3-3.4. Luster of base pearly, other faces vitreous.
Color usually colorless, white or grayish; may show pale shades
of

yellow,

green,

rose.

Usually

transparent,

rarely

nearly

opaque.
Tests.

Fuses easily with swelling to a white vesicular enamel.

Colors the flame pale violet (potassium). Yields 16 per cent

of water in C. T.
Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with
separation of
tion gives

silica

little

but without the formation of a

or no precipitate with

jelly.

ammonia but

Solu-

gives an

abundant white precipitate with ammonium carbonate (calcium

carbonate)
Recognized usually by its crystals, color, luster and
.

basal cleavage.

Occurrence.
cavities in basalt
lites,

with

Occurs commonly as a secondary mineral lining

and related rocks. Associated with various zeo-

calcite, datolite, pectolite, etc.

Found

in fine crystals at

Bergen Hill, New Jersey; Cliff Mine, Lake Superior copper district;
Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado; mercury mines, New Almaden, California; Nova Scotia; Guanjuato, Mexico; near Bombay,
India; Andreasberg, Harz Mountains; Faroer Islands; Iceland;
Greenland, etc.

Name.

Apophyllite,

to get leaves,

because of

named from two Greek words meaning

tendency to exfoliate when ignited.

its

HARMOTONE

267

ZEOLITES.
The zeolites form a large family of hydrous silicates which
show close similarities in composition and in their associations
and mode of occurrence. They are silicates of aluminium with
sodium and calcium as the important bases. They average
from 3.5 to 5.5 in hardness and from 2 to 2.4 in specific gravity.
Many of them fuse readily with marked intumescence, hence the
name zeolite, from two Greek words meaning to boil and stone.
They

are secondary minerals found characteristically in cavities

in basic igneous rocks.

and veins

Heulandite.

4 CaAl 2 (SiO3)6.3H 2 O.
Monoclinic, but crystals
Composition,
often simulate orthorhombic symmetry.
Clinopinacoid prominent,
having often a diamond shape. Perfect cleavage parallel to clino=
=
G.
2.15-2.2.
Vitreous luster, except on
H.
3.5-4.
pinacoid.
Color white, yellow, red. Transclinopinacoid, which is pearly.
parent to almost opaque. Fusible (3) with intumescence. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of silica. Water in C. T.
A mineral of secondary origin found in cavities of basic igneous
rocks associated with other zeolites, calcite, etc. Found in notable
quality in Iceland; the Faroer Islands; British India; Nova Scotia.

Phillipsite.

(K2 ,Ca)Al 2 Si 4 Oi 2 .4H 2 O.

Monoclinic.
Crystals
Composition,
are uniformly penetration twins but often appearing to be tetragonal
or orthorhombic in form.
Cleavage parallel to base and clinopinaH. = 4-4.5. G. = 2.2. Vitreous luster. White or reddish
coid.
in color.
Translucent to opaque. Fuses at 3 to a white enamel.
Water in C. T.
Gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid.
secondary
mineral found in cavities of igneous rocks associated with other

zeolites, etc.

Harmotone.

A barium zeolite having the composition (K2 ,Ba)Al2Si4Oi2.3H2 O.

Monoclinic. Crystals are uniformly cruciform penetration twins.
H. = 4.5. G. = 2.4Perfect cleavage parallel to clinopinacoid.
2.5.
Fuses at
Vitreous luster. Colorless or white. Translucent.
3.
Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of silica.
Addition of sulphuric acid to hydrochloric acid solution gives a

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

268

white precipitate of barium sulphate. Water in C. T. A mineral of

secondary origin, occurring in cavities of basic igneous rocks, associated with other zeolites, calcite, etc.

Stilbite.

Composition.
Crystallization.

Desmine.

(Na2,Ca)Al 2 Si 6 Oi6.6H 2 0.
Monoclinic. Uniformly in cruciform twins.

Commonly tabular

parallel to clinopinacoid.

Crys-

tals usually in sheaflike aggregates (Fig. 338).

Structure.

In crystal groups, divergent or radi-

ated.

Physical Properties.

Perfect cleavage parallel

H. = 3.5-4. G. = 2.1-2.2. Vitpearly on clinopinacoid. Color white,

to clinopinacoid.

reous luster;

Translucent.
yellow, brown, red.
Tests.
Fuses with intumescence at 3.

Decom-

posed by hydrochloric acid with separation of silica

but without the formation of a jelly. Water in
Fig. 338.

luster

Q ,p Characterized chiefly by its cleavage, pearly

on the cleavage face and common sheaflike groups of

crystals.

Occurrence.

A mineral of secondary origin found in amygdaloidal

Found associated with other

related rocks.
Notable localities for its occurrence are Poonah, India; IsleofSkye; Faroer Islands; Kilpatrick, Scotland; Icecavities in basalts

and

zeolites, calcite, etc.

land;

Nova

Name.

Scotia.

Derived from a Greek word meaning

luster.

Laumontite.

A zeolite with composition H4CaAl2 Si4Oi4.2H2O. Monoclinic.

In prismatic crystals with oblique terminations; columnar. Cleavage parallel to prism and clinopinacoid. H. = 3.5-4. G. = 2.252.35.
Vitreous to pearly luster. Color white or gray. Alters on
exposure, becoming opaque
inizes in acids.

Water

and pulverulent. Fusible (2.5). GelatFound as a mineral of secondary

in C. T.

origin in cavities of basic igneous rocks, associated with other zeolites,

etc.

ANALCITE

269

Chabazite.
Composition. Usually corresponds to (Ca,Na 2 )Al 2 Si40i2.6H 2 O
but different analyses show considerable variation from this
formula, so that the composition
is

the simple rhombohedron

show several

is still

uncertain.

Common

Hexagonal-rhombohedral.

Crystallization.

having nearly cubic angles.

form

May

rhombo-

different

hedrons (Fig. 339).

r,

Often

in

penetration twins.
Structure.
Usually in crystals.

H. =
Properties.
Vitreous

Physical

G.=

4-5.

2.05-2.15.

Color

luster.

flesh-red.

white,

yellow,

Transparent to transFl

lucent.

Tests.

Fuses with swelling at

339

Decomposed by hydro-

3.

chloric acid with the separation of silica but without the for-

mation of a jelly. Solution after filtering off silica gives precipitate of aluminium hydroxide with ammonia, and in filtrate

ammonium
nate.

carbonate gives white precipitate of calcium carbomuch water in C. T. Recognized usually by its

Gives

crystals.

Occurrence.

A mineral

of secondary origin

found usually with

Notable
zeolites, lining amygdaloidal cavities in basalt.
localities for its occurrence are the Faroer Islands; Greenland and

other

Iceland; the Giant's Causeway, Ireland; at Aussig, Bohemia; in

Nova

Scotia, etc.

Name.

Chabazite is derived from a Greek word which was

for a stone.

an ancient name

Gmelintie, (Na 2 ,Ca)Al 2 Si4 Oi2.6H 2 0,

but rarer in occurrence.

is

closely related to chaba-

zite

Analcite.

Composition.
NaAlSi 2 6 .H 2 =
8.2.

Note

sodium-aluminium metasilicate,
alumina 23.2, soda 14.1, water
composition to leucite, KAlSi 2 Oe.

Hydrous

Silica 54.5,

similarity in

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

270

Crystallization.

Isometric.

Usually in trapezohedrons (Fig.

Cubes with trapezohedral truncations

340).

also

known

(Fig.

341).

Fig. 340.

Fig. 341.

Structure. Usually in crystals, also massive granular.

Physical Properties. H. = 5-5.5. G. = 2.27. Vitreous luster.

Colorless or white.

Transparent to nearly opaque.

Fusible at 3.5, becoming first opaque and then a clear
Colors the flame yellow (sodium). Decomposed by hy-

Tests.
glass.

drochloric acid with the separation of silica without the formaGives water in C. T. Usually recognized by its

tion of a jelly.
crystals

and

its

vitreous luster.

Occurrence.

Commonly a secondary mineral, formed by the

action of hot circulating waters, and is to be found deposited in the
cavities of igneous and especially volcanic rocks.
Associated with
Fine crystals
calcite, and various zeolites and related minerals.
found at Bergen Hill, New Jersey; in the Lake Superior copper
district; at Table Mountain, near Golden, Colorado; at Cape
Blomidon, Nova Scotia; in the Cyclopean Islands near Sicily; in
the Fassathal, Tyrol; on the Faroer Islands; in Iceland.

Name.
to its

weak

Derived from a Greek word meaning weak, in allusion

electric power when heated or rubbed.
Natrolite.

Composition.

Na Al Si30io.2H
2

0.

zeolite.

Orthorhombic.
Crystallization.
Crystals usually slender
Prism zone vertically striated. Someprismatic, often acicular.
times terminated by low pyramid. Crystals often appear to
be tetragonal in symmetry. Sometimes in cruciform twins.

MICA GROUP

Usually in radiating crystal groups (see Fig. C,

Structure.
pi. II)

271

also fibrous, massive, granular or compact.

Physical Properties. Perfect prismatic cleavage.

G. = 2.25. Vitreous luster. Colorless or white.
tinted yellow to red.

H. = 5-5.5.
Sometimes

Transparent to translucent.

Easily fusible (2.5) to a clear, transparent glass giving

a yellow (sodium) flame. Water in C. T. Soluble in hydrochloric acid and gelatinizes upon evaporation.
Recognized
Tests.

chiefly

by

its

radiating crystals.

mineral of secondary origin, found lining amygdaAssociated with other zeolites, calcite,
loidal cavities in basalt, etc.
etc.
Notable localities for its occurrence are Aussig and Teplitz,

Occurrence.

Bohemia; Puy de Dome, France; Fassathal, Tyrol; Kapnik, Hungary; in various places in Nova Scotia; Bergen Hill, New Jersey;
copper district, Lake Superior.
Scolecite.

Monoclinic. In
zeolite with composition CaAl2 Si3Oio.3H 2 O.
In radiating groups. Someslender prismatic, twinned crystals.
H. = 5-5.5. G. = 2.16-2.4.
Prismatic cleavage.
times fibrous.
Vitreous luster; silky when fibrous. Colorless or white. Transparent to almost opaque. Fuses at 2.5 to a voluminous frothy slag.

Water in C. T. A mineral of secondary origin,

Gelatinizes in acids.
found lining cavities in basic igneous rocks, associated with other
zeolites, etc.

Thomsonite.

A zeolite, having the composition (Na2 Ca)Al2 (SiO 4 ) 2 .2|H2O.

Orthorhombic but distinct crystals rare. Commonly columnar
with radiated structure. Perfect pinacoidal cleavage. H. = 5-5.5.
G. = 2.3-2.4. Vitreous luster. Colorless, white, gray. Transparent
Fuses with intumescence at 2-2.5. Soluble and
to translucent.
gelatinizes in acids. Much water in C. T. Occurs in amygdaloidal
cavities in basalt, etc., associated with other zeolites.

MICA DIVISION.
MICA GROUP.
series of complex silicates of aluminium with
also often magnesium, ferrous iron,
and
hydrogen,
potassium
and in some varieties, sodium, lithium, ferric iron. More rarely
manganese, chromium, barium, fluorine and titanium are present

The micas form a

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

272

The composition of many of the micas is

not definitely understood and the formulas assigned to them
in small amounts.

are only approximate.

They

crystallize in the monoclinic

system but with an axial

their monoclinic symmetry is not clearly seen. The crystals are usually tabular with
prominent basal planes, and have either a diamond- or hexagonalshaped outline with angles of 60 and 120. The crystals, as a

inclination of practically

90, so that

appear to be either orthorhombic or hexagonal

symmetry. They are all characterized by a very perfect

rule, therefore,

in their

basal cleavage.

They form an isomorphous series, and various gradations

between the different members occur. Their isomorphism is
further indicated by two members of the group frequently
crystallizing together, with a parallel position, in the same
crystal plate.

Biotite occurs crystallizing in

this

way with

muscovite, and muscovite with lepidolite, etc.

The important members of the group follow:
Muscovite,

H KAl3(Si0
2

4) 3 .

Biotite,

KLi[A1.2(OH,F)]Al(Si0 3 ) 3
(H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2 Al 2 (SiO 4 )3.

Phlogopite,

H KMg Al(SiO

Lepidolite,

4) 3 ?

Lepidomelane, (H,K) 2 Fe 3 (Fe, Al) 4 (Si0 4 ) 5 ?

Muscovite.

Common

Mica.

Composition. H 2 KAl 3 (Si0 4 ) 3 Contains also frequently small

amounts of ferrous and ferric iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium,
.

lithium, fluorine, titanium, etc.

Crystallization.

Monoclinic with axial angle nearly 90.

The presOccurs in tabular crystals with prominent base.

ence of prism faces having angles of 60 and 120 with each
other gives the plates a diamond-shaped outline, making them
simulate orthorhombic symmetry. If the clinopinacoid faces
are also present, the crystals become hexagonal in outline with

apparently hexagonal symmetry.

by

horizontal striations

The prism faces

and frequently

taper.

are roughened

MUSCOVITE

273

Structure. Foliated in large to small sheets;- in scales which

Disare sometimes aggregated into plumose or globular forms.
tinct crystals comparatively rare.

Physical Properties. Extremely perfect cleavage parallel to

base, allowing the mineral to be split into excessively thin sheets.
H. = 2-2.5. G. = 2.76-3. VitreFolia flexible and elastic.
ous to silky or pearly luster. Transparent and almost colorless
In thicker blocks, opaque with light shades of
brown and green. May be yellow to white. Some crystals are

in thin sheets.

translucent

opaque

when viewed perpendicular

to the prism zone but

in a direction perpendicular to the base.

Fusible at 4.5-5. Unattacked by boiling hydroCharacterized by its micaceous

or sulphuric acids.
structure and light color. Told from phlogopite by its not being
decomposed in sulphuric acid and from lepidolite by not giving
Tests.

chloric

a crimson flame B. B.

Occurrence.

widespread and very

common rock-making min-

in such igneous rocks as granite and syenite.

Especially characteristic of pegmatite veins, and found lining cavities
in granites, where it has evidently been formed by the action of
mineralizing vapors during the last stages of the formation of the

Found

eral.

Muscovite is chiefly characteristic of the deep-seated igneous

and is not found in the recent eruptive rocks. Also very
common in metamorphic rocks, as gneiss and schist, forming the
In some schistose rocks
chief constituent in certain mica-schists.
it occurs in the form of fibrous aggregates of minute scales having a
silky luster, but which do not show so plainly the characters of the
mineral. This variety is known as sericite, and is usually the prod-

rock.

rocks,

Muscovite also originates, as the

alteration product of several other minerals, as topaz, cyanite,
spodumene, adalusite, scapolite, etc. Finite is a name given to the
micaceous alteration product of various minerals, and which corresponds in composition more or less closely to muscovite.
In the pegmatite veins, muscovite occurs associated with quartz
uct of alteration of feldspar.

and
It is

etc.
feldspar, with tourmaline, beryl, garnet, apatite, fluorite,
found often in these veins in large blocks, which are at times

several feet across.

Muscovite

is

found

in the

United States in commercial deposits

Appalachian and Rocky Mountain regions. The

most productive pegmatite veins occur in North Carolina, mostly
in Mitchell, Yancey, Haywood, Jackson and Macon counties, and
chiefly in the

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

274
in the

Black Hills

of

South Dakota.

Of

less

importance are the

Alabama and Virginia. Muscovite has been

mined in New Hampshire, Maine and Connecticut. Large deposits
are found in Canada in the township of Grenville, east of Ottawa,
and in a district to the east of Quebec. Large and important
deposits in Colorado,

deposits occur in India.

Name.

Muscovite was so called from the popular

name

of the

mineral, Muscovy-glass, because of its use as a substitute for

Mica was probably derived from the Latin
glass in Russia.
micare,

Use.
ture of

meaning to shine.
Used chiefly as an insulating material in the manufacelectrical apparatus.
Used as a transparent material

(isinglass) for stove doors, lanterns, etc.

Scrap mica, or the
waste material in the manufacture of sheet mica, is used in many
ways, as in the manufacture of wall papers to give them a shiny
luster; as a lubricant when mixed with oils; as a nonconductor

of heat

and as a

fireproofing material.

Lepidolite.
Lithia mica, KLi[A1.2(OH.F)]Al(SiO 8 ) 3 .
Monoclinic. Crystals usually in small
Crystallization.

Composition.

plates or prisms with hexagonal outline.

Structure. Commonly in coarse- to fine-grained scaly aggregates.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 2.5-4.

G. = 2.8. Pearly luster. Color pink and lilac to grayish white.
Translucent.
Tests.
Easily fusible (2), giving a crimson flame (lithium).
Insoluble

in

acids.

Characterized

chiefly

by

its

micaceous

structure and lilac to pink color.

Occurrence.

comparatively rare mineral, found in pegmatite

and green tourmaline, cassiterite,
amblygonite, spodumene, etc. Often intergrown with muscovite in
parallel position. Notable localities for its occurrence are at Roznau,
Moravia; St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall; western Maine at Hebron,

veins, usually associated with pink

Auburn, Norway, Paris, Rumford; Chesterfield, Massachusetts; San

Diego County, California.

PHLOOOPITE
Name.

Derived from a Greek word meaning

Use.

275
scale.

source of lithium compounds.

Biotite.

(H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2Al 2 (Si04)3.

Composition.
Crystallization.

In tabular or short prismatic

Monoclinic.

crystals with prominent basal planes.

Crystals rare, frequently

pseudorhombohedral.
Structure. Usually in irregular foliated masses; often in
seminated scales or in scaly aggregates.
Perfect basal cleavage.

Physical Properties.

dis-

Folia flexible

H. = 2.5-3. G. = 2.95-3. Splendent luster. Color

usually dark green and brown to black. More rarely lighter
Thin sheets usually have a smoky color (differing from
yellow.

and

elastic.

the almost colorless muscovite).

Tests.
Difficultly fusible at 5.
acid.

ing a milky solution.

Unattacked by hydrochloric

boiling concentrated sulphuric acid, giv-

Decomposed by

Characterized by

its

micaceous structure,

cleavage and dark color.

An important and widely distributed rock-making

common as muscovite. Occurs in igneous rocks,

Occurrence.

mineral, but not as

especially those in which feldspar is prominent, such as granite and

Found also in many felsite lavas and porphyries. Less
common in the ferromagnesium rocks. Is also present in some

syenite.

metamorphosed rocks, as gneiss

in the lavas of Vesuvius.

and

schist.

Occurs in

fine crystals

Phlogopite.

Composition. A magnesium mica, near biotite, but containing no iron, H 2 KMg3Al(Si0 4 )3(?).
Usually contains about 3 per
cent of fluorine.
Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

in tapering prismatic crystals.

Usually in six-sided plates or

Crystals frequently large and

coarse.

Structure.

In crystals or foliated masses.

Physical Properties.
ble

and

elastic.

H.

Perfect basal cleavage.

2.5-3.

G.

2.86.

Folia flexi-

Luster vitreous to

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

276

Color yellowish brown, green, white, often with copperfrom the cleavage surface. Transparent in thin
sheets to opaque in the mass.
pearly.

like reflections

Tests.

Fusible at 4.5-5.

Insoluble

in hydrochloric

acid.

boiling concentrated sulphuric acid, giving a

Decomposed by

Characterized by its micaceous structure, cleavage and yellowish brown color. Told from muscovite by its

milky solution.

decomposition in sulphuric acid and from biotite by its lighter

color.
But it is impossible to draw a sharp distinction between
biotite

and phlogopite.

Occurrence. Occurs as a product of metamorphism in crystalline

magnesium limestones or dolomitic marbles. Rarely found in igneous rocks. Notable localities are in Finland; Sweden; CampoIn North America, found chiefly
longo, Switzerland; Ceylon, etc.
in Jefferson and St. Lawrence counties, New York; at North and
South Burgess, Ontario, and in various localities in Quebec, Canada.

Named from

Name.

a Greek word meaning

firelike, in allu-

sion to its color.

Same

Use.

as for muscovite.

Lepidomelane.

A mica, that may be regarded as a variety of biotite,

characterized

large amount of ferric iron that it contains, (H,K) 2 Fe 3 (Fe,Al) 4Monoclinic. In small hexagonal-shaped tables, or as
(SiO^sC?).
an aggregate of minute scales. Perfect basal cleavage. H. = 3.

by the

G.

Adamantine to pearly luster. Color black to greenOpaque or translucent in very thin laminae. Fuses at
a magnetic globule. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid.

3-3.2.

ish black.

4.5-5 to

comparatively rare mineral, found chiefly in pegmatitic granites

and

syenites.

CLINTONITE GROUP.
The minerals

of this group are rare species that

the true micas and the chlorites.

lie

between

They resemble the micas

in

crystal forms, cleavage, etc., but differ physically in that their

folia are brittle, and chemically in that they are basic in character.
is

The only

margarite.

species in the group that warrants description

CLINOCHLORE

277

Margarite.

A micaceous

mineral with the composition H-jCaAhSiaO^. Monoclinic but seldom in distinct crystals.
Usually in foliated aggregates.
Perfect basal cleavage.
H. = 3.5-4.5 (harder than the true micas).
G. = 3.05. Luster vitreous to pearly. Color pink, white and gray.
Translucent. Folia somewhat brittle. Fuses at 4-4.5.
Unattacked by acids. Occurs usually with corundum and apparently as
one of its alteration products. Found in this way with the emery
deposits of Asia Minor; on the islands of the Greek archipelago; at
Chester, Massachusetts; Chester County, Pennsylvania; with co-

rundum

deposits in

North Carolina,

etc.

CHLORITE GROUP.

somewhat

ill-defined

group of closely related micaceous

known as the Chlorite Group or as the chlorites.

They are so named on account of the characteristic green color
that they show. They are silicates of aluminium with magneminerals

is

sium, ferrous iron and hydroxyl. Ferric iron may replace the
aluminium in small amount. Chromium and manganese may
occur.
Calcium and the alkalies, which are characteristic of

the micas proper, are practically absent.

The composition
of these minerals is not fully understood.
Their crystal forms
are similar to those of the micas and they show a perfect basal
Their laminae, however, are tough and inelastic.
cleavage.

Clinochlore

is

the most

common member

Clinochlore.

Composition.

H Mg5Al Si Oi8.
8

of the group.

Penninite.
See above.

Monoclinic. In six-sided tabular crystals,

Crystallization.
with prominent basal planes. Similar in habit to the crystals
of the

mica group, but distinct crystals rare. Penninite is

in symmetry, otherwise it is identical with

pseudorhombohedral
clinochlore.

Structure.

minute

scales;

Usually foliated massive or in aggregates of

in finely disseminated particles;

earthy.

Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. Folia flexible

but not elastic. H. = 2-2.5. G. = 2.65-2.75. Vitreous to

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

278

Color green of various shades. Rarely pale

pearly luster.
green, yellow, white, rose-red.
Transparent to opaque.
Tests.
Unattacked by hydroDifficultly fusible, 5-5.5.
chloric acid.
Decomposed by boiling concentrated sulphuric
Characterized by its green color,
acid, giving a milky solution.
micaceous structure and cleavage and by the fact that the folia
are not elastic.

Occurrence. A common and widespread mineral, always of secondary origin. It results from the alteration of silicates containing
aluminium, ferrous iron and magnesium, such as pyroxene, amphiTo be found where rocks,
bole, biotite, garnet, vesuvianite, etc.
containing such minerals, are undergoing metamorphic change.
The green color of many igneous rocks is due to the chlorite into
which the ferromagnesian silicates have altered. The green color of
many schists and slates is due to finely disseminated particles of the
mineral.

Name.

Chlorite

in allusion to the

derived from a Greek word meaning green,

color of the mineral.

is

common

Serpentine.
Composition.

A magnesium silicate, H Mg3Si

4

magnesia 43.0, water 12.9.

present in small amount.
Crystallization.

Monoclinic (optically).

only in pseudomorphic crystals.

Structure. Often in delicate

from each other

(see

Fig.

= Silica 44. 1
may be
,

Ferrous iron and nickel

D,

fibers,

pi.

II).

Occurs, however,

which can be separated

Usually massive, but

microscopically fibrous and felted.

Physical Properties. H. = 2.5-5, usually 4. G. = 2.5-2.65.

Luster greasy, waxlike in the massive varieties, silky when
Color olive to blackish green, yellowish green, white.
fibrous.
Color often variegated, showing mottling in lighter and darker
Translucent to opaque.

shades of green.

Infusible. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the

Tests.
separation of silica but without the formation of a jelly. Filtered solution, after being oxidized with nitric acid and having

any

iron precipitated

by ammonium hydroxide, and the absence

SERPENTINE
of calcium

proved by addition of

ammonium

279
oxalate, gives a

ammonium-magnesium phosphate with sodium

phosphate. Water in C. T. Recognized by its variegated green
color and its greasy luster or by its fibrous structure.

precipitate of

In

Varieties.

Crystals.

after various

magnesian

amphibole.
Precious

Serpentine.

dark green

color.

Occurs in crystals as pseudomorphs

silicates, principally chrysolite,

pyroxene,

Massive, translucent, of light to

Often mixed with white marble and shows

beautiful variegated coloring.

Frequently called verd antique

marble.

Ordinary Serpentine.

Massive, opaque, of various shades of

green.
Chrysotile.

found

The

fibrous asbestiform variety,

in veins traversing the

asbestos of

commerce

for the

which

massive serpentine.

most

is

This

to be
is

the

part.

Occurrence. A common mineral and widely distributed. Always

as an alteration product of some magnesian silicate, especially chrysoFrequently associated with
lite, also pyroxene, amphibole, etc.
magnesite, chrysolite, chromite, etc. Found in both igneous and
metamorphic rocks, sometimes in disseminated particles, sometimes
in such quantity as to make up practically the entire rock-mass.
Precious serpentine is found at Falun and Gulsjo, Sweden; Isle of

Man; Cornwall, etc. The fibrous variety, chrysotile, comes from the
Province of Quebec, Canada, just north of the Vermont line; from
Vermont; New York; New Jersey; Grand Canyon, Arizona, etc.

Name.

The name

refers to the green serpentlike cloudings

of the massive variety.

Use.

The

variety chrysotile

is

the chief source of asbestos.

same purposes.
uses of asbestos depend upon its fibrous, flexible structure,
which allows it to be woven into cloth, felt, etc., and upon

Fibrous amphibole (which see)

is

also used for the

The

incombustibility and slow conductivity of heat. Asbestos

products, therefore, are used for fireproofing and as an insulating
material against heat and electricity. The massive mineral is
its

often used as an ornamental stone

as building material.

and may at times be valuable

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

280

Genthite.

Garnierite.

Nickel silicates of uncertain composition. Genthite contains magnesium, Ni 2 Mg2Si3Oio.6H 2 O(?) Garnierite, 2 NiSiO 4 (?)
Amorphous,
earthy to slightly botryoidal structure. As incrustations. H. =
3-4.
G. = 2.2-2.8. Earthy and dull luster. Color apple-green

to white.
Infusible.
Difficultly decomposed by hydrochloric acid,
giving separated silica. In O. F. color the borax bead brown. In
C. T. blacken and give water. Genthite found with chromite at
Texas, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Garnierite occurs in considerable amount, associated with serpentine and chromite, near
Noumea, New Caledonia, and serves as an important ore of nickel.

Talc.

Composition.

Steatite.

magnesium

63.5, magnesia 31.7, water

Soapstone.
silicate,

H Mg (Si0
2

3 )4

Silica

4.8.

Monoclinic. Crystals rare. Usually tabuwith rhombic or hexagonal outline.

Structure. Foliated massive; sometimes in radiating foliated
groups. Also compact.
Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. Thin folia
somewhat flexible but not elastic. Sectile. H. = 1 (will make
a mark on cloth). G. = 2.8. Pearly to greasy luster. Color
Crystallization.

lar

apple-green, gray, white; in soapstone often dark gray or green.

Translucent to opaque.

Greasy

feel.

Unattacked by acids. Charmicaceous structure and cleavage, by its softness

and greasy feel. To be distinguished from pyrophyllite by
moistening a fragment with cobalt nitrate and heating intensely;
Tests.

Difficultly fusible (5).

acterized

talc will

by

its

assume a pale

Varieties.

a greasy

violet color, pyrophyllite a blue color.

Foliated Talc.

Light green or white, foliated, with

feel.

Steatite or Soapstone.

crystalline structure.

Massive, with fine granular to cryptoto dark green colors; often impure,

Gray

through the presence of such minerals as

chlorite, tremolite,

mica, etc.

Pseudomorphous. Is frequently pseudomorphous after such

minerals as enstatite, pyroxene, amphibole, chrysolite, etc.

KAOLIN

281

Occurrence. Talc is a mineral of secondary origin formed by

the alteration of magnesium silicates, such as chrysolite, enstatite,
pyroxene, amphibole, etc. Found at times in the igneous rocks,
because of the alteration of such silicates, especially in peridotites
and pyroxenites. Most characteristically found, however, in the
metamorphic rocks, where it may form as soapstone, practically the
entire rock-mass, or occur as a prominent constituent in the schistose
In the United States, talc or soapstone
quarries are to be found chiefly along the line of the Appalachian
Mountains, the mineral being produced in Vermont, Massachusetts,

rocks, as in talc-schist.

Rhode

Island,

New

York,

New

Jersey, Pennsylvania,

Maryland,

Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia.

Important deposits are
located in St. Lawrence County, New York, where the talc occurs

form of beds of schist interstratified with limestones. It is

associated here with tremolite and enstatite, from masses of which
it has evidently been derived.
Large deposits of soapstone occur in
Virginia in a narrow belt running from Nelson County northeast
into Albemarle County.
It occurs here in sheets sometimes 100 or
in the

feet in thickness.
There is a long series of talc and soapstone
deposits in Vermont, located along the east side of the Green Mountains.
Talc has been mined in considerable quantity in Swain
County, North Carolina.

more

Use.

wash

In the form of slabs, soapstone

is

used extensively for

tubs, sinks, table tops, electrical switchboards, hearth-

stones, furnace linings, etc.

An

especially

compact variety

is

used for the tips of gas burners, for tailors' chalk, slate pencils,
by the Chinese for carvings, etc. Talc is also used in a finely
powdered form as a filler to give weight to paper, as a lubricant,
for toilet powders, in paints, as a heat insulator, etc.

Kaolin or Kaolinite.
Composition. An aluminium
alumina 39.5, water 14.
Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

silicate,

H4Al 2 Si 2

= Silica 46.5,

In very minute, thin, rhombic

or hexagonal-shaped plates.

Structure.

Usually in claylike masses, either compact or

friable.

Physical Properties.
G. = 2.6-2.63. Luster

Perfect

basal

usually

dull

cleavage.

earthy;

H.

crystal

2-2.5.

plates

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

282

Often variously colored by impurities.

Color white.

pearly.

Usually unctuous and

plastic.

Assumes a blue color when

moistened with cobalt nitrate and ignited (aluminium). RecogTests.

Insoluble.

Infusible.

nized usually

by

its

claylike character.

Of widespread occurrence.

Occurrence.

The

chief constituent

of clay.
Always a mineral of secondary origin, being derived by the
alteration of aluminium silicates, particularly feldspar.
It is found

mixed with feldspar

in rocks that are undergoing alteration; at

forms entire beds where such alteration has been carried to
completion. As one of the common products of the decomposition
of rocks it gets into soils and being transported by water is deposited,
mixed with quartz and other materials in lakes, etc., in the form of
beds of clay.

times

it

Name.

Kaolin is a corruption of the Chinese, Kauling, a

from which material was obtained for the manufacture
of porcelain and which was thought to be the same as kaolin.
Use. Used in the form of clay in making all kinds of pottery,

locality

stoneware, bricks, etc. The finer, purer grades of kaolin are

used in the manufacture of porcelain, china, etc.

Pyrophyllite.

Composition.

H Al
2

(Si0 3 )4 = Silica 66.7, alumina 28.3, water

5.0.

Not observed in crystals.

(?).
in
sometimes
radiating lamellar aggreFoliated,
Also granular to compact. Identical with talc in struc-

Crystallization.

Monoclinic

Structure.
gates.

and appearance.
Physical Properties. Perfect basal cleavage. Folia somewhat flexible but not elastic. H. = 1-2 (will make a mark on
ture

cloth).

G.

2.8-2.9.

Pearly to greasy luster.

Color white,

Usually opaque. Greasy feel.

apple-green, gray, brown.
Characterized
Tests.
Infusible.
Unattacked by acids.

micaceous structure and cleavage, its softness and

Only to be easily distinguished from talc by moistening a small fragment with cobalt nitrate and igniting, when
Talc under the same
it assumes a blue color (aluminium).
conditions would become pale violet.
chiefly

by

greasy

feel.

its

283

TITANITE

Occurrence. A comparatively rare species. Found in metamorphic rocks; frequently with cyanite. Occurs in considerable
amount in Moore and Chatham counties, North Carolina.
Use.

Quarried in North Carolina and used for the same purcommand, however, as high a price

poses as talc. It does not

as the best grades of talc.
agalmatolite,

considerable part of the so-called

from which the Chinese carve small images,

is

this species.

Chrysocolla.

Hydrous copper silicate, CuSi0 3 .2H 2 = Silica

copper oxide 45.2, water 20.5. Varies considerably in com-

Composition.
34.3,

position

and often impure.

Structure.

Noncrystalline.

Massive compact.

Sometimes

earthy.

Physical Properties. H. = 2-4. G. = 2.0-2.4. Luster vitreous to earthy.

Color green to greenish blue; brown to black

when impure.
Tests.
Infusible.
Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with
the separation of silica but without the formation of a jelly.
Gives a copper globule when fused with sodium carbonate on

In C. T. darkens and gives water.

charcoal.

Occurrence.
comparatively rare mineral occurring in the
oxidized zones of copper veins. Associated with malachite, azurite,
Found in the copper districts of Arizona
cuprite, native copper, etc.

and

New

Name.
gold
rial

and

Mexico.
Chrysocolla, derived from two Greek words meaning
a similar appearing mateglue, which was the name of

used to solder gold.

Use.

minor ore

of copper.

Titanite.

Composition.

Calcium

Sphene.

titano-silicate,

CaTiSi0 6 = Silica 30.6,

titanium oxide 40.8, lime 28.6. Iron is usually present in small

amounts.
Monoclinic. Crystals varied in habit.
Crystallization.

Often with prominent basal plane which

is

steeply inclined

and

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

284
which

in combination with short prism and pyramid faces

a thin wedge-shaped crystal (Figs. 342 and 343).

Fig. 342.

Structure.

Fig. 343.

Usually crystallized or lamellar.

Physical Properties. Prismatic cleavage. H. = 5-5.5. G.=

3.4-3.55.
Resinous to adamantine luster. Color gray, brown,

Transparent to opaque.
green, yellow, black.
Tests.
Fusible at 4 with slight intumescence to a dark mass.

Only slightly attacked by hydrochloric acid. Fused with sodium

carbonate; fusion dissolved in hydrochloric acid; the solution
when boiled with tin gives a violet color (titanium).
Occurrence. A rather common accessory mineral in igneous rocks,
being found as small crystals in granites, diorites, syenites, trachytes,
Also found often in crystals of considerable size
phonolites, etc.
embedded in the metamorphic rocks, gneiss, chlorite-schist and
Very commonly associated with chlorite.
crystalline limestone.
Also found with iron ores, pyroxene, amphibole, scapolite, zircon,
Notable localities for its occurrence
apatite, feldspar, quartz, etc.
in crystals are Tavetsch, St.

Gothard,

etc.,

Switzerland; Ala, Pied-

mont; Sandford, Maine; Gouverneur, Diana, Rossie, Fine, Pitcairn,

Edenville, Brewster, etc., in New York; in various places in Ontario,
Canada.

Name.

Sphene comes from a Greek word meaning 'wedge

development of the crystals.

in

allusion to a characteristic
Perovskite,

CaTi0 3

is

a rare isometric titanate.

NIOBATES

TANTALATES.

Columbite
Composition.

Tantalite.

niobate and tantalate of ferrous iron and

manganese (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta) 2
the niobate, colwnbite

which varies

(Fe,Mn)Nb 2

6,

in composition

from

to the tantalate, tantalite

COLUMBITE
(Fe,Mn)Ta 2
etc.

Often contains small amounts of

6.

variety,

tantalite with

285

TANTALITE

known

most

as manganotantalite,
of the iron re-

is

tin,

tungsten,

essentially

placed by manganese.

Orthorhombic.

Crystallization.

Habit of crystals

is

short prismatic;

often in square prisms because of

prominent development of the verti-

Terminated by basal
pyramids and domes; freAt
quently complex (Fig. 344).

cal pinacoids.

plane,

Fig. 344.

times in heart-shaped contact twins.

Structure. Crystallized and in parallel crystal groups.
frequently granular massive.

Also

Physical Properties. H. = 6. G. = 5.3-7.3, varying with

the composition, increasing with rise in percentage of tantalum
oxide present. Submetallic luster. Color iron-black, frequently
iridescent.

Tests.

Streak dark red to black.

Difficultly fusible

bead dissolved

(5-5.5).

in hydrochloric acid;

Fused with borax; the

the solution boiled with

There is no simple test for

fused in 0. F. with sodium car-

tin gives a blue color (niobium).

tantalum.

Generally

when

bonate gives an opaque bluish green bead. Fused with sodium

carbonate on charcoal in R. F. yields a magnetic mass. Recognized usually by its black color, submetallic streak and high
specific gravity.

Occurrence. Occurs in granite rocks and in pegmatite veins,

associated with quartz, feldspar, mica, tourmaline, beryl, spodumene, cassiterite, samarskite, wolframite, microlite, monazite, etc.
Notable localities for its occurrence are the west coast of Greenland
Bodenmais, Bavaria; llmen Mountains, Siberia; Western Australia
;

(manganotantalite); Standish, Maine; Haddam, Middletown and

Branchville, Connecticut; in Amelia County, Virginia; Mitchell
County, North Carolina; Black Hills, South Dakota; near Canon
City, Colorado.

Name.

The two names

that the minerals contain.

are derived from the acid elements

Niobium

is

often called columbium.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

286

Source of tantalum, which

used in making filaments

is said that more than
20,000 20-candle-power electric-light filaments can be made
from one pound of tantalum. The tantalum, used for this purUse.

for incandescent

electric

lamps.

is

It

pose in the United States, is imported and is derived, chiefly,

from the manganotantalite deposits of western Australia.
There are a number of other niobates and tantalates, all of
which are rare in occurrence. The following, however, might
be mentioned pyrochlore, chiefly a niobate of the cerium metals
and calcium; microlite, essentially Ca 2 Ta 2 7 fergusonite, a nio:

bate of yttrium, erbium, cerium, uranium, etc.; samarskite, a

niobate and tantalate of ferrous iron, uranium and the cerium
metals.

PHOSPHATES, ETC.
The phosphates and the related arsenates, vanadates and
antimonates may be divided into three classes: (1) Anhydrous
Phosphates,

etc.;

Phosphates,

etc.

1.

(2)

Acid and Basic Phosphates,

ANHYDROUS PHOSPHATES,

etc.;

(3)

Hydrous

ETC.

Xenotime.
Erbium may be present in considerYttrium phosphate, YPO 4
able amount, also small amounts of cerium, silicon and thorium.
Tetragonal. Crystal forms resemble those of zircon. In rolled
Prismatic cleavage. H. = 4-5. G. = 4.55-5.1. Vitreous
grains.
to resinous luster.
Color yellowish to reddish brown. Opaque.
Infusible.
Tests as in monazite, which see. A rare mineral which
occurs, like monazite, as an accessory constituent in granite, gneiss
and pegmatite veins. Found as rolled grains in the stream sands,
particularly in Brazil.

Monazite.

A phosphate of the cerium metals

Composition.
(Ce,La,Di)P0 4 with usually some thorium silicate, ThSi0 4
.

Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Crystals usually small, often

flattened parallel to the orthopinacoid.

Structure. Usually in granular masses, frequently as sand.

Crystals rare.

TRIPHYLITE

287

LITHIOPHILITE

Physical Properties. H. = 5-5.5. G. = 5.2-5.3. Resinous

Color yellowish to reddish brown. Translucent to

luster.

opaque.
Tests. Infusible. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid. After fusion
with sodium carbonate, dissolve in nitric acid and add solution to
excess of

forms

ammonium molybdate

(test for

a phosphate)

centrated sulphuric acid;

filtering gives

ammonium

with

solution.

yellow precipitate

Decomposed by heating with consolution after dilution with water and

.

oxalate a precipitate of the oxa-

lates of the rare earths.

Occurrence. A comparatively rare mineral occurring as an accessory mineral in gneissoid rocks, and as rolled grains in the sands
derived from the decomposition of such rocks, where it has been
its hardness and high specific gravity.
Found
United States, chiefly in North and South Carolina, both in
The bulk of the world's supply of
gneiss and in the stream sands.
monazite sand comes from the provinces of Minas .Geraes, Rio de

preserved because of

in the

Janeiro, Bahia,

Name.
meaning
Use.

and Sao Paulo,

The name

Brazil.

monazite

is

derived from a Greek word

in allusion to the rarity of the mineral.

the chief source of thorium oxide, which

to be solitary,

Monazite

is

contains in amounts varying from

it

to 20 per cent; commercial

monazite usually containing between 3 and 9 per cent. Thorium

is used in the manufacture of mantles for incandescent gas

oxide

lights.

Triphylite

Lithiophilite.

Phosphates of lithium with ferrous iron and manganese.

phylite corresponds to

LiFePO 4

Lithiophilite to

LiMnPO

4.

Tri-

The

two molecules are isomorphous and replace each other

in varying
amounts. Orthorhombic, crystals rare. Commonly massive, cleavable to compact. Cleavage parallel to base and brachypinacoid.
H. = 4.5-5. G. = 3.42-3.56. Luster vitreous to resinous. Color
bluish gray in triphylite to salmon-pink or clove-brown in lithio-

Translucent. Fusible at 2.5, giving red lithium flame.

Triphylite becomes magnetic on heating in R. F. Lithiophilite gives
Solin O. F. an opaque bluish green bead with sodium carbonate.
uble in nitric acid and when the solution is added to an excess of a
solution of ammonium molybdate gives yellow precipitate (test for
phosphoric acid). Rare minerals occurring in pegmatite veins associated with other phosphates, etc. Triphylite found at Huntington,
philite.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

288

Massachusetts; Peru, Maine; Grafton, New Hampshire; RabenBavaria; Keityo, Finland. Lithiophilite found at Branch ville,
Connecticut.

stein,

THE APATITE GROUP.

The
erals

Apatite Group

consists of a closely related series of min-

crystallizing in the

system.

They

pyramidal group of the hexagonal

are:

Apatite,

Ca 4 (CaF)(P0 4 )
Pb 4 (PbCl)(P0 4 ) 3
Pb 4 (PbCl) (As0 4 ) 3
Pb (PbCl) (V0 4 ) 3
3.

Pyromorphite,
Mimetite,
Vanadinite,

Apatite.

Composition.
chlor-apatite,

Fluor-apatite,

Ca 4 (CaF)(P0 4 ) 3

more

rarely

Ca^CaClXPOOs.

Crystallization.
Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually
long prismatic in habit; sometimes short prismatic or tabular.

Usually terminated by prominent pyramid of

frequently, a basal plane (Figs. 345 and 346).

show

faces of the third order

first

order and

Some

crystals

pyramid and have at times a very

complex development.
Structure. Usually crystallized; also granular massive to
compact.
Physical Properties. H. = 5 (can just be scratched by a
G. = 3.15. Vitreous to subresinous luster. Color
knife).
some
shade of green or brown; also blue, violet, colorless.
usually
Transparent to opaque.

APATITE
Tests.

Difficultly fusible (5-5.5).

289
Soluble in acids.

Gives a

ammonium phosphomolybdate when dilute

is added to large excess of ammonium molyb-

yellow precipitate of
nitric acid solution

date solution.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid solution gives
white precipitate of calcium sulphate when a few drops of sulphuric acid are added. Recognized usually by its crystals, color

and hardness.

Distinguished from beryl

pyramidal terminations of
than a knife.

its

crystals

by the prominent
and by its being softer

Variety. Phosphorite. An impure variety of apatite is known

It occurs in a compact or earthy form or in
as phosphorite.
concretionary and nodular masses in fossiliferous rocks of different
ages.

Probably of organic

Occurrence.

Apatite

is

origin.

widely disseminated as an accessory con-

stituent in all classes of rocks; igneous, metamorphic and sedimenIt is also found in pegmatite and other veins, probably of
tary.
pneumatolytic origin. Found in titaniferous magnetites. Occa-

In the form of
phosphorite or phosphate rock occurs extensively as a rock strata.
Apatite, as it exists scattered in small crystals throughout the
sionally concentrated into large deposits or veins.

and is gradually dissolved by

Some of the phosphoric acid thus
percolating carbonated waters.
brought into solution goes into the sea where it is absorbed by living
organisms some remains in the soil, where its presence is a necessary
condition for fertility and from which it is absorbed by plants and
through them goes into the bodies of animals. The large bodies of
phosphorite are derived from organic sources, such as animal remains.
rocks, slowly undergoes alteration

Bone

is calcium phosphate in composition.

Apatite occurs in commercial amount in Ontario and Quebec,
Canada. It is found there in crystals and masses enclosed in crystalline calcite and in veins and irregular nests along the contact of
the limestone with eruptive rocks. The chief deposits lie in Ottawa
County, Quebec. Crystalline apatite occurs in large amounts along
the southern coast of Norway, between Langesund and Arendal.
It is found there in veins and pockets associated with a mass of
gabbro. Nodular deposits of phosphate rock are found at intervals
all along the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida, the
chief deposits being in the latter state.
High grade phosphate
Commercial dedeposits are found in western middle Tennessee.
posits of phosphorite are to be found in northern Wales, in northern
France, northern Germany, Belgium, Spain, etc.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

290

in

Finely crystallized apatite occurs at various localities in the Alps;

Alexander County, North Carolina; at Auburn, Maine, etc.

Use.

Apatite and phosphate rock are chiefly used for

fer-

purposes. They are usually ground and treated with

sulphuric acid to render the phosphoric acid more soluble.
tilizer

Transparent varieties of apatite of fine color are occasionally

used for gem material. The mineral is too soft, however, to
allow of its very extensive use for this purpose.

Pyromorphite.

Pb 4 (PbCl) (P0 4 ) 3 = Phosphorus pentoxide 15.7,

The phosphorus is often re82.2, chlorine 2.6.

Composition.

lead protoxide
placed by arsenic and the species graduates into mimetite.
Crystallization.
Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Prismatic crystals with basal plane.
Rarely shows

^^^^SSpS^N

pyramid truncations.

Often in rounded

barrel-shaped forms. Sometimes cavernous, the crystals being hollow prisms

Frequently in parallel groups.

Structure. Crystallized, globular, reni-

(Fig. 328).

.^.j

Fig. 347.

yellow; more

form, fibrous and granular.

H. = 3.5-4.
Physical Properties.
=
6.5-7.1.
Resinous luster.
Color
G.
usually various shades of green, brown,

rarely orange-yellow, gray, white.

Subtransparent

to nearly opaque.
Tests.
Easily fusible (2). Gives a lead globule when fused
on charcoal with sodium carbonate. When fused alone on charcoal gives a globule

which on cooling shows

crystalline structure.

Faint white sublimate of lead chloride when heated in C. T.

few drops of the nitric acid solution added to ammonium

molybdate solution gives a yellow precipitate of ammonium
phosphomolybdate.
Occurrence.' A mineral formed by secondary action and found

upper oxidized portions of lead veins, associated with other

Notable localities for its occurrence are the lead
lead minerals.
mines of Poullaouen, Brittany; at Ems in Nassau; in the Nerchinsk
in the

291

VANADINITE

Siberia; Cornwall; Phoenix ville, Pennsylvania; Davidson

County, North Carolina, etc.

district,

Name.

Derived from two Greek words meaning fire said form

form it assumes on cooling from

in allusion to the crystalline

fusion.

Use.

subordinate ore of lead.

Mimetite.

Pb 4 (PbCl)(As0 4 ) 3 = Arsenic pentoxide

Composition.

23.2,

Phosphorus replaces the

and calcium, the lead. Endlichite is a variety
intermediate between mimetite and vanadinite.

lead protoxide
arsenic in part

74.9,

chlorine 2.4.

Crystallization.
Crystals prisHexagonal; tri-pyramidal.
matic, showing basal plane and at times pyramids. Usually in
rounded barrel- to globular-shaped forms.

Structure.

In rounded crystals, mammillary crusts.

H. = 3.5. G. = 7-7.2. Resinous

lus-

Physical Properties.
ter.

Colorless, yellow, orange,

brown.

Subtransparent to

al-

most opaque.
Tests.
Easily fusible (1.5). Gives globule of lead when
fused with sodium carbonate on charcoal. A fragment placed
in C. T. and heated in contact with a splinter of charcoal gives

deposit of metallic arsenic on walls of tube.

Occurrence. A comparatively rare mineral of secondary origin,

occurring in the upper, oxidized portion of lead veins. Notable
localities for its occurrence are in Cornwall, Devonshire, and Cumberland, England Johanngeorgenstadt, Saxony; Nerchinsk, Siberia;
;

Pho3nixville, Pennsylvania; Cerro Gordo, California, etc.

Derived from the Greek for imitator in allusion to

Name.

its

resemblance to pyromorphite.
minor ore of lead.
Use.

Vanadinite.

= Vanadium pentoxide
Composition. Pb 4 (PbCl)(V0 4 )
3

19.4,

lead protoxide 78.7, chlorine 2.5. Phosphorus and arsenic sometimes present in small amount replacing vanadium. In the
is nearly as 1 1.
variety endlichite the proportion of V 2 6 to As 2 6
:

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

292

Crystallization. Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Prism with base.

Sometimes small pyramidal faces, rarely the pyramid of the
third order.
In rounded crystals; sometimes cavernous.
Structure. In crystals and globular forms. As incrustations.
Physical Properties. H. = 3. G. = 6.9-7.1. Adamantine

Color ruby-red, brown, yellow. Transparent

to opaque.
Tests.
Easily fusible (1.5). Gives globule of lead on charcoal
when fused with sodium carbonate. Gives an amber color in
to resinous luster.

0. F. to salt of phosphorus bead (vanadium).

Dilute nitric acid

solution gives with silver nitrate a white precipitate of silver

Endlichite would give in C. T. the reaction for arsenic
chloride.
(see

under mimetite).

Occurrence. A rare mineral of secondary origin found in the

upper oxidized portion of lead veins. Occurs in various districts in
Arizona and New Mexico.
Use.

Source of vanadium and minor ore of lead.

Vanadium

obtained chiefly from other ores, such as the sulphide, patronite; the vanadate, carnotite; and a vanadium mica, roscoelite.
is

used chiefly as a steel hardening metal. MetaHV0 3 is used as a yellow pigment, known as
vanadium bronze. Vanadium oxide is used as a mordant in

Vanadium

is

vanadic acid,

dyeing.

Amblygonite.

A phosphate of lithium and aluminium, Li(AlF)PC>4, having

hydroxyl isomorphous with the fluorine and often sodium in small
amount replacing the lithium. Triclinic. Usually massive, cleavG. = 3.08.
able to compact. Perfect basal cleavage. H. =6.
Color white to pale
Luster vitreous, pearly on cleavage face.
green or blue. Translucent. Easily fusible (2) giving a red flame
Insoluble in acids. After fusion with sodium carbonate
(lithium).
and dissolving in nitric acid, solution with excess of ammonium
A

molybdate solution gives yellow precipitate (test for phosphate).

rare mineral found in pegmatite veins with tourmaline, lepidolite,
Found at Montebras, France; Hebron, Paris, Auburn,
apatite, etc.

and Peru, Maine,

etc.

SCORODITE

293

ACID AND BASIC PHOSPHATES, ETC.

2.

Olivenite.

An

arsenate and hydroxide of copper, Cu 3 As2O 8 .Cu(OH) 2

Orthorhombic.
Also reniform,
Prismatic, often in acicular crystals.
.

H. =3. G. = 4.1-4.4.. Fusible at 2-2.5. Adamantine to vitreous luster. Color olive-green to blackish green;
also shades of brown and yellow to white.
Translucent to opaque.
With sodium carbonate on charcoal gives a copper globule. When

fibrous, granular.

ignited in C. T. with splinter of charcoal gives arsenical mirror.

water when heated

little

in

C. T.

Found

rarely in oxidized portions

of copper veins.

Lazulite.

phosphate

of

magnesium and aluminium, Mg(Al.OH) 2 (PO 4 ) 2

with varying amounts of ferrous iron, replacing the magnesium.

Monoclinic, usually in steep pyramids. Also massive, granular to
compact. H. = 5-5.5. G. = 3.05-3.1. Vitreous luster. Azureblue color. Translucent to opaque. Infusible. B. B. swells, loses
its

color

and

falls

3.

to pieces.

Insoluble.

rare mineral.

HYDROUS PHOSPHATES,

ETC.

Vivianite.

Hydrous ferrous phosphate, Fe 3 P2 O8.8H 2 0.

Monoclinic. Prismatic crystals, vertically striated; often in radiating groups; at

times fibrous or earthy. Perfect pinacoidal cleavage. H. = 1.5-2.
G. = 2.58-2.68. Vitreous to pearly luster. Colorless when unaltered.
Blue to green when altered. Transparent when fresh to
Fusible at 2-2.5 to a magnetic globule.
opaque on exposure.
Nitric acid solution added to an excess of ammonium molybdate
Water in
solution gives yellow precipitate (test for phosphate).

C. T.

rare mineral of secondary origin, associated with pyrrholimonite and other iron minerals.

tite, pyrite,

Erythrite or Cobalt Bloom, Co3As 2 Os.8H 2 O, is a rare secondary

mineral which occurs as an alteration product of cobalt arsenides.
It is usually pulverulent in structure and crimson to pink in color.
Annabergite or Nickel Bloom, Ni 3 As2 O 8 .8H 2 O, is a similar nickel

compound.

It is light green in color.

Scorodite.

A hydrous ferric arsenate, FeAsO 4 .2H 2 0. Orthorhombic,

usually in pyramidal crystals, resembling octahedrons; also prismatic. Crystals in irregular groups. Also earthy. H. = 3.5-4.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

294

G.

Vitreous luster. Pale green to liver-brown in color.

Fusible at 2-2.5.
Magnetic when heated in R. F.
Heated intensely with splinter of charcoal in C. T. gives arsenical
mirror.
Water in C. T. In hydrochloric acid reacts for ferric iron.
Occurs in oxidized portions of metallic veins with arsenopynte and
other iron minerals
3.1-3.3.

Translucent.

Wavellite.

hydrous aluminium phosphate, (A1OH)3(PO 4 )2-5H 2 O.

Ortho-

Usually in radiating globular aggregates.

Good cleavage. H. = 3-4. G. = 2.33. Vitreous luster. Color
InTranslucent
Infusible.
white, yellow, green and brown.
soluble.
Decomposed by fusion with sodium carbonate and dis-

rhombic, crystals rare.

solved in nitric acid gives yellow precipitate (test for phosphoric

acid) when solution is added to excess of ammonium molybdate.
Moistened with cobalt nitrate, and then ignited assumes a blue color
(aluminium). A rare mineral.

Turquois.
Composition.

by small amounts

hydrous phosphate of aluminium, colored

H(A1.20H) 2 P0 4 with

of a copper phosphate,

isomorphous H(Cu.OH) 2 P0 4

Massive compact, reniform,

Noncrystalline.
In thin seams and disseminated grains.
stalactitic, encrusting.
Structure.

Physical Properties. H. = 6. G. = 2.6-2.8. Waxlike lusColor blue, bluish green, green. Translucent to opaque.
Tests.
Infusible.
Insoluble.
After fusion with sodium car-

ter.

bonate and dissolving in nitric acid, gives a yellow precipitate

with an excess of ammonium molybdate solution (test for a
phosphate). Gives a momentary green flame. In C. T. turns
dark and gives water.

Occurrence. Turquois is usually found in the form of small

and stringers traversing more or less decomposed igneous
The famous Persian deposits are found in trachyte near
Nishapur in the province of Khorassan. In the United States it
is found in much altered granite or granite porphyry in Mohave
County, Arizona, and in Grant and Santa Fe counties, New Mexico.
Turquois has also been found in Nevada, California and Colorado.
veins
rocks.

Name.

Is

French and means Turkish, the

having come into Europe through Turkey.

original stones

295

NITER

It is always cut in round or oval forms

Use. As a gem stone.
and a one-carat stone may be valued as high as $10. Much

turquois is cut which is veined with the various gangue materials

and such stones are sold under the name of turquois matrix.

NITRATES.
Soda
Sodium

Composition.
63.5,

Niter.

nitrate,

NaN0 =
3

Nitrogen pentoxide

soda 36.5.

Hexagonal-rhombohedral.

Crystallization.

phous with

Has

calcite.

closely the

same

Homceomor-

crystal constants,

If a cleavage block
cleavage, optical properties, etc., as calcite.
of calcite is placed in a crystallizing solution of sodium nitrate,

small rhombohedrons of the latter will form with parallel orientation on the calcite.

Structure. Usually massive, as an incrustation or in beds.

Physical Properties. Perfect rhombohedral cleavage. H. =
G. = 2.29. Vitreous luster. Colorless or white, also
1.5-2.
reddish

brown, gray, yellow,

Cooling taste.

etc.

Transparent to opaque.

Very easily fusible (1), giving a strong yellow sodium

After intense ignition gives an alkaline reaction on
moistened test paper. Easily and completely soluble in water.
Tests.

flame.

Heated

in C. T. with

potassium bisulphate gives

off

red vapors

of nitrous oxide.

Occurrence. Because of its solubility in water it is only to be

Found in large quantities in the
in arid and desert regions.
district of Tarapaca, northern Chile and the neighboring parts of
Bolivia.
Occurs over immense areas as a salt (caliche) bed interHas been
stratified with sand, beds of common salt, gypsum, etc.
noted in Humboldt County, Nevada, and in San Bernardino County,
found

California.

Use.

In Chile

it is

quarried, purified

and used as a source

of

nitrates.

Niter.

KN0

Orthorhombic. Usually as thin enPotassium nitrate,

3
Perfect cleavage. H. = 2.
crustations or as silky acicular crystals.
Color white.
Vitreous luster.
Translucent.
G. = 2.09-2.14.
.

296

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

Easily fusible (1) giving violet flame (potassium). After ignition

Heated in C. T.
gives alkaline reaction on moistened test paper.
with potassium bisulphate gives red fumes of nitrous oxide. Easily
Saline and cooling taste.
soluble in water.
Found as delicate
crusts, as an efflorescence, on surfaces of earth, walls, rocks, etc.
Found as a constituent of certain soils. Also in the loose soil of
limestone caves. Not as common as soda niter, but produced from
soils in France, Germany, Sweden.
Obtained in India. Used 'as a
source of nitrogen compounds.

BORAXES.
Boracite.
Composition, Mg 7 Cl 2 Bi6O3o. Isometric; tetrahedral. Crystals
usually show cube, tetrahedron and dodecahedron in some combination.
Crystals usually isolated and disseminated in other
Also massive. Vitreous luster. Colorless, white, gray,
minerals.
H. =7.
G. = 2.9-3.0.
Transparent to translucent.
green.
Fusible at 3 with green flame color (boron). Soluble in hydrochloric
Turmeric paper moistened with a solution of the mineral and
acid.
then dried at 100 C. turns reddish brown (boron). Occurs associated with halite, anhydrite, gypsum, etc., as one of the products
formed by the evaporation of bodies of salt water.

Colemanite.

Ca2 B 6 Oii.5H 2 O.
Monoclinic, in
short prismatic crystals, highly modified. Cleavable massive to
= 4-4.5.
granular and compact. Perfect pinacoidal cleavage. H.
G. = 2.42. Vitreous to adamantine luster. Colorless to white.
B. B. exfoliates,
Fusible at 1.5.
Transparent to translucent.
crumbles and gives green flame (boron). Water in C. T. A rare
mineral, but occurring in considerable quantity in the salt lake deHydrous borate

of calcium,

posits, in the arid regions of

Inyo County, and

in

southeastern California, in Death Valley,

San Bernardino and Los Angeles

counties.

Borax.
Composition.
Hydrous sodium borate,
Boron trioxide 36.6, soda 16.2, water 47.2.
Crystallization.

Monoclinic.

Na B40
2

.10H 2

Prismatic crystals, sometimes

quite large.

Structure.
encrustations.

In crystals and as massive cellular material or

URANINITE

Perfect cleavage parallel to orthopina1.75.

Vitreous luster. Colorless or

Physical Properties.
H. = 2-2.5. G.

coid.

Translucent to opaque.

white.

Tests.

297

Sweetish-alkaline taste.

Easily fusible (1-1.5) with

much

swelling

and gives

strong yellow flame (sodium)

Readily soluble in water. Turmeric paper, moistened with a dilute hydrochloric acid solution
of the mineral, turns reddish brown when dried at. 100 C.
.

Much

water in C. T.

Occurrence. Formed as a deposit from the evaporation of salt

and as an efflorescence on the surface of the ground in arid
The deposits in Thibet have furnished large amounts of
regions.
borax, which has been exported to Europe in the crude state, under
lakes,

Found in quantity in the United States in the

the name of tincal.
desert region of southeastern California, in Death Valley, Inyo
County and in San Bernardino County. Occurs also in the adjacent
Borax is associated with the other minerals
parts of Nevada.
deposited in similar manner, such as halite, gypsum, colemanite, and
various rare borates.

Name.
Use.

Borax comes from an Arabic name for the substance.

Borax is used for washing and cleansing; as an anti-

septic, preservative, etc., in medicine;

oxides in soldering

ing

as a solvent for metallic

and welding; and as a

flux in various smelt-

and laboratory operations.

URANATES.
Uraninite.

Pitch Blende.

Composition. An uncertain combination of the oxides of

U0 3 and U0 2 With small amounts of lead and the

uranium,

rare elements, thorium, yttrium, cerium, nitrogen, helium, argon,

radium. It is the mineral in which the gas helium was first

discovered on the earth, having been previously noted in the

In
gases surrounding the sun by means of the sun's spectrum.
rare
and
the
discovered
first
was
strange substance,
it, also,

radium.

In octahedrons, also with doIsometric.

Crystallization.
decahedrons. Less often showing cube faces. Crystals rare.
Structure.

Usually massive and botryoidal; also in grains.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

298

H. = 5.5.
G.
Physical Properties.
Luster submetallic to pitchlike,

high).

9-9.7

dull.

(unusually

Color black.

Streak brownish black.

Tests.

Infusible.

Imparts to the

salt of

phosphorus bead

in 0. F. a yellowish green and in R. F. a green color.

Soluble
in dilute sulphuric acid with the slight evolution of helium gas.

Characterized chiefly by its pitchy luster,

its color

its

high specific gravity,

and streak.

Occurrence. Occurs either as a primary constituent of granite

rocks or as a secondary mineral with ores of silver, lead, copper, etc.
Found under the latter condition at Johanngeorgenstadt, Marienberg
and Schneeberg in Saxony, at Joachimsthal and Pfibram in Bohemia,
and Rezbdnya in Hungary. Occurs also in connection with the
In the United States found in
tin deposits of Cornwall, England.
isolated crystals in pegmatite veins at Middletown, Glastonbury
and Branchville, Connecticut. In the mica mines of Mitchell
County, North Carolina. A narrow vein of it has been mined
near Central City, Gilpin County, Colorado.
Use.

The

chief interest in the mineral lies in the fact that

the principal source of radium. This element exists in it

in extremely small percentages and it is necessary to subject a
large amount of the mineral to a chemical concentration in order
it is

to produce a few grains of a radium salt. Uranium, itself,

has only a limited use. Experiments have been made looking
toward its use in steel. In the form of various compounds it

has a limited use in coloring glass and porcelain, in photography

and as chemical reagents.

SULPHATES.
The

sulphates and the related chromates may be divided into

three divisions: (1) Anhydrous Sulphates; (2) Acid and. Basic
Sulphates; (3) Hydrous Sulphates.
1.

ANHYDROUS SULPHATES.
Glaub erite.

Monoclinic.
sulphate of sodium and calcium, Na2 Ca(S0 4 )2.
=
Crystals thin, tabular parallel to base. Basal cleavage. H.
2.5-3.
G. = 2.7-2.85. Vitreous luster. Color pale yellow or gray.

BARITE

299

Fusible (1.5-2), giving yellow flame (sodium).

Slightly saline taste.
After ignition, gives an alkaline reaction on moistened test paper.
Soluble in hydrochloric acid and solution with barium chloride gives

white precipitate of barium sulphate. A rare mineral occurring

formed by the evaporation of salt lakes.

in the saline deposits,

BARITE GROUP.
The

Barite

Group

consists of the sulphates of barium, stronThey crystallize in the orthorhombic

tium, lead and calcium.

system with closely related crystal constants and similar habits.

The members of the group are as follows
:

Barite,

BaS0 4

Cekstite,

SrS0 4

Anglesite,

Anhydrite,

Barite.

Composition.
34.3,

baryta 65.7.

PbS0 4
CaS0 4

Barytes.

Heavy

Spar.

Barium sulphate, BaS0 4 = Sulphur trioxide

Strontium and calcium sulphates present at

times.

Fig. 348.

Fig. 350.

Fig. 352.

Orthorhombic. Crystals usually tabular

Crystallization.
often diamond shaped because of the presence

parallel to base;

of a short prism

(Fig. 348).

Both macro- and brachydomes

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

300

usually present, either beveling the corners of the diamond(Figs. 349 and 350), or if the prism faces are

shaped crystals

wanting, beveling the edges of the tables and forming rectangular prismatic-shaped crystals elongated parallel to either the
brachy- or macro-axis (Figs. 351 and 352). Crystals sometimes
quite complex.

In crystals.

Structure.
tals

forming

lar,

earthy.

"

Perfect cleavage parallel to base and

G. = 4.5 (heavy for a nonmetallic

Physical Properties.

prism

faces.

mineral).
white,

and

In divergent groups of tabular crysAlso coarsely laminated; granu-

crested barite."

H.

3-3.5.

Vitreous luster; pearly at times on base. Colorless,

light shades of blue, yellow, red.
Transparent to

opaque.
Tests.
Fusible at 4, giving yellowish green barium flame.
After ignition gives an alkaline reaction on moistened test paper.
Fused with sodium carbonate and charcoal dust gives a residue,

which,

when moistened, produces a dark stain of silver sulphide

silver surface.
Recognized by its white color, high

on a clean

specific gravity, characteristic cleavage

Occurrence.

Barite

is

common

and

crystals.

mineral of wide distribution.

It occurs usually as a gangue mineral in metallic veins, associated

especially with ores of silver, lead, copper, cobalt, manganese and
antimony. Sometimes in veins in limestone with calcite and celestite or in

sandstone with copper ores. At times acts as a cement in

Deposited occasionally as a sinter by waters from hot
Notable localities for the occurrence of crystalline barite

sandstone.
springs.

are in Westmorland, Cornwall, Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Surrey,

England; Felsobanya and other localities, Hungary; in Saxony and
Bohemia. In the United States at Cheshire, Connecticut; De Kalb,

New York; Fort Wallace, New Mexico. Massive barite, occurring

usually as veins, nests and irregular bodies in limestones, has been
quarried in the United States in Connecticut, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky and Missouri.
Use.

Barite

is

used chiefly for the production of barium

It is ground
hydroxide, employed in the refining of sugar.
and used as a white pigment, to give weight to cloth and

paper, etc.

CELESTITE

301

Celestite.

Composition.

Strontium sulphate, SrS0 4 = Sulphur trioxide

43.6, strontia 56.4.

Orthorhombic. Crystals resemble closely

Crystallization.
those of barite (which see). Commonly tabular parallel to the
base or prismatic parallel to the brachy- or macro-axis

prominent development of the domes

with

Crystals which
are elongated parallel to the brachy-axis are frequently terminated in front by four faces in nearly equal development, consisting of 2

(Fig. 353).

prism faces and 2 of the macrodome (Fig. 354).

Fig. 354,

Fig. 353.

Structure.

Crystallized.

Also radiating fibrous; sometimes

granular.

Perfect cleavage parallel to base and

3.95-3.97. Luster vitreous to pearly.
Transparent to
Colorless, white, often faintly blue or red.
translucent.

Physical Properties.
= 3-3.5. G.
prism. H.

Tests.

Fuses at 3.5-4 and colors the flame crimson (stron-

After ignition gives an alkaline reaction on moistened

Fused with sodium carbonate and charcoal dust
test paper.
tium).

gives a residue, which, when moistened, produces on a clean

silver surface a dark stain of silver sulphide.
Closely resembles
barite

and it will usually need a flame

two species.

test to positively differen-

tiate the

Occurrence. Celestite is found usually disseminated through

limestone or in nests and lining cavities in such a rock. Associated
with calcite, dolomite, gypsum, halite, sulphur, etc. Notable
localities for its occurrence are with the sulphur deposits of Sicily;
at Bex, Switzerland; Yate, Gloucestershire, England; Herrengrund,
Hungary; Strontian Island, Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie, Mineral

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

302

County, West Virginia; San Bernardino County, California. Found

disseminated in limestones near Syracuse, New York, and in Monroe
County, Michigan.

Name.

Derived from

ccdestis in allusion to the faint blue

color often present.

Use. Used in the preparation of nitrate of strontium for

fireworks.

Other strontium

salts

used in the refining of sugar.

Anglesite.

Lead sulphate, PbS0 4 = Sulphur

Composition.

trioxide 26.4,

lead oxide 73.6.

Crystallization.

Orthorhombic.

Crystal habit often similar

to that of barite (which see) but much more varied.

Crystals
may be prismatic parallel to all three of the crystal axes and

frequently show

Structure.

forms, with a complex development.

Crystallized. Also massive, granular to compact.

many

Frequently earthy, in concentric layers about a nucleus of

galena.

Physical Properties.
prism.

H.

2.75-3.

Perfect cleavage parallel to base and

= 6.12-6.39 (unusually high). Ada-

G.

mantine luster when pure and

be colored dark gray,
opaque.

etc.,

when earthy.
and blue. May

crystalline, dull

Colorless, white, pale shades of yellow, green

by

impurities.

Transparent to

Tests.
Easily fusible at 2.5. On charcoal with sodium carbonate reduced to a lead globule with yellow to white coating
of lead oxide.
Fused with sodium carbonate and charcoal dust
gives a residue, which, when moistened, produces on a clean silver
surface a dark stain of silver sulphide.
Recognized by its high
specific gravity,

its

adamantine

luster

and frequently by

its

association with galena.

Occurrence. Anglesite is a common lead mineral of secondary

It is formed through the oxidation of galena, sometimes
directly to the sulphate as is shown by the concentric layers of anglesite found at times surrounding a core of unaltered galena, or sometimes by an intermediate solution and subsequent recrystallization.

origin.

Found

in the upper, oxidized portions of lead veins, associated with

galena, cerussite, sphalerite, smithsonite, calamine, iron oxides, etc

CROCOITE

303

Notable localities for its occurrence are Monte Poni, Sardinia; Island of Anglesea, England; at Leadhills, Scotland; various localities
in Hungary, etc.
Found in large amounts in Australia. Occurs in
the United States at Phoenix ville, Pennsylvania; Carroll County,
Maryland; Colorado; Cerro Gordo, California.

Name. Named from the original locality on Island of Anglesea.

Use.

An

ore of lead.

Composition.

Anhydrite.
Anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaS0 4 = Sulphur

trioxide 58.8, lime 41.2.

Orthorhombic. Crystals rare; when obCrystallization.

served are thick tabular, also prismatic parallel to the macro-axis.
Structure.
cleavage.

Usually in crystalline masses, with rectangular

Fibrous, granular.

Cleavage parallel to the three pinacoids,

H. = 3-3.5. G. = 2.89-2.98.
so yielding rectangular blocks.
Color
to
white with sometimes a faint
Luster vitreous
pearly.
Physical Properties.

Transparent to translucent.
gray, blue or red tinge.
After ignition gives an alkaline
Fusible at 3-3.5.
Tests.
reaction on moistened test paper. Moistened with hydrochloric
Soluble in
acid and ignited gives orange-red flame of calcium.

hot hydrochloric acid and dilute solution with barium chloride

gives white precipitate of barium sulphate.

Occurrence. Occurs in much the same manner as gypsum, and

often associated with that mineral but is not nearly as common.
Found in beds associated with salt deposits and in limestone rocks.
Found at times in amygdaloidal cavities in basalt. Occurs at Aussee
in Styria; at Stassfurt, Prussia; Bavaria; Hall in Tyrol; Bex,
Switzerland; in the United States at Lockport, New York; Nashville,

Tennessee.

Found

in large

beds in

Nova

Scotia.

Crocoite.

Lead chromate, PbCrO 4

Monoclinic. In slender prismatic crysAlso granular. H. = 2.5-3. G. = 5.9Adamantine luster. Color bright red. Orange-yellow streak.
6.1.
Fusible at 1.5. Fused with sodium carbonate on charcoal gives a
With borax gives a green bead in O. F. A rare
lead globule.
mineral found in the oxidized zones of lead veins. Fine crystals
tals,

vertically striated.

come from Mount Dundas, Tasmania.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

304

2.

ACID AND BASIC SULPHATES.

Brochantite.

A basic sulphate of copper, CuSO4 3 Cu(OH) 2 Orthorhombic.

Slender prismatic crystals, vertically striated, often acicular. Sometimes massive reniform. Perfect pinacoidal cleavage. H. = 3.5-4.
G. = 3.9. Vitreous luster. Emerald to blackish green in color.
Transparent to translucent. Fusible (3.5). Copper globule when
fused with sodium carbonate on charcoal. Hydrochloric acid solution with barium chloride gives white precipitate of barium sulWater in C. T. A rare mineral found in the oxidized
phate.
.

portions of copper veins.

3.

HYDROUS SULPHATES.
Gypsum.

Selenite.

Composition. Hydrous calcium sulphate, CaS04.2H 2

phur trioxide 46.6, lime 32.5, water 20.9.

= Sul-

Monoclinic. Crystals usually tabular paralCrystallization.

to clinopinacoid; in diamond-shaped crystals with edges
beveled by prism and pyramid faces (Fig. 355). Other forms

lel

rare.

Sometimes twinned

Fig. 355.

(Fig. 356).

Fig. 356.

Structure. Cleavable massive; foliated; granular massive;

sometimes with fibrous appearance.

Cleavage in three directions; perfect

with conchoidal surface parallel to orthopinacoid; with fibrous fracture
Physical Properties.

parallel to clinopinacoid, yielding easily thin folia;

GYPSUM

H. = 2 (can be scratched by the finger

Usually with vitreous luster; sometimes
Colorless, white, gray; sometimes various shades of yel-

parallel to
nail).

silky.

305

G.

a pyramid.

2.32.

low, red, brown, etc., from impurities.

Transparent to opaque.
Fusible at 3-3.5. After intense ignition, residue gives
Tests.
alkaline reaction on moistened test paper.
Soluble in hot dilute
hydrochloric acid and solution with barium chloride gives white
Much water in C. T. Characprecipitate of barium sulphate.
terized

by

its

softness

is

and

its

perfect pinacoidal cleavage.

In crystals or foliated masses.

Fibrous.
With coarse to fine fibrous appearance. Satin spar
fine fibrous with silky luster.
Varieties.

Massive.

Crystalline,

Alabaster, a fine-grained

variety.

Rock gypsum,

massive granular or earthy; often impure.

Occurrence.

Gypsum is

common

mineral which

is

widely dis-

It frequently
tributed in sedimentary rocks, often as thick beds.
occurs interstratified with limestones and shales. Usually to be
found as a layer underlying beds of rock salt and has been deposited
there as one of the first minerals to crystallize because of the concenOccurs also as lenticular bodies or scattered
tration of salt waters.
Found at times in volcanic regions,
crystals in clays and shales.
especially where limestones have been acted upon by sulphur vapors.
Associated
Also, is common as a gangue mineral in metallic veins.
with many different minerals, the more common ones being salt,

Deposits of
anhydrite, dolomite, calcite, sulphur, pyrite, quartz.
of commercial importance are found in many localities in
the United States, but the chief producers are located in New York,

gypsum

Oklahoma, Texas, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, Virginia and Kansas.

Gypsum is found in large deposits in Arizona and New Mexico in the
form of wind-blown sand.

Name.

Derived from the Greek name for the species. At

is called selenite, which comes from

times the crystalline variety

a Greek word meaning moon, probably in allusion to the moonlike white reflections from some varieties.
Use. Gypsum is chiefly used for the production of plaster of

In the manufacture of this material, the gypsum is

ground and then heated, until a large proportion of the water
has been driven off. This plaster, when mixed with water,
slowly absorbs the water and so hardens or "sets." Plaster of
Paris.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

306
Paris

used extensively for

is

"
staff,"

the material from which

temporary exposition buildings are built, and for molds and

casts of all kinds.
Gypsum is employed in making adamant
Serves as land plaster, for a

plaster for interior use.

fertilizer.

Satin spar and alabaster are cut and polished for various ornamental purposes but are restricted in their uses on account of
their softness.

Chalcanthite.

phur trioxide

32.1, cupric oxide 31.8,

Triclinic.

Crystallization.
lel

to a

Blue

pyramid

Structure.

Vitriol.

Hydrous copper sulphate, CuS0 4 .5H 2

Composition.

Crystals

commonly tabular paral-

face.

Crystallized, also massive in stalactitic

form structure, sometimes with fibrous appearance.

Physical Properties. H. = 2.5. G. = 2.12-2.30.
luster.

= Sul-

water 36.1.

Color deep azure-blue.

and

reni-

Vitreous

Transparent to translucent.

Metallic taste.

Fusible at

Tests.

Gives copper globule when fused with

Soluble in water. Dilute hydro-

3.

sodium carbonate on charcoal.

chloric acid solution gives with

barium sulphate.
blue color and its

Much

barium chloride precipitate

water in C. T.

Characterized by

of
its

solubility in water.

rare mineral, found at times in arid regions as a

secondary mineral, occurring near the surface in copper veins, and
derived from the original copper sulphides by oxidation. Often
deposited from the waters in copper mines.

Occurrence.

Use.

minor ore of copper.

used in calico printing, in galvanic

The

artificial

cells,

and

blue vitriol

in various

is

manu-

facturing industries.

Kalinite.

Potash Alum.

and potassium, K^SCV

hydrous sulphate
A1 2 (SO 4 )3.24H 2 O. Isometric; pyritohedral. Usually fibrous or masH. = 2-2.5. G.= 1.75. Vitreous luster. Colorless to white
sive.
Transparent to translucent. Fuses at 1 with swelling and gives a
violet flame (potassium). Easily soluble in water. Astringent taste.
Hydrochloric acid solution with barium chloride gives a white precipitate of barium sulphate, and with ammonium hydroxide in
of

aluminium

WOLFRAMITE-H UBNERITE

307

excess gives white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.

A comparatively rare mineral, which usually occurs as efflorescence on
clays and slates, particularly those containing disseminated pyrite.
Also at times in connection with sublimation products from volcanoes.

TUNGSTATES, MOLYBDATES.
Wolframite-Hiibnerite.
Tungstates of ferrous iron and manganese.
in which the ratio of the iron to the
4
varies
from
9:1
to 2:3.
manganese
Hubnerite, nearly pure

Composition.

Wolframite

MnW0

(Fe,Mn)W0

4.

Monoclinic.
Crystallization.
Crystals commonly tabular
Prism zone
parallel to the orthopinacoid, giving bladed forms.
vertically striated.

Structure.

In bladed, lamellar or columnar forms.

Massive

granular.

Physical Properties.
H. = 5-5.5. G.

coid.
ter.

Perfect cleavage parallel to clinopina7.2-7.5.

Submetallic to resinous lus-

Color black in wolframite to brown in hiibnerite.

Streak

from nearly black to brown.

Tests.
Fusible (3-4). Insoluble in acids. Fused with
sodium carbonate, fusion then dissolved in hydrochloric acid,
In
tin added and solution boiled gives a blue color (tungsten).
O. F. with sodium carbonate gives bluish green bead (mangaWolframite when fused with sodium carbonate in R. F.
nese).
on charcoal gives a magnetic mass.

Occurrence. Comparatively rare minerals, found usually with

and associated also with scheelite, bismuth, quartz, pyrite,
Found in fine crystals from Schlaggenwald,
galena, sphalerite, etc.
Bohemia, and in the various tin districts of Saxony and Cornwall.
Wolframite occurs in the United States in the Black Hills, South
Dakota; Boulder County, Colorado; Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Hubnerite is found near Butte, Montana; in various localities in
Nevada and Arizona.

cassiterite

Use. Chief ores of tungsten. Tungsten is used as a hardening metal in the manufacture of tool steel. Also as a filament
in incandescent electric lights.
Sodium tungstate is used in
in dyeing.
a
mordant
as
cloth
and
fire-proofing

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

308

Scheelite.

Composition.

Calcium tungstate,

oxide 80.6, lime 19.4. Molybdenum

a part of the tungsten.

is

CaW0 =
4

Tungsten

tri-

usually present, replacing

Crystallization. Tetragonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually

simple pyramids of first order. Closely resemble isometric
octahedrons in angles (Fig. 357). Faces of

the pyramid of third order are small and

rare.

Structure.

Massive granular;

in crys-

tals.

Physical Properties. Cleavage parallel

H. = 4.5-5.
to pyramid of first order.
G. = 6.05 (unusually high for a mineral
with nonmetallic luster)
Vitreous to adamantine luster. Color white, yellow, green,
.

Usually translucent to opaque, sometimes transparent.

brown.
Tests.

Difficultly fusible (5).

Decomposed by

boiling hydro-

chloric acid leaving a yellow residue of tungstic oxide, which,

when
first

tin

is

added to the solution and boiling continued, turns

Recognized by its high specific gravity

blue then brown.

and the

test for tungsten.

Occurrence.

Occurs usually with quartz in crystalline rocks

associated with cassiterite, topaz, fluorite, apatite, molybdenite,
wolframite, etc. Found at times with gold. Occurs in connection
with the tin deposits of Bohemia, Saxony and Cornwall; in quantity
Found in the United States
in New South Wales and Queensland.
at Trumbull, Connecticut; near Randsburg,
California; near Browns,

San Bernardino County,

Humboldt County, Nevada; near Dragoon,

Cohise County, Arizona.

Use.
subordinate ore of tungsten, wolframite (which see)
furnishing the greater amount.
Tungsten is used chiefly as a
steel-hardening metal.

Wulfenite.

Lead molybdate, PbMo0 4 = Molybdenum triCalcium sometimes replaces the

lead oxide 60.7.

Composition.
oxide 39.3,
lead.

309

WULFENITE

Crystallization. Tetragonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually

square tabular in habit with prominent base. Sometimes very
thin.
Edges of tables beveled with faces of low second order

pyramid.

More

rarely pyramidal in habit.

Pyramid

of third

order in small faces and very rare.

In crystals; also massive granular, coarse to

Structure.

fine.

Physical Properties. H. = 4.5-5. G. = 6.05. Vitreous to

adamantine luster. Color yellow, orange, red, gray, white.

White

Transparent to subtranslucent.
2.
Gives a lead globule when fused
with sodium carbonate on charcoal. With salt of phosphorus
in R. F. gives green bead; in 0. F. yellowish green when hot to
almost colorless when cold. If powdered mineral is moistened
with concentrated sulphuric acid and evaporated almost to dryness in a porcelain crucible the residue will show a deep blue
streak.

Tests.

color

Easily fusible at

on cooling (molybdenum).
Found in the oxidized portion

Occurrence.

of lead veins with

other ores of that metal, especially vanadinite and pyromorphite.
Found in the United States in a number of places in Utah, Nevada,

Arizona and
Use.

An

New

Mexico.

ore of

molybdenum.

Molybdenum

is

used as a

In the form of ammonium molybdate

steel-hardening metal.
it is used as a chemical reagent, as a fireproofing material and
as a disinfectant.
Molybdenum used also to color leather and
rubber.

LISTS

OF MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING

TO ELEMENTS.

In the following section are given lists of the minerals that are
of commercial importance because of some element which they
contain.

All of the minerals that could serve as a source of

any particular element are grouped together, their relative

importance being indicated by the type used in printing their

The order in which the minerals are given in each list

the same as that in which they are described in the previous
The different elements have been treated
section of this book.
names.
is

in alphabetical sequence in order to facilitate ready reference

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

310

Each table will be followed by a brief general discussion of the occurrence of the minerals given in it and by a short
statement as to the uses of the element derived from them.
to them.

Aluminium.
Cryolite,

Na3AlF

Corundum, A1 2

Bauxite, A1 2 0(OH) 4

6.

The Feldspars, KAlSi

NaAlSi
CaAl 2 Si 2
etc.
3

3.

8,

8,

3,

Kaolin, H4Al 2 Si 2

Gibbsite, A1(OH),.

Aluminium

is

the most

of all the metals.

Unlike

occurrence, with the exception of the

It is most
restricted to minerals containing oxygen.

other metals, however,

fluorides, is

common

9.

its

abundantly found in the rock-making silicates, in the majority

It also occurs in large
of which it is an essential constituent.
amount in the clays. The minerals which can be used as ores
of the metal are, however, few in number, the only one at present
The enormous amounts of aluof importance being bauxite.
minium contained in the various silicates are not yet available
because of the difficulty and expense of extraction.
Bauxite is produced in the United States chiefly from ArkanThe deposits in Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia and Tennessee.
sas are found in Pulaski and Saline counties.
They have an
average thickness of 10 to 15 feet. In one district the beds lie
directly upon a body of kaolin, which in turn rests upon a syenite
rock-mass and it is probable that both minerals have been
derived from its decomposition. The Alabama-Georgia district
extends from Jacksonville, Alabama, to Carters ville, Georgia.
The ore occurs as pockets or lenses in a clay which has been
derived by weathering processes from a dolomite limestone.

The bauxite

is either pisolitic or clay-like in structure.

Cryolite, imported from Greenland, has been used as an ore
of aluminium and at present is used as a flux in the electrolytic
process by which most of the metal is obtained.

The usual process at present by which aluminium is extracted

from the bauxite ores is briefly as follows The ore is heated to
low redness with sodium carbonate forming sodium aluminate.
This compound is leached out by water and by passing C0 2 gas
:

ANTIMONY

311

aluminium is precipitated as the hydroxide.

on being heated is converted into the oxide of the
metal. The pure metal is prepared from this oxide by an electrolytic process which takes place in a bath of fused cryolite.
The tank in which the reaction takes place is lined with carbon
and forms the cathode, while graphite rods suspended in the
bath serve as the anode. The metal collects in the bottom of
into the solution the

The

latter

the tank.

Aluminium

is valuable because of its low

density and because
not easily oxidized or corroded. It is a good electrical conductor and to some extent is replacing copper used for that purIt is used in many alloys, particularly with zinc, copper
pose.
it is

and

used in small amounts in casting steel in order

up any oxygen in the melt and also to prevent porosity
in the metal.
Aluminium and iron oxide are mixed in a finely
divided state to form the material known as thermit. When
nickel.

It is

to take

mixture

is ignited the heat of the combustion of the aluminso great that it can be used in welding iron and steel.
Sheets and tubes and castings of aluminium are used wherever a

this

ium

is

weight metal is desired, for instance in the manufacture of

certain parts of automobiles.
Aluminium is used in the manufacture of cooking utensils, as a substitute for lithographic stones
light

and
etc.

zinc plates, as powder in the manufacture of metallic paints,

It is used also in the form of salts, chiefly alum and alu-

minium sulphate, to harden paper, in the purification of water,

as mordants in dyeing, in baking powders, in medicine, etc.

Antimony.
Native Antimony, Sb.

Stibnite,

Sb 2 S 5

Antimony occurs in a considerable number of minerals, especially those belonging to the series known as the sulpho-salts,
which are largely combinations of copper, lead or silver with
antimony and sulphur.

These minerals are mined, however,

and any antimony that

for the other metals that they contain

produced from them

Stibis in the nature of a by-product.

mined
for
which
is
its
antimineral
the
only
practically
mony. This mineral has been found in the United States in a
is

nite

is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

312

comparatively few deposits.

in California,

It has

been mined on a small scale

The

Nevada and Idaho.

greater part of the

derived from antitwo metals derived from

the smelting of lead ores that contain small amounts of antimony
Considerable amounts of antimony and antimony
minerals.
ores are imported, chiefly from China, France, Italy, Mexico
and Japan.
in the United States

antimony produced
monial lead which is an alloy

is

of the

Antimony is used in alloys, such as type metal (lead, antimony

and bismuth), babbitt or anti-friction metal (antimony, tin, etc.),
britannia metal (tin with antimony and copper), etc. Antimony
oxide is used as a pigment and in the glazing of enameled ware.
The sulphide is used in fireworks, in safety matches and in percussion caps.
Other compounds are used in medicine and for
various purposes in the arts.

Arsenic.
Native Arsenic, As.
Orpiment, As 2 S 3
.

Realgar, AsS.

Arsenopyrite, FeAsS.

Arsenic in minerals ordinarily plays the part of a nonmetallic

element, similar to sulphur in its chemical relations. It forms
three classes of compounds, the arsenides, the sulpharsenites
and the arsenates. The number of minerals which contain

considerable but only a few can be considered as distinctively arsenic minerals.

Arsenopyrite is the only one which
Most of the arsenic oxide produced
at present serves as an ore.
arsenic

is

comes as a by-product in the smelting

of arsenical ores for copper,

Large amounts of the oxide are obtained from

gold, lead, etc.
the smelting of the copper ores at Butte, Mont., the mineral

CuaAsS^ being its chief source. The oxide is also produced at smelting plants in Washington and Utah. Arsenopyrite has been mined at Brinton, Virginia.
enargite,

Metallic arsenic
in shot metal.

is

used in some alloys, particularly with lead

is chiefly used, however, in the form of

Arsenic

white arsenic, or arsenious oxide. This is employed in medicine,

as a poison, as a preservative, in making Paris green (an arsenate
and acetate of copper), as a pigment, in glass manufacture, etc.

CADMIUM

313

Barium.
Witherite,

BaC0

Barite,

3.

BaS0

4.

the chief source of barium compounds. It has been

mined in the United States in Missouri, North Carolina, Georgia,
Barite

is

The mineral

Kentucky and Tennessee.

is

ground and sometimes

purified by washing and then used as a partial substitute for

white lead in paint, to give weight to paper and cloth, etc.
Barium hydroxide is used extensively in sugar refining.

Bismuth.
Native Bismuth,

Bi.

Bismuthinite, Bi 2 S 3

The most important bismuth mineral

is

the native metal.

Bismuth is produced, however, mostly as a by-product in the

smelting of gold and silver ores. Only a comparatively small
amount is obtained in the United States, chiefly from Colorado
and Utah.
Bismuth is used in the alloys which it forms with lead, tin and
cadmium. These fuse at low temperatures and are used for
Various compounds of bismuth
safety fuses, safety plugs, etc.
are used in medicine and in the arts.

Cadmium.
Greenockite, CdS.

Greenockite

is

the only

cadmium mineral

of

importance and

very rare in occurrence. The cadmium of commerce is

obtained from zinc ores that carry a small amount of the metal.

this is

Practically the entire output of cadmium in the United States

comes from the zinc ores of the Joplin district, Missouri, which
frequently contain some 0.3 per cent of the metal. The zinc
ores of Silesia

have for a long time been a prominent source

of

cadmium.

Cadmium is used in various alloys, such as low-fusing alloys,

dental amalgam, metal for stereotype plates, etc. The metal is
used with silver in electroplating. The sulphide, CdS, is
as cadmium-yellow and is used extensively as a pigment.
ous salts of cadmium find uses in the

arts.

known
Vari-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

314

Chromium.
Chromite, FeCr0 4 with MgCr0 4

Crocoite,

PbCr0 4

Chromite, or chromic iron ore, is the chief source of chromium.

production in the United States is very small, coming mostly

Its

from Shasta County, California.

It has also

been found in work-

able deposits in Pennsylvania, Maryland, North Carolina and

Wyoming. Large amounts of the ore are imported from New

Caledonia, Greece and Canada.

Chromium is used as a steel-hardening metal.

It gives to

a superior hardness and if added in the proper proportion

does not produce brittleness. The mineral chromite is made

steel

into bricks that are used as linings for metallurgical furnaces.

Various red, orange and green pigments and dyes are made from

chromium compounds. Chromium

in the dyeing and printing of cloth.

salts are

used as mordants

Chromium compounds

are

useful in tanning leather.

Cobalt.
Linnseite,

Smaltite,

Co 3 S 4
CoAs 2

Cobaltite,

CoSAs.

Cobalt is a rare element which is usually found in small

amounts associated with nickel minerals. Much of the cobalt
of commerce is produced from other ores as a by-product.
The
only source of cobalt at present in the United States is from the
lead ores of southeastern Missouri, where it occurs sparingly as
the mineral linnseite. The metal is produced from a cobaltiferous manganese ore found in New Caledonia, and also from
the silver ores of Cobalt, Canada.
Cobalt is chiefly used in the form of the oxide as a blue pigment in making glass and pottery.

Copper.
Native Copper, Cu.
Chalcocite,

Cu

Stromeyerite,

2 S.

CuAgS.

Covellite, CuS.

Bornite,

Cu 5FeS4

CuFeS 2
Tetrahedrite, Cu 8 Sb 2 S 7
Chalcopyrite,

Tennantite, Cu&As 2 S 7

COPPER
CusAsS 4
Cu 2 Cl(OH) 3

Enargite,

Cuprite,

Chrysocolla, CuSi0 3 .2H 2 0.

Atacamite,

315

Cu(CuOH)As0 4
Cu 4 (OH)6S04
Chalcanthite, CuS04 .5H 2 0.

Olivenite,

Cu 0.

Brochantite,

Malachite, Cu(OH) 2 .CuC0 3

Azurite, Cu(OH) 2 .2CuC0 3

common and

Copper
widely distributed element. It is
found in a number of important minerals which usually occur
in veins.
Chalcopyrite is the most important ore, and in most
is

is the only primary copper mineral in a deposit.

The
other important sulphides, bornite and chalcocite, are usually,
although not always, the results of secondary enrichment.

cases

Solutions that have leached out the copper content of the upper

portion of a copper vein will react with the unoxidized chalcopyrite farther down to enrich it in respect to the amount of copper it contains and convert it into bornite and chalcocite. In
this

way copper

veins often

show

in the

upper part, just below

the oxidized zone, a body of enriched sulphides. The veins at

Butte, Montana, are notable examples of this. This enriched
sulphide zone is to be observed in general when the copper veins
traverse igneous rocks.
When they lie in limestones the upper
portion of the vein is more liable to be characterized by the

presence of the oxidized copper ores, native copper, cuprite,

Pyrite often contains small
malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, etc.

amounts of copper and when it occurs in large bodies becomes

an important ore of the metal.
Copper is produced in from fifteen to twenty of the states and
territories of the
districts in the

United States.

more productive

brief description of the chief

states follows.

Alaska: Three

importance have been developed; the Ketchikan

where the ores are contact bodies, and are composed

districts of

district

and chalcopyrite; Prince

mines on Latouche
Island; Copper River district where immense bodies of chalArizona: The most prococite and azurite occur in limestone.
ductive district is that of Bisbee where the ore bodies replace
limestone and are closely associated with intrusive rocks. The

chiefly of pyrrhotite, magnetite, pyrite

William Sound

original ores

district including several

were chiefly cupriferous pyrite, but secondary en-

316

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

richment has extended to great depths. Near the surface large

bodies of oxidized ores were found. The Jerome district has
large bodies of ore lying in an igneous rock which through shearing has been rendered almost schistose in structure. The ores
at present are largely sulphides.
Clifton-Morenci district has
its ores occurring as contact deposits lying in limestone and
shales into which dikes of porphyry have been intruded,

and

as

disseminated bodies lying in the porphyry itself. The workable

ores are those which have undergone secondary enrichment, and

and sulphides. Globe district has

deposits that occur as lenticular replacement bodies in limestone
and as deposits in fissures in diabase. Disseminated bodies also
consist of both carbonates

California: The chief districts lie in Shasta County,

where the ores occur as replacement bodies along shear zones
in a granite porphyry.
Colorado: Most of the copper from this
state comes as a by-product in the smelting of gold and silver
ores and is derived chiefly from Lake, San Juan, Gilpin, Chaffee
and Clear Creek counties. Idaho: The greater part of the output comes from the Co3ur d'Alene district. The deposit consists of disseminated bornite, chalcocite and chalcopyrite in beds
of quartzite.
Michigan: This state was for a long period the
most important producer in the country, and still ranks with

occur.

the leading three. The ores are unique in that they consist
wholly of native copper. They occur on Keweenaw Peninsula,
the rocks of which consist of a series of alternating sandstone
conglomerate beds and basic lava flows, all inclined at a steep
angle to the northwest. The copper is found disseminated

through and acting as a cement in the conglomerates, and in

less

important deposits in the amygdaloidal layers of the lavas.

Montana: The one important district, and for a number of
years the most important copper district in the world, is at
Butte. The ores occur as replacement veins in a granitic rock.

The

ores have been very greatly enriched by secondary action

forming at times very large sulphide bodies. The important
ore minerals are chalcopyrite, chalcocite and enargite. Nevada:

The important

district is at Ely, where the sulphide ores occur

as disseminations in highly altered porphyry. New Mexico:

GOLD

317

The Santa Rita-Hanover and the Burro Mountain districts are

Tennessee: The chief district is that of
Ducktown. The ores occur as steeply dipping lenses in a schist

the chief producers.

and contain

and chalcopyrite. Utah:

has ores which are closely associated with
a granitelike rock called monzonite which is intruded into a
series of quartzites, limestones and shales.
The bodies are
chiefly pyrrhotite, pyrite

The Bingham

district

either contact deposits in limestone or in large disseminated

The Tintic district has ore bodies
deposits in the monzonite.

occurring as contact deposits, replacements in limestone and

The Frisco
filling fissures, the last being the most important.
district has ores which consist of pyrite and chalcopyrite occurring disseminated in a monzonite.
Important copper deposits outside of the United States are

at Rio Tin to in Spain; in Australasia, at Mount Lyell in Tasmania, at Wallaroo and Moontain, South Australia, at Mount

Morgan in Queensland and at different localities in New South

Wales; in Mexico at Cananea and at various districts in Sonora,
etc.; in Canada at the Boundary district in British Columbia
and the Sudbury

district in Ontario.

Chile,

Japan and Germany

produce notable amounts of copper.

Copper is extensively used in the form of wire, sheet and nails.
large amount, chiefly as wire, is used as an electrical conductor.

also

important uses in various alloys, as brass (copper and

bronze and bell metal (copper and tin, at times zinc also),

It has
zinc),

Gepman

silver (copper, zinc

or blue vitriol,

is

and

nickel), etc.

Copper sulphate,

used in calico printing and in galvanic

cells.

Gold.
Native Gold, Au, with small amounts of Ag.
Petzite, (Ag,Au) 2 Te.

Sylvanite,

AuAgTe

4.

Krennerite,
Calaverite,

AuTe2
AuTe 2

By far the greater part of gold occurs as the native metal. It

enters into only one series of compounds, the tellurides, and
these minerals, while at times forming rich ore deposits, as at
Cripple Creek, Colorado, are found in only a few districts.

For

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

318

the occurrence and associations of the gold ores see under gold,

page 125; under calaverite, page 158; and sylvanite, page 157.
The uses of gold for jewelry, plating and coins are well known.

The standard gold

for

United States coin

is

composed

of 9 parts

part copper. The gold used in jewelry is alloyed with

copper and silver in order to harden it. The purity of gold is
given in carats; 24 carats being the pure metal. Most of the
gold and

gold used

is

18 carats fine or $f gold and

^ other metals.

Gold

used as the standard of international exchange and one troy

ounce is worth $20.67.

is

Iron.

Hematite, Fe 2 3
Magnetite, Fe 3 4
Turgite, Fe 4 5 (OH) 2

Goethite, Fe 2

Limonite Fe 4

Siderite,

FeC0

(OH) 2
(OH) 6

3.

Iron, next to aluminium, is the most abundant metal in the

crust of the earth.
It very rarely occurs native, being found
chiefly in the

form of oxides, sulphides and

in greater or less

amount

in

many

silicates.

It

is

found

rocks, especially in those that

contain the amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas or olivine. The mineral species that contain iron are very numerous but the minerals
of

importance as ores number only three or four.

in large

amounts

in the sulphides, pyrite,

Iron occurs

FeS 2 being the most

,

common of all sulphides. These, however, never serve as ores

of the metal because of the injurious effects of the presence of
sulphur upon the iron. The minerals used as ores are 'the
various oxides or the carbonate.

The various iron ores are formed under different conditions,

and as a rule occur alone or in association with only small
amounts of any one of the others. For discussion of the occurrence of the iron ores see, therefore, under hematite, page 184;
magnetite, page 189; limonite, page 200; and siderite, page 210.
Hematite is by far the most important ore of iron, forming in
the United States about nine-tenths of the ore produced. Limonite and magnetite form each about one-twentieth of the total,
while the

amount

Hematite ore comes

produced is almost negligible.

from the various Lake Superior dis-

of siderite
chiefly

LEAD
tricts

and to a much

found

in the

less

Appalachian

319

extent from Alabama.

and magnetite

states,

Limonite
in

New

is

York,

New

Jersey and Pennsylvania. Siderite is obtained from Ohio.

Nearly one-half of the world's production of iron ore comes
from the United States; the amount produced from Minnesota
alone nearly if not quite equals that produced in any other
Germany and Great Britain, Spain and France, are
country.

notable producers of iron.

The uses of iron and steel are too well
cussion.

Copperas, or green vitriol,

known
FeS0 4 .7H 2 0,

to need dis-

the most

is

important salt of iron, being used in dyeing, in making inks,

Prussian blue, rouge, and as a disinfectant. Rouge, Fe 2 3 is
,

used as a polishing powder and as a red paint.

Considerable

of soft iron ore, known as paint ore, are ground for

mineral paints, such as ocher, umber, sienna, etc.

amounts

Lead.
Galena, PbS.

PbC0

Cerussite,
Phosgenite,

Vanadinite,
Anglesite,

3.

Pb 4 (PbCl)(As0 4 )

3.

4.

(PbCl)C0 3
Crocoite, PrCr0 4
Pb 4 (PbCl)(P0 4 ) 3

Pyromorphite,
Mimetite,

Pb 4 (PbCl)(V0 4 )
PbS0
.

3.

Wulfenite,

PbMo0

4.

the usual primary ore of lead and furnishes by far

the greater part of the metal. Cerussite and anglesite are
secondary minerals which occur in smaller amounts in the oxi-

Galena

is

dized zone of lead deposits. Galena occurs most commonly

associated with zinc ores, especially sphalerite, or in connection

with silver ores. Lead, which is derived from ores that are free
"
from silver, is known as "soft lead," while desilverized" lead,
which is obtained from silver ores, is known as "hard lead."
Lead ores are most commonly found as replacement deposits in
limestone rocks, either in the form of beds or irregular bodies,
or as small masses disseminated through a stratum of the rock.
For the associations and distribution of lead ores see under
galena, page 139.
Metallic lead is used in the form of sheet, pipe, etc. It is used
It is a constituent of various
to make weights, bullets and shot.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

320

mony), low-fusing alloys

.amount of lead

is

(Pb.OH) 2 Pb(C0 3 )2,

and

type metal (lead and antibismuth and tin). A large

used in the form of the basic carbonate,
which is known as white lead, and is very

alloys such as solder (lead

The

valuable as a paint.

tin),

(lead,

oxides of lead, litharge,

PbO, and

minium, Pb 3 4 are used in making fine grades of glass, in glazing earthenware and as pigments. Lead chromates are used as
yellow and red paints. Lead acetate, known as sugar of lead,
,

has important uses in various industries.

Manganese.
Alabandite,

MnS.

Franklinite,

(Fe,Mn,Zn)(Fe,Mn) 2

Braunite,

Mn(Mn,Si)0 3
Mn 2 (OH) 2

Mn0

Manganese

is

2.

of oxides.

Rhodochrosite,

Rhodonite,

2.

2,

Wad, mixture

Manganite,
Pyrolusite,

Mn0 MnO, etc.

Psilomelane,

an element that

is

MnC0

MnSi0

3.

3.

widely distributed in small

most rocks. It
most commonly occurs in silicates, oxides and carbonates. The
oxides are the most abundant, and practically all of the metal
is derived from them.
amounts.

The

Traces of

it

ore deposits of

at least are to be found in

manganese are ordinarily

of secondary

The manganese

existing in the rock-making silicates,

through the agency of weathering processes, is changed to an
oxide.
By some process of concentration these minerals are

origin.

often gathered together into irregular bodies lying in residual

At times the manganese oxides occur associated with
clays.
iron oxides, and when this is the case the two are smelted together to form directly an iron-manganese alloy used in making

Manganese minerals also frequently occur as gangue

minerals in connection with silver ores. A manganese ore to

steel.

be of commercial value should contain at least 40 per cent of

metallic manganese and be low in percentages of phosphorus

and

silica.

Manganese is obtained in the United States from the following

materials: manganese ores, manganiferous iron ores, manganif-

MERCURY

321

erous silver ores, and from the residuum left from smelting the
zinc ores of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.
Manganese ores are

found

in

commercial deposits in Virginia, Georgia, Arkansas and

Manganif erous iron ores are found in Virginia, and at

California.

various places in the Lake Superior iron-ore districts. Mangafound in the Rocky Mountain and Great

nif erous silver ores are

Basin regions, the principal locality being Leadville, Colorado.

zinc ores of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, contain small per-

The

centages of manganese, chiefly in the mineral franklinite, and in

the smelting of them the manganese remains in the residuum from
which it is later obtained. This is the most important source

manganese at present in the United States. Because of the

small domestic production of manganese ores large amounts
have to be imported. These come largely from India and Brazil.
of

chiefly used in the form of alloys, those with

most important. Spiegeleisen is an alloy of iron
and manganese containing below 20 per cent of manganese,
while ferromanganese contains manganese ranging in amount
from 20 to 90 per cent. These alloys are extensively used in
the manufacture of steel. They serve to take away any oxygen

Manganese

is

iron being the

that might be in the iron, the oxygen uniting with the manganese
and going into the slag. They serve also to introduce carbon

and to prevent its oxidation, and also to counteract

the bad effects of sulphur and phosphorus. Manganese has
For these reasons
also of itself a hardening influence on steel.

into the steel

manganese steels have a wide use.

Chemical uses of manganese compounds include the use of
the oxide, pyrolusite, Mn0 2 as an oxidizer in the manufacture
of chlorine, bromine and oxygen, as a drier in paints and varnishes, as a decolorizer of glass, and in the dry-cell battery.
,

Potassium permanganate is used as a disinfectant. Manganese

used in printing calico and for coloring bricks, pottery and

is

glass.

Mercury.
Cinnabar, HgS.
Mercury, or quicksilver,
in its occurrence.

The

is

neither abundant nor widespread

native metal

is

sometimes found and

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

322

other rare minerals of mercury are occasionally noted, but

practically the only ore of the metal is the sulphide, cinnabar.

For the occurrence and distribution of mercury, therefore, see

under cinnabar, page 144.
The most important use of mercury is in the amalgamation
It is
process for recovering gold and silver from their ores.
"
used in the form of an amalgam with tin in silvering" mirrors.
It is

used in thermometers, barometers,

etc.

Mercury

The

especially calomel, are used in medicine.

sulphide

is

salts,

used

as the pigment called vermilion.

Molybdenum.
Molybdenite,

Molybdenum

is

MoS

Wulfenite,

2.

PbMo0

4.

a rare element occurring chiefly as the sulMore rarely wulfenite may serve as an

phide, molybdenite.

See under molybdenite, page 137, and under wulfenite,

page 308, for their occurrence and distribution. Only a small
amount of molybdenum is produced in the United States.
Molybdenum is used to a small extent as a steel-hardening
In the form of ammonium molybdate it is used as a
metal.
ore.

chemical reagent, as a fireproofing material, and as a disinMolybdenum compounds are also used to color leather

fectant.

and rubber.
Nickel.
Pentlandite, (Ni,Fe)S.

Chloanthite,

NiAs 2

Millerite, NiS.

Gersdorffite,

NiAsS.

Niccolite, NiAs.

Genthite, Ni 2

Mg Si Oi

.6H 2 0(?).

Nickeliferous Pyrrhotite.

Garnierite, noumeaite,

H NiSi0

LinnsBite, (Co,Ni,Fe) 3 S 4

Nickel

is

with cobalt.

(?).

a comparatively rare element, found often associated

Its minerals are frequently found in small amounts

in connection with

magnesian igneous rocks, where it is comchromite.

with
associated
Only a few localities produce
monly
the metal in commercial quantities, the world's output coming
mostly from the nickeliferous pyrrhotite ores of Sudbury, On-

PLATINUM
tario,

Canada, or from the

donia.

The production

States

The

is

323

silicate (garnierite) ores of

of nickel

from ores mined

New

in the

Cale-

United

very small.

chief use of nickel

is

in various alloys.

Nickel

steel,

con-

taining about 3.5 per cent of nickel, has a wide use because of its
Other alloys are German silver
great strength and toughness.
metal for coinage (nickel and copper)
(nickel, zinc and copper)
.

Large amounts of nickel are used in nickel plating.

Platinum.
Native Platinum, Pt, with some iron and traces of the rare
platinum metals.
Sperrylite, PtAs 2
.

Platinum
only

known

a rare element which usually occurs native. Its

compound occurring as a mineral is the arsenide,

is

which has been found very sparingly in two or three

with copper and nickel ores. Platinum
is characteristically found associated with the magnesian rocks
The only commercalled peridotites and often with chromite.
sperrylite,

localities in association

cial deposits of platinum so far known are placer deposits, the

materials of which have been derived from the weathering of

the rocks that contained the platinum in disseminated particles.

For the occurrence and distribution of platinum see page 131.

The uses of platinum chiefly depend upon its high fusing point
(1700 to 1800 C.) and its resistance to chemical reagents. It
is valuable for all sorts of laboratory apparatus, such as crucibles,
dishes, spoons, etc.

It

for concentrating kettles

is

used in the sulphuric acid industry

also in the contact process for the

and

manufacture of the acid in the form of finely divided platinum,

which the acid is formed. It is largely used as
wire to form the electrical connections with the filaments of
in contact with

incandescent electric lights. It is used in jewelry, particularly

as the setting for diamonds, in dentistry in the making of false
teeth, in electrical heating apparatus, for sparking plugs in explosion motors, in the measuring of high temperatures, in electrical contacts, etc.

employed

Potassium chloro-platinate, 2KCl.PtCl 2

in photography.

is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

324

Silver.

Native Silver, Ag.

Argentite, As 2 S.
Sylvanite,

Stephanite,

Ag S.Cu 2S.
AgAuTe 4

Stromeyerite,

Pyrargyrite, 3Ag S.Sb 2 S 3

2

It is to

gen, the

3Ag 2 S.As 2 S
5Ag 2 S.Sb 2 S 3
Polybasite, 9Ag 2 S.Sb 2 S 3
Proustite,

3.

Cerargyrite, AgCl.

Embolite, Ag(Cl,Br).

be noted that none of the silver minerals contain oxymost important series being included in the sulphide

and sulpho-salt

Besides the distinctively silver minmetals contain at

"groups.

erals listed above, several minerals of other

times sufficient silver to

make them

Most important among

these are the argentiferous varieties of

valuable ores of the metal.

These
galena, chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite.
common ores of silver, either because of

minerals form the most

the small amounts of silver which they contain, or the small

of silver minerals associated with them.

amounts

The important

ores of silver can be divided into three

main

classes, namely, the siliceous ores, copper ores and lead ores.
The siliceous ores are those ores which contain large propor-

tions of quartz with small amounts of gold and silver minerals

and are comparatively free from other metals. Most of them

contain both gold and

silver ore is

silver,

The

the gold value being often in excess

which this type of

produced are Tonopah in Nevada; the San Juan,

of the silver value.

chief districts in

Leadville and Aspen districts in Colorado; Granite, Jefferson

and Silverbow counties in Montana; and in various districts
in Idaho, Arizona, California, South Dakota and Utah.
The
important deposits of copper ores which contain a notable
amount of silver are found at Butte in Montana; at the Bingham
and Tintic districts in Utah; at the Bisbee, United Verde and
Silver Bell districts in Arizona; in Shasta County, California;
in Idaho, Michigan and Colorado.
The

and at various places

important deposits of lead ore that produce silver are to be

found at the Cceur d'Alene district in Idaho; at the Bingham

and Tintic

Utah; at the Creede, San Juan and LeadColorado; and at various districts in Nevada,

districts in

ville districts in

325

TIN
Montana and

For the production

Arizona.

classes of silver ores see

Appendix

of these different

II.

The important foreign countries for the production of silver

are Mexico, Canada and Australia.
In Mexico the chief districts are Guanajuato, Pachuca, El Oro, Parral and Santa Eulalia;
in Canada in the Boundary and Kootenai districts in British
Columbia and the Cobalt
chiefly from the Broken Hill

district

in

district in

in

Ontario;

New

Australia

South Wales.

In connection with silver ores the following facts are of inOwing to the high value of silver, only a small per-

terest.

centage of the metal in an ore is sufficient to make it valuable.

For instance, an ore that contained only 0.34 per cent of silver
would yield 100 ounces to the ton, which is an amount much

In giving the assay value of an ore, the

larger than usual.
amount of silver is usually stated in ounces per ton of ore.
Lead-silver ores are of value because in the smelting the silver
be taken up by the lead. Ores containing calcium car-

will

bonate and iron and manganese minerals are of value because

Zinc minof the service of these materials in fluxing the ore.
erals detract

from the value

difficulty in smelting caused

of

by

The uses of silver for coinage,

and

objects

an ore because

for various useful

for plating are too well

The standard

of the

added

their presence.

silver coin for the

known

and ornamental

to need discussion.

United States contains nine

Silver salts are used in photogcaustic silver (AgN0 3 ) is employed in medicine.

parts of silver to one of copper.

raphy and

Tin.
Stannite,

The
This

Cu

S.FeS.SnS.

is

Cassiterite,

Sn0 2

the oxide, cassiterite.

a mineral which, while occurring in small quantities in

only ore of tin of importance

is

only in a comparatively few commercial

For the occurrence and distribution of the mineral
see page 193.
The United States at present produces only a

many localities, is found

deposits.

small

Tin

amount

of tin ore.

chiefly used in the coating or "tinning" of metals, esThe tin plate thus formed is used in roofing, in
pecially iron.
is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

326

various utensils, etc. An amalgam of tin and mercury is used

in "silvering" mirrors.
Various alloys are valuable, such as

and

solder (tin

The

artificial

chloride

is

lead),

bronze and bell metal (copper and tin).

is used as a polishing powder.
Stannic

oxide of tin

employed as a mordant

in dyeing.

Titanium.
Ilmenite, titanic iron, FeTi0 3
with MgTi0 3 and Fe 2 3
Rutile,

Titanium

Ti0
is

Ti0 2
Ti0
CaTiSi0

Octahedrite,
Brookite,

Titanite,

a rare element, but is quite widely distributed in

In the form of the minerals rutile and titanite

small quantities.

it is present in most igneous rocks.

Ilmenite is commonly
found in the basic igneous rocks, and is often associated with
magnetic iron ores.
Very little titanium ore is produced in the United States.
Rutile deposits occur in Virginia, and some of the Adirondack

magnetite deposits contain considerable ilmenite.

The present uses of titanium are rather limited.
used in steel and cast iron, in which

oxygen and nitrogen.

it

It has

been

serves to eliminate the

It is also said to give

a high tensile

strength and great ductility to the steel. It is being used to

some extent in the manufacture of electrodes for arc lights.
The oxide is used to give a yellow color to porcelain, and to give

a natural color to

false teeth.

Tungsten.
Wolframite, (Fe,Mn)W0 4
Hiibnerite,

MnW0

Scheelite,

CaW0

4.

4.

Tungsten is a rare acid-forming heavy metal found chiefly in

the tungstates of iron and calcium, wolframite and scheelite.
For the occurrence and distribution of these minerals see under
wolframite, page 307, and scheelite, page 308.
The most important use to which tungsten is put is as a steelhardening metal. Tungsten steels hold their temper at high

temperatures and are therefore valuable for the making of high-

ZINC

327

etc.
Because of its high fusing point metallic
used as a filament in incandescent electric lights.
Sodium tungstate is used in fireproofing cloth and as a mordant

speed

tools,

tungsten

is

Calcium tungstate

in dyeing.

is

used as the luminous screen in

X-ray apparatus.

Vanadium.
Roscoelite,

H K (Mg,Fe)(Al,V)
8

(Si0 3 )2(?).

Vanadinite,Pb 4 (PbCl)(V04)3.Carnotite,K(U0 2 ) 2 (V04) 2 .3H 2 0(?).

Vanadium is an acid-forming metal which is known in a number of very rare minerals. The three listed above are the only
ones which occur in sufficient quantities in the United States to
be available for ores. Roscoelite is a green micaceous mineral
containing about 2 per cent of metallic vanadium. It is found
in a soft sandstone near Placerville, Col.
Carnotite is a sulphuryellow pulverulent mineral of doubtful composition which is
found in sandstones in several districts in Colorado and Utah,
near the boundary line between the two states. Vanadinite is
a secondary lead mineral which is found sparingly in the oxidized zones of certain lead deposits in Arizona and New Mexico.
All of these ores are low grade, and are worked only in a small

way and

at intervals.

The

chief supply of

vanadium

ores at

present comes from Peru, where there are large deposits of an

impure carbonaceous sulphide of vanadium, known as patronite.

Vanadium is used chiefly in steel, and is said to give it great
Metavanadic acid, HV0 3 is used
tensile and elastic strength.
as a yellow pigment, known as vanadium bronze.
Vanadium
,

oxide serves as a mordant in dyeing.

Zinc.
Sphalerite, ZnS.
Zincite,

ZnC0

Smithsonite,

ZnO.

Willemite,

Franklinite, (Fe,Zn,Mn) (Fe,Mn) 2

Zn Si0
2

4.

3.

Calamine, (ZnOH) 2 SiO.

The

sulphide, sphalerite,

is

the one

common primary

ore of

carbonate, smithsonite, and the silicate, calamine,

are usually associated with sphalerite deposits as secondary
zinc.

The

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

328

The three minerals, zincite, franklinite and willemite,

are found in unique deposits at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.
Together with a large number of rare and unusual minerals they

minerals.

form

In
anticlinal beds lying intercalated in a limestone series.
general sphalerite, the chief ore of zinc, is found in irregular
replacement deposits in limestone. It is very frequently intimately associated with lead minerals. For its occurrence and
distribution see page 142.
Metallic zinc, or spelter, as

it is

called, is chiefly

used for gal-

vanizing iron, as an alloy with copper in brass, and in storage

and telegraph batteries. Zinc dust or zinc shavings are used to
precipitate gold from its solution in the cyanide process.
Large
amounts of zinc oxide, or zinc white, are used as a white paint
which is even more permanent than lead paints. Zinc chloride
is

used as a wood preservative.

OCCURRENCE AND ASSOCIATION OF MINERALS.

Although minerals are found in many modes of occurrence,
and in an almost endless variety of associations, there are, however, certain frequent and important ways in which they occur
that should be pointed out. An understanding of the conditions under which a particular mineral is usually formed, together

with a knowledge of what other minerals are characteristically

associated with it, is of the greatest value.
On the following
pages

is

modes

more important
more common associa-

given, therefore, a brief discussion of the

of mineral occurrence,

and

of the

tions observed.

Rocks and Rock-making Minerals.

Since by far the greater part of minerals occur as rock constituents a short description of the more important rock types
and of the common rock-making minerals will be given first.

Only the barest outline of the subject can be given here and for
more detailed information the reader is referred to one of the
textbooks which treat more particularly of petrology.

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Rocks may be divided into three main
I.

II.

III.

I.

divisions,

329
namely:

Igneous.

Sedimentary.

Metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks.

Igneous Rocks, as the name indicates, are those which have

been formed by the cooling and consequent solidification of a
once hot and fluid mass of rock material. This liquid mass
is known as a rock magma.
A magma, in a measure, is like
a solution containing in a dissociated condition the elements
which, when the mass cools sufficiently, unite to form the various
minerals that go to make up the resulting rock. The elements

which form the chief constituents of the magmas of igneous

rocks are oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, magnesium,
sodium and potassium, named in the order of their abundance.

When a magma cools these elements unite to form various

mineral molecules, which, when the point of supersaturation
is reached, crystallize out to form the minerals of the rock.
compounds under similar conditions crystallize out
mass earlier than do others. In most igneous
rocks a more or less definite order of crystallization for their
mineral constituents can be determined. In general the more
basic minerals or those which contain the smaller amounts of
Certain

of the fluid

silica,

which

to crystallize

is

the acid element in igneous rocks, are observed

and the more acid minerals last. Among the

first

commoner rock-making minerals the following would be the

usual order of crystallization; iron oxides like magnetite first,
then the ferro-magnesian minerals like pyroxene, next the
plagioclase feldspars, then orthoclase and lastly quartz.
The type of minerals to be found in any igneous rock

would
of
the
the
chemical
composition
original
upon
depend
magma. If the magma was acid in character, i.e., had a high
percentage of silica, the resulting rock would contain the more
It would
acid minerals and an abundance of free quartz.
other
on
the
the
had
in
color.
be
hand,
magma
If,
light
usually
chiefly

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

330

or in other words was basic in charwould contain the more basic minerals
and would not show free quartz. It would also in general be

a low percentage of

silica,

acter, the resulting rock

dark in color.
In addition to the wide variation

in.

chemical and mineral

composition shown by igneous rocks there is also a variation in

This is dependent upon the mode of
their physical structure.
origin of the rock.

If

a rock has been formed from a

magma

buried at a considerable depth in the crust of the earth it must

have cooled very slowly and taken a long period of time for its
gradual crystallization and solidification. Under these conditions the mineral particles have had the opportunity, because
of the slowness of crystallization, to grow to considerable size.

A rock having such a deep-seated origin has, therefore, a coarsegrained structure and the various minerals that go to form the
rock can in general be differentiated and recognized by the
unaided eye.

Such rocks are commonly termed

plutonic.

On

the other hand, if, by volcanic forces, the magma, has been
extruded upon the surface of the earth or intruded in the form
of dikes into the rocks lying close to the surface, its subsequent

Under these concooling and solidification go on quite rapidly.

ditions the mineral particles have little chance to grow to any
size

and the resulting rock

is

fine-grained in character.

In some

has been too rapid to allow the separation of any minerals and the resulting rock is like a glass.
Ordinarily the mineral constituents of such a rock are only to be
cases, indeed, the cooling

definitely recognized

by a microscopic examination

of a thin

section of the rock.

Such igneous rocks are known

as volcanic

rocks.

An

igneous rock, because of the

sists of crystalline particles

each other.
particle

is

particles.

which

mode

of its formation, con-

may be said to interlock with

a solid mass, and each mineral

In other words, it is
intimately and firmly embedded in the surrounding
This structure will enable one ordinarily to distin-

guish an igneous from a sedimentary rock, the latter being composed of grains which do not interlock with each other but stand
out,

more or

less,

by themselves.

sedimentary rock

is

not

PLUTONIC, COARSE-GRAINED ROCKS

331

an igneous rock. Further the texture

an igneous rock is the same in all directions and it forms a
This characteristic will
fairly uniform and homogeneous mass.
enable one to distinguish an igneous from a metamorphic rock,
since the latter shows a more or less definite parallel arrangement of its minerals and a banded structure.
Because of the almost infinite variation possible in the chemical composition of their magmas, and because of the various
conditions under which they may form, igneous rocks show likewise a wide variation in character. The more common and
so firm and coherent as
of

important types, however, are very briefly described below.

Plutonic, Coarse-grained Rocks.

granite is a medium- to coarse-grained, lightcolored rock having an even texture and consisting chiefly of
quartz and a feldspar. Frequently both orthoclase and a
1.

Granite.

plagioclase feldspar,' and usually also small amounts of mica or

hornblende are present. The feldspars can be recognized by
their color and cleavage.
Frequently the orthoclase is colored
flesh-color or red, while the soda-lime feldspar is usually white.

The quartz
fracture.

found

is

It

is

recognized by its glassy luster and conchoidal

usually white or smoky-gray in color and is

in irregular grains filling

other minerals.
biotite, is to

The

between the
be either muscovite or
Granite is a common
cleavage.

up the

mica, which

be recognized by

its

interstices

may

rock type.

2. Syenite.
syenite is a medium- to coarse-grained lightcolored rock with an even texture and much like a granite in

appearance. It is to be distinguished from granite, however, by

the fact that it contains little or no quartz. Its chief minerals
are the feldspars, with more or less hornblende, mica or pyroxene.
variety, known as nephelite-syenite, is characterized by the

presence of considerable amounts of nephelite.

called

of

Another variety,
labradorite.
The

composed chiefly
mica and hornblende may be distinguished as described under granite. The pyroxene resembles hornblende in
appearance, but does not show as good a prismatic cleavage.
anorthosite,

feldspars,

is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

332
Nephelite
oily

is

lack of a distinct cleavage and

Syenites are not very common.

by

recognized

and greasy

luster.

its

its

3. Diorite.
Diorite is a medium- to coarse-grained dark gray
or greenish colored rock having an even texture and consisting

hornblende and a feldspar, in which the hornblende

predominates. Often fine grains of iron ore may be observed,
and frequently considerable amounts of biotite. It is a common
rock type.
chiefly of

4.

Gabbro is a medium- to coarse-grained dark gray

an even texture composed chiefly

Gabbro.

to greenish black rock with

pyroxene and a feldspar. It is closely similar to diorite, the

distinction lying in the fact that it contains pyroxene instead
of amphibole.
These two minerals, as they occur in these rocks,
cannot always be told apart by a megascopic examination.
of.

The pyroxene

is usually in small crystal grains with rather poor

prismatic cleavages which are at nearly right angles to each
Hornblende is more liable to be in longer prismatic
other.

crystals

125.
5.

and shows better cleavages, the angle

It

is

common

Dolerite.

This

of

which

is

about

rock.

is

name given

and gabbro which are too

to those varieties of diorite

fine-grained in character to enable

one to tell megascopically whether the dark-colored mineral

which they contain is hornblende or pyroxene.
6.

Peridotite.

peridotite

is

a medium- to coarse-grained

dark green to black rock with an even texture which consists

wholly of ferromagnesian minerals. These are chiefly olivine,
pyroxene and hornblende. As one or the other of these minerals
predominates, various variety names are used, such as dunite for
olivine rock and pyroxenite and hornblendite for respectively

an

pyroxene and hornblende rocks. Common accessory minerals

found in these rocks are ilmenite, chromite and garnet. The
peridotites are not very common in their occurrence.

Volcanic, Fine-grained Igneous Rocks.

Because of their very fine-grained structure volcanic rocks
cannot in general be readily told apart. A number of different
types are recognized, the distinction between them being based,

VOLCANIC, FINE-GRAINED IGNEOUS ROCKS

333

however, chiefly upon microscopic study. In the field only an

approximate classification, depending upon whether the rock
is light or dark in color, can be made.
A brief description of
these

two types

of volcanic rocks follows.

This

is a dense fine-grained rock type with a stony

texture an,d includes all colors except dark gray, dark green or
black.
These rocks may, by the aid of a lens, still show a very
1.

Felsite.

fine-grained structure or their mineral constituents may occur

in such small particles as to give them a dense and homogeneous,

often a flinty, appearance. By microscopic study the felsites

have been divided into the following groups; rhyolite, consisting
chiefly of alkaline feldspars and quartz; dacite, lime-soda feldspars and quartz; trachyte, alkaline feldspars with little or no
andesite, soda-lime feldspars

quartz;

phonolite,

alkaline feldspars

and

with

or

no quartz;

As a

rule these

little

nephelite.

be distinguished from each other in the field.

The felsites are widespread in their occurrence, being found as
dikes and sheets intruded into the upper part of the earth's crust
or as lava flows which have been poured out upon the earth's
varieties are not to

surface.
2. Basalt.
The basalts are dense fine-grained rocks that are
of very dark color, green or black.
They are composed of microscopic grains of a soda-lime feldspar with pyroxene, iron ore,

often

more

or less olivine

and at times

biotite or hornblende.

These rocks are formed under the same conditions as the felsites
and are to be found occurring in the same ways.
3. Glassy Rocks.
Some of the volcanic rocks have cooled
so rapidly that they are wholly or in part made
material in which the different elements have not

up of a glassy
had the neces-

sary opportunity to group themselves into definite minerals.

If the entire rock is composed of glass it is called obsidian, when
it

has a bright and vitreous luster; pitchstone when its luster is

and pitchy; perlite if it is made up of small spheroids; and

dull

These rocks
it has a distinctly cellular structure.
have distinct crystals of various minerals embedded
in the glass, in which case they are known as glass porphyries (see
below for a definition of a porphyry) or vitrophyres.
pumice

may

if

also

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

334
Porphyries.

Igneous rocks at times show distinct crystals of

lie embedded in a much finer-grained

certain minerals which

material.

These larger crystals are known as phenocrysts, and

the finer-grained material as the groundmass of the rock. Rocks

The
exhibiting such a structure are known as porphyries.

vary in size from crystals an inch or more

to quite small individuals.
The groundmass may
also be composed of fairly coarse-grained material or its grains
phenocrysts

across

may

down

be microscopic in size. It is the distinct difference in size

existing between the phenocrysts and the particles of the groundmass that is the distinguishing feature of a porphyry. This

may

peculiar structure is due to certain conditions prevailing during

the formation of the rock which permitted some crystals to grow

main mass of the rock consolidated

and uniform-grained material. The explanation of
the reasons why a certain rock should assume a porphyritic
structure would involve a more detailed discussion than it is
expedient to give in this place. Any one of the above described
types of igneous rocks may have a porphyritic variety, such as
to considerable size before the

into a finer-

Pordiorite-porphyry, felsite-porphyry, etc.

phyritic varieties are more liable to occur in connection with
volcanic rocks, and they are also found most frequently in the
case of the more acid types.
granite-porphyry,

II.

of

Sedimentary Rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are secondary in their origin, the materials

which they are composed having been derived from the decay

and disintegration of some previously existing rock mass. They

have been formed by a deposition of sediments in a body of
water. They may be divided into two classes, depending upon
whether their origin has been mechanical or chemical in its
In the case of the sedimentary rocks of a mechanical
origin, their constituent particles have been derived from the
disintegration of some rock mass, and have been transported
by streams into a large body of quiet water, where they have

nature.

been deposited in practically horizontal layers.

Sedimentary

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

335

rocks of chemical origin have had the materials of which they

are composed dissolved by waters circulating through the rocks

and brought ultimately by these waters into a sea, where throughsome chemical change they are precipitated upon its floor, also
in horizontal layers.
These horizontal beds of sediments are
ultimately consolidated into the masses

known

as sedimentary

rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are therefore characterized by a parallel

arrangement of their constituent particles into layers and beds
which are to be distinguished from each other by differences in
thickness, size of grain

and often

in color.

It

is

to be noted,

composed of an
aggregate of individual mineral particles, each of which stands
out in a way by itself and does not have that intimate interlocking relation with the surrounding particles which is to be
seen in the minerals of an igneous rock. In all the coarsergrained sedimentary rocks there is some material which, acting
as a cement, surrounds the individual mineral particles and binds
them together. This cement is usually either silica, calcium
carbonate or iron oxide. The chief minerals to be found in
sedimentary rocks are quartz and a carbonate, calcite or doloThese give rise to the two chief types of sedimentary
mite.
A brief description
rocks, the sandstones and the limestones.
further, that sedimentary rocks in general are

of these rocks follows.

Sandstone. Sandstones are mechanical in their origin,

being formed by the consolidation into rock masses of beds of
sand and gravel. Usually the constituent grains are rounded
and water-worn, but at times they may be more or less angular
1.

With the variation in the size of the mineral particles

the rocks themselves vary in their grain. Coarse-grained sandstones formed from gravels are known as conglomerates. The
cement which serves to bind the sand grains together may be

in shape.

deposited silica, a carbonate, usually calcite, an iron oxide,

hematite or limonite, or fine-grained argillaceous or claylike
The color of the rock will depend in large measure
material.

upon the character

of the cement.

The

rocks which have silica

or calcite as their binding material are light in color, usually pale

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

336

yellow, buff, white to gray, while those that contain an iron

oxide are red to reddish brown. It is to be noted that when a
it is usually the cement that is fractured, while
the individual grains remain unbroken, so that the fresh surfaces
of the rock have a granular appearance and feeling. The chief

sandstone breaks

mineral of sandstones

is

quartz, but at times a rock

may contain

notable amounts of feldspar and is then termed an arkose.

Graywacke is a sandstone, usually of a gray color, which in addition to quartz and feldspar contains particles of other rocks and
minerals.
2. Shale.
The shales are very fine-grained sedimentary rocks
which have been formed by the consolidation of beds of mud,
clay or silt. They have usually a thinly laminated structure.
Their color is commonly some tone of gray, although they may
be white, yellow, brown, green to black. They are composed

chiefly of kaolin, mica, etc., but are too fine-grained to permit

the recognition of their mineral constituents by the eye alone.
By the introduction of quartz and an increase in the size of

grain they grade into the sandstones.

3.

Limestone.

The

limestones are carbonate rocks composed

usually chiefly of calcite, although dolomite may also be at times

an important constituent. The carbonate has in the great
majority of cases been extracted from the sea water by the

agency of minute organisms and then deposited in beds which

ultimately are consolidated into rock. These rocks are usually fine- and even-grained in structure and sometimes quite

Some limestones are quite pure calcite, while others conThe

tain clay like materials and various oxides as impurities.
color of a limestone is usually gray, although it may be white,
It is a soft rock, to be easily
yellow, brown to almost black.
dense.

scratched by a knife. It will effervesce readily in any common

In the case of limestones composed of dolomite, however,
acid.
the acid needs to be heated.

Oolite, or oolitic limestone, is

a vari-

ety which consists of an aggregate of small spherical concretions.

Chalk is a very fine-grained friable limestone composed of shells
of

minute sea animals known as foraminifera.

deposit of calcium carbonate formed by springs.

Travertine

is

A fine example

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

337

formed by the Mammoth Hot Springs,

Marl is a loose, earthly material composed
a carbonate mixed with clay in variable amount.

exists in the deposits

Yellowstone Park.
of

Metamorphic Rocks.

III.

Metamorphic rocks are rocks which have undergone some

chemical or physical change subsequent to their original formation. This change has been brought about by means of high temperature and pressure aided by the action of water and other
chemical agents. The changes involve the formation of new
minerals, the adding or subtracting of chemical constituents and
a physical readjustment of the mineral particles to conform to
the existing pressure. The original rock from which a metamor-

phic rock has been derived may be either igneous or sedimentary.

As these rocks become involved in movements of the earth's crust,

they are subjected to extreme pressures accompanied usually

The result will be frequently to trans-

by high temperatures.

form the existing minerals into others more stable under the

new

conditions.

The

physical structure of the rock will also

Because of the presordinarily be changed during the process.

sure to which the rock is subjected the mineral particles will be

and flattened and rearranged in parallel

This banded or laminated character given by the
parallel arrangement of its minerals is the most striking pecuBecause of this structure a
liarity of a metamorphic rock.

more

or less broken

layers.

metamorphic rock can be distinguished from an igneous rock.

Further, in the great majority of cases a metamorphic rock has
a crystalline structure which distinguishes it from a sedimentary
rock.
There are, of course, all gradations from a typical metamorphic rock into an unaltered sedimentary rock on the one
hand and into an unaltered igneous rock on the other. The

most common types

of

metamorphic rocks are

briefly described

below.
1.

Gneiss.

When

the word gneiss

is

used alone

it

usually

a metamorphic rock composed essentially of quartz,

and
a mica. The quartz and feldspar occur together
feldspar
in layers which are separated from each other by thin drawn-out
refers to

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

338
bands of 'mica.

gneiss has usually a light color, although

so.
Various varieties of gneiss have received distinctive names, most of which are self-explanatory, like
this is

not necessarily

banded-gneiss,

lenticular-gneiss, biotite-gneiss, hornblende-gneiss,

granite-gneiss, diorite-gneiss, etc.

Gneiss

is

a very

common

rock

type, especially in regions in which the oldest rocks, those of

the Archaean age, are found. Gneisses have been more com-

monly derived by the metamorphism of igneous rocks, mostly

but may have been formed from sedimentary rocks as

granites,
well.

Mica-schist.

Mica-schist is a rock composed essentially

and a mica, usually either muscovite or biotite. The
mica is the prominent mineral, occurring in irregular leaves and
in foliated masses.
The mica plates all lie with their cleavage
to
each
other and give to the rock a striking lamplanes parallel
2.

of quartz

"

schistose" structure. The mica-schists frequently

carry characteristic accessory minerals, such as garnet, stauro-

inated or

cyanite, epidote, hornblende, etc.

They may have been
derived from either an igneous or a sedimentary rock. Next to
the gneisses, they are the most common metamorphic rocks.
lite,

3.

Quartzite.

As

its

name

indicates, a quartzite

is

a rock

composed essentially of quartz. It is a firm, compact rock

which breaks with an uneven, splintery or conchoidal fracture.
It is usually light in color.
Quartzite has been derived from
a sandstone by intense metamorphism.
It is a common and
widely distributed rock.
4. Slate.
Slates are exceedingly fine-grained rocks which
have a remarkable cleavage which permits them to be split into
Their color is commonly gray to black,
thin and broad sheets.
but may be green, yellow, brown, red, etc. They have been
formed commonly by the metamorphism of shales. Their
characteristic slaty cleavage may or may not be parallel to the

bedding planes of the original shales.

They

are quite

common

in occurrence.
5.

Various Schists. There are various other kinds of schistose

which are chiefly derived by the metamorphism of the

rocks,

ferromagnesian igneous rocks.

The most important types

are

THE COMMON ROCK-MAKING MINERALS

339

amphibolite or hornblende-schist.

They

talc-schist, chlorite-schist,

each are characterized, as their names indicate, by the preponderance of some metamorphic ferromagnesian mineral.
A marble is a metamorphosed limestone. It is
6. Marble.
a crystalline rock composed of grains of calcite, or more rarely
dolomite. At times the individual grains are so small that they
cannot be distinguished by the eye, and again they may be quite
coarse and show clearly the characteristic cleavage of the mineral.

and

Like limestone, a marble

effervescence with acids.

is

characterized

by

its

softness

When

pure, marble is white in

but
it
show
a
of
wide
may
color,
range
color, due to various imIt is a rock which is found in many
purities that it contains.
its

localities

and at times

in thick

and extensive beds.

The Common Rock-making

Minerals.

Although many minerals are found as rock constituents, those

which can be termed common and characteristic rock-making
minerals are comparatively few in number. The following list
gives the names of these minerals, with a brief statement in each
case of the types of rocks in which, they most commonly occur.
1. Quartz.
Quartz, Si0 2 is a very common and widely distributed rock-making mineral.
It is found in all the light,

colored, acid, igneous

and metamorphic
and quartzites.

rocks.

by

its

hardness

It is the chief

be recognized
vitreous luster, lack of cleavage and conWhen it occurs in igneous rocks it often has

constituent of sandstones

It is to

(7), its

choidal fracture.

a gray or smoky color.

2. The Feldspars.
The feldspars include

orthoclase and
NaAlSi
3
8
anorthite, CaAl 2 Si 2 8
albite,
of these last two as oligoclase (3 albite to
andesite (1 albite to 1 anorthite) and labradorite

microcline, KAlSi 3 8
and various mixtures

1 anorthite),
(1 albite

to 3 anorthite).

They

are very

common rock-making

minerals and are found in a great variety of rock types. They

are characteristic of most igneous rocks, and frequently constitute a large proportion of them.
They are found in the
gneisses

and to a

less

extent in some sandstones.

They

are to

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

340

be distinguished by their two cleavages at right angles or nearly

It frequently
so, their vitreous luster and their hardness (6).
is difficult, if not impossible, to tell the kind of feldspar present
in a rock

by

inspection alone.

Under favorable conditions

be observed on the best cleavage face,

which would indicate that the feldspar belonged to the plagioclase group (see page 225) and could not be orthoclase.
twinning striations

3.

Nephelite.

essentially

may

Nephelite

NaAlSi0 4

is

silicate

whose composition

It is restricted in its occurrence,

is

being

found only in certain igneous rocks, such as the nephelite syeIt is often mistaken
nites, which are low in percentages of silica.
for quartz, but the two minerals are practically never found toIt is best determined by a chemical test.
Unlike most
gether.
rock-making minerals,

and the solution

it is

gelatinizes

readily soluble in hydrochloric acid

on evaporation.

Na

Sodalite.

is similar in its
4 (AlCl)Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3
Sodalite,
occurrence to nephelite, with which it is commonly associated.
It may be greenish gray or white in color, but is usually blue.

4.

Haiiynite and noselite are similar but rare species which occur
in the

same way.

Leucite.

Leucite has the composition KAl(Si0 3 ) 2

It is
a rare rock-making mineral found chiefly in rather basic lavas.
It is commonly in the form of phenocrysts which show trape5.

zohedral forms.

It is

white to gray in color with a dull vitreous

luster.
6.

erals.

The Micas. The micas are common rock-making minThey may be divided into two classes the light colored
:

micas which are chiefly muscovite, and the dark colored micas
consisting mostly of biotite.
They are to be determined by

eminent cleavage and the elasticity

Muscovite is found in granites and syenites
and other igneous rocks. It is especially common in the metamorphic rocks, particularly the gneisses and schists. Biotite is
found in many igneous rocks such as the granites, syenites and
their micaceous structure,

of their leaves.

felsites.

of

It occurs also in the gneisses

and

schists.

The pyroxenes form an important series

minerals
which, although the different members
rock-making

7.

The Pyroxenes.

THE COMMON ROCK-MAKING MINERALS

341

vary considerably in composition, are closely related crystalloThe important types are hypersthene, (Mg,Fe)Si0 3 ,

graphically.

CaMg(Si0

common

pyroxene, Ca(Mg,Fe)(Si0 3 ) 2
with (Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe) 2 Si0 6 as well, and
Ca(Mg,Fe)(Si0
NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 The pyroxenes are characteristically
segirite,
diopside,

3)2,

augite,

3) 2

found

in igneous rocks, particularly those that contain large

amounts

and magnesia, such as basalt, gabbro,

Diopside and common pyroxene are at times

of lime, iron

peridotite, etc.

found in metamorphic limestones. The pyroxenes vary in color

from white through green to black. They occur usually in
small grains or in short prisms.
If they show distinct crystal
can
be
told
the
outlines, they
by
square cross section of their

They have a rather poor cleavage.

The Amphiboles. The amphiboles or hornblendes

prisms.
8.

are

calcium, magnesium, iron metasilicates which closely resemble

the pyroxenes in their chemical composition. The most im-

portant members of the group are tremolite,

(Si0 3 ) 4

besides,

CaMg

(Si0 3 ) 4

Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 common hornblende, Ca(Mg,Fe) 3

with a molecule containing aluminium and ferric iron
and arfvedsonite, which contains chiefly soda, lime and

actinolite,

iron protoxide.
The amphiboles are particularly characteristic
of the metamorphic rocks, but are found in the igneous rocks as
well.

Tremolite

is

most commonly found

morphosed limestones, actinolite

granites, syenites and diorites, and
blende schists.

in

hornblende

also in gneisses

The amphiboles commonly occur

prismatic crystals with a good prismatic cleavage.

age angle is broad, having a value of about 125.
in

color

in

and hornin

bladed

The

cleav-

They vary

from white through green to black, but are most

commonly
9.

meta-

in crystalline

schists,

green.

Chrysolite, or Olivine.

Chrysolite, or olivine, as

it is

commonly termed when spoken of as a rock constituent,

orthosilicate of magnesium and ferrous iron (Mg,Fe) 2 Si0 4
.

more
an

is

It is

a characteristic constituent of the ferromagnesian igneous rocks

such as gabbros, peridotites and basalts. It is almost the only
mineral present in the igneous rock known as dunite. It is usually
green in color, with a vitreous luster and granular structure.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

342

Kaolin is a silicate of aluminium, H4Al 2 Si 2 9

always secondary in its origin. It is formed by the
weathering of some aluminium silicate, usually a feldspar. It
may occur in quite pure masses where feldspathic rocks have
Kaolin.

10.

which

is

been entirely altered, but is most commonly found, however, in

an impure state in clay, and in the rocks formed from claylike
materials such as shales, slates, etc. When pure it is often friable
It varies
or mealy in structure, although at times it is compact.

from white to yellow, brown,

in color

red, etc.,

depending upon

foreign material mixed with it.

are a group of green-colored
micaceous minerals of which clinochlore is the most common

amount and character of the

The chlorites
11. Chlorites.

the

member. In composition they are hydrous silicates of aluminium and magnesium. They are always secondary in their
origin.
They are frequently formed by the alteration of the
ferromagnesian minerals occurring in igneous rocks. The green
color of such rocks

is

usually due to the presence of chlorite.

They are also common in the chlorite-schists, in green slates, etc.

They are to be recognized by their green color, micaceous structure,
perfect cleavage, and by the fact that their leaves are not elastic.

12. Serpentine.
4 Mg 3 Si 2
9 is also a secondary
Serpentine,
mineral formed by the alteration of some original ferromagnesian
,

mineral, such as pyroxene, amphibole, and especially olivine. It

occurs, therefore, in altered igneous rocks and in metamorphic
rocks.

It

which

of

in disseminated particles or in rock masses,

may occur

it is

the chief mineral.

green in color and has an oily or

sive in structure, but
as chrysotile.

It is usually of

waxy

may become

luster.

some shade

It is usually

of

mas-

coarsely fibrous in the variety

known

H Mg (Si0

3 )4, is similar in its origin and ocfound at times in altered igneous

rocks, but is more characteristic of metamorphic rocks where
It is characterized
it may occur in large beds as soapstone.

13. Talc.
2
Talc,
currence to serpentine.

by

its

extreme softness

its foliated

14.

It

(1),

is

greasy

feel

and

also frequently

by

structure.

Calcite.

Calcite,

CaC0

3,

is

common and

widely dis-

tributed rock-making mineral found chiefly in the sedimentary

ACCESSORY ROCK-MAKING MINERALS

343

and metamorphic rocks. Such rocks as the limestones, marbles

and chalks are composed almost entirely of the mineral. It is
to be told by its softness (3), its rhombohedral cleavage and its
ready effervescence in cold acids.
15. Dolomite.
Dolomite, CaMg(C0 3 )2,

is

found in the same

commonly. The two minerals are usually

associated with each other and form dolomite marbles and

way

as calcite but less

Its physical properties are practically

dolomitic limestones.
the same as those of calcite. It will only effervesce, however,

in hot acids.

Accessory Rock-making Minerals.

In addition to the more important and common rock-making
minerals that have been described in the preceding pages, there
is a group of minerals which are characteristically found as rock
constituents but in a minor way. They occur usually only as
small and scattered crystals in the rock and seldom become one
These minerals are known as accesof its prime constituents.

sory rock-making minerals. The occurrences of the more important of them are briefly described below.
1.

Garnet.

Garnet

is

common accessory mineral,

ticularly characteristic of the

metamorphic rocks.

being par-

It

is

found

frequently in mica-schists, hornblende-schists, gneisses and metamorphosed limestones. More rarely it is found in igneous rocks.
It

occurs in small irregular grains or frequently in fair-sized

shaped crystals. It is usually red or brown in color.

definitely

For the different varieties of garnets and their distinguishing

features, see p. 245.
2. Epidote.
Epidote is formed by the alteration of silicates
containing lime, iron and aluminium. It is also characteristic
It may be associated with
of metamorphosed limestones.

chlorite, calcite, etc.

It is usually

found in bladed crystalline

masses and has a characteristic yellow-green color, is hard and

has one good cleavage.
Staurolite is found in metamorphic rocks, such
3. Staurolite.
Sometimes it is a constituent of
as the mica-schists and slates.
gneiss.

It

is

associated with mica, quartz, garnet, cyanite, etc

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

344

It is characterized by a brown color, hardness (7) and prismatic

orthorhombic crystals which may show cross-shaped twins.
4. Cyanite.
Cyanite, Al 2 Si0 5 is a rather rare accessory mineral which is found in gneisses and mica-schists.
It is associated
,

with muscovite, quartz, garnet, staurolite, etc. It is to be distinguished by its bladed structure, one good cleavage, blue color

and by the fact that it is distinctly harder in the direction parallel

to the length of the crystals than in the direction at right angles
to this.
5. Zircon.
Zircon, ZrSi0 4 is a rather rare mineral which
usually occurs in minute crystals scattered throughout a rock
mass. It is found in granites, syenites, crystalline limestones,
,

be distinguished by its usually

and tetragonal crystallization.
6. Titanite.
Titanite or sphene, CaTiSi0 5 is a compararare
mineral
found as an accessory constituent in granite,
tively
syenites, gneiss, mica- and chlorite-schists and crystalline limechloritic schists, etc.

It is to

brown

(7.5)

color,

hardness

stones.

It occurs as microscopical crystals in

many

igneous

rocks.
7. Magnetite.
Magnetite, Fe 3 ()4, is widespread in its occurrence as a rock constituent. It is found in all kinds of igneous

It
rocks, usually in small disseminated grains.
teristic of the crystalline schists and gneisses.

is

also charac-

Ordinarily

it

occurs in comparatively small amounts and would be classed as

an accessory mineral but at times it becomes a prime constituent

and may be segregated into almost pure bodies of

It is characterized by its metallic luster, black
color and streak and its strong magnetic properties.
Ilmenite or titanic iron, FeTi0 is a common
8. Ilmenite.
accessory mineral occurring in the same way as magnetite and
frequently found associated with it. It is most commonly found
in the gabbros and related rocks.
It is difficult to tell it frpm
of the rock

the mineral.

3,

magnetite by simple inspection.

9.

Hematite.

Hematite, Fe 2

3,

is

eral in the feldspathic igneous rocks

also in the crystalline schists.

and metamorphic rocks and

It is

found as an accessory min-

such as granite. It occurs

common in the sedimentary

at times forms large bodies of almost

PEGMATITE DIKES AND VEINS

345

pure mineral. It is the red pigment in many rocks and

and forms the cementing material in many sandstones.
to be recognized

by

its

red streak.

Pyrite, FeS 2 is
tals in all classes of rocks.
It
10.

Pyrite.

also

by

its

found in small disseminated crys-

color, metallic luster,

soils

It is

is

hardness

characterized

(6),

by its pale brass

black streak and frequently

isometric crystal forms.

Apatite. Apatite, Ca 4 (CaF)(P0 4 ) 3 is found in crystals of

considerable size in metamorphosed limestones.
It is also com11.

mon in microscopic crystals in

in many metamorphic ones.

all varieties

of igneous rocks,

and

In

addition to the minerals listed above, the following, more

rare in their occurrence, are at times found -as accessory rock
constituents; rutile, iolite, scapolite, andalusite and sillimamte.

Pegmatite Dikes and Veins.

In connection with the deep-seated, coarse-grained igneous
rocks, especially the granites, we frequently find*' mineral deThese
posits which are known as pegmatite dikes or veins.
bodies have the general shape and character of an igneous dike
or a broad mineral vein although in certain respects they differ

markedly from either of these. They are to be found running

through the main mass of the igneous rock or filling fissures in
the other surrounding rocks. They are composed chiefly of
the same minerals as occur in the igneous rock, but usually in
very coarse crystallizations.

granite pegmatite

made up
and

principally of quartz, feldspar and mica.

feldspar crystals may be several feet in length

plates are at times

more than a

foot across.

is

therefore

The quartz
and the mica

In addition to the

coarseness of the crystallization of the minerals, these veins

possess other peculiar features. The minerals of a pegmatite

have not apparently been deposited in the

but their
These veins
crystals have grown more nearly simultaneously.
will also at times show a ribboned or banded structure where
the different minerals occur in distinct layers which lie parallel
vein, for instance,

definite order that prevailed in the igneous rock mass,

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

346

to the walls of the deposit.

Their minerals are also commonly
distributed
quite irregularly
through the mass, so that at times
chiefly of feldspar and again becomes nearly
Frequently, along the central portion of the dike,
cavities and openings will be observed into which crystals of

the vein

is

composed

pure quartz.

These characteristics point to

the different minerals project.

a somewhat different origin for the pegmatite veins from that

of the igneous rock with which they are associated.

No extended and detailed

discussion of the theory of the origin

of pegmatite veins can be given here, but

it

may

be briefly sum-

marized as follows.
last

Pegmatite veins are formed during the

stages of the cooling and solidification of a plutonic igneous

As an igneous magma cools and slowly solidifies, it shrinks

somewhat in volume and various cracks and fissures open up
rock.

throughout the mass. The pressure due to the weight of the

rock forces any still fluid material from the interior of the mass

up through these cracks and

in the

surrounding rocks.

in the igneous rock itself

tutes a pegmatite vein.

any fissures that may exist

filling up of these fissures both

also into

The

and in the neighboring rocks constiAs a magma cools and its minerals

crystallize, large amounts of water vapor are frequently set free

so that the residue of the still fused rock material must contain

much

higher percentages of water than the original magma.

it becomes in its character and behavior more

Consequently

like a solution

than a fused mass.

This would account for the

peculiar features observed in pegmatite veins which differentiate

them from ordinary igneous deposits.

The minerals found in pegmatite veins may be divided into
First come those minerals which form
three general divisions.
the main mass of the deposit and which, as stated above, are the
same as the prominent minerals of the igneous rock with which
'

the pegmatite dike

is

associated.

These are commonly

quartz,

a feldspar which is usually either orthoclase or microdine, but

may be albite, and a mica which may "be either muscovite or
bidtite.

Garnet

constituent.

is

also at times in a smaller

Second comes a

way

a characteristic

series of rare minerals

which

are,

however, quite commonly observed in pegmatite deposits, and

CONTACT METAMORPHIC MINERALS

347

which are characterized by the presence in them of fluorine,

boron or hydroxyl. Their presence in the veins indicates also
that gases under high pressures have been instrumental in their
formation.

The minerals

apatite &ndfluorite.

of this type include beryl, tourmaline,

A third class of minerals found in pegmatite

veins includes species containing rare elements such as lithium,

tin, niobium and tantalum, the rare earths, etc.

molybdenum,

These are minerals which are rarer still in their occurrence, but
when they do occur are usually to be found in pegmatite deposits.
The most important members of this group are molybdenite,
spodumene, triphylite, columbite, cassiterite and'monazite.
Because of the frequent occurrence in pegmatite veins of the
rare minerals mentioned above, some of which are often found
lepidolite,

finely colored

and well

lar interest to

students of mineralogy.

crystallized, these deposits are of particu-

Pegmatite veins are also

of commercial importance, for it is from them that most of the

Many beautiful
feldspar and mica used in' the arts are obtained.

gem

stones, such as beryl

and tourmaline, are

also

found in them.

Pegmatite veins are widely distributed in their occurrence, being

almost universally found wherever plutonic igneous rocks are
exposed. Important districts for pegmatite veins in the United
States include the New England states, the Black Hills in South

Dakota and Southern

California.

Contact Metamorphic Minerals.

When an igneous rock magma is intruded into the earth's crust,

it

causes through the attendant heat and pressure a greater or

This alteration, or
alteration in the surrounding rock.

less

rnetamorphism, of the rocks lying next to an igneous intrusion

usually consists partly in the development of new and characThe minerals that are formed under
teristic mineral species.

known

as contact metamorphic minerals,

a
metamorphic change and are to
produced by
be found at or near the contact line between the rock in which
they lie and an igneous rock. Any rock into which an igneous

these conditions are

since they are

mass

is

intruded will be affected in a greater or

less degree,

the

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

348

amount and character

of the

change depending chiefly upon the

intruded mass and upon the chemical and physical

character of the surrounding rock. The most striking and im-

size of the

portant contact metamorphic changes take place when the

igneous rock is intruded into impure limestones. When, a pure
limestone

is

affected,

it

is

recrystallized

and converted into a

marble, but without any development of new species. But, on

the other hand, in the case of an impure limestone the heat and
pressure caused

new and

by the igneous

intrusion will serve to develop

An impure lime-

characteristic minerals in the rock.

stone will ordinarily contain, besides the calcium carbonate of the

Under
rock, varying amounts of quartz, clay, iron oxide, etc.

the influence of the heat and pressure these materials will combine with the calcium carbonate to form new minerals. For
instance, the calcite

CaSi0 3

and quartz may react together to form

If the limestone contains dolomite, the

wollastonite,
reaction of this mineral with quartz may produce pyroxene,
.

'

If clay is present, aluminium

(Ca,Mg)Si0 3
and such minerals as spinel, MgAl 2

will enter into the

reaction

Ca Al 2 Si

4,

and

grossularite,

any carbonaceous materials are

Oi2, may
present, the effect of the metamorphism may convert them into
The common contact metamorphic minerals found
graphite.
3

result.

If

in limestone are as follows:

tonite, tremolite,

graphite, spinel,

pyroxene and the lime

corundum, wollas-

garnets, grossularite

and

andradite.

As mentioned

in a preceding paragraph,

an igneous rock

in

cooling often gives off large amounts of mineralizing vapors.

These consist largely of water vapor, but often include boron

Under the influence of these vapors, other

fluorine gases.
minerals are often formed in the contact zone of a limestone.

and

These particular minerals are commonly spoken

of as

pneumato-

lytic minerals, since they are formed, partly at least, through the
agency of mineral gases. They consist chiefly of calcium and

aluminium

which contain hydroxyl, fluorine or boron.

pneumatolytic contact minerals are
vesuvianite, scapolite, phlogopite, tourmaline and

silicates

The most common

chondrodite,
fluorite.

of the

VEINS AND VEIN MINERALS

349

Veins and Vein Minerals.

Most

of the important mineral deposits, especially those that

furnish the valuable metals, are found in what are known as

brief discussion of veins and vein minerals follows.
veins.

The rocks

have many openings existing

These openings vary in size from microscopic
cracks to cavities of considerable extent. The openings may be
irregular and discontinuous or they may be in the form of fissures
which are continuous for greater or less distances. Below a
of the earth's crust

within them.

certain inconsiderable depth, these openings are largely filled by

water.
This underground water, as it is termed, slowly circu-

through the rocks by means of the openings in them.

large part of its circulation, the water must exist at a
high temperature and pressure, and under these circumstances
becomes a strong solvent and active chemical agent. Underground water in general descends slowly through the smaller
lates

Through a

openings in the rocks, and then gradually finding its way into
the bigger openings will at last enter some larger fissure and
changing its course will begin to ascend. On its passage through
the rocks,

it will

have dissolved their more soluble 'constituents,

ultimately enters the larger fissures and commences

to rise will be carrying considerable amounts of dissolved mineral

and when

it

The igneous rocks in particular are important factors

furnishing underground waters with mineral constituents
partly because of the <effect of their heat upon its activity, and
material.

in

partly because they give off in the form of vapors a large amount
of mineral material which ultimately gets into the underground
circulation.

When

these mineral laden waters

in the larger fissures, they slowly

come

commence

to rise

into regions of lower pres-

Under these changing conditions, the

sure and temperature.
water will not be able to retain all its mineral constituents in
and their points of saturation being reached various
minerals will begin to crystallize out and be deposited on the walls
In time, if the process continues, the fissure may
of the fissure.
solution,

be completely filled from wall to wall with minerals deposited

Such a filled fissure is known as a mineral vein.
in this way.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

350

the minerals of a vein have been deposited from

given by the following facts. Often a mineral vein

Evidence
solution

is

tha.t

shows a distinctly banded or ribboned structure.

different minerals occur in
parallel to the walls.

more

That

is,

or less regular layers which

the
lie

This shows that the various minerals have

not been deposited simultaneously, but in a definite order of

succession.
Again, frequently it will be observed that the vein
material has not completely filled the fissure, but that there are
These openings are termed
left along its central line.

openings

vugs and are often lined with crystallized minerals. These conditions cannot be easily explained except on the assumption that
the contents of a mineral vein have been deposited from solution.
The shape and general physical character of a vein depends
of fissure its minerals have been deposited in, and
the type of fissure in turn depends upon the character of the rock
in which it lies and the kind of force which originally caused its

upon the type

In a firm homogeneous rock, like a granite, a fissure

be fairly regular and clean cut in character. It is liable to

formation.
will

be comparatively narrow in respect to its horizontal and vertical

extent and reasonably straight in its course. On the other hand,
if a rock that is easily fractured and splintered, like a slate or
schist, is subjected to a breaking strain, we are more liable to
have formed a zone of narrow and interlacing fissures, rather
than one straight crack. In an easily soluble rock like a limestone, a fissure will often be extremely irregular in its shape and
size due more or less to a solution of its walls by the waters that
have flowed through it.
A typical vein consists of a mineral deposit which has filled a
fissure solidly from wall to wall, and shows sharply defined
boundaries. There are, however, many variations from this
type.
Frequently, as observed above, irregular openings termed
vugs may occur among the vein minerals. It is from these vugs

that we obtain many of our crystallized mineral specimens.

Again, the walls of a vein may not be sharply defined. The mineralizing waters that filled the fissure may have acted upon the
wall rocks

and

partially dissolving

with the vein minerals.

them may have replaced them

Consequently we

may have

almost a

VEINS

AND VEIN MINERALS

351

complete gradation from the unaltered rock to the pure vein

Some defilling, and with no sharp line of division between.
posits have been largely formed by the deposition of vein min-

Such deposits are known as replacement

more liable to be found in the soluble rocks

erals in the wall rocks.

They

deposits.

are

There is every gradation possible from a true

vein with sharply defined walls to a replacement deposit with
indefinite boundaries.
like limestones.

The mineral contents

depend chiefly upon the chemifrom which its minerals have

There are many different sorts of veins, and many
crystallized.
There are,
different mineral associations are observed in them.
are
more
minerals
and
associations
that
certain
frequent
however,
The
in their occurrence to which attention should be drawn.
sulphides form perhaps, the most characteristic chemical group
The following minerals are
of minerals to be found in veins.
of a vein

cal composition of the waters

very

common

galena, PbS,

vein minerals, pyrite,

sphalerite,

marcasite,

FeS 2

Cu Sb

etc.

S7

ZnS,

FeS 2

chalcocite,

CuFeS 2

chalcopyrite,

Cu

2 S,

bornite,

Cu FeS
5

4,

arsenopyrite, FeAsS, stibnite, Sb 2 S 3 tetrahedrite,

In addition to these, which in large part com,

prise our ore minerals, certain nonmetallic minerals are

commonly to be observed. These being of no particular

also

com-

mercial value are called gangue minerals (gangue is from gang,

a vein)
They include the following quartz, Si0 2 cakite, CaC0 3
:

dolomite,

CaF

CaMg(C0

rhodochrosite,

2,

3)2,

siderite,

MnC0

3,

FeC0

3,

barite,

BaS0

4,

fluorite,

etc.

While comparatively few positive statements concerning the

associations of vein minerals can be made, the following points
are of interest.
1.

Gold-bearing Quartz Veins.

Native gold

is

most com-

occur alone in the quartz

either in nests or in finely disseminated particles, or it may
occur in connection with certain sulphides in the veins. The
most common sulphides found in such connections are pyrite,

monly found

in quartz veins.

It

may

chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite.

2.

silver

The gold and

associated with the various copper

Gold- and Silver-bearing Copper Veins.

content of these veins

is

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

352

sulphides.
Frequently the amount of the precious metals is
The chief minerals 'are chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite,
quite small.
bornite, chalcocite, pyrite and various rarer silver minerals.
3. Silver-bearing Lead Veins.
Silver and lead minerals are
very commonly associated with each other. These veins contain
such minerals as galena, argentite, tetrahedrite, sphalerite, pyrite,

calcite, dolomite, rhodochrosite, etc.

4.

Lead-zinc Veins.

Lead and

zinc minerals often occur to-

gether particularly in deposits that lie in limestones. The chief

minerals of such deposits are galena, sphalerite, marcasite,
chalcopyrite, smithsonite, calamine, cerussite, calcite, dolomite.

Copper and iron sulphides are quite

associated with each other, the prominent minerals
of such veins being pyrite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, bornite,
5.

Copper-iron Veins.

commonly

tetrahedrite, enargite, etc.

Primary and Secondary Vein Minerals.

Enrichment.
In

many

mineral veins,

it

is

Secondary

obvious that certain minerals

belong to the original vein deposit while certain others have been
formed subsequently. These two classes of minerals are known

The primary
respectively as Primary and Secondary Minerals.
vein minerals are those which were originally deposited by the
ascending waters in the vein fissure. The primary metallic vein
minerals are comparatively few in number, the more important
being pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite. The second-

ary vein minerals have been formed from the primary minerals
by some subsequent chemical reaction. This change is ordinarily brought about through the influence of oxidizing waters

which coming from the surface of the earth descend through the
upper portions of the vein. Under these conditions, various new
minerals are formed, many of them being oxidized compounds.
As the descending waters lose their oxygen content within a
comparatively short distance of the earth's surface, the secondary
minerals are only to be found in the upper part of a vein. Together with the formation of these secondary minerals, there is

VEIN MINERALS

downward migration of the valuable metals in the

brought about by the solution of the minerals in

frequently a

This

vein.

353

is

the uppermost portion of the vein and a subsequent reprecipitation a little farther down.
As the surface of the earth is

gradually lowered

by erosion, the upper part of a vein is conworn away. But the metallic content of the
uppermost part of the vein is always being carried downward
by the descending oxidizing waters. In this way, the metallic
tinually being

content of the upper part of many veins has been notably enis concentrated in this short space most of the
original contents of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of feet of the

riched since there

vein which have been slowly worn away by the general erosion
of the country.
Consequently the zone of the secondary vein

minerals

also frequently a zone of secondary enrichment.

is

an important fact to be borne in mind since, because of

it, the upper two or three hundred feet of a vein are ordinarily
the richest portion of a deposit. The ore below that depth gradually reverts to its original unaltered and unenriched character
and may frequently prove too low in value to warrant its being
mined. The prevalent idea that the ore of a vein must increase
This

is

in value with increasing depth

is

not true in the great majority

of cases.
It will

be of interest to consider the more important primary

vein minerals and the secondary minerals that are

formed from them.

1. Iron Minerals.
rence

is

The common primary

vein iron mineral

is

Marcasite, FeS 2 while not so common in occurWhen oxidized, these minerals

also a primary mineral.

FeS 2

pyrite,

commonly

Fe 4 3 [OH] 6 The
upper portion of a vein that Was originally rich in pyrite will
This limonite
often show a cellular and rusty mass of limonite.
deposit near the surface is commonly termed gossan. The yellow rusty character of the outcrop of many veins enables one
yield ordinarily the hydrated oxide limonite,

them and to trace them across the country.

Copper Minerals. The one common primary copper minAt times, some of the other sulis chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2

frequently to locate
2.

eral

phides

may

be primary in their

origin,

but this

is

not generally

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

354

The secondary formation of bornite and chalcocite

be explained as follows. The copper sulphide existing in
the original chalcopyrite is oxidized by the descending waters at
the case.

may

the surface to copper sulphate which is then dissolved and carried

farther down the vein.
Here it comes in contact with unaltered
chalcopyrite and a reaction takes place which enriches the sulLater, more copper
phide, changing it to bornite, Cu 5 FeS 4
sulphate in solution comes in contact with the bornite and a
.

further enrichment takes place with the formation of chalcocite,

Cu 2 S. In each case, there is an interchange of metals, the iron
in the original sulphide going into solution as a sulphate thus

taking the place of the copper which has been precipitated. If

the copper deposit lies in limestone rocks, we commonly find the
various carbonates and oxides of copper also formed in the upper
parts of the deposit. The secondary copper minerals therefore
include chalcocite ,

Cu

Cu

bornite,

2 S,

Cu FeS 4
5

native copper, Cu, cu-

0, malachite, (Cu.OH) 2 C0 3 azurite,

Cu(Cu.OH) 2 (CQ 3 ) 2
CuSi0 3 .2H 2 0, chalcanthite, CuS0 4 .5H 2 0.
3. Lead Minerals.
The one primary lead mineral is galena,
PbS. The secondary minerals of lead are all oxidized compounds
prite,

chrysocolla,

and include the following: cerussite, PbC0 3 anglesite, PbS0 4

pyromorphite, Pb 4 (PbCl)(P0 4 ) wulfenite, PbMo0 4
4. Zinc Minerals.
Sphalerite, ZnS, is the only common prim,

3,

ary zinc mineral.

ZnC0 and
3,

5.

The

calamine,

chief secondary minerals are smithsonite,

Silver Minerals.

(Zn 2 0)Si0 4
Probably most of the sulphide minerals

of silver are primary in their origin.

The following minerals are
usually secondary, although native silver at times appears pri-

mary;

native silver, Ag, cerargyrite,

Lists of Minerals

AgCl, embolite, Ag(Cl,Br),

Arranged According

to

etc.

Systems

of Crystallization.

In the following tables the minerals which are described in this

listed according to the system of crystallization to which

book are

they belong. The order in which they are given

the chemical classification adopted in this book.

is

according to

LISTS OF MINERALS

355

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM: NORMAL CLASS.

Elements.
1.

Diamond,

4.

Copper, Cu.

2.

Gold, Au.

5.

Platinum, Pt.

3.

Silver, Ag.

6.

Iron, Fe.

1.

Galena, PbS.

2.

Argentite,

3.

Pentlandite, (Ni,Fe)S.

1.

Halite, NaCl.

2.

Sylvite,

3.

Cerargyrite, AgCl.

1.

Senarmontite, Sb 2

2.

Cuprite,

C.

Sulphides.

Ag

S.

4.

Bornite,

5.

Linnaeite,

Cu FeS 4
Co S
5

4.

Chlorides, etc.

KC1.

4.

Embolite, Ag(Cl,Br).

5.

Fluorite,

CaF

2.

Oxides.

Cu

0.

R"R'"

Spinel Group,
or

3.

R"O.R'" 2

MgAl

4.

Gahnite, ZnAl 2

5.

Magnetite, Fe 3 O 4

6.

Franklinite,

7.

Chromite, (Fe,Mg)Cr2

(Fe,

3.

Mn)

Spinel,

1.

Leucite, KAl(Si0 3 ) 2

2.

Analcite,NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2 .H 2 0.

Grossularite,

3.

Sodalite,

Pyrope,

4.

(Fe,Mn,Zn)

3.

4.

4.
4.

Silicates.

Na
4.

(AlCl)Al (Si0
2

5.

Garnet Group, R 3 R2 (Si0 4 ) 3

M g3Al (Si0
2

Spessartite,

(Al.NaS 3 )Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3

Andradite,

Mn Al
3

) 3.

4) 3.

Almandite, Fe 3Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3

4) 3 .

Lazurite,

Na

Ca Al 2 (Si0 4
.

(Si0 4 ) 3

Ca Fe 2 (Si0
3

4) 3.

Uvarovite,

Ca

(Cr,Al) 2 (Si0 4 ) 3

Uranate.
1.

Uraninite,

U0

and

U0

with Th, Y, Ce, Pb, He, Ra.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

356

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM: PYRITOHEDRAL CLASS.

Sulphides,
1.

Pyrite,FeS

2.

Smaltite,

3.

etc.

5.

CoAsS.
Gersdorffite, NiAsS.

6.

Sperrylite,

4.

2.

CoAs 2
Chloanthite, NiAs
.

2.

Cobaltite,

PtAs 2

Sulphate.
1.

Alum, KA1(S0 4 ) 2 .12H 2 0.

Kalinite,

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM: TETRAHEDRAL CLASS.

Sulphides, etc.
1.

Sphalerite, ZnS.

2.

Tiemannite, HgSe.

1.

Tetrahedrite,

3.

Alabandite,

MnS.

Sulphantimonites, Sulpharsenites.
8

Tennantite,
Cu8As 2 S 7 =4Cu 2 S.As 2 S 3

2.

Cu Sb S = 4Cu
7

S.Sb 2 S 3

Borate.
1.

Boracite,

Mg Cl B
2

30 .

16

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM: NORMAL

CLASS.

Sulphide.
1.

Stannite,

Cu FeSnS
2

4.

Oxides and Closely Related Silicates and Phosphates.

4. Zircon, ZrSi0 4
1. Octahedrite, Ti0 2
2. Cassiterite,Sn0 2 orSnSn0 4
5. Thorite, ThSi0 4
6. Xenotime, YP0
3. Rutile, Ti0 2 or TiTi0 4
.

4.

Carbonate.
1.

Phosgenite, (PbCl) 2 C0 3

Silicates.
1.

Vesuvianite, Complex

Ca,Mg,Na,Al,Fe

silicate.

2.

Apophyllite,

H KCa
7

(Si0 3 ) 8 .4iH,0

LISTS OF MINERALS

357

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM: TRI-PYRAMIDAL

CLASS.

Silicate.
1.

Wernerite or Scapolite, CaiAUSiAj with NjuAla

Tungstate and Molybdate.

1.

Scheelite,

CaW0

2.

4.

Wulfenite,

PbMo0

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM: SPHENOIDAL

4.

CLASS.

Sulphide.
1.

CuFeS 2

Chalcopyrite,

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: NORMAL

CLASS.

Sulphides.
1.

Molybdenite,

2.

Covellite,

MoS

3.

2.

Pyrrhotite, Fe n S,

CuS.
Silicates.

1.

Beryl,

Be Al 2 (Si0
3

3 )6

with

2.

Nephelite, NaAlSi0 4

some [OH]?.

(Approx.)

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS.

Sulphides, etc.
1.

Greenockite, CdS.

2.
|

Niccolite, NiAs.

Oxide.
1.

ZnO

Zincite,

with

MnO.

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: TRI-PYRAMIDAL

Phosphates,

CLASS.

etc.

Apatite Group.

Ca (CaF)(P0

1.

Apatite,

2.

Pyromorphite,
Pb 4 (PbCl)(P0 4 )3.

4) 3

3.

Mimetite,

4.

Vanadinite,

Pb 4 (PbCl)(As0 4 )

Pb 4 (PbCl)(V0 4 ) 3

3.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

358

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: RHOMBOHEDRAL

NORMAL DIVISION.

CLASS.

Elements.
2.

Graphite, C.
Arsenic, As.

3.

Antimony, Sb.

1.

Millerite, NiS.

2.

Pyrargyrite,
Ag 3 SbS 3 or

1.

4.

Bismuth, Bi.

5.

Tellurium, Te.

Sulphides, Sulphantimonites, Sulpharsenites.

3.

Proustite,

AgsAsSs or 3Ag 2 S.As 2 S 3

3Ag S.Sb 2 S 3
2

Oxides, Hydroxides.
1.

Corundum, A1 2

2.

Hematite, Fe 2

3.

3.

Brucite,

Mg(OH) 2

3.

Carbonates.
Calcite Group.

CaC0
CaMg(C0

1.

Calcite,

2.

Dolomite,

3.

(tri-rhombohedral)

MgC0

3.

Magnesite,

1.

Tourmaline,
R,Al,(B.OH) l Si40

3) 2

FeC0

4.

Siderite,

5.

Rhodochrosite,

6.

Smithsonite,

3.

MnC0

ZnC0

3.

3.

3.

Silicates.
2.
1

Chabazite,

(Ca,Na 2 )Al 2 Si 4

12

.6H 2 0?.

(hemimorphic).

Nitrate.
Soda-niter,

1.

NaN0

3.

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: RHOMBOHEDRAL

TRI-RHOMBOHEDRAL DIVISION.

CLASS.

Titanate.
1.

Ilmenite,

FeTi0 3

Silicates.
1.

Willemite,

Zn 2 Si0 4

2.

.
|

Phenacite,

Be 2 Si0 4

LISTS OF MINERALS

359

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: RHOMBOHEDRAL

TRAPEZOHEDRAL DIVISION.

CLASS.

Sulphide.
Cinnabar, HgS.

1.

Oxide.
Quartz, Si02

1.

ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM.
Element.
1.

Sulphur,

S.

Sulphides, etc.
1.

Stibnite, Sb 2 S 3

2.

Bismuthinite, Bi 2 S 3

3.

Chalcocite,

1.

Sulphantimonites, etc.
2. Stephanite, Ag 6 SbS 4 or
Bournonite, (Pb,Cu 2 ) 3 Sb 2S 6
or 3(Pb,Cu 2 )S.Sb 2 S 3
5Ag2 S.Sb 2S 3

Cu

S.

4.

Stromeyerite,

5.

Marcasite, FeS 2
Arsenopyxite, FeAsS.

6.

CuAgS.
.

Sulpharsenate.
Enargite, CuaAsS 4 or

1.

3Cu 2S.As 2S 6

Chlorides.

Cu Cl(OH)

1.

Atacamite,

1.

Chrysoberyl, BeAl 2

2.

Brookite,

3.

Diaspore, A1 2

4.

Goethite, Fe 2

3.

2.
|

Carnallite,

KMgCL.6HA

Oxides, Hydroxides.

Ti0 2

4.

(OH) 2
2 (OH) 2

5.

Manganite,

6.

Pyrolusite,

Mn (OH)
Mn0 with
2

about2%H 0.
2

morphous.)

Carbonates.
Aragonite Group.

CaC0

1.

Aragonite,

2.

Strontianite,

3.

SrC0 3

2.

3.

Witherite, BaCO,.

4.

Cerussite, PbCO,.

(Pseudo-

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

360

Silicates.
1.

9.

Enstatite, Bronzite,

Hypersthene,

MgSi0 3 ,(Mg,Fe)Si0 3

Anthophyllite,(Mg,Fe)Si0 3

3.

lolite,

4.
5.

(Mg,Fe)4Al 6 (A1.0H) 2 (Si 2 7 ) 5

Chrysolite, (Mg,Fe) 2 Si0 4

Danburite,

CaB

(Si0 4 ) 2

6.

Topaz, (Al(F.OH)) 2 Si0 4

7.

Andalusite, (A10)AlSi0 4

8.

Zoisite,

(Si04) 3

phic).

(Mg,Fe)(A1.0H)(A10) 4 (Si0 4 )f.

Sillimanite, Al 2 Si0 6

12.

13.

Natrolite,

14.

Thomsonite

Na Al Si
2

10

.2H 2 0.

(Na 2 ,Ca)Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 2 .2|H 2 0.

Ca(A1.0H)Al 2 (SiO 4) 3
Niobate, Tantalate.
1.

Columbite-tantalite, (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta) 2

Triphylite-lithiophilite,

Li(Fe,Mn)P0 4
2.

Olivenite,

Cu(Cu.OH)As0 4

6.

etc.

Phosphates,
1.

Staurolite,

11.

Calamine,
H2 (Zn2 0)Si0 4 (hemimor-

2.

H Ca2Al

Prehnite,

10.

3.

Scorodite,

4.

Wavellite,

FeAs0 4 .2H

0.

(A1.0H) 3 (P04) 2 .5H 2 0.

Nitrate.
1.

Niter,

KN0

3.

Sulphates.

BaS0 4

1.

Barite,

2.

Celestite,

3.

Anglesite,

4.

SrS0 4

5.

PbS0

CaS0
Brochantite, Cu (OH) S0
Anhydrite,

4.

4.

MONOCLINIC SYSTEM.
Sulphides, Tellurides.
1.

Realgar, AsS.

2.

Orpiment, As 2S a

3.

Sylvanite,

4.

Calaverite,

AuAgTe
AuTe.

4.

4.

361

LISTS OF MINERALS

Sulphantimonite.
1.

Polybasite,

Ag SbS
9

6.

Fluoride.
1.

Cryolite,

Na AlF6
3

Hydroxide.
1.

Gibbsite,

A1(OH) 3

Carbonates.

C0

1.

Malachite, (Cu.OH) 2

2.

Azurite,Cu(Cu.OH) (C0
2

3.

4.

3.

Gay-Lussite,

Na C0 .CaC0
2

3) 2 .

.5H2 0.

Aurichalcite,

2(Zn,Cu)C0 3 .3(Zn,Cu) (OH) 2

Silicates.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Orthoclase, KAlSi 3 O a

9.

6.

7.

Pectolite,

(Si0 3 ) 3

Epidote,

11.

Allanite,

Ca 2 (A1.0H)Al 2 (SiC>4)

(Si0 4 ) 3

Hydrated SiUcates.
1.

Heulandite,

H CaAl (Si0
4

2.

Harmotome,

3.

Stilbite,

3) 6

(K2 ,Ba)Al 2 Si 5
(Na2 ,Ca)Al 2 Si 6

4.

Laumontite,

5.

Scolecite,

H CaAl Si

.3H2 0.

]4

.5H 2 0.

16

3.

Ca 2 (A1.0H) (Al,Fe,Ce,La,Di),

HNaCa

Amphibole Group,
R"Si0 3 (R = Ca,Mg,Fe).
Datolite, Ca(B.OH)Si0 4

10.

Spodumene, LiAl(Si0 3 ) 2
Wollastonite, CaSi0 3

5.

8.

Pyroxene Group, R"Si0 3

(R = Ca,Mg,Fe).
^Egirite, NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2
Jadeite, NaAl(SiO 3 ) 2

.6H 2 0.

14

.2H 20.

CaAl 2 Si 3 0, .3H 2 0.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

362

Foliated,
1.

Muscovite,

2.

Lepidolite,

H KAl
2

Micaceous

(Si0 4 ) 3

Silicates.

H CaAl Si

6.

Margarite,

7.

Clinochlore, Chlorite,
8 Mg 5 Al 2 Si 3
18

KU(A1.2(OH,F))Al(SiOa)i.
Biotite,

8.

Serpentine,

9.

Kaolin, H4Al 2 Si 2

4.

(H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3 .'

Phlogopite,
2

5.

4 ) 3 ?.

H Mg (Si0
H Al (Si0

10.

Talc,

11.

Pyrophyllite,

3 )4.

(H,K) 2 Fe 3 (Fe,Al) 4 (Si0 4 ) 5 ?.

Titanosilicate.
Titanite, CaTiSi0 8

Phosphates.
1.

3.

Monazite, (Ce,La,Di)P0 4
with ThSi0 4

Vivianite,

Fe 3 (P0 4 ) 2 .8H 2 0.

2.

Lazulite,

Mg(A1.0H) 2 (P0 4 ) 2

Borates.
1.

2.

Colemanite,

Borax,

Na B
2

.10H2 0.

Ca 2 B 6 On.5H 2 0.

Sulphates, Chromates.
1.

Glauberite,

2.

Crocoite,

Na Ca[S0
2

PbCr0 4

3.

4] 2 .

Gypsum, CaS0 .2H 2 0.

4

Tungstates.
1.

Wolframite,

FeW0

.
|

2.

Hubnerite,

9.

9.

Lepidomelane,

1.

]2 .

H Mg Si

3.

H KMg Al(Si0

MnW0

4.

3) 4.

363

LISTS OF MINERALS

TRICLINIC SYSTEM.
Silicates.
1.

Microcline, KAlSi 3

5.

8.

Labradorite,

2.

Albite, NaAlSi 3

3.

Oligoclase, 3 Albite,

4.

Andesine,

8.

An-

An-

orthite.

Albite, 3

6.

Anorthite, CaAl 2 Si 2

7.

Rhodonite, MnSi0

8.

1 Albite,

An-

orthite.

Plagioclase Feldspars.

9.

8.
.

Cyanite, Al 2 Si0 5
Ca 7Al4 B 2 (Si0 4 ) 8
.

Axinite,

orthite.

Phosphate.
1.

Amblygonite, Li(AlF)P0 4

Sulphate.
1.

Chalcanthite,

CuS0 4 .5H 0.
2

AMORPHOUS OR MASSIVE MINERALS.

Oxides, Hydroxides.
1.

Opal, Si0 2 generally with 3

to
2 0.
,

9% H

2.
3.

Turgite, Fe 4 O 5 (OH) 2
Limonite, Fe 4 3 (OH) 6

4.

Bauxite, A1 2 0(OH) 4

5.

Psilomelane,

Mn0

with

MnO, BaO, CoO,

H 0,
2

etc.

Silicates.
1.

Genthite,

Ni,Mg,

Garnierite,

2.

Chrysocolla,

CuSi0 3 .2H 2 0.

silicates.

Phosphate.
1.

Turquois,

H(A1.20H) 2 P0 4 with H(Cu.OH) 2 P0 4

V.

DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY.
INTRODUCTION.

Determinative Tables for minerals are of two kinds: (1) those

which rely chiefly upon chemical tests, and (2) those which make
use solely of physical tests. Obviously, since the chemical composition of a mineral is its most fundamental property, those
tables which emphasize chemical tests are much the more satisOn the other hand, the tables which depend wholly
factory.

upon physical

tests

have distinct limitations beyond which

it is

impossible to use them. These latter tables have, however, the

important advantages that their tests are simpler, more readily

and quickly performed, and do not require the equipment of a

For these reasons physical determinative tables
laboratory.
probably have a wider use, in spite of their limitations, than those
that involve chemical tests.

The

character and purpose of this book forbid the inclusion of

elaborate chemical tables and require instead the introduction

of physical tables of as simple a form as possible.
Such tables

must, however, be used with a thorough understanding of their

nature and their inherent disadvantages. Many of the physical
properties of minerals are not entirely fixed in their character.
Color, for instance, is frequently an extremely variable property.
Hardness, while more definite, may vary to a slight extent, and
by a change in the structure of a mineral may appear to vary

much more

widely.
Cleavage is a property which may often
be obscured by the physical condition of the mineral. Consequently in making a determination of a mineral by means of its

physical properties alone,

specimen and one which

ters to

it is

is

necessary to have a fairly typical

of sufficient size to enable its charac-

be definitely seen. Often, moreover, it will be impossible

of such tables to positively differentiate between two
364

by the aid

DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY

365

or three similar species. Frequently, however, in such cases the

descriptions of these possible minerals given in Section IV will

enable one to

make a

definite decision.

Moreover, the tables

that follow, used in connection with the chemical tests given

under the description of minerals in Section IV, together with
the more detailed explanations of the various tests to be found in
Section III, may serve as a substitute for more elaborate chemical
tables.

The Determinative Tables given beyond have been made

as

as possible.
Only the common species or those
which, while rarer in occurrence, are of economic importance
have been included. The chances of having a mineral to deter-

brief

and simple

mine that

is

not included in these tables are small, but it must

is such a possibility.
The names

be borne in mind that there

of the minerals

have been printed

in three different styles of

type, as (see page 373) CHALCOCITE, ARGENTITE and stephanite, in

order to indicate their relative importance and frequency of

occurrence.

Whenever

it

was

felt

that difficulty might be ex-

perienced in correctly placing a mineral, it has been included in

the two or more possible divisions. Usually, however, for the

sake of brevity, the detailed description of such a mineral has

been printed in full only upon one page.

On

page 369 will be found a General Classification of the

The proper division in which to look for a mineral is to
be determined by means of the tests indicated there. The tables

tables.

are divided into two

main

the minerals in them.

sections depending

The

first

upon the

luster of

division includes those minerals

which have a Metallic or Submetallic Luster.

By that is meant

those minerals which on their thinnest edges remain opaque

and which consequently will give black or dark-colored " streaks"

when they

are rubbed across a piece of unglazed porcelain, the

Nonmetallic minerals are those which

so-called streak plate.

are transparent upon their thinnest edges, and which therefore

give either a colorless or a light-colored streak. It is to be
noted that the color of the streak cannot always be foretold

from the color of the mineral itself. Frequently a dark-colored

mineral will be found to give a light-colored streak.

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

366
The
tests

tables are next subdivided according to hardness.

The
used in the General Classification are: (1) minerals that are

enough to leave a mark when rubbed across a piece of paper;

minerals that can be scratched by the finger nail; (3) those
that can be cut by a cent; (4) minerals that are softer than the

soft
(2)

steel of the blade of

erals that are harder

an ordinary pocket knife; (5) and (6) minthan a knife but can or cannot be scratched

In applying the tests for hardness, certain precauquartz.

tions should be observed.
Before deciding upon the relative

by

hardness of a mineral,

For instance,

ways.

it is

well to try the test

a mineral

if

possible in

two

apparently scratched by the

sure on the other hand that the cent cannot
if

is

edge of a cent make

be scratched by the mineral.

Further, the cent and the knife

blade used in making the tests should be bright and clean, otherwise the rubbing off of a layer of dirt or tarnish might be mis-

In the tables themselves, the hardness

given in terms of the Scale of Hardness, see
page 61. The possession of specimens of the minerals of this
scale, so that the hardness of a mineral could be closely determined, would frequently be of great assistance in the use of the
taken for a scratch.
of the minerals

is

Lastly, it is to be remembered that the physical condition of a mineral may apparently change its hardness.
For

tables.

instance, minerals that occur at times in pulverulent or fibrous

under these conditions appear to be much softer than

forms

will

when

in their

more usual form.

of a mineral will

commonly change

Also the chemical alteration

its

hardness.

The

minerals with nonmetallic luster are, in general, further

subdivided according to whether they show a prominent cleavage

make. It
some practice and experience before one can always
make the determination rapidly and accurately. Note that the
minerals are divided according to whether they show a prominent
cleavage or not. Minerals in which the cleavage is imperfect
or ordinarily obscure are included with those that have no cleavor not.

This-will frequently be a difficult decision to

will require

It will always be best, if it is possible, to actually try to

produce a cleavage upon the specimen rather than to judge from
If a mineral shows a cleavage, the numits appearance alone.

age.

DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY

367

her of the cleavage planes, their relations to each other and to

any crystal forms present, etc., are to be noted. As far as possible, the minerals in which the cleavage may become obscure,

because of certain conditions of structure, have been included

in both divisions.

The minerals which

fall in any one of the different divisions

have been arranged according to various methods.
In some cases, those that possess similar cleavages have been

of the tables

grouped together; frequently color determines their order,

The column

farthest to the left will indicate the

arrangement used in each

section.

Most

etc.

method

of

of the different prop-

and the more general facts included under the

headings, Crystallization and Structure and Remarks, need no

erties listed

few words, however, may be said concerning the column headed Specific Gravity. For a discussion
of specific gravity and the methods for its accurate determinaespecial explanation.

tion, see

page 62.

cient size

and

If the

specimen to be determined

its

is

of suffi-

specific gravity

approximate
pure,
determined by simply weighing it in the hand.
is

can be

In order to do

however, will require some experience. Below is given a

common minerals which show a wide range of specific
By experimenting with specimens of these, one can
gravity.

this,
list

of

become quite expert in the approximate determination

any mineral.

of the

specific gravity of

Halite, 2.14
Gypsum, 2.32

Limonite, 3.80
Corundum, 4.03

Cerussite, 6.51
Cassiterite, 6.95

Orthoclase, 2.56

Chalcopyrite, 4.20
Barite, 4.48

Galena, 7.50

Pyrite, 5.03

Copper, 8.84

Chalcocite, 5.75

Silver, 10.60

Calcite, 2.72

Fluorite, 3.18
Topaz, 3.53

When

Cinnabar, 8.10

the subdivisions of the tables are studied, the following

interesting and important facts are to be noted.

of the minerals with metallic luster are sulphides.

The majority
Most of them

The only sulphides that are harder.than

a knife are Pyrite, Marcasite and Arsenopyrite. The greater
part of minerals with metallic or submetallic luster that are
are softer than a knife.

368

MANUAL OF MINERALOGY

harder than a knife are oxygen compounds of iron.

Among

the

minerals with nonmetallic luster, it is to be noted that those

which are harder than a knife are, with very few exceptions,
either silicates or oxides.
Comparatively few silicates are to be

found among the minerals of nonmetallic luster which are softer

than a knife. It is to be further noted that the majority of such
silicates contain water in some form.
On the other hand,
the greater part of the carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, etc.,
are to be found in these sections.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE

TABLES.
METALLIC OR SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.

A.
I.

Very

Will Readily Leave a

Soft.

Mark on Paper,

p. 370.
II.

III.

Can be Scratched by a Knife, but Will not Readily

Leave a Mark on Paper, p. 372.
Cannot be Scratched by a Knife, p. 382.
B.

I.

NONMETALLIC LUSTER.

Minerals which Give a Definitely Colored Streak,

p. 386.

U. Minerals which Give a Colorless Streak.

1.

2.

Can be scratched by the

finger nail, p. 392.

Cannot be scratched by the finger nail, but can

be scratched by a cent.
a. Show a prominent cleavage, p. 396.
6.

Do

not show a prominent cleavage.

1.

small splinter
candle flame.

is

fusible in the

a.

Readily soluble in water; yield a

b.

Insoluble in water, p. 400.

taste, p. 398.

2.
3.

Do

show a prominent cleavage, p. 410.

scratched
Cannot be
by a knife, but can be
scratched by quartz.
a. Show a prominent cleavage, p. 414.
b.

4.

Infusible in the candle flame, p. 400.

Cannot be scratched by a cent, but can be

scratched by a knife.
a. Show a prominent cleavage, p. 402.
not

Do not show a prominent cleavage,

Cannot be scratched by quartz.
6.

5.

a.

Show a prominent

b.

Do

p. 420.

cleavage, p. 426.

not show a prominent cleavage, p. 428.

369

METALLIC OR
I.

Streak.

Very

soft.

Will readily

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER,
leave a

mark on

Crystallization
Structure.

paper.

and

METALLIC OR
II.

Streak.

Can be scratched by a

knife,

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.
but will not readily leave a
Crystallization
Structure.

and

mark on

paper.

METALLIC OR
II.

Streak.

Can be scratched by a

knife, but will

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.
not readily leave a
Crystallization
Structure.

and

mark on

paper.

(Continued.)

METALLIC OR
II.

Streak.

Can be scratched by a

knife, but will

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.
not readily leave a
Crystallization and.
Structure.

mark on

paper.

(Continued.)

METALLIC OR
II.

Streak.

Can be scratched by a knife, but

will

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.
not readily leave a
Crystallization
Structure.

and

mark on

paper.

(Continued.)

METALLIC OR
II.

Streak.

Can be scratched by a

knife, but will

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.
not readily leave a
Crystallization
Structure.

and

mark on

paper,

(Continued.)

METALLIC OR
III.

Streak.

Cannot be scratched

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER,
by a

knife.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

METALLIC OR
III.

Streak.

Cannot be scratched

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER,
by a

knife.

(Continued.)

Crystallization
Structure.

and

METALLIC OR
III.

Streak.

Cannot be scratched

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER.
by a knife.
Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
I.

Streak.

Give a definitely

LUSTER.
colored streak.
Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
I.

Streak.

Give a definitely

LUSTER.
colored streak.
Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
1.

Cleavage and
Fracture.

Give a

Can be scratched

LUSTER.
colorless streak,

by the

finger nail.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
1.

Cleavage and
Fracture.

Give a

Can be scratched

LUSTER,
colorless streak,

by the

finger nail.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

(Continued.)

NONMETALLIC
Give a

II.
2.

Cannot be scratched by the

finger nail,
a.

Cleavage.

Show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a cent.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
Give a

II.
2.

Cannot be scratched by the

finger nail,
a.

Cleavage and
Fracture.

Show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a cent.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.}

and

NONMETALLIC
n.
2.

Cannot be scratched by
b.

1.

Give a

finger nail,

Do

not show a

small splinter

is

fusible

b. Insoluble in

Color.

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a cent.

prominent cleavage.
in the candle flame.
water.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
2.

Cannot be scratched by the

b.

Color.

Give a

finger nail,

Do

not show a

2.

Infusible

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a cent.

prominent cleavage.
in the candle flame.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

(Continued.)

NONMETALLIC
Give a

II.
3.

Cannot be scratched by a
a.

Cleavage.

cent,

Show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

knife.

(Continued.}

and

NONMETALLIC
3.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a cent,
a.

Cleavage.

Show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a knife.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
3.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a cent,
a.

Cleavage.

Show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a knife.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
3.

Color.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a cent,
6.
Do not show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a knife.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
II.

Give a

Cannot be scratched by a cent,

Do not show a
b.
Color.

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

knife.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
3.

Color.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a cent,
b.
Do not show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by a

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

knife.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
4.

Cleavage.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a knife,
a.
Show a prominent

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by quartz.

(Continued.)

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
4.

a.

Cleavage.

Give a

Cannot be scratched by a

knife,

Show a prominent

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by quartz.

cleavage.

(Continued.)

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
4.

a.

Cleavage.

Give a

Cannot be scratched by a

knife,

Show a prominent

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by quartz.

cleavage.

(Continued.)

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
4.

Color.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a knife,
b.
Do not show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by quartz.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a knife,
b.
Do not show a

Color.

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by quartz.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
4.

Color.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched by a knife,
Do not show a
6.

LUSTER.
colorless streak.

but can be scratched by quartz.

prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
5.

Color.

II.
Give a
Cannot be scratched
6.
Do not show a

LUSTER.
colorless streak,

by quartz.
prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

and

NONMETALLIC
5.

Color.

H. Give a
Cannot be scratched
b.
Do not show a

LUSTER,
colorless streak,

by quartz.
prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

NONMETALLIC
II.
5.

6.

Color.

Give a

Cannot be scratched

Do

not show a

LUSTER,
colorless streak,

by quartz.
prominent cleavage.

Crystallization
Structure.

(Continued.)

and

INDEX TO DETERMINATIVE TABLES.

Acmite, 419
Actinolite, 407
Alabandite, 381
Albite, 419
Allanite, 425
Amblygonite, 415
Amphibole, 407, 419
Analcite, 411, 421
Anatase, 421
Andalusite, 425, 431
Andesine, 419
Anglesite, 399
Anhydrite, 397, 409
Anorthite, 419
Anthophyllite,

407,

419
Antimony, 375
Apatite, 413
Apophyllite, 405
Aragonite, 411
Argentite, 373
Arsenic, 375
Arsenopyrite, 383

Atacamite, 391
Augite, 407
Axinite, 423, 433
Azurite, 391
Barite, 399, 409

Bauxite, 401, 413

Beryl, 429

393
Bismuth, 381
Biotite,

Bismuthinite, 375
Borax, 399
Bornite, 377
Bournonite, 375
Brochantite, 391
Bronzite, 421

Brookite, 425
Brucite, 393

Diopside, 407
Dolomite, 397, 407

Calamine, 411
Calaverite, 377
Calcite, 397, 407
Carnallite, 399

Embolite, 395
Enargite, 373
Enstatite, 421
Epidote, 417

Cassiterite, 389, 425,

431

Fluorite,

399
Cerargyrite, 395
Cerussite, 401
Chabazite, 409
Celestite,

Chalcanthite, 391
Chalcocite, 373
Chalcopyrite, 377
Chloanthite, 383

Chromrte, 379, 385

Chrysoberyl, 429
Chrysocolla, 391
Chrysolite, 423, 431
Cinnabar, 371, 381,
387
Clinochlore, 393
Cobaltite, 383
Colemanite, 405
Columbite, 385
Copper, 381
Corundum, 429
Covellite, 377
Crocoite, 389
Cryolite, 401

409

Franklinite, 385

Gahnite, 431
Galena, 371, 375
Garnet, 423
Garnierite, 403
Genthite, 403
Gersdorffite, 383

Goethite,

381,

Gold, 381
Graphite, 371
Greenockite, 401

Gypsum, 395
Halite, 397
Harmotone, 405

Hematite, 371, 379,

385, 387
Heulandite, 405
Hornblende, 407
Hypersthene, 421

Cuprite, 379, 387

Cyanite, 403, 417

Ilmenite, 385

Danburite, 421, 429

Jadeite, 431

Datolite, 411, 421

Jamesonite, 323

Diamond, 427
Diaspore, 417

Kaolinite, 401

434

387,

389

lolite,

425

INDEX
Kalinite,

Phlogopite, 393

399

Labradorite, 419
Lazulite, 427
Lazurite, 415, 427

Stephanite, 373

Platinum, 381

Stibnite, 371,

Plagioclase'Feldspars,

Stilbite,

419
Polybasite, 373
Prehnite, 423
Proustite, 387
Psilomelane, 373, 385
Pyrargyrite, 379, 387

Lepidolite, 397

Lepidomelane, 393
Leucite, 421
Limonite, 371,

435

381,

387, 389

375

403

Stromeyerite, 373
Sulphur, 391, 395
Sylvanite, 377
Sylvite, 395, 397

Talc, 393

Pyrite, 383

Tantalite, 385

Linnseite, 383

Pyrolusite, 371, 373

Lithiophyllite, 403

Pyromorphite, 413
Pyrophyllite, 393
Pyrrhotite, 377

Tellurium, 375
Tetrahedrite, 373
Thorite, 389

Magnetite, 383
Magnesite, 409
Malachite, 391
Manganite, 379
Marcasite, 383
Margarite, 397
Microcline, 417
Millerite, 377
Mimetite, 401, 413
Molybdenite, 371
Monazite, 413, 425
Muscovite, 393
Natrolite,

405,

411,

417
Nephelite, 423
Niccolite, 377, 383
Niter, 395

Octahedrite, 421
Oligoclase, 419
Olivenite, 391
Olivine, 423, 431
Orpiment, 391
Orthoclase, 417
Pectolite, 405, 411
Pentlandite, 377

Phenacite, 429

Pyroxene, 407, 413,

419, 423
Quartz, 429

Realgar, 389
Rhodochrosite, 409
Rhodonite, 407, 421
Rutile, 389, 425
Scapolite, 411, 421
Scheelite,

Titanite, 411, 425

Topaz, 427
Tourmaline, 423, 431
Tremolite, 407
Triphyllite, 403
Turgite, 379, 385, 387
Uraninite, 385

Vanadinite, 401
Vesuvianite, 423, 431
Vivianite, 391, 395,

397

413

Serpentine, 403, 415

Siderite,

409

Sillimanite, 417, 427

Silver,

381

Smalltite, 383
Smithsonite, 409, 411
Sodalite,

409,

415,

421, 427
Niter, 395
Sphalerite, 379, 389,

Soda

409

Wavellite, 403, 415

Willemite, 415, 423
Witherite, 397, 401,
405, 411
Wolframite, 379, 385
389

Wollastonite, 405,415
Wulfenite, 413

Xenotine, 413

Spinel, 429

389

Spodumene, 419, 427

Zincite,

Stannite, 375
Staurolite, 425, 433

Zircon, 433
Zoisite,

417

APPENDIX

I.

FOR A SMALL
MINERAL COLLECTION.

LIST OF MINERALS SUITABLE

For the convenience of those who desire to possess a small

but representative mineral collection the following list is given.

The names

species are printed in black-

face type,

desirable but less important

list includes 59 names,

of the more important

and the names of other

minerals in ordinary type. The first

while the complete list numbers 109.

Graphite
Sulphur
Gold in quartz

Pyrolusite

Silver

Epidote
Prehnite

Manganite

Calamine
Tourmaline

Limonite

Copper

Brucite
Calcite

Orpiment

Dolomite

Apophyllite

Stibnite
Molybdenite

Siderite
Rhodochrosite

Heulandite

Galena

Smithspnite
Aragonite

Chabazite

Argentite

Staurolite

Stilbite

Analcite

Witherite

Natrolite

Strontianite

Muscovite

Cinnabar

Cerussite

Lepidolite

Millerite
Niccolite

Malachite

Biotite
Phlogopite

Chalcocite
Sphalerite

Pyrrhotite
Bornite
Chalcopyrite
Pyrite

Azurite

Clinochlore
Serpentine
Talc
Kaolinite

Orthoclase
Albite
Oligoclase

Labradorite
Leucite

Marcasite
Arsenopyrite
Tetrahedrite

Pyroxenes

Halite
Fluorite

Spodumene

(several

Chrysocolla
Titanite

Cryolite

Rhodonite

Quartz

Amphibole

Columbite
Monazite
Apatite
Pyromprphite
Mimetite

Opal

Beryl

Vanadinite
Turquois

Cuprite

Garnet

Uraninite

Zincite

Chrysolite

Barite

(several
varieties)

Corundum

varieties)

Pectolite
(several varieties)

Willemite

Celestite

Hematite

Scapolite

Spinel

Vesuvianite
Zircon

Anglesite
Anhydrite
Wolframite

Franklinite

Topaz

Scheelite

Chromite

Andalusite
Cyanite
Datolite

Wulfenite

Magnetite
Cassiterite
Rutile

436

APPENDIX

II.

MINERAL

STATISTICS.

INTRODUCTION.
Brief statistics relative to the amount and value of the production of the different economic minerals and metals are pre-

The figures have been taken from the bulletin

United States Geological Survey entitled Mineral Resources of the United States for 1915. Unless otherwise stated
sented below.
of the

to productions from the United States. It

should be noted that because of the European war the condiall statistics refer

tions affecting mineral production during 1915

in several respects.

marked

In the case of

increase in the

many

were abnormal

metals there was a

amounts produced and the

prices obtained

were exceptionally high.

SUMMARY OF THE MINERAL PRODUCTION

OF THE UNITED STATES FOR

1915.

Metals.
Pig Iron

$401,409,604

Silver

37,397,300

Gold

101,035,700

Copper
Lead

242,902,000

Zinc

$113,617,000

Mercury

1,826,912

Aluminum

17,985,500

Total

$993,000,000

47,660,000

Nonmetals.
Bituminous Coal. $502,037,688

Sand (Molding,

Anthracite Coal.

184,653,498

Slate

101,312,381

Stone.

179,462,890

Borax

1,677,099

163,120,232

Gypsum

6,596,893

Natural Gas
Petroleum
Clay Products..

etc.)

Cement

75,155,102

Phosphate Rock.

Ume

14,336,756

Pyrite

437

$21,514,977
4,958,915

74,595,352

5,413,449
1,674,933

APPENDIX

438

Nonmetals (Continued)
Sulphur

$5,954,236*

Glass Sand

Salt

11,747,686

Graphite

15,514,059

Mica

Mineral Paints

Asphalt
Bauxite
.

429,631

428,769

5,242,073

Mineral Waters

5,138,794

1,514,834

629,356

Quartz
Talc

1,891,582

170,431

Tungsten Ores

4,100,000

'

Feldspar.

$1,606,640

Gems

273,553

Total

Total value of
*

all

mineral products

$1,393,565,098
$2,393,831,951.

1914.

Aluminium.
The production

aluminium, in 1915 had

of the metal totaled
Its price varied from 19 to 60 cents per

of bauxite, the ore of

a value of $1,514,834.
99,806,000 pounds.

The consumption

pound.

Antimony.
Only a small amount of antimony ore is mined in the United
The domestic source of the metal is largely confined
States.
to the smelting of antimonial lead ores where it is obtained in
the nature of a by-product. The total value of the antimony

produced during 1915, was $2,100,000.

Apatite, see Phosphate Rock.

Arsenic.
Arsenic, chiefly in the form of the oxide, is produced by only a
few companies in the United States and the total production is

comparatively small. It is practically all obtained as a byproduct from the smelting of ores that contain small amounts

A large part of the production comes from the

smelting of the copper ores at Butte, Montana, which contain
The amount of
arsenic in the form of the mineral enargite.
of the metal.

arsenic oxide, or white arsenic, produced in 1915

with a value of $302,116.

was 5,498 tons

APPENDIX

439

Asbestos.

The amount

of asbestos

$76,952 worth in 1915.

produced is small, amounting to

Imports for the same year had a value

of $1,981,483.

Barite.

The value of the barite produced in 1915 was

largest amount came from Missouri.

$381,032.

The

Bauxite, see Aluminum.

Bismuth.
Little

bismuth was produced

in 1915.

Imports of the metal

reached the value of $108,288.

Borax.

considerable

amount

of the borates

produced in the United

States comes from the mineral colemanite.

All the borates

mined are grouped together, however, under the title borax.

The value of the production for 1915 was $1,677,099.
Calcite.

Following are the

Cement

for 1915.

.statistics for

the production of Portland

APPENDIX

440
The value

of the production of limestone for the year 1915

follows:
Illinois

Ohio

$2,864,103

$4,4051590

Indiana
Missouri

4,204,092

Pennsylvania

1,927,534

Virginia

1,534,545

New York

3,018,871

9,078,919

Michigan

1,828,766

Other states
Total

6,367,446

,$35,229,866

see above.

Cement,

Chromite.

The production and imports

of chromite for the year 1915

Chromite wholly from California, 3,281 tons; value

$36,744. Imported, chiefly from New Caledonia, British South
Africa, Portuguese Africa and Canada, 76,455 tons; value
follow.

$780,061.

Clay.

The

total value of the various kinds of clay

was $3,971,941.

The value

The value

produced in 1915

was $241,520.
was $1,152,778. The
products was $125,794,844; that

of kaolin produced

of kaolin imported during 1915

and tile
was $37,325,388.

total value of all brick

of pottery products

'

Copper.

The amounts
1915 follow:

of copper

produced in the years 1905, 1910 and

APPENDIX
Note.

Practically

441

the entire production of Michigan is

is from various other

from native copper; that of the other states

ores.

The value of copper varies quite widely from year

One pound was worth about 16.75 c. in 1900; 15.63 c.
13

c.

in 1910;

17.47

c.

to year.
in 1905;

in 1915.

The United

States furnished in 1913 approximately one-half

of the total world's production.
Statistics are not available
for

subsequent years.

Other countries that have produced

notable amounts of copper are Mexico, Spain, Portugal, Japan,

Australasia, Chile, Canada,

Germany.

Corundum.
The production

corundum for abrasive purposes is practiwhen the production was valued

has rapidly fallen until in 1915 the only corundum

cally negligible.

at $275,064,

it

of

Since 1898,

produced was in the form of emery with a total value for the
year of $31,131. Considerable amounts of emery are imported,
the value for 1915 being $271,649. The decline hi the domestic
production of corundum is due in large part to the manufacture
of the artificial abrasives, carborundum and alundum. The
value of such materials produced in 1915 was $2,248,778. For
the production of corundum as sapphire, see under gem stones.

Feldspar.

The amount

of feldspar sold hi 1915

was as

follows:

APPENDIX

442

Fluorite, Fluorspar.

The production
Colorado,

New

of

fluorite

New

1915 was

as

follows:

Mexico, $10,562;

Illinois,

during

Hampshire and

and Kentucky, $753,913.

Garnet.

The

value of garnet

produced for an abrasive during 1915 was

$139,584.

Gem

Stones.

The value of the gems and ornamental stones produced in the

United States for 1915 was $170,431. More than 20 different
minerals contributed to this total, the majority of them being
found in small amounts, however. The values of the production of the more important stones follow: Sapphire, $88,214;

Tourmaline, $10,969; Turquoise and turquoise matrix, $11,691.

Gold.

The values of the gold production in the years 1905, 1910 and
1915 are given below.

APPENDIX
The

443

gold production of the leading countries for the year 1915

follows

United States.

$101,035,700

Africa

$217,639,599

Canada

18,936,971

Mexico

6,559,275

Japan
China

2,804,692

Russia

28,586,392

5,385,917

India

11,522,457

Australasia

Total including

all

other countries

49,397,797

$470,466,214

Graphite.

The production

of natural graphite hi 1915

was as

follows:

APPENDIX

444

Iron.

The production
states

is

in long tons of the different iron ores

given in the following table for 1915.

by

APPENDIX

445

Kaolin, see Clay.

Lead.

The production

of lead in 1915 follows:

Short Tons.

Colorado
Idaho
Missouri

32,352
160,680
195,634

Utah

106,105

Other states

42,241

Total

537,012

Its various uses

were divided in 1909 as follows:

Short Tons.

White lead and oxides

134,138

Pipe
Sheet
Shot
Other purposes

The average

52,914
23,421

36,433

104,094

price of lead for 1915

was

4.7 cents per pound.

Limestone, see Calcite.

Magnesite.

The production of magnesite for 1915 amounted to 30,499 tons,

valued at $274,491. The imports of the mineral were valued at
$487,211.

Manganese.
The United States produces only small amounts of manganese
The output comes from Georgia, California, Virginia,

ores.

and was valued

Arkansas,

etc.,

amount

manganiferous

in 1915 at $113,309.

larger

which the manganese is saved

as a by-product, was produced. The imports of manganese
ores were valued at $2,655,980.
of

ores, in

APPENDIX

446

Mercury.
The production
follows

of

mercury

(quicksilver)

for

1915 was as

California, 14,283 flasks (75 Ibs. each); value, $1,174,881

"
Arizona, Oregon, Texas, 4,423 flasks
442,120
"
Nevada, 2,327
209,911

Mica.

The total value of the mica produced during 1915 was $428,769.
Importations during the same year were valued at $692,269.
Monazite.
There has been no domestic production of monazite since 1910.
The importations of monazite, thorium oxide and thorium
nitrate for 1915 had a value of $332,073.
Nickel.

No

nickel ores are

known to have been mined in the United

The value of the nickel ore and matte

States in recent years.

imported during 1915 was $7,629,686.

Phosphate Rock.
The production

of phosphate rock during 1915

was

as follows:

Value.

Florida

$3,762,239

Tennessee
South Carolina
Other states.

1,327,747

310,850
12,613

Total

$5,413,449

Platinum.

The value

platinum produced in the United States is

Russia produced 200,450 ounces
small, being $23,500 in 1915.
in 1905, 275,000 ounces in 1910, and 124,000 ounces in 1915.
Other sources at present are negligible. The value of importaof the

APPENDIX
tions into the

447

United States of unmanufactured and manu-

factured platinum in 1915 amounted to more than $2,412,008.

The

Platinum in
price of platinum has been steadily rising.
ingots at New York during 1915 varied from $38.00 to $85.50
per ounce.

Potash

Salts.

The value of potash salts produced in the United States in

1915 was $342,000. The value of the various salts imported
during 1915 was $3,765,224.
Pyrite.

The production

of pyrite

by

states for 1915 follows:

448

APPENDIX
Rutile, see Titanium.
Salt.

The production of salt in the different important states for

1915 follows:

APPENDIX
The commercial value
to year.

60.4

c.,

449

of silver varies quite widely

An

ounce was valued in 1900 at 61.6

in 1910 at 49.3 c., and in 1915 at 51.9 c.

c.,

from year
in 1905 at

Soapstone, see Talc.

Sulphur.

The value

of the sulphur produced in

Louisiana and Texas was $5,954,236.

for the same year was $477,937.

1914,

The value

chiefly

from

of the imports

Talc and Soapstone.

The production

New

of talc

and soapstone

Jersey and

for 1915 follows.

Vermont

$409,652

Pennsylvania

$56,466

Virginia

New York

864,843

Other states

North Carolina

21,501

504,742

Total

34,758
$1,891,582

Tin.

The domestic production of tin is negligible. The value of

the imports of the metal for 1915 was $38,854,597.
Titanium.

The
rutile is produced hi the United States.
Nelson County, Virginia, are the only ones that have
been worked recently. The value of the rutile produced from
them in 1915 was $27,500. The value of the mineral varies
according to purity from $40 to $150 per ton.
Very

little

localities in

Tourmaline, see

Gem

Stones.

Tungsten.

The

total value of tungsten concentrates

1915 was $4,100,000.

Colorado.

These come

chiefly

produced during
from California and

APPENDIX

450

Turquoise, see

Gem

Stones.

Zinc.

The production

of zinc in the

United States for 1915

is

given

below.
Short Tons.

Colorado

52,297

Kansas

14,365

Missouri

136,300

Montana

New

93,573

Jersey

Wisconsin
Other states
Total

The world's production of spelter by

116,618
'.

41,403

231,935
586,491

countries for 1913 follows:

Short Tons.

Belgium
France and Spain

217,928

Germany

312,075

Great Britain
United States

346,676

Total

78,289
65,197

1,093,635

INDEX.
Note.

Names of
variety

mineral species are printed in heavy-faced type; synonyms and

names in italics; general matter in light-faced type.

Analcite, 269.

A.

rock-making

Accessory

Anatase, 196.
Andalusite, 256.
Andesine, 228.

min-

erals, 343.

Acicular structure, 57.

Acid potassium sulphate, 92

Acmite,

Andesite, 333.
Andradite, 244.
Anglesite, 302.
Anhydrite, 303.
Ankerite, 209.
Annabergite, 293.
Anorthite, 229.
Anthophyllite, 237.

233.

Actinolite, 237.

Adamantine

luster, 66.

Adularia, 222.
.ffigirite,

233.

.ffinigmatite, 240.
Agalmatolite, 283.

Antimony,

Agate, 176.

Antimony

124.
minerals, 311.

Antimony,

tests for, 95.

Alabandite, 144.
Alabaster, 305.
Albite, 225.

Alexandrite, 193.
Allanite, 259.
Almandite, 244.

Altaite, 140.

Aluminium,

tests for, 95.

Aluminium

minerals, 310.
Amalgam, 131.
Amazon stone, 223.

Amblygonite,

Apatite, 288.
Apatite Group, 288.
Apophyllite, 265.
Aquamarine, 241.
Aragonite, 2141
Aragonite Group, 213.
Arfvedsonite, 246.
Argentite, 138.
Arkose, 336.

Arsenic, 123.
Arsenic minerals, 312.

292.

Arsenic, tests for, 96.

Arsenopyrite, 156.

Amethyst, 176.
Ammonium carbonate, 93.
Ammonium hydroxide, 93.

Ammonium
Ammonium
Ammonium

Asbestos, 279.
Asterism, 68.

molybdate, 93.

Atacamite,

oxalate, 93.

Augite, 231.
Aurichalcite, 219.

sulphocyanite, 93.
363.

Amorphous minerals,
Amphibole, 237.

172.

Aventurine, 176.
Axinite, 260.
Azurite, 219.

Amphibole Group, 237.

451

INDEX

452
B.

Brookite, 196.

Brown
Balas ruby, 188.

Banded

hematite, 200.

Brucite, 202.

structure, 59.

Barite, 299.
Barite Group, 299.

Barium chloride, 93.

Barium hydroxide, 93.
Barium minerals, 313.
Barium, tests

for, 96.

Barytes, 299.
Basalt, 333.

Bauxite, 201.

Bead

tests, 90.

Beam

balance, 64.
Beryl, 240.
Biotite, 275.

Bismuth,

124.

Bismuthinite, 136.
Bismuth minerals, 313.
Bismuth, tests for, 97.
Black-band ore, 211.
Blackjack, 142.
Blowpipe, 80.

Blowpipe flame, 82.

Blue vitriol, 306.
Bog-iron ore, 200.
Boracite, 296.

Borax, 296.
Borax, 92.
Bornite, 148.
Boron, tests for, 97.

C.

Cadmium
Cairngorm

minerals, 313.
stone, 176.

Calamine,

261.

Calaverite, 158.
Calcite, 204.
Calcite Group, 203.
Calcium, tests for, 98.

Cancrinite, 243.
Capillary pyrites, 146.
Capillary structure, 57.
Carbonado, 117.

Carbon, tests

for, 99.

184.
Carbuncle, 247.
Carnallite, 173.
Carnelian, 176.

Carborundum,

Cassiterite, 193.
Cat's eye, 176, 193.
Celestite, 301.

Cerargyrite, 169.
Cerussite, 217.

Chabazite, 269.
Chalcanthite, 306.
Chalcedony, 176.

Chalcocite, 141.
Chalcopyrite, 150.

Sort, 117.

Chalcotrichite, 179.

Botryoidal structure, 58.

Boulangerite,' 160.

Chalk, 206, 336.

Bournonite,

160.

Brachy-axis, 47.

Brachydome,

48.

Chalybite, 210.

Chemical formula, 75.

Chemical groups, 74.
Chessylite, 219.

Brachypinacoid, 48.

Chiastolite, 256.

Braunite, 193.

Chloanthite, 154.

Brazilian emerald, 264.

Brochantite, 304.
Bromyrite, 170.

Chlorine, tests for, 99.

Chlorite Group, 277.
Chlorophane, 171.
Chlorospinel, 188.

Bronzite, 231.

Chondrodite,

Brittle, 62.

261.

INDEX
Chromite,

191.

Chromium

minerals, 314.
Chromium, tests for, 99.

Chrysoberyl, 192.
Chrysocolla, 283.
Chrysolite, 247.
Chrysoprase, 176.
Chrysotile, 279.

Cinnabar, 144.
Cinnamon stone, 245.
Classification of minerals, 114.
Clay ironstone, 211.

Cleavage,

3, 59.

Clino-axis, 50.

Clinochlore, 277.
Clinodome, 52.

Clinohumite, 261.
Clinopinacoid, 53.
Clintonite Group, 276.
Closed tube

453

Cordierite, 242.

Corundum,

181.

Covellite, 145.
Crocidolite, 240.
Crocoite, 303.

Cryolite, 172.
Crystal combinations, 13.
Crystal, defined,

Crystallized structure, 57.

Crystallographic axes, 9.

Cube, 18.
Cuprite, 179.
Cyanite, 257.
Cymophane, 193.

D.

test, 87.

Coatings on charcoal, 86.

Dacite, 333.

Cobalt bloom, 293.

Cobaltite, 154.
Cobalt minerals, 314.

Danburite, 254.

Cobalt nitrate, 93,

Cobalt, tests for, 99.
Cogwheel ore, 160.
Colemanite, 296.

Coloradorite, 144.
Color of minerals, 67.

Columbite, 284.
Columnar structure, 58.
Compact structure, 58.
Concentric structure, 58.
Conchoidal fracture, 60.

Conglomerate, 335.

Constancy of interfacial angles, 5.

Contact metamorphic minerals,
347.

Copper,

130.

Copper glance, 141.

Copper minerals, 314.

Copper nickel, 147.
Copper pyrites, 150.
Copper, tests for, 99.

1.

Crystal distortion, 14.

Crystal form, 12.
Crystal habit, 13.

Datolite, 257.
Deltoid dodecahedron, 29.
Demantoid, 247.
Dendritic structure, 57.

Desmine, 268.
Determinative Mineralogy, 364.
Determinative Tables, 369.

Diamond,

116.

Diaspore, 198.
Dimorphism, 80.
Diopside, 231.
Dioptase, 250.
Diorite, 332.
Diploid, 25.
Divergent structure, 57.

Dodecahedron,

19.

Dolerite, 332.
Dolomite, 208.

Double refraction, 71.

Drusy structure, 57.
Dry-bone

ore,

212.

reagents, 92.
Dunite, 332.

Dry

INDEX

454
E.

Earthy

structure, 58.

Elceolite,

242.

G.
Gabbro, 332.
Gadolinite, 258.

Elastic, 62.
Electric calamine, 262.

Gahnite, 189.
Galena, 139.

Electrum, 125.

Galenite, 139.

Elements, 115.
Elements, list of, 94.

Gangue

Embolite,

169.

Emerald, 241.

Emery, 182.
Enargite, 165.

minerals, 351,

Garnet, 244.
Garnierite, 280.
Gay Lussite, 219.

Endlichite, 291.

Genthi^e, 280.
Geocronite, 160.
Geode, 59.

Enstatite, 231.
Epidote, 259.

Geyserite, 178.

Erubescite, 149.

Erythrite, 293.

Gersdorffite, 154.

Gibbsite, 203.
Glauberite, 298.

Essonite, 245.

Glaucophane,

Eucryptite, 234.

Globular structure, 58.

F.
Fahlore, 162.

Famatinite,

165.

Fayalite, 248.
Feather ore, 159.
Feldspar Group, 220.
Felsite, 333.

Fergusonite, 286.
Fibrolite, 256.

Fibrous fracture, 60.

Fibrous structure, 58.
Filiform structure, 57.

Flame

tests, 88.

Flexible, 62.
Flint, 177.

Flos ferri, 215.

Fluorine, tests for, 100.

Fluorite, 170.
Fluor spar, 170.
Foliated structure, 58.
Fosterite, 248.

239.

Gmelinite, 269.
Gneiss, 337.
Goethite, 199.
Gold, 125.
Golden

beryl, 241.

Gold minerals, 317.

Gold, tests for, 101.
Goniometers, 6.
Gossan, 153.
Granite, 331.

Granular structure, 58.

Graphite, 120.
Gray copper, 162.
Graywacke, 336.
Greasy luster, 66.
Greenockite, 146.
Grossularite, 244.

Groundmass, 334.

Gypsum,

304.

H.

Fracture, 60.

Hackly

Franklinite, 191.

Halite, 166.

Fusion, 83.

Hardness of minerals,

fracture, 60.
60.

INDEX
Harmotone, 267.
Hausmannite, 193.

Indicolite, 264.

Infusorial earth,
lodyrite, 170.

Haiiynite, 243.

Heavy spar, 299.

Hedenbergite, 231.
Hematite, 184.

lolite, 242.

Iridescence, 68.

Iridium, 133.
Iridosmine, 133.

Hemimorphite, 262.
Hessite, 140.

Iron, 133.
Iron minerals, 318.
Iron pyrites, 151.

Heulandite, 267.
Hexahedron, 18.
Hexagonal axes, 37.
Hexagonal minerals, 357.
Hexagonal prisms, 38.
Hexagonal pyramids, 39, 40.
Hexagonal symmetry, 38.
Hexagonal system, 37.

Iron, tests for, 101.

Irregular fracture, 60.
Isometric angles, 30.

Isometric
Isometric
Isometric
Isometric

Hexakistetrahedron, 29.
Hexoctahedron, 23.

silver,

minerals, 355.

symmetry,

17.

system, 16.

J.

169.

Jacinth, 254.
Jadeite, 234.

Horseflesh ore, 149.

Hiibnerite, 307.

Humite,

axes, 16.

Isomorphism, 77.
Isomorphous groups, 79.

Hiddenite, 234.
Hornblende, 237.
Hornblendite, 332.

Horn

455

Jamesonite,

261.

Hyacinth, 254.
Hyalite, 178.

Hyalophane,

159.

Jargon, 254.
Jasper, 177.
Jeffersonite, 231.
Jolly balance, 64.

223.

Hydrargillite, 203.

Hydrochloric acid, 93.

Hydrogen sodium phosphate,

Hydrohemalite, 198.

Hydromagnesite,

220.

Hydrozincite, 220.

Hypersthene,

231.

I.

K.

93.

Kainite, 168.
Kalinite, 306.
Kaolin, 281.

Kaolinite, 281.

Kidney ore, 185.

Krennerite, 159.
Kunzite, 234.

Ice, 181.
Iceland spar, 206.
Igneous rocks, 329.

L.

Ilmenite, 186.

Labradorite, 228.

Ilvaite, 261.
Index of refraction, 69.

Lamellar structure, 58-

Indices, 12.

Laumontite,

Lapis-lazuli, 243.

268.

INDEX

456
Lazulite, 293.
Lazurite, 243.

Meneghinite, 160.

Lead, 131.
Lead minerals, 319.
Lead, tests for, 102.
Lepidolite, 274.

Lepidomelane,

276.

Leucite, 229.
Lievrite, 261.

Limestone, 206, 336.

Limonite, 200.
Linnseite, 149.
Lithiophilite, 287.
Lithium, test for, 103.

Litmus paper,

Mercury, 131.
Mercury minerals,
Mercury, tests

Metacinnabarite,

Metamorphic rocks,
Mica Group, 271.

M.

Mica-schist, 338.
Micaceous structure, 58.
Microcline, 223.

Microcosmic

salt, 92.

Microlite, 286.

Milky

quartz, 176.

Molybdenum

minerals, 322.
for, 104.

Molybdenum, tests
Monazite, 286.

Macro-axis, 47.
48.

Macropinacoid, 48.

Magnetic

337.

Mispickel, 156.
Mizzonite, 250, 251.
Molybdenite, 137.

Luster, 65.

Magnesite, 209.
Magnesium, tests

144.

Metallic luster, 66.

Millerite, 146.
Mimetite, 291.

92.

Lodestone, 189.

Macrodome,

321.

for, 104.

for, 103.

pyrites, 147.

Magnetite, 189.
Malachite, 218.
Malleable, 62.

Mammillary structure, 58.

Manganese minerals, 320.
tests for, 104.
Manganite, 199.

Manganese,

Monoclinic axes, 50.

Monoclinic minerals, 360.
Monoclinic prism, 52.
Monoclinic pyramid, 51.
Monoclinic symmetry, 51.
Monoclinic system, 50.
Monticellite, 248.
Moonstone, 222, 226.
Morganite, 241.
Muriatic acid, 93.
Muscovite, 272.

Manganotantalite, 285.

Marble, 206, 339..

Marcasite, 155.
Margarite, 277.

N.
Nagyagite, 159.

Marialite, 250, 251.

Marl, 337.

Natrolite, 270.

Massive minerals, 363.

Massive structure, 59.
Meionite, 250, 251.
Melaconite, 181.

Niccolite, 147.
Nickel bloom, 293.
Nickel minerals, 322.

'Melanile, 246.
Menaccanite, 186.

Nephelite, 242.

Nickel, tests for, 104.

Niobium, tests for, 105.

Niter, 295.

INDEX

457

Nitric acid, 93.

Percentage composition, 76.

Nonmetallic

Peridot, 247.

luster, 66.

Noselite, 243.

Peridotite, 332.
Perlite, 333.

Perovskite, 284.

O.

Petalite, 220.
Petzite, 140.

Obsidian, 333.

Octahedrite, 196.
Octahedron, 18.
Oligoclase, 227.
Olivenite, 293.

Phenacite, 249.
Phenocryst, 334.
Phillipsite, 267.
Phlogopite, 275.
Phonolite, 333.
Phosgenite, 218.

Olivine, 247.

Onofrite, 144.
Onyx, 177.

Phosphorescence, 68.

Oolite, 336.
Opal, 178.

Phosphorus, tests

Opalescence, 68.

Picotite, 188.

Open tube test, 86.

Orpiment, 134.

Pitch blende, 297.

Pitchstone, 333.

Ortho-axis, 50.
Orthoclase, 221.

Plagionite, 160.

Orthodome,

Phosphorite, 289.
for, 106.

Plagioclase feldspars, 224.

52.

Platinum,

131.

Orthopinacoid, 53.

Platinum minerals, 323.

Orthorhombic
Orthorhombic
Orthorhombic
Orthorhombic
Orthorhombic
Orthorhombic

Platinum, tests for, 106.

Play of colors, 68.

axes, 46.

minerals, 359.
prism, 47.

pyramid, 47.

symmetry,

46.

structure, 58.

Plutonic rocks, 330, 331.

Pneumatolytic minerals, 348.

Polarized light, 72.
Polianite, 198.
Pollucite, 230.

system, 47.
Oxidizing flame, 84.

Oxygen, tests

Pleonaste, 188.

Plumose

for, 105.

Parting, 59.

Polybasite, 164.
Polyhalite, 168.
Porphyry, 334.
Potash alum, 306.
Potash feldspar, 221.

Peacock

Potassium iodide and sulphur

P.

Palladium,

133.

Parameters, 10.
ore, 149.

Pearl spar, 209.

mixture, 92.

Pearly luster, 66.

Pectolite, 235.
Pegmatite dike, 345.

Potassium ferricyanide, 93.

Potassium ferrocyanide, 93.

Penninite, 277.
Pentagonal dodecahedron,
Pentlandite, 144.

Prehnite, 260.
Primary vein minerals, 352.
Proustite, 161.

Potassium, tests
25.

for, 106.

INDEX

458

Rock-making minerals, 339.

Pseudomorphs, 15.
Psilomelane, 203.
Pumice, 333.

Rock

salt,

166.

Rose beryl, 241.

Rose quartz, 176.

Purple copper ore, 148.

Pyrargyrite, 161.
Pyrite, 151.
Pyritohedral class, 24.
Pyritohedron, 25.
Pyrochlore, 286.

Rubellite, 264.

Rubicelle, 188.

.'._

Ruby, 182.

Ruby
Ruby

copper, 179.
silvers, 161.

Rutile, 195.

Pyroelectricity, 72.

Pyrolusite, 196.

Pyromorphite, 290.

S.

Pyrope, 244.

Pyrophyllite, 282.

SdU, 166.
Salt of phosphorus, 92.

Pyroxene, 231.
Pyroxene Group, 230.
Pyroxenite, 332.

Samarskite, 286.
Sandstone, 335.
Sanidine, 222.
Sapphire, 182.
Satin spar, 305.

Pyrrhotite, 147.
Q.

Scalenohedron, 42.

Quartz,

Scale of fusibility, 84.

Scale of hardness, 61.
Scapolite Group, 250.
Schoelite, 308.
Schefferite, 231.

174.

Quartzite, 338.
Quicksilver, see Mercury.

R.

Schist, 338.

Radiated structure, 57.

Realgar, 134.
Red copper ore, 179.
Reducing flame, 84.

Secondary enrichment, 352.

Secondary vein minerals, 352.

Refraction of

Sectile, 62.

Scolecite, 271.
Scorodite, 293.

light, 68.

Reniform structure, 58.

Replacement deposits, 351.
Resinous

Sedimentary rocks, 334.

Selenite, 304.

Serpentine, 278.

luster, 66.

Reticulated structure, 57.

Rhodochrosite, 211.

Shale, 336.
Siderite, 210.

Rhodolite, 246.
Rhodonite, 236.

Silicon, tests for, 107.

Silky luster, 66.

Rhombohedral class, 41.

Rhombohedral minerals,
Rhombohedron, 42.
Rhyolite, 333.
Riebeckite, 239.

Rock

crystal, 175.

Sillimanite, 256.
358.

Silver, 129.
Silver glance, 138.
Silver minerals, 324.

Silver nitrate, 93.

Silver, tests for, 108.

INDEX
Slate, 338.

Symmetry,

Smaltite, 154.

Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry

Smithsonite, 212.

Smoky

quartz, 176.

459
7.

axis, 7.

center, 8.
plane, 7.

Soapstone, 280.
Soda-feldspar, 225.
Sodalite, 243.

Soda

T.

Tabular structure, 58.

niter, 295.

Sodium carbonate,
Sodium,

92.

tests for, 109.

Spathic iron, 210.

Specific gravity, 62.
Specular hematite, 185.

Talc, 280.
Tantalite, 284.
Tarnish, 68.

Tellurium,

123.

Sperrylite, 154.

Tellurium, tests for, 110.

Tenacity of minerals^ 62.

Spessartite, 244.

Tennantite, 162.

Sphalerite, 142.

Tenorite, 181.
Tephroite, 248.
Test papers, 92.

Sphene,

283.

Sphenoid, 35.
Sphenoidal class, 35.
Spinel, 187.
Spinel Group, 187.

Spodumene,

233.

Stalactitic structure, 58.

Stannite, 151.

Staurolite, 264.
Steatite, 280.

Stellated structure, 58.

Stephanite, 163.

Stibnite, 135.
Stilbite, 268.

Tetragonal axes, 31.

Tetragonal combinations, 34.
Tetragonal minerals, 356.
Tetragonal prisms, 32.
Tetragonal pyramids, 32, 33.
Tetragonal system, 31.
Tetragonal symmetry, 31.
Tetragonal trisoctahedron, 20
Tetrahedral class, 27.

Tetrahedrite, 162.
Tetrahedron, 28.
Tetrahexahedron, 19.

Stromeyerite, 142.

Thomsonite,

Strontianite, 216.
Strontium, tests for, 109.

Thorite, 254.

Structure of minerals, 57.

Sublimates in closed tube, 88.

Tiemannite,

Sublimates in open tube, 87.

Sublimates on charcoal, 86.
Submetallic luster, 67.

Tin minerals, 325.

Tin stone, 193.

271.

Thulite, 258.

144.

Tiger's eye, 176.

Syenite, 331.
Sylvanite, 157.

Tin, tests for, 111.

Titanic iron' ore, 186.
Titanite, 283.
Titanium minerals, 326.
Titanium, tests for, 111,
Topaz, 254.
Tourmaline, 262.

Sylvite, 168.

Trachyte, 333.

Sulphides, 133.

Sulphur,

122.

Sulphuric acid, 93.

Sulphur, tests for, 109.

INDEX

460
Trapezohedral class, 45.
Trapezohedron, 20.
Travertine, 206, 336.
Tremolite, 237.
Triclinic axes, 54.
Triclinic domes, 55.
Triclinic minerals, 363.

Veins and vein minerals, 349,

Verd antique marble, 279.
Vesuvianite, 251.
Vitreous luster, 66.
Vitrophyre, 333.
Vivianite, 293.
Volcanic rocks, 330, 332.

Triclinic pinacoids, 56.

Triclinic prisms, 55.
Triclinic pyramids, 55.
Triclinic symmetry, 55.

Triclinic system, 54.

Trigonal trisoctahedron, 22.

Trimorphism, 80.
Triphylite, 287.

Water, tests for, 101Wavellite, 294.

Wernerite, 250.
reagents, 92.

White iron

Tri-rhombohedral

class, 45.

Trisoctahedron, 22.
Tristetrahedron, 29.
Trona, 220.
Troostite, 249.
Tungsten minerals, 326.
Tungsten, tests for, 111.

Turgite, 198.
Turmeric paper, 92.
Turquois, 294.

160.

Warrenite,

Wet

Tripolite, 178.

Twin

W.

pyrites, 155.

Willemite, 249.
Witherite, 215.
Wolframite, 307.
Wollastonite, 235.
Wulfenite, 308.
Wurtzite, 148.

X.

Xenotime,

286.

crystals, 15.

Y.

U.

Uneven

fracture, 60.

Yellow copper

ore, 150.

Uralian emeralds, 247.

Uraninite, 297.
Uranium, tests for, 112.
Uvarovite, 244.

Zeolites, 267.

Zinc blende, 142.

V.

Vanadinite, 291.

Vanadium

Z.

minerals, 327.
Vanadium, tests for, 112.
Variegated copper ore, 149.

Zincite, 180.
Zinc minerals, 327.
Zinc, tests for, 112.
Zinkenite, 160.

Zircon, 252.
Zoisite, 258.

RETURN

TO

+>

EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY

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