LM1 Mineralogy

Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines
CO L L E G E O F ENGINEERING
EN-GEO 1 – GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS Period: 2nd Sem. AY .2020-2021

Subject Instructor: Engr. Frances Angelique T. Ubana Course and Year: BSCE- 1A
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1. Mineralogy
Outline of Topics
1. Introduction and Definition of Mineralogy
2. Elementary knowledge on Symmetry of Elements of
Crystallographic system
3. Physical Properties of Minerals
4. The Study of Rocks Forming Minerals
5. Process of Formation of All Minerals
6. The Origin and Occurrence of Coal and Petroleum
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Rocks and minerals are all around us! They help us to develop new technologies and are used in our everyday lives.
Our use of rocks and minerals includes as building material, cosmetics, cars, roads, and appliances. Rocks and minerals
are important for learning about earth materials, structure, and systems. Studying these natural objects incorporates an
understanding of earth science, chemistry, physics, and math. In this subject, we will focus on the definition, elements
of symmetry, identifying rock minerals and forming, and properties of minerals, origin and occurrence of Coal and
Petroleum.
Lesson 1: Introduction to Mineralogy

The Science of Mineralogy
The Science of Mineralogy, is a branch of the earth sciences that is concerned with studying minerals and their
physical and chemical properties. Within mineralogy there are also those who study how minerals are formed, where
they are geographically located, as well as their potential uses. Like many sciences, mineralogy has its origins in several
ancient civilizations, and it has been concerned primarily with the various methods of classification of minerals for most
of its history. Modern-day mineralogy has been expanded by advances in other sciences, such as biology and chemistry,
to shed even more light on the nature of the materials that form the earth we live on.
Minerals
A mineral is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite, but

generally not fixed, chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is
usually formed by inorganic processes. Minerals are solid substances that are
present in nature and can be made of one element or more elements combined
together (chemical compounds)
In nature there are many minerals: around 2000 species are known. Some
of them are very rare, while some others are very popular. But only around thirty of
them compose the Earth’s crust rocks.
EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 1 of 28

Definition of Minerals
Naturally occurring means that synthetic compounds not known
to occur in nature cannot have a mineral name. However, it may occur
anywhere, other planets, deep in the earth, as long as there exists a
natural sample to describe.
Minerals is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, crystalline
substance which has a fixed structure and a chemical composition which
is either fixed or which may vary within certain defined limits.
Homogeneous solid means that it must be chemically and physically

homogeneous down to the basic repeat unit of the atoms. It will then have
absolutely predictable physical properties (density, compressibility, index of
refraction, etc.). This means that rocks such as granite or basalt are not
minerals because they contain more than one compound. A mineral is
composed of a single solid substance of uniform composition that cannot be
physically separated into simpler chemical compounds and it is called
homogeneous solid. Homogeneity is determined relative to the scale on
which it is defined.
Definite, but generally not fixed, composition means that atoms, or

groups of atoms must occur in specific ratios. For ionic crystals (i.e. most
minerals) ratios of cations to anions will be constrained by charge balance,
however, atoms of similar charge and ionic radius may substitute freely for one
another; hence definite, but not fixed. Minerals can be expressed by chemical
formulas, such as SiO2 for quartz. However, some minerals like feldspars have
variable compositions. The composition of plagioclase, for example, ranges
from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8.
Ordered atomic arrangement means crystalline. Crystalline materials

are three-dimensional periodic arrays of precise geometric arrangement of
atoms. Glasses such as obsidian, which are disordered solids, liquids (e.g.,
water, mercury), and gases (e.g., air) are not minerals. The chemical elements
that make up each mineral are arranged in a particular way - this is why minerals
'grow' as crystals.
Inorganic processes mean that crystalline organic compounds

formed by organisms are generally not considered minerals. However,
carbonate shells are minerals because they are identical to compounds
formed by purely inorganic processes. Any material produced through
organic activity – such as leaves, bones, peat, shell, or soft animal tissue
– is not considered a mineral. Most fossils, although they were once living,
have generally had their living tissues completely replaced by inorganic
processes after burial; thus, they are considered to be composed of
minerals as well.

Composition of the Earth’s Crust
The earth's crust is composed of many kinds of rocks, each of which is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
In geology, the term mineral describes any naturally-occurring solid substance with a specific composition and crystal
structure. A mineral’s composition refers to the kinds and proportions of elements making up the mineral. The way these
elements are packed together determines the structure of the mineral. More than 3,500 different minerals have been
identified. There are only 12 common elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, titanium, hydrogen, manganese, phosphorus) that occur in the earth's crust. All other naturally occurring
elements are found in very minor or trace amounts. Silicon and oxygen are the most abundant crustal elements, together
comprising more than 70 percent by weight (Rudnick & Fountain, 1995). It is therefore not surprising that the most
abundant crustal minerals are the silicates (e.g. olivine, Mg2SiO4), followed by the oxides (e.g. hematite, Fe2O3). Other
important types of minerals include: the carbonates (e.g. calcite, CaCO3) the sulfides (e.g. galena, PbS) and the sulfates
(e.g. anhydrite, CaSO4). Most of the abundant minerals in the earth's crust are not of commercial value. Economically
valuable minerals (metallic and nonmetallic) that provide the raw materials for industry tend to be rare and hard to find.
Therefore, considerable effort and skill is necessary for finding where they occur and extracting them in sufficient
quantities. Table 1 shows the elemental chemical composition of the Earth's crust in order of abundance (Lutgens &
Tarbuck, 2000).
Element Name Symbol Percentage by weight of the

Earth’s crust
Oxygen O 46.6
Silicon Si 27.7
Aluminum Al 8.1
Iron Fe 5.0
Calcium Ca 3.6
Sodium Na 2.8
Potassium K 2.6
Magnesium Mg 2.1
All other elements 1.5
Table 1. The elements in the Earth’s crust (Lutgens & Tarbuck, 2000).
This is a table that shows the elemental chemical composition of the Earth's crust. They will vary depending on
the way they were calculated and the source. 98.5% of the Earth's crust consists of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. All other elements account for approximately 1.5% of the volume of the
Earth's crust.
Prepared by: Balce, Eloisa Mae E.

Lesson 2: Elementary Knowledge on Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic

Systems
Why do we need to study Crystallography?
• It is useful for the identification of minerals

• Crystallography is of major importance to a wide range of scientific disciplines including physics, chemistry,
molecular biology, materials science and mineralogy.
• Study of crystals can provide new chemical information. In laboratories and industry, we can prepare pure
chemical substances by crystallization process.
• It is very useful for solid state studies of materials.
Definition of Crystallography
Crystallography is the experimental science of the

arrangement of atoms in solids. The word "crystallography" derives
from the Greek words crystallon that translates to ‘cold drop / frozen
drop’, with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of
transparency, and graphein which means ‘write (New World
Encyclopedia, 2017).
Crystallography is a branch of science that deals with

discerning the arrangement and bonding of atoms in crystalline
solids and with the geometric structure of crystal lattices (Britannica,
2018).
Definition of Crystal
A crystal is a regular polyhedral form, bounded by smooth
faces, which is assumed by a chemical compound, due to the
action of its interatomic forces, when passing, under suitable
conditions, from the state of a liquid or gas to that of a solid
(Harraz, 2014).
A crystal of amethyst quartz

Crystal Systems
The seven crystal systems are a method of classifying crystals according to their atomic lattice or structure. The
atomic lattice is a three dimensional network of atoms that are arranged in a symmetrical pattern. The shape of the
lattice determines not only which crystal system the stone belongs to, but all of its physical properties and appearance.
In some crystal healing practices, the axial symmetry of a crystal is believed to directly influence its metaphysical
properties. For example, crystals in the Cubic System are believed to be grounding, because the cube is a symbol of
the element Earth (Scialla, 2021).
There are seven crystal systems or groups, each of which has a distinct atomic lattice. These are cubic,
trigonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, monoclinic and triclinic.

Cubic (Isometric) System

All three axes are of equal length and intersect at right angles. It is based on a square inner structure (Scialla,
2021).
Crystal shapes include:

• Cube (diamond, fluorite, pyrite)
• Octahedron (diamond, fluorite, magnetite)
• Rhombic dodecahedron (garnet, lapis lazuli rarely
crystallises)
• Icosi-tetrahedron (pyrite, sphalerite)
• Hexacisochedron (pyrite)
Trigonal (Rhombohedral) System

All three axes are of equal length, and none of the axes is perpendicular to another, but the crystal faces all
have the same size and shape. It is based on a triangular inner
structure (Scialla, 2021).

• Three-sided prisms or pyramids
• Rhombohedra
• Scalenohedra
Tetragonal System
Have three axes, all at right angles, two of which are equal in length and one which is different in length. It is
based on a rectangular inner structure (Scialla, 2021).

• Four-sided prisms and pyramids
• Trapezohedrons
• Eight-sided and double pyramids
• Icosi-tetrahedron (pyrite, sphalerite)
• Hexacisochedron (pyrite).
Orthorhombic System
All three axes are unequal in and are at right angles to each other.
It is based on a rhombic (diamond-shaped) inner structure
(Scialla, 2021).
• Pinacoids
• Rhombic prisms
• Pyramids
• Double pyramids

Hexagonal System
Have four axes, three of the axes fall on the same plane and intersect at the axial cross at 120 degrees between
the positive ends. The fourth axis is of a different length and intersects the others at right angles. It is based on a
hexagonal (6-sided) inner structure (Scialla, 2021).

• Four-sided prisms and pyramids
• Twelve-sided pyramids
• Double pyramids
Monoclinic System
All three axes are unequal in length and two axes are perpendicular to each other. Two are at right angles to
each other and the third is inclined. It is based on a parallelogram inner structure (Scialla, 2021).
• Basal pinacoids and prisms with inclined

end faces
Triclinic System
All three axes are unequal in length and none is perpendicular to another. It is based on a
'triclinic' inner structure, meaning 'three inclined angles'. Crystal forms are usually paired faces
(Scialla, 2021)

Elements of Symmetry
• Plane of Symmetry
• Axis of Symmetry
• Center of Symmetry
Plane of Symmetry
Any two dimensional surface that when passed through the
center of the crystal, divides it into two symmetrical parts that are
mirror images (Harraz, 2014).
Axis of Symmetry
It is an imaginary line through the center of the crystal around which the crystal may be rotated so that after a
definite angular revolution the crystal form appears the same as before. Depending on the amount of degrees of rotation
necessary, four types of axes of symmetry are possible when you are considering crystallography (Harraz, 2014).
Four Types of Axis of Symmetry

1. Binary Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 180 degrees.
A filled oval is noted on the rotational axis.
Two Fold System (180 degrees)
2. Trigonal Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 120

degrees. A filled equilateral triangle is noted on the rotational axis.
Three Fold System (120 degrees)
3. Tetragonal Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 90

degrees. A filled square is noted on the rotational axis.
Four Fold System (90 degrees)

4. Hexagonal Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 60 degrees. A

filled hexagon symbol is noted on the rotational axis.
Six Fold System (60 degrees)
Center of Symmetry
Most crystals have a center of symmetry, even though they may not possess either planes of symmetry or axes
of symmetry. Triclinic crystals usually only have a center of symmetry. If you can pass an imaginary line from the surface
of a crystal face through the center of the crystal (axial cross) and it intersects a similar point on a face equidistance
from the center then the crystal has a center of symmetry (Harraz, 2014).
Prepared by: Acao, Leonel M. and Baay, Desiree Mae O
Lesson 3: Physical Properties of Minerals
Minerals
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Minerals are naturally occurring, solid, inorganic substances.
Geologists define a mineral as:
“A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, crystalline substance which has a fixed structure and a chemical
composition which is either fixed or which may vary within certain defined limits.”
How Can a Mineral Be Identified?
Geologists working in the field, however, don't usually have access to the sophisticated laboratory techniques
needed to determine these properties. More commonly, they use properties which can be observed with the naked eye
or determined with simple tools.

In hand specimen, the nearly constant physical characteristics possessed by a mineral can be used in its
identification. It is important to realize that although a particular mineral may be found in several apparently differing
forms, its fundamental physical properties will always be the same.
Physical properties of minerals
Physical properties of minerals have distinguishing physical properties that in most cases can be used by
Mineralogist to determine the identity of the specimen. The physical properties of minerals are related to their chemical
composition and bonding. Physical properties of minerals are important and useful diagnostic parameters. They are
used to identify minerals macroscopically. Some characteristics, such as a mineral’s hardness, are more useful for
mineral identification. Color is readily observable and certainly obvious, but it is usually less reliable than other physical
properties.
Color
Color is one of the most obvious properties of a mineral but it is often of limited diagnostic value, especially in
minerals that are not opaque. While many metallic and earthy minerals have distinctive colors, translucent or transparent
minerals can vary widely in color. Quartz, for example, can vary from colorless to white to yellow to gray to pink to purple
to black. Many minerals have different colors and some minerals' colors are identical to other minerals' colors. It is
important to understand what causes color in minerals in order to understand this mineral property.
List of some coloring elements and the color they produce in at least one mineral:
• Cobalt, Co, produces the violet-red color in erythrite, (cobalt arsenic sulfide).
• Chromium, Cr, produces the color orange-red color of crocoite, (lead chromate).
• Copper, Cu, produces the azure blue color of azurite, (copper carbonate hydroxide).
• Iron, Fe, produces the red color of limonite, (hydrated iron oxide hydroxide).
• Manganese, Mn, produces the pink color of rhodochrosite, (manganese carbonate).
• Nickel, Ni, produces the green color of annabergite, (hydrated nickel arsenate).
• Uranium, U, produces the yellow color of zippeite, (hydrated potassium uranyl sulfate hydroxide).
• Vanadium, V, produces the red-orange color of vanadinite, (lead vanadate chloride).
Erythrite Crocoite Azurite Limonite
Rhodochrosite Annabergite Zippeite Vanadinite
Tenacity

Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold together or resist
separation. Tenacity describes the reaction of a mineral to stress such as crushing, bending, breaking, or tearing.
Certain minerals react differently to each type of stress. Since tenacity is composed of several reactions to various
stresses, it is possible for a mineral to have more than one type of tenacity.
Different form of Tenacity:

• Brittle - If a mineral is hammered and the result is a powder or small crumbs, it is considered brittle. Brittle
minerals leave a fine powder if scratched, which is the way to test a mineral to see if it is brittle. The majority of
all minerals are brittle. E.g. Quarts
• Sectile - Sectile minerals can be separated with a knife, much like wax but usually not as soft. E.g. Gypsum
• Malleable - If a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer, it is malleable. All true metals are
malleable. E.g. Silver
• Ductile - A mineral that can be stretched into a wire is ductile. All true metals are ductile. E.g. Gold
• Flexible but inelastic - Any mineral that can be bent, but remains in the new position after it is bent is flexible
but inelastic. If the term flexible is singularly used, it implies flexible but inelastic. E.g. Copper
• Flexible and elastic - When flexible and elastic minerals are bent, they spring back to their original position. All
fibrous minerals, and some acicular minerals belong in this category. E.g. Chrysotile Serpentine
Luster
Luster describes the reflection of light off a mineral’s surface. It is not the same thing as color, so it crucial to
distinguish luster from color. One simple way to classify luster is based on whether the mineral is metallic or non-metallic.
Minerals that are opaque and shiny, such as pyrite, have a metallic luster. Minerals such as quartz have a non-metallic
luster.
Terms used to describe Luster are:

• Metallic - Minerals with a metallic luster are opaque and reflective, like metal. The metallic elements,
most sulfides, and some oxides belong in this category.
• Submetallic - Describes a mineral that is opaque to nearly opaque and reflects well. Thin splinters or sections
of submetallic minerals are translucent.
• Vitreous - This luster accounts for roughly 70 percent of all minerals. Minerals with a vitreous luster have
reflective properties similar to glass. Most of the silicates, carbonates, phosphates, sulfates, halides,
and hydroxides have a vitreous luster.
• Adamantine - Transparent to translucent minerals with a high refractive index yield an adamantine luster,
meaning they display extraordinary brilliance and shine.
• Resinous - This is the luster of many yellow, dark orange, or brown minerals with moderately high refractive
indices - honey like, but not necessarily the same color.
• Silky - A silky luster is the result of a mineral having a fine fibrous structure. Minerals with a silky luster have
optical properties similar to silk cloth.
• Pearly - Describes a luster similar to the inside of a mollusk shell or shirt button. Many micas have a pearly
luster, and some minerals with a pearly luster have an iridescent hue. Some minerals may exhibit a pearly luster
on cleaved crystal surfaces parallel and below the reflecting surface of a mineral.
• Greasy - Luster of a mineral that appears as if it were coated with grease.
• Pitchy - Minerals with a tar-like appearance have a pitchy luster. Minerals with a pitchy luster are
usually radioactive and have gone through the process of metafiction.
• Waxy - A waxy luster describes a mineral that appears as if it were coated with a layer wax.
• Dull - This luster defines minerals with poor reflective qualities, much like unglazed porcelain. Most minerals
with a dull luster have a rough or porous surface.

Density
Density is an intrinsic physical property of minerals that relates to the composition of the mineral and to the
pattern in which the mineral’s atoms are arranged. “Intrinsic” means that the property is the same for the mineral, no
matter what the size or shape of the sample. The density of a mineral is the ratio of its mass to its volume. It is a measure
of how much “stuff” is squeezed into the amount of space the mineral occupies. If a mineral has higher atomic number
cations it has a higher specific
gravity. For example, in the carbonate
minerals the following is observed:
Specific gravity (SG) or relative Atomic # Specific
Mineral Composition
density is a unit less number that of Cation Gravity
expresses the ratio between the weight
of a substance and the weight of an
equal volume of water at 4 degrees Aragonite CaCO3 40.08 2.94
(max ρ).
Strontianite SrCO3 87.82 3.78
Density (p) is the weight of a Witherite BaCO3 137.34 4.31
substance per volume= g/cm3. It is
different Cerussite PbCO3 207.19 6.58
than SG, and varies from one locality to
another (max. at poles, min. at
equator).
Streak
Streak is the color of the powdered mineral, which is usually more useful for identification than the color of the
whole mineral sample. Rubbing the mineral on a streak plate will produce a streak. A streak plate can be made from
the unglazed back side of a white porcelain bathroom or kitchen tile. Some minerals won't streak because they are
harder than the streak plate.
How to conduct the Streak test?
The streak test should be done on clean, unweather, or freshly broken specimens of the mineral. This is done
to reduce the possibility that a contaminant, weathered coating, or tarnish will influence the results of the test.The
preferred method for conducting a streak test is to pick up a representative specimen of the mineral with the hand that
you write with. Select a representative point or protrusion on the specimen that will be scraped across the streak plate.
With your other hand, place the streak plate flat on a tabletop or laboratory bench. Then, while holding the streak plate
flat and firmly in place on the tabletop, place the point of the specimen firmly against the streak plate, and, while
maintaining firm pressure, drag the specimen across the plate. Now examine the streak to determine its color and to
confirm that it is a powder, instead of grains, splinters, or broken pieces.
Hardness
Hardness is
measured by the resistance which a smooth surface offers to abrasion. The degree of hardness is determined by
observing the comparative ease or difficulty which one mineral is scratched by another. Below is the standard hardness
scale.

Mohs'
Mohs' Description
Hardness
0 Liquid
1 Talc
1.5 Between Talc and Gypsum
2 Gypsum
2.5 Finger Nail
3 Calcite
3.5 Copper Penny
4 Fluorite
4.5 Between Fluorite and Apatite
5 Apatite
5.5 Knife Blade
6 Orthoclase
https://omg.georockme.com/hom
6.5 Pyrite e
7 Quartz
7.5 Garnet
8 Topaz
8.5 Chrysoberyl
9 Corundum
9.5 Silicon Carbide
10 Diamond
Cleavage
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes to make smooth surfaces. A mineral that
naturally breaks into perfectly flat surfaces is exhibiting cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A cleavage represents
a direction of weakness in the crystal lattice. Cleavage surfaces can be distinguished by how they consistently reflect
light, as if polished, smooth, and even. The cleavage properties of a mineral are described in terms of the number of
cleavages and, if more than one cleavage, the angles between the cleavages. The number of cleavages is the number
or directions in which the mineral cleaves. A mineral may exhibit 100 cleavage surfaces parallel to each other.
Being related to the atomic structure of the mineral, cleavage may be in

several directions and depending on the force of cohesion some of them may
be more developed than the others. So they are classified according to their
distinction and smoothness:
Parting- Obtained when the mineral is subjected to external force. The

mineral breaks along planes of structural weakness. The weakness may
result from pressure, twinning or exsolution.
Fracture- If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along
random directions called fracture.

Fracture
Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane. Fracture is not always the same in the same
mineral because fracture is not determined by the structure of the mineral.
Kinds of Fractures:
• Conchoidal- a smoothly curved fracture that is familiar to people who have examined broken glass. Sometimes
described as a clam-shell fracture. Quartz has this fracture type and almost all specimens that have been
broken, demonstrate this fracture type very well.
• Subconchoidal - Similar to conchoidal, just not as curved, but still smooth. E.g. Andalusite
• Uneven- a type that is basically self-explanatory. E. g. Anhydrite.
• Jagged- a sharp points or edges that catch on a finger that's rubbed across the surface. E.g. Copper, a metal
alloy or some sulfides or oxides.
• Splintery - fracture type that occurs in fibrous or finely acicular minerals and in minerals that have a relatively
stronger structure in one direction than the other two. Chrysotile serpentine is a typical mineral with splintery
fracture and kyanite is an example of a non-fibrous mineral that has this fracture.
• Earthy- a fracture that produces a texture similar to broken children's clay. It is found in minerals that are
generally massive and loosely consolidated such as limonite.
Crystal Form
Crystal form refers to the geometric shape of mineral crystals. Crystal form is caused by the symmetrical, three-
dimensional arrangement of atoms inside the mineral. Not all minerals form perfect visible crystal shapes. Some crystals
are too small to see. Minerals composed of such tiny crystals are called cryptocrystalline. Other crystals may grow into
tightly crowded masses so that individual crystal faces cannot form. Crystal growth results from a slow change of state
from liquid or gas to solid.
Additional Physical Properties of Minerals
Magnetism
Some minerals are attracted to a hand magnet. To test a mineral for magnetism, just put the magnet and mineral
together and see if they are attracted. Magnetite is the only common mineral that is always strongly magnetic.
Response to a magnetic field

• diamagnetic – no attraction (repulsion)
• paramagnetic – m weak attraction, not
• ferromagnetic – strong attraction, permanent
Reaction with Acid
Some minerals, especially carbonate minerals, react visibly with acid. (Usually, a dilute hydrochloric acid [HCl]
is used.) Carbonate minerals, including calcite and dolomite, are the most common minerals that react to
acid. Calcite, for example, fizzes when dilute hydrochloric acid is applied to it.
Striation
Striations are tiny, straight, parallel grooves on some cleavage faces of minerals. Some quartz crystal faces,
for example, show striations.

Taste, Odor, Feel
Some minerals have a distinctive taste (halite is salt, and tastes like it). Some a distinctive odor (the powder of
some sulfide minerals, such as sphalerite, a zinc sulfide, smells like rotten eggs), and some a distinctive feel (talc feels
slippery).
Prepared by: Barrameda, Rose Shelly Marie E.
Lesson 4: Study of Rocks Forming Minerals
Rock-forming mineral, any mineral that forms igneous, sedimentary, or

metamorphic rocks and that typically, or solely, forms as an intimate part of
rock-making processes (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013).
Rock-forming minerals are as miscellaneous a group as the gems.
They are important as the building blocks of the solid earth, from which
mountains are made and valleys carved. They furnish the minerals of our soil
and the salt of the seas (Zim et al., 2021).
There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of
rocks are formed from combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as
“rock-forming minerals”.
To be considered a common rock-forming mineral, a mineral must:
A. be one of the most abundant minerals in Earth’s crust;
B. be one of the original minerals present at the time of a crustal rock’s formation; and
C. be an important mineral in determining a rock’s classification
Nearly all the rock-forming minerals are silicates, that is, they consist of a metal combined with silicon and
oxygen. Some are complex silicates, involving several metals and several silicate groups.
The rock-forming minerals are: feldspar, quartz, amphibole, mica, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxene,
chlorite, serpentine, staurolite and epidote.
Feldspar
Feldspars are the most common mineral in the Earth’s crust. They
are reasonably hard, are often white-cream-pink, and may form crystals that
look small blocks. Feldspars are found nearly in all igneous rocks and in
rocks formed from them. All are aluminum silicates combined with one or
two more metals. Feldspars have common physical properties. Their crystal
forms are very similar and the crystal angle are all close to 60° and 120°.
Feldspars show two good cleavage faces, at right angles or nearly so. Their
hardness is 6 or a bit more, and their specific gravity is about 2.6. They
usually have a smooth, glassy or pearly luster. Their hardness is 6. Their
specific gravity is about 2.6. Feldspar is a common raw material used in
glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint,
plastics, and rubber.

Quartz
Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two parts oxygen. It is
the most abundant mineral found at the Earth’s surface, and its unique properties make
it one of the most useful natural substances. Quartz forms at all temperatures. It is
abundant in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Quartz can be in many
different colors. In its purest form, it is a clear or white color. Quartz also has vitreous
luster, which means that it interacts with light in the same way that glass does. In terms
of hardness, quartz is relatively hard for a mineral and has a Moh’s scale hardness of
7(out of 10-diamond being a 10). It has a specific gravity between 2.6 and 2.7 depending
on the type of quartz. Quartz crystals are used to make oscillators for clocks and
electronic gadgets.
Amphibole
Amphiboles are complex hydrous silicates
containing calcium, magnesium, and iron. Amphibole
minerals are hard and can be black, dark brown, green or
blue. They occur commonly in dark-colored igneous rocks
as small blocky or elongate crystals. The cleavage planes
are at about 55° and 125°, forming wedge-shaped
cleavage fragments. It contains aluminum and is most
often of secondary origin. Amphiboles can be very difficult
to distinguish from pyroxenes if the crystals are small. The
hardness ranges from 5–6. The specific gravity values of amphiboles range from about 2.9 –3.6. It is used as crushed
stone for the usual crushed stone applications such as road and railroad bed construction.
Mica
Mica is a mineral name given to a group of minerals that are physically
and chemically similar. They are all silicate minerals, known as sheet silicates
because they form in distinct layers. Micas are fairly light and relatively soft, and
the sheets and flakes of mica are flexible. It is common in granites and similar
igneous rocks. Large, six-sided crystals-some weighing as much as 100 lbs.
Micas also form in metamorphic rocks as other minerals are altered by heat and
pressure. The most ideal cleavage is clarified by the hexagonal sheet-like
structure of its atoms, which is the most prominent feature of mica. Micas’
hardness ranges from 2.5–4. It has a specific gravity that ranges from 2.8–3.0.
Micas are used as electrical insulators in electronic equipment, thermal insulation.
Olivine
Olivine, also called chrysolite or peridot, is the most common member
of a group of silicates. It is the earth’s upper mantle’s main element and a
prevalent mineral in the subsurface of Earth but weather rapidly on the ground.
Olivine is a magnesium-iron silicate, colored various shades of green. Luster,
glassy; transparent to translucent. It is found in igneous rocks that are rich in
magnesium and low in quartz, as basalt and gabbro also; in metamorphosed
dolomites. It is often found in the form of small grains or in large, granular
masses. It has a hardness between 6.5–7. It has a specific gravity of 3.2–4.5.
Most olivine is used in metallurgical processes as a slag conditioner.

Garnet
Garnets are better known as gems than as rock-forming minerals, but
they are common and form as small but conspicuous ingredient of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. It commonly occurs in medium grade regional
metamorphic rocks as crystals with obvious crystal faces. Garnet is a very
hard mineral that can be red, brown, yellow or green but most commonly red-
brown in color. They all form crystals in the isometric system, usually with 12
or 24 sides, though sometimes combined forms with 36 or 48 faces are found.
Chemically, garnets contain the elements calcium, magnesium, iron and
aluminum, combined with silicon and oxygen. Garnet has a hardness of 6.5–
7.5. It has a specific gravity of 3.5–4.3. Garnet is usually thought of as a
gemstone but most garnet is mined for industrial uses.
Calcite
Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). It is extremely common and found throughout the world
in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Three perfect cleavages
give calcite its six-sided polyhedrons with diamond-shaped faces; the angles
defining the faces are 78° and 102°. Calcite is number 3 on the Moh’s
hardness scale thus; it can be scratched readily by a knife blade or geologic
pick. It has a specific gravity of 2.71. The properties of calcite make it one of
the most widely used minerals. It is used as a construction material,
abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate, pigment,
pharmaceutical and more.
Pyroxene
Pyroxenes are complex silicates, closely related to the
amphiboles. Pyroxenes are often found as primary minerals in
igneous rocks. Their cleavage angles are close to 90° giving squared
cleavage fragments. They too are often fibrous or needle-like. Most
are gray or green, grading into black. Pyroxenes have
a hardness between 5–7. Specific gravity ranges from 3.2–3.5,
increases with iron content. A few pyroxene minerals are used
as gem materials, but only in rare instances when they have attractive
color and clarity.
Chlorite
Chlorite is the name of a group of common sheet
silicate minerals that form during the early stages of
metamorphism. Most chlorite minerals are green in color,
have a foliated appearance, perfect cleavage, and an oily to
soapy feel. They are found in igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks. In Moh’s scale, its hardness ranges
from 2–3. It has a specific gravity value of 2.6–3.3.
Chlorite are disinfection by-products resulting from
the use of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant and for
odor/taste control in water.

Serpentine
Serpentine (chemically similar to chlorite) is a magnesium
silicate with water, but may include small amounts of iron or nickel. A
number of other varieties depend on physical characteristics,
especially color and luster. Common or massive serpentine varies
from cream white through all shades of green to black. Streak is white.
The mineral serpentine is a secondary mineral which also occurs as
metamorphosed serpentine rock. Serpentine has a hardness between
3 and 6. Specific gravity of 2.5–2.6. Serpentine is used mainly as a
decorative stone or for ornamental objects.
Staurolite
Staurolite is an iron-aluminum silicate often found with garnets in
such metamorphic rocks as schist, phyllites, and gneisses. It is usually
brown or black in color with a resinous to vitreous luster. Its streak is gray.
Staurolite almost always occurs in crystals-as orthorhombic prisms and
commonly as twinned crystals. Staurolite has a Mohs hardness of 7–7.5.
It has a specific gravity of 3.7–3.8. It is used in geologic field work to assess
the temperature-pressure conditions of a rock's metamorphic history.
Epidote
Epidote is one of a group of complex silicates of
calcium and aluminum with water. It forms in nearly every
type of metamorphic rock, in cracks and seams, as
crystals or as thin green crusts. It is a typical mineral
where igneous rocks have come in contact with
limestone. Epidote’s color varies from green to brown and
black. It can be easily identified by hardness and color. It
has a Mohs scale hardness of 6–7. Specific gravity of 3.3–
3.6. Epidote has no significant use as an industrial
mineral and has only minor use as a gemstone.
Zeolite
Zeolites are not major rock formers but they are widely
distributed. All are chemically related to the feldspars-with the
addition of water, chemically combined. This water is held loosely,
so all zeolites boil and bubble when heated by a blowpipe. Their
name means “boiling stone”. Zeolites and their associates are often
found in lavas, filling cavities and veins. All are pale, fairly soft
minerals of low density. With a Mohs hardness of 3.5–4. Specific
gravity of 2.1–2.2. Based on the pore size and absorption
properties, zeolites are among the most important inorganic cation
exchangers and are used in industrial applications for water and
waste water treatment.
Prepared by: Bodota, Aldrin E. and Bola, Jelaine P.

Lesson 5: Process of Formation of All Minerals

Minerals are all around you. They are used to make your house, your computer, even the buttons on your jeans.
But, where do minerals come from? There are many types of minerals, and they do not all form in the same way. Some
minerals form when salt water on Earth's surface evaporates. Others form from water mixtures that are seeping through
rocks far below your feet. Still others form when mixtures of really hot molten rock cool.
What is a Mineral?
Minerals are solid substances that are present in nature and can be made of one element or more elements
combined together (chemical compounds). As a pure, inorganic crystalline solid, a mineral has a uniform structure at
the molecular level. A man-made substance with a pure structure is not a mineral; only solids that occur naturally are
considered true minerals. Minerals grouped together form rocks; the comb ination of minerals determines the type of
rock formed. Since minerals are pure, they can all be written as a single chemical formula. A mineral can also contain
some impurities and still retain its name, as long as the majority of the solid is a single mi neral. There are over 3,000
known minerals, and the list is still growing.
In order for a mineral crystal to grow, the elements needed to make it must be present in the appropriate
proportions, the physical and chemical conditions must be favorable, and there must be sufficient time for the atoms to
become arranged.
Physical and chemical conditions include factors such as temperature, pressure, presence of water, pH, and
amount of oxygen available. Time is one of the most important factors because it takes time for atoms to become
ordered. If time is limited, the mineral grains will remain very small. The presence of water enhances the mobility of ions
and can lead to the formation of larger crystals over shorter time periods.
Process of Formation of All Minerals
Minerals form under a variety of conditions, including the cooling of lava or liquid solutions, the evaporation
of mineral-rich water and at high temperatures and pressures found in the core of the Earth. As naturally occurring
chemical compounds that have a solid, crystalline structure, minerals are arranged in unique geometric pat terns at
the atomic level. Minerals are also inorganic; They're not formed from amino acids, peptides, or enzymes, as living
things are. Minerals make up rocks, but are homogeneous by nature, meaning each mineral is diverse and pure in
structure.
Most of the minerals that make up the rocks around us formed through the cooling of molten rock, known
as magma. At the high temperatures that exist deep within Earth, some geological materials are liquid. As magma rises
up through the crust, either by volcanic eruption or by more gradual processes, it cools and minerals crystallize. If the
cooling process is rapid (minutes, hours, days, or years), the components of the minerals will not have time to become
ordered and only small crystals can form before the rock becomes solid. The resulting rock will be fine-grained (i.e.,
crystals less than 1 mm). If the cooling is slow (from decades to millions of years), the degree of ordering will be higher
and relatively large crystals will form. In some cases, the cooling will be so fast (seconds) that the texture will be glassy,
which means that no crystals at all form. Volcanic glass is not composed of minerals because the magma has cooled
too rapidly for crystals to grow, although over time (millions of years) the volcanic glass may crystallize into various
silicate minerals.
Minerals can also form in several other ways:
• Precipitation from aqueous solution (i.e., from hot water flowing underground, from evaporation of a lake or
inland sea, or in some cases, directly from seawater)
• Precipitation from gaseous emanations (e.g., in volcanic regions as shown in Figure 2.1)
• Metamorphism — formation of new minerals directly from the elements within existing minerals under
conditions of elevated temperature and pressure
• Weathering — during which minerals unstable at Earth’s surface may be altered to other minerals

• Organic formation — formation of minerals within shells (primarily calcite) and teeth and bones (primarily
apatite) by organisms (these organically formed minerals are still called minerals because they can also form
inorganically)
Formation from Hot Material
There are places inside Earth where rock will melt. Melted rock inside the Earth is also called molten rock, or
magma. Magma is a molten mixture of substances that can be hotter than 1,000°C. Magma moves up through Earth's
crust, but it does not always reach the surface. When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, it is known as lava. As lava
flows from volcanoes, it starts to cool. Minerals form when magma and lava cool.
Magma cools slowly as it rises towards Earth’s surface. It can take thousands to millions of years to become
solid when it is trapped inside Earth. As the magma cools, solid rocks form. Rocks are mixtures of minerals. Granite is
a common rock that forms when magma cools.
Granite contains the minerals quartz (clear), plagioclase feldspar (shiny white),
potassium feldspar(pink) and biotite (black). The different colored speckles in the granite are
the crystals of the different minerals. The mineral crystals are large enough to see because
the magma cools slowly, which gives the crystals time to grow.
The magma mixture changes over time as different minerals

crystallize out of the magma. A very small amount of water is mixed in with the magma. The
last part of the magma to solidify contains more water than the magma that first formed rocks.
It also contains rare chemical elements. The minerals formed from this type of magma are
often valuable because they have concentrations of rare chemical elements. When magma
cools very slowly, very large crystals can grow. These mineral deposits are good sources of
crystals that are used to make jewelry. For example, magma can form large topaz crystals
Lava is on the Earth's surface so it cools quickly compared to magma in

Earth. As a result, rocks form quickly and mineral crystals are very small. Rhyolite
rock is one type of rock that is formed when lava cools. It contains similar minerals
to granite. However, the mineral crystals are much smaller than the crystals in the
granite. Sometimes, lava cools so fast that crystals cannot form at all, forming a
black glass called obsidian. Because obsidian is not crystalline, it is not a mineral.
Existing rocks may be heated enough so that the molecules are released from their
structure and can move around. The molecules may match up with different
molecules to form new minerals as the rock cools. This occurs during metamorphism.
Formation from Solutions
Water on Earth, such as the water in the oceans, contains chemical elements mixed into a solution. Various
processes can cause these elements to combine to form solid mineral deposits.

Minerals from Salt Water

When water evaporates, it leaves behind a solid
"precipitate" of minerals, which do not evaporate. After the water
evaporates, the amount of mineral left is the same as was in the
water.
Water can only hold a

certain amount of dissolved
minerals and salts. When the
amount is too great to stay
dissolved in the water, the particles come together to form mineral solids, which
sink. Halite easily precipitates out of water, as does calcite. Some lakes, such as
Mono Lake in California or The Great Salt Lake in Utah, contain many mineral
precipitates.
Minerals from Hot Underground Water
Cooling magma is not the only source for underground mineral

formations. When magma heats nearby underground water, the heated water
moves through cracks below Earth's surface. Magma heats nearby underground
water, which reacts with the rocks around it to pick up dissolved particles. As the
water flows through open spaces in the rock and cools, it deposits solid minerals.
The mineral deposits that form when a mineral fills cracks in rocks are called
veins.
Quartz veins formed in this rock.
And when minerals are deposited in open spaces, large crystals form.
Amethyst formed when large crystals grew in open spaces inside the rock.
These special rocks are called geodes.
.
Prepared by: Canaria, John Paul and Cayabyab, Kristine

Lesson 6: Coal and Petroleum - Their Origin and Occurrence
What is Petroleum?
Petroleum, also known as crude oil and oil, is a naturally
occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations
beneath the Earth's surface.
The word ‘petroleum’ is derived from Latin words petra,
meaning rock, and odeum meaning oil. It is so called because it
is derived from the rocks, like many other minerals, therefore,
also known as ‘mineral oil’.
What is the origin of petroleum organic or inorganic?

In this course to the Royal Institution on November 11, Sir Robert Robinson argued that both theories are correct
and that petroleum has a duplex origin. He went on to consider the carbonaceous constituents of certain meteorites and
noted a possible implication relating to the origin of life on Earth.
Petroleum, as discussed here, is that naturally occurring and usually complex mixture of dominantly
hydrocarbon substances liquid, gas, and solid which constitutes the commercial crude oil, natural gas, and natural
asphalt of the petroleum industry. The problem of its origin is complicated by its capacity to migrate and its
susceptibility to change in state and composition. It is generally accepted that petroleum is derived from the remains of
organic life, but many uncertainties exist concerning the processes involved. These are in large part problems of
chemistry and physics, but reasoning based on the geology of petroleum occurrences constitutes an essential guide
and a critical control on all hypotheses. Discrete occurrences of petroleum are rare.
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons largely of the general formula Cn2H2n+2, that is, they are
members of series of saturated alkanes.
Primary uses of Petroleum

Transportation, Industrial power, Heating and
lighting, Lubricants, Petro-chemical industry and Use of by-
products.
Petroleum, nowadays, is a main source of energy in
the world. This is also due to its multiple usability in different
fields of machine civilization. Every aspect of day-to-day life
of man is somehow influenced by the use of petroleum.
Formation of petroleum

The geological
conditions that would
eventually create petroleum
formed millions of years ago,
when plants, algae,
and plankton drifted in
oceans and shallow seas.
These organisms sank to the
seafloor at the end of their life
cycle. Over time, they were
buried and crushed fewer
than millions of tons of
sediment and even more
layers of plant debris.
Petroleum is found in
vast underground reservoirs
where ancient seas were
located. Petroleum reservoirs
can be found beneath land or
the ocean floor. Their
crude oil is extracted with giant drilling machines. Crude oil is usually black or dark brown, but can also be yellowish,
reddish, tan, or even greenish. Variations in color indicate the distinct chemical
compositions of different supplies of crude oil. Petroleum that has few metals or sulfur,
for instance, tends to be lighter (sometimes nearly clear). Petroleum is used to make
gasoline, an important product in our everyday lives. It is also processed and part of
thousands of different items, including tires, refrigerators, life jackets, and anesthetics.
When petroleum products such as gasoline are burned for energy, they release toxic
gases and high amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Carbon helps regulate
the Earth’s atmospheric temperature, and adding to the natural balance by burning
fossil fuels adversely affects our climate. There are huge quantities of petroleum found
under Earth’s surface and in tar pits that bubble to the surface. Petroleum even exists
far below the deepest wells that are developed to extract it. However, petroleum, like coal and natural gas, is a non-
renewable source of energy. It took millions of years for it to form, and when it is extracted and consumed, there is no
way for us to replace it.
What is a Coal?
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock with a high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons.
Coal is classified as a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to form. (Nalley, S et al., 2020)
Currently we use coals for electricity generation, metal and cement production,
glassification etc.

Origin of Coal
Coal is a fossil fuel, originated from plant debris including ferns,
trees, bark, leaves, roots and seeds, which has been consolidated
between other rock strata and altered by the combined effects of pressure
and heat over millions of years to form coal seams. The energy we get
from coal today comes from the energy that plants absorbed from the sun
millions of years ago. (World Coal Association, 2020)
Evidence that coal was derived from plants was the following:
• First, lignites, the lowest coal rank, often contain recognizable

plant remains
• Second, sedimentary rock layers above, below, and adjacent to coal seams contain plant fossils in the form of
impressions and carbonized films (e.g., leaves and stems) and casts of larger parts such as roots, branches,
and trunks.
• Third, even coals of advanced rank may reveal the presence of precursor plant material. When examined
microscopically in thin sections or polished blocks, cell walls, cuticles (the outer wall of leaves), spores, and
other structures can still be recognized. Algal and fungal remains also may be present.
Coal Formation
Coal first formed from PEAT which

has a high moisture content and a
relatively low heating value. Although
peat is used as a source of energy, it is
not usually considered a coal. It is the
precursor material from which coals are
derived. It can be formed in bogs,
marshes, or freshwater swamps, and in
fact huge freshwater swamps of the
geologic past provided favorable
conditions for the formation of thick peat
deposits that over time became coal
deposits. The process that is
responsible in transforming it into coal is
called coalification.

Coalification
It is a geological process of formation of materials with increasing content of the element carbon from organic
materials that occurs in a first, biological stage into peats, followed by a gradual transformation into coal by action of
moderate temperature (about 500 K) and high pressure in a geochemical stage. (Marsh, H. and Rodríguez-Reinoso F.,
2006)
Factors that may affect the coalification process

and the quality of each coal deposit are the following
• Types of vegetation from which the coal

originated
• Depths of burial
• Temperatures and pressures at those
depths
• Length of time the coal has been forming in
the deposit
In determining coal rank high-rank coals are high in carbon and therefore heat value, but low in hydrogen and
oxygen. While Low-rank coals are low in carbon but high in hydrogen and oxygen content.
The general sequence of coalification base on the hardness and amount of carbon is from lignite to subbituminous to
bituminous to anthracite.
Moisture decreases, rank increases.

Rank increases, fixed carbon increases.
Rank increases, volatile matter decreases.
Rank increases, heating value increases

Types or rank of coal
There are four major types or rank of coal. Based on the amount of carbon
present to it.
1. Lignite contains 25%–35% carbon and has the lowest energy content of all coal
ranks. Lignite coal deposits tend to be relatively young and were not subjected
to extreme heat or pressure. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture content,
which contributes to its low heating value. Lignite is mostly used to generate
electricity. A facility also converts lignite to synthetic natural gas that is sent in
natural gas pipelines to consumers.
2. Subbituminous coal typically contains 35%–45% carbon, and it has a lower

heating value than bituminous coal. Most subbituminous coal in the is at least
100 million years old.
3. Bituminous coal contains 45%–86% carbon. Bituminous coal is between 100

million and 300 million years old. Bituminous coal is the most abundant rank
of coal found in the United States, and it accounted for about 48% of total U.S.
coal production in 2019. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity and is
an important fuel and raw material for making coking coal or use in the iron
and steel industry.
4. Anthracite The highest coal rank material, which appears to have been derived
from algae, is known from the Proterozoic Eon. It contains 86%–97% carbon and
generally has the highest heating value of all ranks of coal. Anthracite accounted
for less than 1% of the coal mined in the United States in 2019. Anthracite is
mainly used by the metals industry.
Coal Exploration
Steps on locating coals.

• Study the general topography of the area.
• Look for the outcrop of the coal in the hillsides, roads or railway cuttings, riverbeds. These features indicate the
presence of coal bearing strata.
• Look for fossils, which help in determining the age of rocks and also if coal is likely to exist in the area or not.
• Reserve, structure and thickness of coal seams should be estimated.
• Various parameters regarding the purity and rank of the coal should be tested. For example, calorific value,
moisture content, carbon content, hydrogen content, volatile content and so on.

Coal mining
Coal mining, physical extraction of coal

resources to yield coal; also, the business of
exploring for, developing, mining, and transporting
coal in any form.
Methods of mining a coal is in two ways

surface mining and underground mining.
A. Surface mining- It is the process in which

the overburden (earth and rock material
overlying the coal) is removed to expose a
coal seam or coal bed.
Can be classified into four mining

methods:
• Open-pit mining: Which is the recovery of

materials from an open pit in the ground.
• Auger mining: method for recovering coal by
boring into a coal seam at the base of strata
exposed by excavation.
• Contour strip mining and area mining: Which

consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal
ore/seams underneath.
• Mountaintop removal: Commonly associated

with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a
mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth.
B. Underground coal mining- is the extraction of coal from below the surface of the earth. The coal is worked
through tunnels, passages, and openings that are connected to the surface for the purpose of the removal of
the coal. Mechanical equipment is used to breaks the coal to a size suitable for haulage.
Mining methods:
• The Bord and Pillar method: mining coal

seam involve the driving of a series of narrow heading
in the seams parallel to each other. These headings
are connected by cross headings so as to form pillars
for subsequent extraction either partially or
completely.
• Short wall method: This is variant of longwall
and bord and pillar method in which the length of face
is much smaller than normal with longwall mining and
the short wall was developed to employed the usual
room and pillar equipment but with geometric
simplicity and advantages of self-advancing hydraulic
roof support.
• Long wall method: A block of coal is extracted
in slices, the dimensions of which are fixed by the

height of coal extracted, the width of the longwall face, and the thickness of the slice (ranging from 0.6 to 1.2
metres)
Prepared by: De Leon, Lorelyn & David, Jeric
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Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

EN-GEO 1 – GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS Period: 2nd Sem. AY .2020-2021

Lesson 1: Introduction to Mineralogy

A mineral is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite, but

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 1 of 28

Homogeneous solid means that it must be chemically and physically

Definite, but generally not fixed, composition means that atoms, or

Ordered atomic arrangement means crystalline. Crystalline materials

Inorganic processes mean that crystalline organic compounds

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 2 of 28

Composition of the Earth’s Crust

Element Name Symbol Percentage by weight of the

Prepared by: Balce, Eloisa Mae E.

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 3 of 28

Lesson 2: Elementary Knowledge on Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic

• It is useful for the identification of minerals

Crystallography is the experimental science of the

Crystallography is a branch of science that deals with

A crystal of amethyst quartz

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 4 of 28

Cubic (Isometric) System

Crystal shapes include:

Trigonal (Rhombohedral) System

Crystal shapes include:

Crystal shapes include:

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 5 of 28

Crystal shapes include:

Crystal shapes include:

• Basal pinacoids and prisms with inclined

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 6 of 28

Four Types of Axis of Symmetry

Two Fold System (180 degrees)

2. Trigonal Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 120

Three Fold System (120 degrees)

3. Tetragonal Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 90

Four Fold System (90 degrees)

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 7 of 28

4. Hexagonal Symmetry- It occurs when rotation repeats form every 60 degrees. A

Six Fold System (60 degrees)

Prepared by: Acao, Leonel M. and Baay, Desiree Mae O

Lesson 3: Physical Properties of Minerals

How Can a Mineral Be Identified?

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 8 of 28

Physical properties of minerals

Erythrite Crocoite Azurite Limonite

Rhodochrosite Annabergite Zippeite Vanadinite

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 9 of 28

Different form of Tenacity:

Terms used to describe Luster are:

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 10 of 28

How to conduct the Streak test?

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 11 of 28

Being related to the atomic structure of the mineral, cleavage may be in

Parting- Obtained when the mineral is subjected to external force. The

EN GEO 1- Geology for Engineers Page 12 of 28

Additional Physical Properties of Minerals

Response to a magnetic field

Reaction with Acid