Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

Neolithic (New Stone Age)
Metal Age

Old stone Age

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age-- period before 10000 B.C

clevers

choppers

chopping tools

side scrappers

burin

Fakes

Three phases on the basis of the nature of. Stone tools as well as due to the changes in the
climate and environment.
lower Paleolithic phase---hand axes
Cleavers
Choppers
Chopping tools
middle Paleolithic-----based upon flakes,
Upper Paleolithic------burins and scrapers
Rock paintings and carvings

give us an insight into the subsistence pattern and social life of the Palaeolithic people.
The earliest paintings belong to Upper paleolithic age
Bhimbetka located on the Vindhyan range, is well known for continuous succession of
paintings of different periods
Upper Paleolithic stage--paintings are done in green and dark red colours
paintings are predominantly of bisons
elephants
tigers
rhinos
boars
usually large animals
some measuring twenty three metres in length
hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit in the carvings and paintings
sometimes possible to distinguish between men and women on the basis of anatomical
features
painting also reflected that palaeolithic people lived in small band (small groups)
societies whose subsistence economy was based on exploitation of resources in the form
of both animal and plant products

General points

These sites are generally located near water sources

lived rarely in huts made of leaves
famous sites
The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India
The Siwalik hills on the north India.
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh

Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.

Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh
Attirampakkam near Chennai.
food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers
Hunter-gatherers.
used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals
Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite.
attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants
few Old Stone Age paintings found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places
The oldest paintings are considered to be 30,000 years old
The colors used are vegetable colors which have endured through time because the
drawings were generally made deep inside a niche or on inner walls
Linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge figures of animals such as bison,
tigers and rhinoceroses.

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C)

began around 8000 BC

There was rise in temperature and the climate became warm and dry
The technology of producing tools also underwent change and the small stone tools were
used

there was shift in the pattern of hunting from big game to small game hunting and to
fishing and fowling
Material and ecological changes are also reflected in rock paintings.
The Mesolithic tools are microliths or small stone tools
very small in size
length ranges from 1 to 8 cm
Some microliths have even geometric forms.
Blade, core, point, triangle, lunate and trapeze are the main types of Mesolithic tools

Palaeolithic tools like scraper, burin and even choppers also continue during the
Mesolithic Age
Mesolithic Sites---Pachpadra basin and the Sojat area (Rajasthan)
river Kothari is the largest Mesolithic site in India
The rivers Tapti, Narbada, Mahi and Sabarmati (Gujarat)
The Vindhyas and Setpuns are rich in Mesolithic sites
Bhimbetka is another significant Mesolithic site
coastal Konb and the idand plateau
Deccan basaltic plateau
The Chota Nagpur plateau
the coastal plains of Olisso
the Bengal delta
Brahmaputra valley
the Shillong plateau
Kuchai in Orissa

Scbalgiri-2 in Garo hills of Meghalaya

The Krishna and Bhima rivers
The Godavari delta is rich in microliths
The Kurnool area

The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters

give us considerable idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic
people
Sites rich in Mesolithic art and paintings
Bhimbetka
Adamgarh
pratapgarh
Minapur
Hunting, food collection, fishing and other human activities are reflected in these
paintings
Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings
Many animals like
Boar
Monkey
Nilgai
are frequentlydepicted
The paintings and engravings depict activities like
sexual union
child birth
rearing of child
burial ceremony
social organization had become more stable than in paleolithic times
It seems that the religious beliefs of the Mesolithic people are conditioned by ecological

General points

Transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age

Mesolithic remains are found in
Langhanj in Gujarat
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bihar
The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life
and economic activities of Mesolithic people
In the sites of Mesolithic Age a different type of stone tools is found
tiny stone artifacts often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called
microliths
hunting-gathering pattern
seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing

The use of bow and arrow also began

began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area
domestication of animals
horticulture
primitive cultivation started
Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich
Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have
been practiced

NEOLITHIC STAGE OF CULTURE 5500 B.C. to 3500 B.C

one of the main characteristic is Domestication of plants and animals

Domestication of plants and animals led to
emergence of village communities based on sedentary life
beginnings of agriculture technology
greater control over nature by exploitation of natural resources
the approximate time period in which domestication of plants and animals seems to have
began

The neolithic cultures of the sub-continent

.
Main points

5500 B.C. to 3500 B.C-- Neolithic

permanent villages emerged.
Knowledge of wheat, barley, dates, cotton and sheep, goat and cattle
Evidences of mud houses
pottery
Craft-production found.

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

as old as the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia

People living in these settlements did not know the use of iron.
3500 B.C to 2600 B.C.---Early Harappa Period
Settlements in hills and plains
Large number of villages
Use of copper
wheel and plough
granary
defensive walls
long distance trade
Emergence of uniformities in the pottery tradition throughout the Indus Valley
the origins of such motifs
Pipal,
Humped bulls,
Cobras
Horned deity etc
2600 B.C. to 1800 B.C----Mature Harappa Period
Emergence of large cities
uniform types of bricks
weights\
seals
beads
pottery
Planned township and long distance trade.
1800 B.C.Onward----Late Harappan Period
Many Harappa sites abandoned
Interregional exchange declines
Writing and city life abandoned
The village cultures of Punjab, Sutlej-Yamuna divide and Gujarat imbibe the
Harappa crafts and pottery traditions

Geographical space

Rajasthan
Punjab
Gujarat
Pakistan
and some of the surrounding areas.

Its features

altered the origins of the Indian history

stretched it much further back so as to put it at par with the other oldest civilizations of
the world namely Egypt 'and Mesopotamia
On the foundation of agricultural communities and small townships emerged the
'Harappa Civilization'
the presence and domination of large cities
the presence of specialized craftsmen,
long distance trade
the existence of rich and poor people
the presence of kings

Some particular features

using the same written script

using the same sets of weights and measures
copper-bronze tools used by them were also uniform in design, shape and size
the bricks they used had a proportion 4:2: 1
The seals, shell (shank) bangles, carnelian beads and the disc beads of steatite were also
uniformly designed
use of a pinkish pottery with bright red slip
This pottery had standard representations of trees, animals, birds and geometric motifs
in black
Its area was larger than those of the contemporary Civilizations of Mesopotamia and
Egypt
fastest means of transport was bullock-cart

Important centres

Harappa
Mohenjodaro
Kalibangan
Lothal
Sutkagen-Dor

Harappa

first site to be excavated

located on the bank of the Ravi in Western Punjab
substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production
activities could relate to
administration,
trade
craft work
religion
Since these people were not producing food for themselves someone else would have to
do it for them
Productivity was Low and transportation was quite difficult
maintaining these non-food producers the community would have to mobilize a very
large number of people for procuring and transporting food from the food producing
areas
transportation of grains by bullock carts and boats
The location of Harappa in isolation can be explained by 'the fact that it was located in
the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use
These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu.

Mohenjo-Daro

located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus
largest site of the Harappa Civilization
town planning
housing
seals

Kalibangan

Located in Rajasthan along the dried up bed of the river Ghaggar.

significant variation from Harappa in the sphere of religious beliefs
presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with the Harappa pottery
Might have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone and the eastern
provinces.

Lothal

Gujarat settlements such as Rangapur Surkotada Lothal

Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay
seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies
dockyard

Sutkagen-Dor

located near the Makran coast which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border
citadel surrounded by a stone wall built for defence
the need of sea-port for trading.

Town-Planning

remarkable unity of conception

houses, the temples, the granaries and the streets themselves will be almost identical to
those of Mohenjodaro or any other Harappan town for that matter
the division of each town into two parts
1. citadel
2. lower city
citadel
rulers were staying
on the west side
built on a high podium of mud brick
seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as
administrative or ritual centers
Surrounded by a brick wall.
a lower town
the ruled and the poor
'on the eastern side
Contained residential areas
streets run from north to south in the lower city cut at right angles
this kind of alignment of streets and houses represents conscious town planning
both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall--kalibangan
the resources of the town planners in those days would be very limited
In Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro baked bricks were used for buildings
In Kalibangan mud bricks were used.
In settlements like Kot Diji and Amri in Sind no fortification of the city
Site of Lothal in Gujarat , a very different layout.
rectangular settlement surrounded by a brick wall
did not have any internal division into citadel and lower city
Along the eastern side found a brick basin which has been identified as a
dockyard
site of Surkotada
divided into two equal part
the building materials were basically mud bricks and lumps of mud
brick making was organised on a large scale

Sanitation

cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent arrangements for sanitation

The waste water from houses would.pass through chutes connected with public drains
aligned to the margin of the streets
indicates the presence of a civic administration which would take & spends for the
sanitary requirements of all the townsmen

Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro

Brick built structure 12 m. by 7 m. 3 m. deep

approached at either end by flights of steps
The bed of the bath was made water tight by the use of bitumen
Water was supplied by a large well in an adjacent room
corbelled drain for disgorging water too
bath was surrounded by porticoes and sets of rooms

Granary

consists of twenty seven blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by ventilation channels

Below the granary, the brick loading bays from which grains were raised into the citadel
for storage

long building

To another side of the Great Bath (230 x 78 feet)

the residence of a very high official
includes an open court of 33 feet square on to which three verandas open

an assembly hall

Another significant building

four rows of five brick plinths upon which wooden columns were erected

In a row of rooms to the west of it was found a seated male status

Great Granary

series of brick platforms forming the base of two rows of six granaries
To the south of the granary rows of circular brick platform
they were used for threshing grains is clear from the fact that chaffs of wheat and barley
were found in the crevices of the floors

The most significant discoveries

Kalibangan---fire altars

series of brick platforms

On one of them was found a row of seven 'fire altars' as well as a pit containing animal
bones and antlers

Housing Pattern

average citizen
lived in the blocks of houses in the lower city
variations in the sizes of houses
single room tenements meant for slave
other houses complete with courtyards and Moving up to twelve room bigger houses
were provided with private wells and toilets
houses had much the same plan
square courtyard around which were a number of rooms
entrances to the houses from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at right angle
No windows faced the street
the road ward facing of the house brick lines
Some of them bathed in an exclusive swimming pool (The Great Bath
who lived in larger houses belonged to the rich class
living in the barracks might have been part of a servile class of laborers
houses in the lower city also contained a large number of workshop
Potters kiln
dyers vat
shell ornament makers
bead maker

Pottery

represents the blending of the ceramic traditions of Baluchistan and the cultures east of
the Indus system
Most of Harappan pottery is plain

substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration
The painted decoration consist of
horizontal tines of varied thickness
leaf patterns
Scales
Chequer
lattice mark
palm and pipal tree
Birds
Fishes
animals
Among the notable shapes
Pedestal
Dishes
Goblet
cylindrical vessel
various kinds of bowl

Tools and Implements

a striking degree of uniformity in designs and in technique of production

tools made of
copper
bronze
stone
basic tools types
flat axe
chisel
knives
spear heads
arch heads
dagger
flat tang
techniques of casting bronze and copper produced on a large scale in factory site
Sukkur in Sind
sent to various urban centres
high level of competence and specialisation with little or no concern for beauty and
innovation

Arts and Crafts

bronze dancing nude figure discovered in Mohenjo-Daro

head drawn backward

drooping eye
the right arm on the hip
left arm hanging down the figure is in a dancing stance
She is wearing a large number of bangles
her hair is plaited in an elaborate fashion
a masterpiece of the Harappa art
bronze figurines of
buffalo
a ram
two little toy carts of bronze
one was discovered in Harappa
other at Chanhudaro a distance of over 650 km are identical in design
The stone sculpture

bearded head in Mohenjodaro

face is bearded
upper lip shaved
half closed eyes might indicate a state of meditation
Across the left shoulder is a cloak carved in relief with trefoil pattern
Two small male torsos discovered in Harappa
refined and wonderfully realistic modelling of the fleshy parts is extraordinary
However, the Harappans do not seem to have used stone or bronze for their artistic
creations on a large scale
Terracotta figurines have been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements
used as toys or cult figures
variety of birds and monkeys
Dogs
Sheep
Cattle
humped and hump-less bulls
male and female figurines
Various models of terracotta carts
the bullock carts used in those times are ancestors of the actual bullock carts used
in modem times
remarkably beautiful beads made of precious and semi-precious stones
agate
turquoise
carnelian
steatite
making these beads are clear from the finds of a workshop in Chanhudaro
process
o stone was first sawn into an oblong bar

Seals

o flaked into a cylindrical shape

o polished
o Finally it was bored either with chert drills or with bronze tubular
drills
Gold and silver beads have also been found
The commonest material used for making beads was steatite
The barrel shaped beads with trefoil pattern are typically associated with the
Harappa culture
Car-nelian beads are also quite common
In Mohenjodaro was also discovered a hoard of jewellery consisting of gold
beads, fillets and other ornaments
Small dishes of silver too

More than 2000 seals have been found

the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship
generally square in shape
made of steatite
round seals have also been found
designs on the seals
Wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic
script
Some seals have only scripts carved on them
some others bear human and semi-human forms
Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns
animal motifs
o Indian bison
o Brahman bull
o Rhinoceros
o tiger and elephant
o series of composite animals are also shown
o face of a man with trunk and tusks of an elephant
o the horns of bull
o the hind-quarters of a tiger
The seal of a homed deity sitting in a yoga posture and surrounded by animals has
been identified with the god Pashupati.
artworks of the Harappans leave us a little disappointed
The finds are very limited in number
they do not seem to have the variety of expression seen in the contemporary
Civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia
Stone sculptures was rare and undeveloped compared to those fashioned by the
Egyptians
terracotta pieces also cannot compare with those of Mesopotamia in quality

The Indus Script

some form of writing.

still a mystery
we cannot read it
they used ideograms and wrote from right to left

Subsistence Pattern

urbanism was based on agricultural production

Horse seems to have been unknown to the Harappans
Two varieties of wheat
Barley has been frequently found
dates
varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas
mustard
sesamum
At Lothal and Rangapur , rice husk
At Mohenjodaro, a fragment of a cotton cloth
mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth
evidence of a furrowed field in Kalibangan
some sort of wooden plough
pattern of crossed furrows widely spaced in one direction and closely spaced in another,
is still followed in this area
sowing horse gram or sesamum in one direction and mustard in another
Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of
crops, domesticated animals and wild animals
They were probably already growing two crops annually. They also grew two or more
kind of crops simultaneously. This provided the strength to the economy to support the
large population which lived in the cities and did not produce its own food.

Domesticated and hunted animals

sheep and goat

humped cattle
boars
buffaloes
elephants and camel
fowls
deer
rhinoceros

tortoise

Dress Styles

Their faces, complexion and height were more or less similar to the present day people
living in those areas
did not wear the shirts and trousers or Salwar-Kameej like the modern men and women
Men are mostly shown
wearing a dress which would be wrapped round the lower half of the body
with one end worn over the left shoulder
under the right arm-like the modern saree
other dress was a kilt and a shirt worn by both men and women
men arranged their hair in various ways sometimes making buns and using headbands
men used many ,more ornaments than the modem Indians
They would be wearing ring, bracelets .and ornaments round their neck and hands
Growing beard was fashionable but they would shave their moustaches
Women
used ornaments on their waist
wore a large number of necklaces
Bangles too were in fashion
no end to the number of ways in which hair was arranged
Men and women alike had long hair
they used cotton clothes also that in one sculpture
cloth was shown as having trefoil pattern and red colors

Food Habits

wheat and barley as their staple food

supply of fat and oil from sesame seeds, mustard and possibly Ghee
honey to sweeten their food
jujube and dates
bananas, pomegranates, melons, lemons, figs and of course mangoes
eating pea
non-vegetarian food ---deer, bears, sheep and goats
neither tea nor potato-chips

Warfare

they played dice

Many copper and bronze weapons

Places of Worship

most of the large stone sculptures were found

In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large building has been discovered
This building has a monumental entrance
a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture
16 1/2 inches high.
a seated man with hands on knees.
a bearded face with a fillet passing over a receding forehead and hanging down in two
strands at the back
Another stone statue was discovered in the same building
some ritual significance
'The Great Bath was not simply a swimming pool but that it had a great ritual
significance

Objects of Worship

a deity who has been identified as proto-Siva

a deity , wearing a buffalo-homed head-drek is shown sitting in a yogic posture
The deity is surrounded by animals like goats, elephants, tiger and antelope
In several instances he has a sprouting plant emerging between his horns
In another case a deity with horns and flowing hair is standing nude between the
branches of a Pipal tree
A worshipper is kneeling in front of it
Behind the worshipper is a man-faced goat and seven other human figure have long
pigtails and tall head-dresses
one seal are shown snakes accompanying the yogic figure
the phallic emblem of Siva (Lingam) has been found
Mother Goddess
Tree Spirit
Some Mythical Heroes
Animal Worship
Mythical Beasts
The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious
practices
At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with
'fire altars'
some kind of ritual centre where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire
rituals were performed
the Harappans staying in different geographical areas followed - different religious
practices
fire ritual was central to the Vedic religion

The Burial of the Dead

life and life after death

not yielded any monuments for the dead which could equal the pyramids of Egypt or
the Royal cemetery of the Mesopotamian city of Ur, in its grandeur
many graves have been discovered
Dead bodies were generally placed in a north-south orientation
Bodies were laid on their back
A large number of earthen pots were placed in the grave
In some cases the dead were buried with ornaments like shell bangles, necklace, and an
ear ring
In some cases copper mirrors, mother of pearl shells, antimony sticks etc. were kept in
the grave
A number of graves were constructed with bricks
A coffin burial has been found at Harappa
Kalibangan some other kinds of burial practices
Small circular pits containing large urns and accompanied by pottery have been found
From Lothal some examples of pairs of skeletons with a male and a female in each case
buried together.
Fire worship was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal but unknown in Harappa and
Mohenjodaro
Ritual bathing evidenced at Mohenjodaro might have been absent in Harappa
Diversity of religious beliefs and practices even in the same settlement reflects the
compell nature of the urban centres.
Unlike tribal societies where every member of the tribe follows similar kinds of religious
practices, the urban centres are characterised by the presence of people following
different kinds of religious practices.
This apparently means that urban centres were formed by the political and economic
integration of varied social groups.
An urban centre means the presence of traders from different regions with their own
religious practices.
These groups retained their social mores and customs but lost their political and
economic independence

WHAT SURVIVES FROM HARAPPA

The cults of Pasupati (Siva)

mother goddess
phallic worship have come down to us from the Harappan tradition.
the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity in
the subsequent historic civilization of India.
fire worship and sacrifice in Kalihgan and Lothal is significant

Many aspects of domestic life

the house plans
disposition of water supply
attention to bathing
traditional weigh
currency system of India based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit
The techniques of making potter's wheel in modern India is similar to those used by the
Harappans
Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan citie

CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY IRON AGE-I

the Banas culture (located in the Banas basin) in Rajasthan

Kayatha culture (type site Kayatha on the bank of river Kalisindh, an affluent of the
Chambal) and represented by other sites in central India (in the Narmada, Tapi and Mahi
valleys)
Malwa culture (Malwa, and extending into other parts of Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra),
The Jorwe culture (Maharashtra).

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture)

BLACK AND RED WARE CULTURE

Pottery

black colour inside near the rim on outside

red colour, over the rest of the body
it is believed, has been produced by inverted firing
pottery is mostly wheel turned, though some pots are also handmade.
made of t he clay and has a fine fabric with thin walls
Black and Red Ware pottery with paintings has also been found at sites in Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal
But in the BRW of the doab area there is absence of paintings

Other Objects

Atranjikhera-- fragments of stones, waste flakes, chips; cores of quartz, chalcedony,

agate and carnelian
No stone or metal tools have been found

PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE

first discovery of Painted Grey,Ware (PGW) at Ahichchhatra

30 sites have been excavated
well known excavated sites
Rupar (Punjab),
Bhagwanpura (Haryana),
Noh (Rajasthan)
Alamgirpur, Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Jakhera and Mathura (all in Uttar
Pradesh).
mostly small villages (1 to 4 hectares) with the exception of Bhukari (Ambala district,
Haryana) which is an extensive settlement covering 96,193 sq.m

Pottery

wheel made
out of well lavigated clay
thin core
smooth surface
grey to ash-grey in color
painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate color on the outer as well as inner
surface.
nearly 42 designs
most common types-- bowls and dishes

Structures

structures were of wattle and daub

first phase indicate circular and rectangular huts
the second phase, one house has 13 rooms with a comdor between the two sets of rooms.
This house also has a courtyard

Other Objects

copper, iron, glass and bone

axes, chisels, fish hooks and arrowheads
Spearheads are made only of iron
Among the agricultural implements

only a sickle and a hoe, made of iron

Iron objects are found at all the sites except Hastinapura

Beads

terracotta
agate
jaspar
carnelian
chalcedony
lapis lazuli,
glass and bone
glass bangles at Hastinapura
copper bangles have been found at Jakhera
The terracotta objects comprise human (male and female) and animal (bull and horse)
figurines, discs, balls, potter's stamps, etc.

Trade

Agate and chalcedony are found in Kashrnir, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh
lapis lazuli is to be found in Badakshan province in Afghanistan

NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE CULTURE

distinctive pottery
first discovered at Taxila
two phases
Phase I:
predefence phase
absence of punch marked coins and burnt brick structures
represented in Atranjikhera, Sravasti and Prahladpur
Phase II:
Pottery specimens belonging to BRW and PGW are not found
NBP Ware is of poor quality (thicker in fabric) and is found in smaller numbers.
A coarse grey ware comes into greater use
Punch marked coins and burnt bricks make their first appearance
represented in Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Sravasti I1 and Prahladpur

Houses were made of burnt bricks

use of timber in house construction
The roofs of houses were covered with tile
The rooms were square as well as 'n rectangular
at Hastinapura which have revealed an elaborate drainage system
Some of the settlements were fortified with a mud or brick wall and moats were also
constructed encircling the fortification
The fortification wall at Kausambi had guard rooms, towers and gates at regular intervals
the fortifications signify defensive measures against invasion and speak of political
tensions
The drainage system, not only indicates the concern of the people towards hygiene but
also the advance they had made in this regard
Large buildings like the fortifications require that a large number of people participate in
construction activities. This might need an authority to mobilize the workers

Pottery

glossy surface
Turned on a fast wheel and is made of well levigated clay.
core of the pottery in some cases is as thin as 1.5mm
NBP was a luxury ware not accessible to everybody and suggests to us that in the society
in which NBP Ware was used society was divided into unequal groups.
Though NBP ware is generally unpainted, some painted shreds to occur
Painting is done using yellow and light vermilion colours
The common designs are simple' bands, wavy lines, dots, concentric and intersecting
circles, semi-circles, arches and loops
most common pottery shapes arc bowls are different kinds of dishes

Other Objects

tools, weapons, ornaments and other objects made of copper, iron, gold, silver, stone,
glass and bone
' The copper objects
chisels, knives, borers, pins, neyes, antimony rods, nail parers, ferrules, reels and
bangles.
Iron objects
The site of Kausambi alone has yielded 1,115 iron objects
Agricultural implements like hoes and sickles, and tools of craftsman such as axes, adzes,
chisels and screw rods
Weapons like arrowheads, javelin heads and spearheads
Miscellaneous objects, which include knives, handles of different kinds, hooks, nails,
rivets, fishplates, rings and miniature bells are found
Silver punch-marked coins
a possible shift from barter system to a system of exchange of goods through metallic
currency

Ornaments

semi-precious stones, glass, clay, copper shell and bone

usual shapes
Circular, spherical, biconical, cylindrical, barrel and square.
A single bead of gold is known from Kausambi
use of ornaments in that society
existence of specialised craftsmen to make them
level of technology for making them
Trade or exchange activities with other regions to procure various semi-precious stones.

Terracotta Figurines

human and animal figurine

Male figurines are usually plain excepting a few with a head dress
Female figurines have elaborate head dress, ear ornaments necklaces and girdles
Animal figurine
Horse, bull, Ram and elephant
miscellaneous terracotta objects
Toy carts, simple and animal headed gamesman; discs, balls, flesh rubbers and potter's
stamps.

Subsistence Economy and Trade

rice, wheat, barley, millet, pea and black gram were cultivated
cattle, sheep, goat, pig and fish
trade links existed between Taxila, Hastinapura, Ahichchhara, Sravasti and Kausambi
during Ca. 600 B.C. to 200 B.C

CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF WESTERN, CENTRAL AND EASTERN INDIA

painted pottery, which is mostly black-on-red

a highly specialized stone blade/flake industry of siliceous stones.
Copper was known but its use was on a limited scale as the metal was scarce
settlements consisted of circular and rectangular huts and in some cases pit dwellings
The economy was based on farming and animal husbandry.

Pottery: -Diagnostic Features

Kayatha ware is characterized by three fabrics

a thick and sturdy red slipped ware painted with designs in dark brown
a red painted buff ware (this ware is thin with a fine fabric)
a combed ware having incised patterns, and generally without a slip.
The Malwa ware is to some extent coarse in fabric and has a thick black slip over which
patterns are executed in black or dark brown colour
The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are both derived from the Harappan black-on-red
painted ware. since the latter has a gloss it is referred to as the lustrous Red Ware.
The Jorwe Ware is painted black-on-red, and has a matt surface treated with a red wash.

all these cultures have other associated wares which are mostly red or grey.
pottery is wheel made but there are also handmade forms.
pottery shapes
bowls, basins, globular jars with concave necks, dishes, Iotas
A distinctive feature of the Malwa pottery is seen in the series of small goblets on solid
pedestals
the distinctive forms of the Jorwe culture are carinated bowls, spouted jars with flaring
mouths, and high necked globular vases

Economy

flourished is the zone of black cotton soil

climate is semi-arid and the rainfall varies between 400 to 1000 mm
agriculture and stock-raising
Cultivated Crop
barley, wheat,, rice, bajra, jowar, lentil, horsegram, haycinth bean, grass pea, pea, black
gram and green gram.
Other plants utilized were Jamun, Behada, wild date, ber, Myrobalan etc
Barley was the principal cereal
Inamgaon
Artificial irrigation
Practice of crop rotation
Harvesting of summer and winter crops
A massive embankment (240 m long and 2.40 m wide) was built at Inamgaon during
Early Jorwe period (Ca. 1400 - 1000 B.C.) to divert the flood water through a channel
(200 m long, 4m wide and 3.5 m deep).
Animals:
Domesticated animals -- cattle, sheep, goat, dog, pig, and horse found
The wild species--- black buck, four homed antelope, Niligai, barasingha, sambar, chital,
wild buffalo, and one homed rhinoceros.
Fish, waterfowl, turtle and rodents
Cooked in open fire.

Houses and Habitations

Rectangular and circular houses with mud walls and thatched roofs are the most common
type
variations in house size from site to site
Savalda culture
single roomed rectangular house
some with two or three rooms
Ahar
houses on plinths made of schist

Walls were built on these plinths with mud or mud brick

walls were decorated with quartz cobble
floors were made of burnt clay or clay mixed with river gravels
The sizes of the Ahar houses ranged between 7m X 5m and 3m X 3m
longest house measured more than 10m in lengt
Bigger houses had partition walls, and chulahs (hearths) and quartzite saddle
quems in the kitche
The Malwa
found at Navadatoli, Parkash, Daimabad and Inamgaon were quite large
at Inamgaon
majority were aligned in a roughly east-west orientation
these houses were built close to each other
intervening space of about I-2m in between
houses at Inamgaon were large (7m X 5m) rectangular structures
Partition wall.
houses had a low mud wall and gabled roof
inside the house was a large oval fire pit with raised sides for keeping the fire
under control
at Navadatoli
were provided with one or two mouthed chullahs in the kitchen
grain was stored in deep pit silos
Circular mud platforms
The Jorwe culture
houses of the artisans such as the potter, the goldsmith, the lapidary, the ivorycarver etc. were located on the western periphery of the principal habitation area
well-to-do farmers were in the central part
size of the artisans houses is smaller than those of the well-to-do
The position and size of houses demonstrate social differentiation in terms of a
lower position for artisans in the society.
Some of these chalcolithic sites have fortification walls around the settlement. For
example Eran and Nagda (Madhya Pradesh) of the Malwa Culture, and Inamgaon
(during Jorwe period) have a fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastions and ditch
around the habitation.
At Inamgaon has been noticed a change in house types from Early Jorwe (1400 - 1000
B.C.) to late Jorwe period (1000 - 700 B.C.):
The Early Jowe houses
Large rectangular structures with low mud walls (about 30 cm. high) surrounded
by wattle-and-daub constructions
laid out in rows with their longer axis in a roughly east-west orientation
open space in between (approximately 1.5m wide) which might have served as a
road or lane
Late Jorwe houses

A picture of poverty.
Large rectangular huts were no more
small round huts (with a low mud wall) in clusters of three or four
pit silos were replaced by a four lagged storage jar supported on four flat stones
decline in agriculture as a result of drop in rainfall
A drastic climatic change in this region that led to increasing aridity forcing the
people to resort to a semi-nomadic existence.
Increasing aridity during the Late Jorwe period led to the decline of agriculture,
and economy based on farming changed over to sheep/goat pastoralism.

The tools

include long parallel sided blades, blunted back blades, serrated blades, pen'knives, lutes,
triangles and trapezes
Some of these blade tools have a shine on the sharp edge suggesting that they were used
for hawking
Polished stone axes, which are typical of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of
Karmataka-Andhra, have also been found
Copper objects
flat axes or celts with convex cutting edges
arrovheads, spearheads, chisels, fish hooks, mid-ribbed swords, blades, bangles, rings
and beads.
beads made of carnelian, jasper, chalcedony, agate, shell, etc.
A necklace made of 40,000 microbeads of steatite has been found in a pot belonging to
the Kayatha culture
At Inamgaon were found beads of gold and ivory, a spiral ear ring of gold and anklets of
copper

Terracotta objects are

found mainly at majority of these sites.

form of human and animal figurines.
stylized terracotta bulls
hump, some with horns twisted backward, and some with the horns projecting forward
horizontally, are of special interest
bull was a sacred animal
the possibility that some of them could have been toys cannot be ruled out

The Daimabad Hoard

1.2m thick belonging to the Jorwe period

massive, all solid cast, and weigh over 60 kg

Elephant

heaviest (25 cm in height X 27 cm in length)

stands on a cast copper platform with four brackets beneath, pierced, to take axles.

Rhinoceros

slightly smaller, and also stands on a cast platform

brackets contain two solid copper axles with cast wheels attached
rhinoceros recalls the one inscribed on the Indus seals

Two Wheeled Chariot with a Ride

Buffalo

The chariot is attached by a long pole to the yoked oxen which stand on two cast copper
strips, but there are no brackets for wheels.
The chariot has two uprights supporting a cross-bar behind which the rider stands.

Has wheels and axle in position.

some parallels in the figures of buffalo in both terracotta and case copper or bronze
found from Mohenjodaro
it is unalloyed by tin or other metals

Religion Belief Systems

Mother Goddesses
Gods
painted jar of Malwa period (1600 B.C.) is considered to be of some religious
significance
Pot has two panel
Upper panel--painted a scene depicting a human figure wearing a garment of twigs
covering the loin, and is surrounded by stylized animals such as stag, deer, peacocks etc.
lower panel----springing tigers or panthers, which are also stylized
probably meant for some ritualistic use.

Burial Practices:

Disposal of the dead by burial was a common custom.

usually buried in a north-south orientation
the head towards the north and the legs towards the south

Adults were, in a majority of cases, buried in an extended position

Children were buried in urn-burials-either in single pots or, more often, in two potsplaced horizontally mouth-to-mouth in a pit.
Adults, and also children, were buried in a pit which was dug into the house floor, r and
rarely in the courtyard of the house

Interesting
During the Jorwe period,

the case of adults,

The portion below the ankle was purposely chopped off.
practices like burying the dead within the precincts of the house, and chopping off the
feet could possibly suggest a belief in which the dead were restrained from turning into
ghosts, who could become malevolent
adult burials in several cases contain offerings

Unusual burials at Inamgaon

four legged urn-burial made of unbaked clay

southern face resembles a human body
This urn (80 cm. in height and 50 crn. in width), which has a wide mouth with a
featureless rim, contained the skeleton of a male, of about 30 to 40 years old, in a sitting
posture
the portion below the ankle is not chopped off
burial offerings were a spouted pot with the painting of a boat design having long oars
boat design reminds one is the present day Hindu belief that the departed soul has to
cross waters in a ferry to reach the heavenly abode

CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY IRON AGE -11

three broad phase

Phase I 2500-1800 B.C
a polished stone axe industry

blade industry
handmade pottery
In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common
A ware, which is less common, has a black or red burnished slip, often with
purple painted decoration
Maski and Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these
agro-pastoral communities

Phase II:

1800-1500 B.C.

Phase-I continues without any change

settlements were still made on top of granitic hills
or on levelled surfaces on the hillsides.
some important developments
circular hutments of wattle and daub
the larger pits at Naga rjuna-Konda (in coastal Andhradesa) which are circular,
oval, oblong and irregular,
semi-subterranean pit dwellings
Pit dwellings were also found at Paiyampalli and Veerapuram
new pottery types--- perforated and spouted vessel
reveals contacts with regions in the north as similar pottery types have been
found there
technique of roughening the outer surface of pottery during this phase is
reminiscent of technique employed in the early Harappan period.
The polished stone axe and Made industries proliferate
Copper and bronze objects were also discovered
Piklihal
Brahmagiri,
Sanganakallu
Tekkalakota,
Hallur
T. Narsipur.

Phase III 1400-1050 B.C.

Increase in the number of copper and bronze tools
increase is seen at
Tekkalakota
Hallur
Piklihal
Sanganakallu
Brahmagiri
Paiyampalli
In pottery a new grey and buff ware with a harder surface becomes common.

 Another ceramic type which is wheel made, unfurnished and with purple paint also
appears
Subsistence Economy

millets and pulses were the main cultivated crops

various kinds of millet, horse gram, green gram
black gram. Hyacinth bean and barley have been recently identified at Ramapuram.
The domesticated species
cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl.
at Veerapuram,
cattle represent 48.68% of the domesticated animals
sheep/goat form only 5.4.9'0
the economy of these communities was a combination of agriculture and &animal
husbandry (cattle predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be termed agropastoral.
wild species
porcupine
black naped hare,
nilgai,
chinkara
blackbuck
sarnbar
chital

stone tools

Many stone tools were also polished.

Most common type of the polished or ground stone axe industry is the triangular axe with
a pointed buff and oval cross section.
other forms are adges, scrappers, wedges, chisels and pointed tools

flat axes and chisels which are reminiscent of those of Malwa and Mahatashtra
A fish hook has been recovered from Hallu
The site Tekkalakota has yielded a spiral ear ring of gold.

Beads and Temcotta figurine

Beads made of semi-precious stones have occasionally been found at some of the
excavated site
circular disc beads of paste and steatite were discovered at Nagarjunakonda.
Terracotta figurine---humped cattle
context of paintings,
cattle around the settlements at Kupgal, Maski, Piklihal
paintings show cattle singly and in groups
depict humped bulls
long homed cattle
cattle with decorated horns.

Burial Practices

commonly buried within the houses

Adult burial practices include extended inhumation.
Infants were buried in urns.
The offerings for the dead (grave goods) usually consisted of pots, including spouted
vessels, and in some cases stone axes and stone blades.

The south Indian Neolithic

associated with
Stone axe clusters
Ash mounds
stone axe clusters---wooded hill ranges of Tamil Nadu
Ash mounds which are distributed in the semi-arid parts of the Bhima-Krishna
Tungabhadra doab.
these mounds were produced by the burning of cow dung by the Neolithic communities,
and that they were the sites of cattle pens where dung was allowed to accumulate,
Burning probably had ritualistic significance.

IRON AGE IN SOUTH INDIA

began - sometime around 1100 B.C

burial pits at Brahmagiri

burials yielded the first iron objects
Black-and-red ware, and a matt painted buff and red ware.
burials at Tekwada (Maharastra)

Megalithic Cultures

The megaliths usually refer to burials amidst stones in graveyards away from the
habitation area
In south India this kind of elaborate burial came with Iron Age
Maharashtra (around Nagpur
Karnataka (sites like Maski)
Andhra Pradesh (Nagatjunakonda)
Tamil Nadu (Adichanallur)
Kerala.

showed a variety of methods for the disposal of the dead

Pottery-- black-and-red ware

Iron and other metal object

Iron objects have been found universally in all the megalithic sites right from Junapani
near Nagpur in Vidharbha (central India) down to Adichanallur in the south: a distance of
nearly 1500 km.
use of identical tools
Mentioned in the Sangam literature. Some of the graves have yielded Roman Coins
which suggests their entry into history and their participation in trade networks spread
over a large area.

THE EARLY VEDIC SOCIETY 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C

The Rig-Veda is considered to be earliest collection of hymns available

The core geographical area
Sapta-Sindhava or the land of seven rivers
The whole of Punjab and its neighbouring region Haryana
But Rigvedic geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan and
southern Jammu and Kashmir
Indo-Aryan migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent
four Vedas
Rig-Veda Samaveda Yajurveda and Atharvaveda
Rig-Veda is the earliest text
Veda'----Vid which means 'to know'.
a compilation of prayers and hymns, offered by different families of poets and sages to
various gods
These four Vedas are also 'Samhitas---sense that they represent the oral tradition of the
time
not written when they were but composed

.
Rig-Veda Samhita

10 books or "Mandalas
I1 to VII--earliest
I, VIII, IX and X--- later additions
similarities in the language used in the Rigveda and the Avesta , oldest Iranian texts, older
to the Rig-Veda

ECONOMY

pastoral
cattle rearing
Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau)
inter-tribal fights and conflicts.
cattle was the bone of contention

The Panis
enemies of the Vedic people, are stated in the Rigveda to have hidden their wealth, mostly cows,
in the mountains and forests
vedic god Indra was invoked to release these cattle.

Reference suggests that cattle raids were common.

raja or the chief --the 'gopati' ---one who protects cows

Godhuli----a measure of time

Gavyuti---Distance
Duhitr----daughter
gotra.---Kinship units
agricultural activities find very few reference
Yava' or barley, no other grains are mentioned
did not use iron technology
Copper, with which they were familiar, did not have as much value in agricultural
operations as iron implements.
Fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practised
The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that the people were
either nomadic or semi-nomadic.
moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their
cattle
mobile character of the population is seen in the term 'vis implied a settlement
Punar (vis), --(asettlement
Upa (vis) re entering (a settlement
Pra (vis) --coming back (to the settlement).
Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the society
Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to the victorious
chiefs by the defeated or the subordinate groups.
The rest of the clansmen of the victorious tribe had a share in the spoils and booty won in
the war.
The chief fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during ceremonial occasions to acquire
prestige.
no concept of private property based on land-ownership

SOCIETY

tribal society
not divided according to caste lines
tribe was referred to as the jana
gopati. ---office, was not based on heredity, but he was selected from amongst the
clansmen
The basic social unit
the Kula--the family
Kulapa--one who protects the family' --the eldest male member or the head of the
family. Tribe (Jana),
Tribal Unit (Vis),
Village (Grama),
patriarchal
birth of a son was the common desire

desire for a son is a constant prayer

women had also important position in it
educated and they had access to the assemblies
instances of women who composed hymns
right to choose their partners,
marry late
However women were always thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers
or husbands
distinguished themselves from other groups---Dasas and Dasyus
Dasas
dark full-lipped
snub-mosed
worshippers of the phallus and
of hostile speech
rich in cattle
lived in fortified strongholds
the Panis
wealthy in cattle treasures
associated with merchants and wealth in the subsequent ages
Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smith, carpenters, leather
workers, chariot makers, priests etc
chariot makers occupied a special social status
no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rig-Veda
However, society was economically stratified, and we do find references to rich people
possessing chariots, cattle, etc. and making generous gifts of them.

POLITY

not completely egalitarian

Rajanyas, or those who fought the wars---the senior linegage
Rest of the clansmen --- junior lineage.
The clans held large yajnas or sacrifices to help the warrior groups in the wars
In these yajnas officiating priest or the purohita acted as the mediator between his
clansmen and the gods
Initially, the whole clan participated in these yajnas on an equal footing
Large scale distribution of wealth, food, etc. was made during these sacrifices and
members got an equal share.
growing incidence of conflicts and fights, yajnas or sacrifices
purohita assumed a special status in the society
Division between the senior and the junior lineages became sharper.
10th book of the Rigveda contains the "Purusha-Sukta

took place after 1000 B.C

Sabha---council of select clan members
Samiti---- comprised the whole clan.
These assemblies performed the functions of the government and administration and
were also involved in the selection of the raja from amongst the clansmen
thus kept the power of the warriors in check

RELIGION

The natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc.) which they
could not control, and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms, which
were mostly masculine.
Very few female deities
Indra was the god of strength, who was invoked to destroy the enemies
God of thunder
Rainmaker
Thunder and rain (natural phenomena) were related with strength, which was personified
in a masculine form, represented in the god Indra.
Agni---god of fire
Intermediary between heaven and earth i.e., between gods and men
The importance of Agni can be related to that of the yajna or sacrifice
It was supposed that the oblations offered to Agni were carried to the gods in the form of
smoke
Varuna personified water, and he was the upholder of the natural order of the universe
Yama---- god of death and had an important place
many other gods
Surya
Soma (also a drink),
Savitri
Rudra
celestial beings
Gandharvas
Apsaras
Maruts
The ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the knowledge of
mathematics and animal anatomy.
Elementary mathematics was necessary to make the calculations which were required to
establish the positions of various objects in the sacrificial area
Frequent sacrifices of animals led to a knowledge of their anatomy.
Gods were not worshipped for the spiritual upliftment of the people, nor for any other
abstract philosophical concept, but were invoked to grant material gains.
Sacrificial religion is a religion of the pastoral people

Animal sacrifice is rampant in the pastoral society, where the older animals who can no
longer produce milk or meat, or used for breeding purposes, i.e. those who are no longer
economically viable, are killed in order to lessen the burden on their owner
Hence animal sacrifice was one way of destroying the old animals and thus had an
important role in the society.
In the agrarian society however older animals are employed in the fields, used for traction
purposes and hence the destruction of animals is frowned upon by a society which
primarily depends on agricultural activities.
Thus the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchal pastoral society and was materialistic in
perspective.

LATER VEDIC PHASE

10th Mandala to the Rigveda Samhita the Sama the Yaju assigned to the later vedic
phase
Sama Veda--book of prayers and chants which are from the Rigveda, modified and set to
tune for the explicit purpose of singing them during rituals.
The Yajur -veda---elaborates the rituals which accompany the recitation of hymns
The Artharvaveda---the folk tradition of this period and represents popular religion.
followed by a series of texts called the Brahmanas
Brahmanas,---commentaries on the Vedas---explain the social and religious aspects of the
rituals and throw light on the Vedic society

THE ECONOMY

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

growth of agriculture
the introduction of rice as the staple diet of the people
Vrihi, Tandula and Sali, all denoting rice.
elaborate sacrifices of this period
e.g. the rajasuya, include offerings of grain along with milk, ghee and animals
The twelve sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for acquiring material benefits
the gifts of cows
calves
oxen
gold
cooked rice
thatched houses
well cultivated fields to the brahmanas
plough cultivation was familiar
Pastoralism Declines
Mixed farming

Agricultural activities in this phase were not labour intensive.

more substantial houses with earth walls
durable materials were being used for house construction owing to the adoption of a
sedentary life style

Rituals

only the rich could perform them

spirit of collectivity was reduced
Sacrifices were performed to ensure control over rest of the tribe
Gifts were no longer given to the entire tribe
The chief gave gifts to the Brahmans who performed sacrifices for him.
rituals were so complicated that it needed expert Brahmans to perform it since a wrong
incantation could bring disaster to the performer
The performer of sacrifices was supposed to grant super-human status to the chiefs
meaning that they were superior to rest of the tribe
For this service the chief passed on a large part of his wealth to the Brahman priest.
the rituals became a mechanism for ensuring the material and spiritual superiority of the
chiefs and the Brahmans

Importance of Land

Land was cultivated through family labour and the help of domestic servants and slaves.
initially land was owned by the clan or the vis
When clan ownership gradually changed to family ownership the gnhapati or
householder became a man of wealth
The vaisyas (those who originally belonged to the vis) were the producing class in the
society and they became the source of wealth and subsistence for the Kshatriyas and the
Brahmanas who did not actively participate in food production
vaisyas had to give prestations to the Kshatriyas in lieu of the latter protecting their
lands, and dana and dakshina to the priests for their moral upliftment
The vis/vaisya, characterizing the house holding economy, became the mainstay of
economy
No references to the sale of land.
Visvakarma Bhauvana, a ruler, was rebuked by Prithvi (the earth) when he tried to make
a grant of land.

Polity

concept of janapada emerged

Janapada ---area where the tribe settled
The Kuru--formed from the union between two major Vedic tribes
Bharatas and the Purus

occupying the area in the upper portion of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab

the Panchalas---people who occupied the middle portion of the Doab, called the Panchala
desa.
tribal identities were merging with territorial identities
Tribal chiefs and warriors

emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled.

became the 'Kshatriya' i,e. those who held power over dominions, which is the literal
meaning of the word 'Kshatriya
The "visn had to pay prestations to the Kshatriya, in lieu of the latter's protection and
thus the status of the vis was progressively subordinated to the Kshatriya lineage
Bali and Bhaga no longer meant prestations given at will, but gradually assumed the
forms of regular tributes and taxes.
sabha became more important than the samiti during this period.
Tribal Assemblies--the sabha--helped the king in his duties
Office of the raja or the chief was not based solely on birth but the choice of rajafaas
restricted to the Kshatriyas.
rituals became very important for the ruler in order to assert this authority
Ceremonial sacrifices
rajasuya
asvamedha
vajapeya were performed on lavish scale
Tribal Conflicts--- no longer mere skirmishes over cattle
now the acquisition of land was an1 important element in these disputes
Necessity of increasing territory can be connected with the growth of population within
the tribes.
Iron weapons and light wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the efficiency of the
fighters
The status of the officiating priests became at par with the gods, in the later period.
The channel of redistribution was between the two higher status group, and political
supremacy was slowly becoming the dominion of the Kshatriya.

Society

declining status of the vis

Ascendancy of the Kshatriyas and the Brahmanas.
the origin of the four varnas,

Brahmana
Kshatriya
Vaisya

the Sudra

1.
2.
3.
4.

fiom the body of the universal creator, Rajapati.

In social life Brahmans were considered the highest Vama because society could
communicate with gods with the help of Brahmans only
The Sudras on the other hand performed menial tasks and included slaves captrured in
wars.
The system of vama had the follolwing feature
status by birth
a hierarchical ordering of the varna
rules of endogamy and ritual purity
The division of social groups was based on occupation alone, and society was still
flexible, where one's occupations did not depend on birth.
Even in the later times i.e., post-Vedic, the varnadhanna described the ritual status of
each group
'The notion of untouchability for instance is absent.
Gotra--(literally meaning-cow pen--descent from a common ancestor and marriages
could not take place between couples belonging to the same gem
Tbree stages of life-- Three ashramas
the brahmachari (studentship)
grihastha (householder)
vanaprasthi (partial retirement from house holding life by living in the forest)
the fourth i.e. the sanyasa (or complete retirement from active participation in the
world) stage of life was not known till the time that the upanishads were written

RELIGION
1. the Vedic
2. the non-vedic or perhaps the folk tradition extensively documented in the Atharvaveda
The Vedic, which is documented in the Sama and Yajweda. samhitas and the Brahmans,
and
Indra and Agni lost their importance
Prajapati the creator became important
creation myths are important in the agrarian groups
Rudra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, became important now
Vishnu was conceived as the creator and protector of the universe
Pushan who protected cattle in the former period now became the god of the Sudras
Folk TraditionThe Atharvavedainformation regarding the folk tradition
radically different from the Vedic sacrificial religion
concerned more with magic
cover different aspects of human life

hymns deal with:

cure for diseases
prayers for health
charms for the prosperity of home and children
cattle and field
charms to produce harmony
charms concerned with love and marriage or conversely rivalry and jealousy etc
The Atharvaveda thus documents the kinds of superstition and beliefs which were
prevalent.
Atharvan Nndicates a magical formula
Towards the end of this period strong reaction against the priestly domination
Against the complexities involved in the yajnas resulted in the formulation of a
philosophical doctrine which is enunciated in the Upanisads.
Upanishads----These texts emphasized
The knowledge of the atma or the soul as against ritualistic practices and the wasteful
expenditure which accompanied sacrifices.
materialistic aspect of the religion was discarded and religion was raised to the realm of
philosophy
The Upanishads emphasized the changelessness and indestructibility of the soul

JANAPADAS AND MAHAJANAPADAS600 to 400 BC

Various texts referred to janapadas and Mahajanapadas

Brahmanas category of text deals with methods of performing rituals

Upanishads Philosophical problems(part of vedic literature)-800 onwards.
Buddhist texts
o Vinaya pitaka Rules of order
o Sutta pitaka Buddhist ceremons
o Abhidhama pitaka problems of metaphysics
Jatakas

Part of sutta pitaka

Deals with stories of previous birth of Buddha
Graphic descriptions of contemporary society
Clear reference to various regions and geographical society

Janapadas

Unit of settlement
Literal meaning- where people place their feet
Agricultural settlements
Iron axes and ploughs used
Gahapati Master of an individual house hold which owned land
Setthi- A person having bestMerchants-lived in cities and towns
Ruler- chief of lineage but ruling over territory had emerged
Regular taxation and army
Krsaka peasants who paid taxes
Praja paid taxes to raja
Bhagadugha== collected Bhaga
Rajugahakka== official who surveyed land
Army maintained by revenue collected from cultivators

Mahajanapadas

Large janapadas
Kosala janapada = sakya + kashi janapada
Story of jivaka physician of Bhmibisara
Grama basic unit of settlement
Sangrama Two Gramas came together for battle
Labors Dasas, Karmakaras, Porisas
Kassaka & Ksetriya = sudra jati
Gamini Leader of villages, soldiers, Elephants and horse trainers, stage managers and
other crafts

Kings ruled from cities

Cities dominated by kings and Merchants
Anguttara Nikaya part of sutta pitaka- mentioned 16 mahajanapadas

The period starting with the sixth century B.C. saw the emergence of cities in ancient
India for the second time
The Buddha and Mahavira were preaching to urban audiences most of the time.
Aitareya Brahmana--roughly be dated to the 8th-7th century B.C--the story of King
Harishchandra famous for his truthfulness and keeping his vows
It is not only big cities which emerged at this time. Along with agriculture-based villages,
there existed market centers, small towns, big towns and other types of settlements
Use of Iron and Wet Rice Cultivation
By about 1000 B.C. Indians had learnt the art of smelting iron
Iron weapons in , particular have been found in large numbers
Iron weapons also increased their desire for war, conquest and booty.
iron axes could be used to clear forests and iron plough shares could facilitate
agricultural operations
The Vedic sacrifices meant that most of the surplus accumulated by the chiefs was gifted
away at the time of performing sacrifices
In the areas of the middle Gangetic Valley, Vedic rituals and sacrifices did not have the
kind of hold as in the upper Gangetic Valley.
the surpluses which were collected by the chiefs were not spent away during sacrifices
The groups that grew up controlling this surplus wealth became the ruling class of the
newly emergent kingdoms
on the foundation of this wealth were born the cities of the sixth century B.C
The earliest script of ancient India is called the Brahmi script.
the Paribrajakas and Sramanas.--Wandering Ascetics --people who had renounced their
homes-travelled from place to place and held discussions on the meaning of life, society
and spirituality
Condition of Women
The meek slave like wife was considered the ideal wife

However. This was true of the wives of the rich.

For them the main function of a wife was producing legitimate heirs.
. Women were looked down in comparison to men
Described as incapable of sitting in a public assembly
They are permanently in the charge of men-father, brother or son.
Even if they join the Samgha they were treated as inferior to men
Suttanipata--Buddhists insisted on the protection of cattle--states that they should not be
slaughtered because they constituted a source of grain and strength
The preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.
the animals were not only used for draught and the plough of fields but a section of the
society was also probably non-vegetarian
Kahapana (Karsapana--ordinary medium of exchange was a coin
copper and silver and marks were punched on it by merchants or ruler's guilds,
guaranteeing its standard
Banks were unknown
surplus money was either converted into ornament
Hoarded in jars and buried in the ground, or put in the custody of a friend.

Buddha and Mahavira, were by no means, the first to criticize the existing religious
beliefs
Many religious preachers before them
Kapila
Makkali Gosala
Ajita Kesakambalin

Pakuda Kachchayan
already highlighted the evils of the Vedic religion
it was Buddha and Mahavira, who provided an alternative religious order.

Buddhism

founded by Gautama Buddha

name Siddharth
father Suddhodana---chief of the Sakya clan
mother was Maya, princess of the Koliya clan
born in the Lumbini grove (modem Rumindei) in Nepal Tarai
date of birth---566 B.C
left home at the age of 29
Dharmachakra Pravartana--first sermon at Sarnath near Varinasi (setting in motion the
wheel of Dharma
first five disciples of Buddha
1. Asvajit
2. Upali
3. Mogallana
4. Sari-putr
5. Anada
At the age of 80 (486 B.C.) he died at Kusinagara in Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh),
the capital of the Mallas

TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA
Four Noble Truths
Eight Fold Path
Four Noble Truth

world is full of sufferings

All sufferings have a cause
desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of sufferings
suffering could be removed by destroying its cause
In order to end sufferings one must know the right path

This path is the Eight Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga).

Eight Fold Path
1. right view
2. Right aim
3. Right speech

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Right action
Right livelihood
Right effort
Right mindfulness
Right concentration
great emphasis --law of 'karma-- present is determined by the past actions
If an individual has no sins, he is not born again
the doctrine of karma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha
'nirvana--the ultimate goal in the life of a man-finally leads to freedom from rebirth
laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual
Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire
neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God
did not believe in the existence of soul
Love and 'ahimsa' (non-killing)-not emphasized as much as in Jainism
the middle path--both severe asceticism as well as luxurious life are to be avoided
a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas
attracted the people of all sections
attack on the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmin
rejected the authority of the Vedas and condemned animal sacrifices

The Buddhist canons (collection of teachings)

Three sections
1.
2.
3.

Sutta Pitaka
Vinaya Pitaka
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Sutta Pitaka consists of five sections(nikayas)--religious discourses and sayings of
Buddha
fifth section-- Jataka tales (birth stories of Buddha).
Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of monastic discipline
Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the philosophical ideas of teachings of Buddha
It is written in the form of questions and answers.
Asoka and Kanishka made Buddhism state religion and it spread into central Asia, West
Asia and Sri Lanka.

The Sangha

religious order of the Buddhists

well organized and powerful institution which popularised Buddhism
Membership-above fifteen years of age
not given admission to Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious diseases
Initially Buddha was not in favor of admitting women in the Sangha

admitted them at the repeated requests of chief disciple Ananda and foster mother
Mahapajapati Gotami
On admission monks had to ceremonially shave their head
Wear yellow or saffron robes
Go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek alms
the retreat or 'vasa- During the four months of the rainy season
A fixed abode and meditated
Sanghas also promoted education among the people
non-Brahmins who were deprived of education got access to education
governed by democratic principles
code of conduct
Sangha had the power to punish the erring members

Buddhist Cauncils

after the death of Buddha

first Buddhist Council was held in 483 B.C. in the Saptapmi cave near Rajagriha
Mahakassapa presided over the assembly
The text of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali
Sutta Pitaka was settled under the leadership of Ananda.
The second Council
Vaisali in 383 B.C
monks of Vaisali and Pataliputra had accepted certain rules
contrary to the teaching of Buddha by the monks of Kausarnbi and Avanti.
Council failed to bring about a compromise between the two opposing groups
council ended in a permanent split
Sthaviravadins-- the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka
Mahasangikas.--favoured the new rules and their further relaxation
third Council
at Pataliputra
during the reign of Asoka
chairmanship of Moggaliputta Tissa.
the philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of Buddha were collected into the third
Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka.
fourth Council
during the reign of Kanishka in Kashrnir
gathering of Hinayanists of North India
It decided certain controversial questions of differences that arose between the
Sarvastivada teachers of Kashrnir and Gandhara.

Buddhist Schools
1. Sthaviravadins
2. Mahasangikas
Sthaviravadin---strict monastic life--rigid disciplinary laws as originally prescribed

Mahasangikas.--modified disciplinary rules

Mahayanism
developed after the fourth Buddhist Council
opposition to the group (Hinayana sect) who believed in orthodox teaching of Buddha
who accepted the new ideas were called the Mahayana sect
the Mahayana sect made an image of Buddha and worshipped it as god

JAINISM

1.
2.

twenty four Tirthankaras were responsible for the origin and development of Jaina
religion and philosophy
first twenty two are of doubtful historicity
the last two,
Parsvanatha
Mahavira,
Confirm their historicity
even before Mahavira some kind of Jaina faith existed
Parsvanatha believed in the eternity of matter
Followers of Parsvanatha wore a white garment

Mahavira

The twenty-fourth Tirthankara

born in Kundagrama (Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in
540 B.C.
father, Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan
mother was Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess
married to Yashoda had a daughter
At the age of thirty left his home and became an ascetic
At first wore a single garment
After 13 months -- 'naked monk'.
at the age of 42 attained the 'supreme knowledge
Mahavir'--the supreme hero
'Jina'---the conqueror
'Nugrantha' --free from fetters
Died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in Patna district at the age of 72 (468 B.C.).
Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha and made
some alterations and additions

Parsvanatha advocated
four principles
1. truth

2. non violence
3. non-possession
4. not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given
Mahavira added
5.

Celibacy (brahmacharya).
Mahavira believed--soul (jiva) and matter (ajiva) are two basic existing elements..
the soul can be relieved of bondage
Liberation (moksha) of the soul becomes 'the pure soul'.
man is the creator of his own destiny
Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by observing the following three principles (ratnatraya
1. Right belief.
2. right knowledge
3. Right action.
Believed the world was not created by any supreme creator
world functions according to an eternal law of decay and development
all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul and feel pain or the influence of injury
code of conduct both for householders and for monks
householder
non-injury
non-stealing
non-adultery ,
speaking the truth
non-possession.
lay worshippers should not take to agriculture, since this involved the destruction of
plants and insects
A monk
strict rules.
abandon all worldly possessions
root out every hair of his head by his own hands
walk only during the day taking care that he did not kill or injure any being
believed that the monastic life was essential to attain salvation and a householder could
not attain it.
the original doctrines taught by Mahavira-14 old texts known as 'purvas'
first Council at Pataliputra,
Sthulabhadra divided the Jaina canon into 12 'angas' or sections accepted by
Svetambaras.
Digambaras refused to accept this claiming that all the old scriptures were lost
second Council held at Vallabhi
new additions were made in the fom of 'Upangas' or minor sections.
Among the 12 angas
Acharanga sutta--the code of conduct which a Jaina monk is required to follow
Bhagavati sutta--Jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner.

eleven disciples known as Ganadharas or heads of schools

Arya Sudharma only Ganadhara who survived Mahavira
the first 'Thera' (chief preceptor) of the Jaina order died 20 years after Mahavira's death
days of the late Nanda King
Sambhutavijaya
Bhadrabahu
sixth Thera was Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of the Maurya King Chandragupta
Maurya.
Chiindragupta Maurya was a follower of Jainism
he migrated with Bhadrabahu to the South and spread Jainism
During 'the early centuries of the Christian era
Mathura and Ujjain became great centres of Jainism
Towards the close of Chandragupta Maurya's rule
terrible famine broke out in South Bihar
lasted for about 12 years
Bhadrabahu and his disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola in Karnataka
Other Jains remained in Magadha with Sthulabhadra as their leader.
second Jain Council
Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 5 12 A.D
presided over by Devardhi Kshemasarmana
12th anga drawn at the first Council was lost
Bhadrabahu, after their return from Sravanabelgola to Magadha refused to acknowledge
the canon holding that all the 14 purvas were lost
a wide gulf had developed between those who emigrated and those who stayed in
Magadha
who stayed in Magadha++accustomed to wearing white garments and made a departure
from Mahavira's teachings
who emigrated ++continued going naked and strictly followed his teachings.
first split in the Jaina order
the Digambaras (sky clad or naked)
Svetambaras (clad in white)
further splits
Terapanthis among the Svetambaras -- renounced idol worship altogether and devoted
itself to the worship of the scriptures.
Samaiyas among the Digambaras.

Ajivikas

sudra sanyasins
established by Nanda Vachcha
followed by Kisa Sankichcha
third religious chief--Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect.
denied the theory of 'karma'
believed the thought and deed are predetermined (decided before birth)

did not believe in human effort and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny

Charvakas

complete materialism
individual's body is formed of matter and finally would end in matter
The aim of human life should be to enjoy all the material pleasures of life.

Doctrine of Akriya or non-action.

Purana Kassapa preached

a Brahman teacher
action did not lead to either merit or demerit

Ajita Kesakambalin

Preached that everything ended with death and there is no further life after death.
did not believe in the fruits of good or bad acts
Nothing wrong in enjoying the pleasures of the world, and there is no sin in killing.

Pakudha Kachchayna

The doctrine of Asasvatavada.

there are seven elements
immutable and do not in any way contribute to pleasure or pain
The body is ultimately dissolved into these seven elements

MAGADHA

Magadhan TERRITORIAL EXPANSION

why early Magadhan kings did not choose to have their capital. in the most fertile plains of
the Ganges Valley but in a comparatively isolated region ?

strategic location
it lay in the vicinity of iron-encrusted outcrops
its accessibility to copper as well as the forests of the present-day southern Bihar region
The capital of Magadha did however, shift to Pataliputra (originally Pataligramma).
situated on the confluence of several rivers like thc Ganga, Gandak, Son and Pun
Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha under the Mauryas

Avanti

became a serious competitor of Magadha for quite some time and was also located not
far from the iron mines in eastern Madhya Pradesh.

Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa compiled in Sri Lanka---Buddhist chronicles

Divyavadana (which is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources)
Megasthenes

visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya

Megasthenes is, however, known to us only through quotation in later = Greek writings
of Strabo and Diodorus of the first century B.C

Arthasastra of Kautilya

important sources of information for the Mauryan period

the minister of Chandragupta- kautilya
The coins of this period do not bear names of kings, called punch-marked coins because
different symbols are punched on them separately
this type of coin is known from roughly about the fifth century B.C
the Mauryan punch-marked series probably issued by a central authority as is indicated
by the uniformity of the symbols used

Asoka Maurya's rule

fourteen major edicts

seven minor rock edicts
seven pillar edicts
other inscriptions

Bimbisara

first important ruler of magadha

Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son Ajatasatru who is said to have starved him to death

Ajatasatru

ruled from 492 B.C. to 460 B.C

Succeeded by Udayin (460-444 B.C.

Udayin's

reign the Magadhan kingdom extended in the north to the Himalayan ranges and in the
south to the Chhota Nagpur hills

Shishunaga,

a viceroy at Banaras, was placed on the throne in 413 B.C.

Shishunaga dynasty too was of short duration and gave way to the rule of the Nanda
dynasty

Nanda dynasty (326 BC to 321 BC)

headed by the usurper Mahapadma Nanda

during the rule of the Nandas in Magadha and the Ganga Plains invasion of Alexander
took place in north-west India in 326 B.C
The Nandas are first empire-builders of India
The Greek classical writings describe the might of the Nanda empire
vast arnly which is said to have consisted of 20,000 cavalry
200,000 infantry
2000 chariots
3000 elephants
no encounter between the Kingdom of Magadha and the Greek conqueror
Nanda rule came to an end by 321 B.C.
Nine Nanda kings-ares said to have ruled and by the end of their rule they are said to
have become very unpopular

Chandragupta Maurya

took advantage of this situation to ascend the throne of Magadha.

Deeper reasons for the success of Magadha
advantageous geographical location
access to the iron mines
The control it had come to exercise over important land and river trade routes

SandrakottusChandragupta-- described to be of low origin

Chandragupta accession to the throne in around 321 B.C
the first major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya on the military front
contact with Seleucus Nikator who ruled over the area west of the Indus around
305 B.C
In the war that ensued Chandragupta is said to have turned out victorious and
eventually peace was established
In return for 500 elephants Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan
and the area west of the Indus
The Satrapies thus called were Arachosia, Paropanisadae, Aria and Gedrosi
marriage alliance was also concluded
Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthenes who lived in the court of
Chandragupta for many years
only parts left out of his empire
present day Kerala
Tamil Nadu
parts of North-eastern India

Bindusara

son of Chandragupta
ascended the throne in 297 B.C
latter he is known as Amitrochate
he had contacts with the Seleucid king of Syria
requested to send-him sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist
Bindusara is called "slayer of foes",
probably in Bindusara's reign that the Mauryan control of the Deccan, and the Mysore
plateau in particular, was firmly entrenched
Asoka who conquered only Kalinga (Orissa)
Bindusara religious leanings are said to have been towards the Ajivikas
the death of Bindusara -- 273-272 B.C
After his death there was a struggle for succession among his sons for about four years.
around 269-268 B.C. Asoka was Bindusara's successor.

Asoka

Kalinga War

During his father reign

served as a Viceroy at Ujjain and also at Taxila
sent to Taxila for a special purpose, namely, to quell a revolt.
two.children Mahinda and Sanghamita, had a great influence in turning Asoka towards
buddhism
extremely wicked king before his conversion to Buddhism is undoubtedly exaggerated in
Buddhist accounts so as to enhance his piety as a Buddhist
Kalinga, i.e., the present-day State of Orissa had to be brought under Mauryan control.

Why kalinga war ?

strategic importance as it controlled routes to South India both by land and sea
One hundred thousand were slain
On the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse
which then ultimately turned him towards Dhamma.
A policy of conquest through war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest
through Dhamrnavijaya

In the South

the Cholas
Pandyas
Sataputras
Keralaputras

Are living outside the Mauryan empire.

Inside the empire

people of diverse origins and diverse cultures

north-west are mentioned the Kambojas and Yavanas
the Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras and Pulindas who can be located in parts of western India
and the Deccan
The extension of the principle of nonviolence to state policy was a unique experiment
that was never repeated in the annals of the political history of India.

Descriptions by Megasthenes

well organised administration of towns

large concentration of population in these centres

Megasthenes speaks of wooden structures at the Mauryan capital, Pataliputra
Houses were made also of timber
The hallmark of the structural development is extensive use of ringwells and burnt
bricks
Sophisticated techniques of making different kinds of iron were also known, as can be
gleaned from the Arthasastra.

Arthasastra

advocates that the King should maintain s monopoly over certain kinds of mining
Arthasastra suggests that new villages could be formed also by inducing foreigners to
immigrate to them
Other groups like carpenters and merchants were also probably settled in a similar
manner
The sudra settlers were expected to be given some fiscal concessions and also a supply
of cattle and seeds along with implement
In many cases the newly settled areas formed part of the crown lands, known as the sita
lands
during the Mauryan period the two major pre-requisites
1. the use and control of raw materials
2. manpower made
process of settlement

janapadanivesa,
sound and stable resource base for the State to extract taxes and the land tax formed the
bulk of it
Megasthenes in his account of the Indian society and its division into seven classes
1. the philosophers
2. the farmers
3. the soldiers

Megasthenes also maintains that the peasants were left untouched during war

sitadhyaksa-- superintendent of agriculture is mentioned who probably supervised the

cultivation works
The most important reason for the success of agriculture in the state owned lands was the
facility of irrigation provided by the State.
rules for the regulation of - water supply for the benefit of agriculturists
Megasthenes informs us that a number of officers were employed who measured the land
and inspected sluices by which water was distributed into the branch channels
irrigation cess amounting to a fifth, a fourth or a third of the produce in the Arthasastra

Pushyagupta

one of the governors of Chandragupta Maurya, is said to have built a dam for creating a
reservoir of water near Girnar in Saurashtra. known as Sudarshana tadaga (water tank)

Mauryan rule constitutes a landmark in the history of the improvement of system of

taxation in ancient India
Samsharta--highest officer in charge--assessment of land revenue
Sannidhata--chief custodian of the State treasury.
Since the revenue was also collected in kind, providing storage facilities was also the
duty
1/4th of the produce was paid in tax by the peasants
a tribute was paid by them
Land tax (bhaga) was the main item of revenue--rate of 1/6th of the produce
Sharecropping was another way by which the State collected agricultural resources
The sharecroppers were in the first place provided with seeds, oxen, etc., and received
arable land for cultivation.
peasants probably gave half of the produce to the State
The above taxes were further supplemented by a large number of customary dues
Economy of the M.ury.n Empire that the peasants had to pay
Pindakara--peasants paid a tax--paid by husbandsmen
hiranya is also not known, but it was probably a tax paid in cash because hiranya
literally means gold
Bali, the traditionally known levy from the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas
must have burdened the peasantry considerably
pranaya--the levy --literally meant a gift of affection
It3 or '14 of the produce according to the nature of the soil
The State's policy particularly under Bindusara and Asoka to have peaceful and friendly
relations with the Greeks gave fillip to foreign trade as well.
Artisans like. armourers, shipbuilders, builders in stone, etc exempt from payment of tax
because they rendered compulsory labour service to the State
Other artisans like spinners, weavers, miners etc., who worked for the State were liable
to tax

panyadhyaksa
samsthadhyaksa
pautavadbyaksa
panyadhyaksa--superintendent of commerce whose duty was to fix prices of goods and also to
interfere if there was a glut in any commodity

samsthadhyaksa--looked after the markets was infact to check the wrong practices of the traders
superintendent of weights and measures exerted a strict control on maintaining standard weights
and measures
navadhyaksa-State boats that facilitated transport were put under the charge
regulating river transport and collecting ferry charges
All traders had to pay taxes and custom's dues ranging from '15th to '125th of the value of
good
sulkadhyaksa.-- superintendent of tolls
Megasthenes' detailed description of the Mauryan capital

Pataliputra was administered by thirty officials

divided into six Committees of five members each
Of these six Committees
four were related to economic activity
Committees dealing with industrial arts, trade and commerce, the supervision of the
public sale of manufactured goods and the collection of tax on articles sold.
Other two. committees were concerned with the welfare of foreigners and the
registration of ' births and deaths
general administration of law and order in the cities was thus important to ensure the
proper functioning of its economic activities
the importance of cash in the economy can be gauged from the fact that it was probably
used to pay salaries of the officials
For such a powerful cash economy to function the minting of coins and the supply of
metals like silver and copper required to do so were of prime importance

Akaradhyaksa--superintendent of mines--look for new mines and re?pen old ones

Like mining metals another area of State monopoly was mining salt
atavikas, aranyacafas--Controlling of the forest tribes was important from two points of view

it was necessary for new agrarian settlements to be secure as disturbances from tribes
would interrupt their economic development
trade routes often bordered or passed through tribal regions and these had to be made
secure.
The Mauryan Empire had many major administrative units like the centre and the
regions which had various sub-units down to the village

All these units had their own administrative set up but they came under the central
authority.
Gramika had judicial powers at the village level there were also courts at the level of
Janapada and the centre.
Dharmasthiya i.e. courts which decided personal disputes
Kanhkmaba i.e., courts which decided upon matters related to individuals and the state

sources of law

the penalties in Arthasastra were based on Varna hierarchies meaning that for the same
kind of offence a Brahmana was punished much less severely than a Sudra

medical treatment

ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah)

midwives (Garbhavyadhi)
state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines, , etc
Arthasastra mentions that the King should look after orphans, old unattended women,
etc

Provincial Administration

Kumara (royal prince) who used to govern the province as the King's representative.
kumara was in turn assisted by Mahamatyas (Mahamatras during Asoka's period) and a
council of " ministers.
four provincial capitalsTosali (in the east),
Ujjain (in the west),
Suvarnagiri (in the south), and
Taxila (in the north)

Demiachos as a successor to Megasthenes in the Mauryan court

ASOKA'S POLICY OF DHAMMA

1.

Dhamma related to norms of social behaviour and activities in a very general sense
Asoka used the medium of his Edicts to expound the policy of Dhamm
Asoka was trying to establish direct communication with his subjects
inscriptions can be divided into two categories
Smaller group of these inscriptions reveal that the king was a follower of Buddhism and
were addressed to the Buddhist Church or the Samgha.

2. Inscriptions of the other category are known as the Major and Minor Rock Edicts which
were inscribed on rock surfaces included also the Pillar Edicts inscribed on specially
erected pillars.
Distinction between Asokas policy of Dhamma which stressed on social responsibility
and Asoka's own commitment as a Buddhist.
Asoka on the one hand declared his personal association with the Buddhist order and on
the other he tried to teach, through the policy of Dhamma, the importance of social
responsibility and toleration amongst different members of the society
The principles of Dhamma
emphasised on toleration and general behavior
stressed on dual toleration-it emphasised on toleration of people themselves and also an
toleration of their various beliefs and ideas
a stress on the notion of showing consideration towards slaves and servants;
stress also on ~bedience to elders
generosity towards the needy
pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of
harmony.
stress on non-violence
a restraint on the killing of animals.
welfare measures, like planting of trees, digging of wells, etc
Asoka attacked ceremonies and sacrifices practiced regularly on various occasions as
meaningless.
Dhamma mahamattah--group of officers --instituted to implement and publicise the
various aspects of Dhamma
a monk in a king's garb--Asoka's Dhamma also an answer to the socio-political needs of
the contemporary situation
not anti-Brahmanical , proved by the fact fiat respect for the Brahmanas and Sramans is
an integral part of his Dhamma
emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state
addressing the forest tribes he warns them that although he hates to use coercion he may
be required to resort to force if they continue to create trouble
In deep south he was on friendly terms with the Cholas and Pandyas
Sri Lanka was an admiring ally
By the time Asoka stopped war, the entire Indian sub-continent was under his control
The plea for tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously
varied and class divided society.
A5oka's empire was a conglomerate of diverse groups
farmers, pastoral r~omads and hunter-gatherers, there were Greeks, Kambojas and
Bhojas and hundreds of groups having divergent traditions
In this situation a plea for tolerance was the need of the hour.
Asoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions by a broad set of ethical
principles

Asoka's Dhamma could not survive him

it was a failure.
However, we should remember that he was not establishing a new religion. He was
simply trying to Impress upon the society the need for ethical and moral principles
he imperial authority of the Mauryas began to weaken with ae death of Asoka (232 B.C.)
and finally collapsed in 180 B.C
Asoka died in 232 B.C.
the Mauryan rulers continued to rule for about half a century after his death
after Asoka the empire got fragmented and that there was quick succession of rulers.
The quick succession of rulers weakened the imperial control over administration.
e disorder that emerged in the administrative machinery after the death of Asoka is
regarded as one of the important factors for the disintegration of the Mauryan empire
final blow to the last of the Mauryan Kings was rendered by Pushyarnitra Sunga in about
180 B.C
from about 200 B.C
witnessed the emergence of a number of political regions in north and north- western
India

more prominent dynastie

Sungas, the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas
NORTHERN-WESTERN AND NORTHERN INDIA
THE SUNGAS

The Sungas, a brahmana family

belonged to the region of Ujjain in Western India
worked as officials under the Maurya Kings.
Pushyamitra Sunga
Assassinated the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha in 180 B.C.
Pushyamitra appears to have been a keen supporter of Brahmanism and is known to have
undertaken the performance of the asvamedha or horse sacrifice, a Vedic ritual
symbolising royal glory
Divyavadan
Buddhist tradition
succeeded by his son Agnimitra.
last Sunga King was Devabhuti.
author of Harsha-Charita --- Banabhatta
the Sunga line came to an end around 75 B.C.
From about 200 B.C. a series of movements across the north western borders of the
Indian sub-continent took place.

the first to cross the Hindukush were the Greeks

who ruled Bactria

south of the Oxus river in the area covered by North Afghanistan
The mingling of the two cultures came about in the second century B.C. through the
~rkek kings of Bactria who moved into northwest India and came to be called the Indo Greeks.
The Greek rulers faced a severe threat from the Scythian tribes
With the construction of the Chinese Wall the Scythians could not move towards China
and in turn attacked the Greeks and Parthian
Pushed by the Scythian tribes the Bactrian Greeks were forced to move towards India
These invasions had begun by the end of the Mauryan rule
From the first half of the second century B.C. the Indo -Greeks occupied a large part of
north western India
undertook occasional expeditions to the Ganga basin and other parts of the country and
they came as far as Panchala, Saketa and Pataliputra

the most famous Indo - Greek rulers was Menander or Milinda

During the period of his rule, the Indo -Greek power extended from the Swat Valley to
Punjab as far as the Ravi river
He had his capital at Sakala (modem Sialkot) in Punjab.
conversion to Buddhism by Nagasena, a Buddhist monk and philosopher
Menander's coins have been located as far as Kabul in the north and Mathura near Delhi
The Indo - Greeks are also important for their introduction of Hellenistic art features in
north-western India which culminated in the Gandhara art style

THE SAKAS

Sakas are referred to also as Scythians

Sakas poured into India through the Bolan Pass
first settled in lower Indus region
One branch is believed to have settled in Afghanistan
another that ruled from Mathura.
fourth branch was that which established itself in Western and Central India from where
they continued their rule till about the fourth century A.D.
Sakas were successful in destroying the Greek suzerainty over Bactria
They belonged to the nomad hordes of Central Asia.
Sakas were forced by another Central Asian tribe, the Yueh -chi to leave their habitat on
the Bactrian border and follow the Greeks into India.
Sakas gradually spread their supremacy over the northern and north-western regions of
India at the expense of the local Indo - Greek rulers
The first Saka King in India--Maues or Moga
established Saka power in Gandhara
succeeded by Azes who successfully attacked the last of the Greek kings in Northern
India, Hippostratos.
Junagadh inscription, written in 150 A.D.
the first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit
Rudradaman I (C. A. D. 130 -152).

The Sakas along with the Parthians introduced the Satrap system of government
similar to that of the Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran
kingdom was divided into provinces each under a military governor called
Mahakshatrapa (great Satrap)
Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps)
These governors issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins.
The Saka kings used such prestigious titles as 'king of kings' (rajadhiraja) in addition to
'great king' (Maharaja) which they took over from the Greeks.

THE PARTHIANS

The rule of the Sakas and Parthians was simultaneous in different pockets of north
western and northern India.
The Parthians originated in Iran and families of Parthian rulers may have moved into
Indo- Iranian borderlands and into north-westem India as representatives of Parthian
rulers
he ' Sakas of Seistan were in close contact with the Parthians and this is why we find
among the Indian Sakas amixture of original Scythian and Iranian Parthian elements.
The most prominent Parthian King was Gondophaes
Kabul to Punjab and possibly included certain Iranian areas of the Parthian empire
His name is believed to be associated with that of St. Thomas.
Abdagases appears to have been the immediate successor of Gondophaes

THE KUSHANAS

succeeded the Parthians in the extreme north-west and spread themselves in successive
stages in the regions of Northern India
Kushanas are also referred to as Yueh-chis or Tocharian
belonged to one of the five clans of the Yueh-chi tribe
nomadic people, originally from the steppes of North Central Asia, living in the vicinity
of China
responsible for ousting the Sakas in Bactria and also the Parthians in the Gandhara
region
Although their empire lasted for about one century and a little more, connection with
India, their assimilation into Indian society as well as their contribution to Indian culture
left a deep impression on the Indian mind
The Kushanas were particularly important their empire became a meeting point of
civilizations of the Mediterranean world, Westem Asia, Central Asia, China and India.
The first line was started by Kujula Kadphises
Kujula Kadphises minted different types of coins in copper and one type of his coins has
a Roman-style male bust on it
Kujula Kadphises was succeeded by Vima Kadphises
Vima introduced a new phase of coinage in India
practice of issuing gold coins by Indian rulers regularly started with him
He minted different types of gold coins which broadly followed the weitht system of
Roman gold coins and this system continued, with certain modifications, till the Gupta
period
Kadphises rulers were succeeded by Kanishka I, who is the best known Kushana ruler in
Indian history, particularly because of his association with Buddhism.
Kanishka I

sponsored the fourth Buddhist council

doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized at the council
during his period, Buddhist monks started travelling to Central Asia and to China
Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature
the Sassanian power which began in Iran.
Peshawar and Taxila were lost to the Sassanians and the Kushanas were reduced to the
position of subordinates of these rulers.

LOCAL POWERS OF NORTH INDIA

between 200 B.C. - 300 A.D.

the Kanvas or the Kanvayanas. rule was founded by Vasudeva after the Sungas
power was shortlived and perhaps confined only to Magadha.
Audumbaras --between the upper courses of Ravi and the Beas
Kunindas-- upper courses of the Beas and the Yamuna
Trigartas--between the rivers Ravi and Sutlej,
Yaudheyas--between Sutlej and Yamuna and parts of eastern Rajasthan
Arjunayanas, Malavas and Sibis distributed in different parts of Rajasthan
The Maharneghavahanas were descended from the ancient line of the Chedis--Kalinga in
Orissa.
Kharavela, the third ruler of this line, is known from his Hathigumpha inscription which
was engraved on the Udayagiri hills near Bhuvaneswa
inscription which gives year-wise account of his reign till its thirteenth year shows that
Kharavela was a great king with military victories in north India, western India and south
India to his credit
many public works for his subjects and as a practising jaina,
excavated cave-shelters for jaina monks on the Udayagiri hills.

the impact of Central Asian contacts--Trade and Technology

Trade contacts with Afghanistan were already existing

now Central Asia also opened up to trade with new routes
One of these routes became famous as the old Silk Route
. One result of trade movements --communication with China improved.
The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through
Central Asia and Afghanistan and Western Asia
route was a source of great income to the Kushanas.
levied tolls from the traders
India received a good deal of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia
Gold could also have been received from trade with the Roman Empire

New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India by the Sakas
and the Kushanas.
Horse riding gained popularity
popularized the use of reins and saddles
The Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by the
warriors.
This military technology became popular in North West India.
The Saka-Kushana phase is demonstrative of an advance in building activities
use of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof.
Brick wells
The pottery of this period is red ware, both plain and polished, with sometimes medium
and sometimes fine fabric.
Some of the coins of the Kushanas borrowed many features of Roman coins
Saka coins in many cases were adaptations from those of the Indo-Greeks,
The Sakas and the Kushana put great emphasis on the notion of the divine origin of
kingship.
Kushana kings were referred to as Sons of God.
This title may have been borrowed from the Chinese.
Indian version of the Roman title Ceasar

Religion and Art Forms

Menander and Kanishka were converted to Buddhism

Some Kushana rulers worshipped both Siva and Buddha and the images of these two
Gods appeared on some of the Kushana coins
the process of assimilation into Indian cultural patterns
the foreign rulers were also patrons of Indian art and literature
masons and other artisans coming from outside interacted with local workers
Indian craftsmen thus came into contact with those skilled in Greek and Roman
craftmanship.
example
Gandhara in which images of the Buddha were sculpted in a style which was typical of
the synthesis of many cultural elements present in the region
The influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura.
Mathura also has given us many beautiful images of the Buddha and other specimens of
art of this period.
maritime trade started during the Mauryan period.

early centuries of the Christian era.

In the west was the mighty Roman empire

in the east was the Han empire in China

the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

Greek text written by an anonymous sailor in the first century A.D

contains an account of the ports that he visited during his travels between the Red Sea
and India.
the commodities that were traded at each port from his account.
two major ports to which trade goods were sent from the centres of north India
Barbarikon at the mouth of the Indus
Bhamch at the mouth of the Narmada.
The Romans are famous for the technological improvements that they made in the
manufacture of glass.
highly valued in many countries including India and China

Frankincense

gum-resin produced by a tree indigenous to Arabia

used as an incense and also for medicinal purposes

Why was Chinese silk traded through India rather than being sent directly?
The reason

the political situation

Parthians were powerful rulers along the north-westem boundary of the Indian subcontinent.
There was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire
result, overland routes between China and the west were disrupted.

It is generally accepted that together with merchants Buddhism also spread to Central
Asia and China around the first century B.C. - first century A.D.
A series of Buddhist caves were made along the northern route to Central Asia from the
first century A.D. onwards and from the third century A.D. many Buddhist texts were
translated into Chinese.
Buddhism provided encouragement to traders and was also patronised by a large number
of occupational groups.
the important Buddhist monasteries were located along the trade routes at this time
A major centre was the region around Taxila where several Buddhist monasteries were
located.
Here a'distinct style of art known as Gandhara art developed under the Kusanas.
A second stronghold of Buddhism was the region around Mathura which was equally
famous as a centre of art also

Another large Buddhist centre was at Sanchi present day Bhopal

Merchants from many centres in the , Deccan and the north travelled to Sanchi and make
donation
donations of money and land added to the wealth of the monasteries and led to a change
in the role of the Buddhist Samgha in society
When Buddhism originated around the fifth century B.C. monks led a very simple life.
With the growth of the influence of Buddhism
specific groups of Buddhist sects and teachers became very wealthy
by the Kushana period we find that certain Buddhist monastic centres possessed money
and land and there are many instances of monks and nuns themselves making donations
of money.
One of the reasons for the division of the Buddhist Samgha
dispute that arose about the interpretation of certain rules
whether monks could own property or not
Another question
the defication of the Buddha and the worship of his image
By the first century A.D.
Buddhist Sarngha had split into two major schools
1. Mahayana
2. Hinayana
the Hinayana--more conservative
The worship of the Buddha image led to an increase in ritual observances.
Monasteries now required oil for lighting lamps, incense for fragrance and silk banners
for decorating the Stupas
Once monks started living permanently in monasteries, they required clothes
now owned land and money and were no longer dependent on begging for their food and
other necessities
gradually they became one of the major consumers of many of the items traded at this
time
The growth of Buddhism had suffered a minor setback during the Sunga-Kanva period.
This was because both the Sungas and the Kanvas who succeeded the Mauryas in
Magadha professed Brahmanical faith.
Buddhist work Divyavadana accuses Pushyarnitra Sunga as a vertible enemy of
Buddhism
According to this source he also fixed a prize of 100 dinaras for the head of every monk.
it does not mean that social support to Buddhism declined on any significant scale
the Bharhut Stupa in Central India was built during the rule of the Sungas
The Sanchi Stupa was enlarged twice its size and the gateways (torana) and the railings
were added in their period
Among the Indo-Greek kings Menander who figures prominently as the ruler who was
drawn towards the doctrines of Buddhism

Many Kushana kings adopted Buddhism

Kujula Kadphises and Kaniska-I were followers of Buddhism
Fourth Buddhist Council
Vasumitra acted as its president

EARLY STATE FORMATION IN THE DECCAN

The major power
Satavahana dynasty also known as the Andhras
began their rule around the first cetury B.C
Mauryas were primarily interested in exploiting the mineral resources of the
Deccan peninsula
gold, diamonds and gems from the mines in Karnataka and Andhra were
transported to Magadha in the north through a series of land and coastal routes
Market centres
Dharanikota on the banks of the Krishna in the Guntur district of Andhra
Karad in Satara district of Maharashtra
maharathis became important in several scattered pockets
it was under the Satavahanas who were related by marriage to the maharathis
that the first state emerged in the Deccan
Deccan peninsula
The plateau region
The coastal plains
Hill ranges of the Eastern and Western Ghats
Andhra coast is much wider than the Konkan coast to the west
general slope of the plateau is to the east

result --the major rivers

the Mahanadi
Godavari
Krishna flow eastwards into the Bay of Bengal
deltas and valleysof the rivers provide fertile areas for settlements
the hill ranges of the plateau Carl be crossed only along the passes
THE SATAVAHANA DYNASTY
Simuka Satavahana established Satavahana power.
Kanha or Krishna, his brother, from an inscription at Nasik
theNanaghat inscription of Queen Nayanika
lists several rulers of the dynasty
Queen Nayanika, the widowed queen of Satakarni performed Vedic sacrifices
Nanaghat--major pass connecting Junnar with the coast
Gautamiputra Satakarni
An inscription of his mother engraved on the entrance to a cave at Nasik,
major achievement of Gautamiputra Satakarni
defeat of the Kshatrapas of western Deccan and Gujarat
After his victory, Gautamiputra counterstruck silver coins of the Kshatrapa
Nahapana with his own legend and symbols
control of the lucrative foreign trade, one of the causes for the conflict.
Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Pulumavi ,time that the Satavahanas
consolidated their power in the eastern Deccan
Satavahana inscriptions outside the western Deccan at Amaravati
the last important Satavahana ruler--Yajnasri Satakarni
later Satavahanas coins with bilingual leqends were issued
Prakrit
south Indian languag
early Satavahana (ruler)
contend with the power of Kharavela from Orissa or Kalinga.
Satavahanas began their rule in the western Deccan
the Western and the Eastern Ghats
covered the entire Deccan
divided into aharas or districts
Govardhana-ahara centre around Nasik
Soparaka-ahara--west coast
Mamala-ahara--hilly portions of the Pune and Satara districts
Satavahanihara--Bellery district of Karnataka
KapuracharaGujarat west coast
series of ports at
Bharuch
Kalyan
Sopara

Chaul
continuing further south all along the Konkan coast
Inland Settlements
major concentrations of settlements were around Nasik; Junnar; within a 30 Km.
radius dKarle; further south in the upper Krishna basin around Kolhapur
agriculturally rich and fertile
valuable resource base for the ports on the west coast
ports handled much of the trade in the first century A.D. between India and the
Mediterranean regiop
also linked by the overland transpeninsular route across the Deccan to centres in
Andhra and along the east coast.
Bharuch to Paithan and Ter and further east to centres in Andhra.
ancient site of Paithan spreads over 4 sq. km
Ter--major cotton produaing region of the Deccan
ivory figurine very similar to the specimen found at Pompeii
brick caitya subsequently converted into a Brahmanical temple.
Deccan linked Ujjain to Maheshwar on the Narmada and past the caves at Ajanta
and Pitalkhora to Bhokardan and Paithan
Bhokardan
major bead-making centre
known for shell and ivory-working
inhabitants of Bhokardan or Bhogavardhana are known to have made donations
at the Buddhist caves of Bharhut and Sanchi in central India.
south in the upper Krishna valley
Karad is an early centre referred to in Buddhist inscriptions, located in the same
region is Kolhapur
the statuette of Poseidon were clearly imports
Belgaum is the site of Vadgaon ~~1y8blcfap.tb.i~~sa Madhavpu
the site of Banavasi known as the find-spot of one of the Satayahana inscription.
a fortified settlement as there are indications of a fortification wall and a moat
Karimnagar region
important centre being that of Kondapur about 70 Km
north-west of Hyderabad.
rich collection of coins and terracottas and several structures of brick of various
sizes laid in mud mortar
Peddabankur is a small village now but was an important settlement during the
Satavahana period extending over a 30 hectare area.
About 10 km. from Peddabankur was the fortified site of Shulikatta
surrounded by a mud-rampart
a large brick structure at the site
only during the Satavahana period fortified settlements develop in the Deccan
excavations indicate a marked improvement in the quality of construction

The Bhorghat is still the only pass across the Western Ghats connecting Pune to
Bombay past a series of early Buddhist caves such as
Shelarwadi
Bedsa
Bhaja
Karle
Ambivale
Kondane
Administration , much simpler that under the Mauryas
ministers were appointed directly by the king
not seem to have been hereditary
paid in money from the revenue collected by the state.
collected taxes both from (agriculture and trade
One of the practice started by Satavahana rulers in the first century A.D.
donating revenue of a village to , either a Brahmana or the Buddhist Sangha
practice became much more widespread under the Gupta rulers
nigama-sabha--an assembly
record donations of land-- written down either on a copper-plate or cloth by an
officer or minister
record was then delivered to the donee to whom the grant had been made
keeper of records
anyone who cleared the forest and tilled a plot could claim ownership of the land
much of the trade was handled by guilds who also acted as bankers.
Highways were made secure and rest-houses were constructed along them
The social structure of the Deccan under the Satavahanas

different from those prescribed in thedanskrit texts such as the Manusnuti

many inscriptions mention the names of their mothers rather than those of their
fathers, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni, son of Gautami not in
keeping with the Dharmasastras which state that in the approved forms of
marriage the bride acquires the gotra of her husband and loses that of the father.
Satavahanas refer to themselves as unique Brahmanas who crushed the pride of
the Kshatriyas.
According to the Brahmanical texts it was only the Kshatriyas who had the right
to rule.
people were known by their occupations rather than their castes
Another category-yavanas or foreigners.
originally denoted an Ionian Greek, but around the Christian era it was used
indiscriminately for any foreigner
Women frequently made gifts either on their own or sometimes with their
husbands or sons.

not governed by rules laid down by the Brahmanical texts.

Satavahana kings donated large sums of money and land to the Buddhist
monasteries
crucial factor was the expansion of overland and maritime trade networks

EARLY STATE FORMATION IN SOUTH INDIA (TAMILAHAM)

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

land in between the hills of Venkatam and Kanyakumari

includes the whole of modem Tamil Nadu and Kerala
Three principal chiefdoms
the Cheras
Cholas
Pandyas
Cheras had Karur in the interior and Muciris. the well known ancient port, on the west
coast
Cholas had Uraijur in the interior and Puhar on the coromandel coast as their strongholds
the Pandyas had Madurai and Korkar as their interior headquarters and port respectively
reflected in ancient Tamil poetry
ecological differences of the region
the form of the concept of aintinai or five eco-zones
Tamilaham is portrayed as a comb~nation of five tinais
kurinji (hilly backwoods)
palai (arid zone
mullai (pastoral tracts)
marutam (wet-land)
neital (sea coast
The mode of human adaptation varied from tinai to tinai depending on its ecological
conditions.
The soc~al groups also varied
people of Kurinji -- hunting and gathering
Palai --lifting and plundering
Mullai--animal husbandry and shifting cultivation
Marutam--plough agriculture
Neital--fishing and salt making
different forms of subsistence as determined by the ecological conditions of the five
tinais
The small, self-sustaining tinai is grew up into larger eco-zones through interaction and
interdependence
larger zones of productivity as well as non-productivity
zones of better productivity had a relatively developed social division of labour
zones of lesser productivity society was essentially simple and consisted of clans

By and large the peoples of Tamilaham represented a complex society of unevenly

developed components which shared a common culture
political level of the society varied from the simple chiefdom of clans to complex
chiefdom of ruling houses
in the poems
chiefs of clan-chiefdoms-- the great son (perumakan
chiefly son (KO-makan
larger chiefdoms of complex nature born out of
conquests and subjugation
Marriage alliance
real basis of the enlargement of chiefdoms was their wealth
Chiefdoms with large agricultural areas constituted the most powerful ones
three different kinds of chiefdoms in Tamilaham
1. kizar (little chiefs
2. velir (bigger chiefs
3. vedar (the biggest chiefs)
Kizar-- headmen of small villages (Ur) generally bound by kinship
in the poems. They are referred to by being prefixed with the name of their respective
villages
Arnkantur-kizar or UrnturKizar may be cited as example
Poems refer to Kiza
doing vidutozil (obligatory services) to bigger chiefs like Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in
their campaigns
bigger chiefs in their turn rewarded the kizar through gifts which included grant of
predatory control over the subjugated village
velir were mostly hill chieftains
though there were velir controlling low-lands tohill chief mere hunter chief
Venkatamalai, (the hills ofVenkatam
Nanjilmalai (the high ranges south of Travancore)
parampuralai (probably modem parampikkulam reserve forest near pollachchi)
potyilmalai (high ranges in the modem Madurai district)
some of the important centres of the hill chiefs of the period
Muvendar\
the three cendar
The Chera, Chola and Pandya
several lesser chiefs under their service and paying tributes (tiarai)
no notion of a preasely demarcated temtory
The political authority functioned through control over peoples rather than privileges
over basic resources.
Example
the control over the peoples like Kuravar, or vetar or vettuvar by their chiefs made them
chiefs
Compared to the chiefs of agricultural areas, the pastoral and hunter chiefs were less
powerful.

powerful chiefs tried to subjugate lesser ones and extracted tributes from them.
Plunder raid was the characteristic feature of comtemporary political practice.
Chiefs of all kinds indulged in plundering against one another
Lesser chiefs joined hands with the big ones in plunder campaigns and obtained their
shares of booty
Cattle and grain constituted the routine items of booty
The bards of the period sing about the gifts of elephants, horses, golden lotuses, chariots,
gems and muslin
Sometimes the raids of bigger chiefs involved subjugation of villages beyond their
control
In such cases the lesser chiefs assisting the bigger ones got the subjugated villages
not the land of the village that was granted but the control over the people there
With the coming of the period of Indo-Roman trade
control over strategic centres and trade goods added to the importance of the chiefs
Pari of Parambumalai (near Pollachchi
Ariyar of Podiyilmalai (Madurai)
Andiran of Nanjilmalai (south of Travancore
Irunko-vel of Kodunbai (Pudukkottai)
some of the prominent velir chiefs mentioned in the poems.
Velir Chiefs controlling such strategic centres had to face severe challenges from the
superior chiefs like Muvendar
Apart from direct combats, the bigger chiefs tried to gain access to the velir domains
through marriage relations also.
Traditional assembly of elders transacted the day to day affairs in every settlement
The assembly site was called manram, a raised seating around the foot of a tree
It was also called podiyil.
The chief was assisted by a council of elders called avai (Sabha
aimperumkuzu or the five great groups
enperayam or the eight great groups

Satavahana period (lst Century B.C. to the 3rd Century A,D.)

Iron ore war available in the areas of Karirnnagar and Warnagal

Iron working in these areas indicated as early as the megalithic period.
Gold working also is attested to in the Deccan in the Satavahana period
There developmentr rhow that metallurgy had progressed in thew areas
Irrigation facilitier were known in the form of tankr and wells.
The water wheel was ud for lifting water
Digging tanks and wellr was conddered to be a meritoriow act.
had the knowledge of paddy transplantation
Cotton was grown in the black soil areas and the cotton products of Andhra became
famous even in foreign countries

The cultivation of coconut trees went a long way in the development of the coastal areas
The source of labour in the Deccan included waged labourers and slave
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea states that slaves were brought from Arabia

Society in Tamilaham

tribal in character with its kinship

landed vellalar and the velala peasants constituted the basic producing groups in the
agrarian settlements.
Craft specialization was only rudimentary and subsidiary to agricultural production
blacksmiths (Kdlao)
Carpenters (tech@.
Weaving was another profession.
Religious worship and cult practices of the village folk followed old tribal rituals which
necessitated the presence of ritual groups
such as Velan, Venttuvan etc
looked after the supernatural elements and their management
society was not 'priest-dominated'.
considerable surplus which led to the prosperity of trading groups
Towards the end of our period traders were accommodated within the varna order which
had by that time taken roots in the far south.
Tokappiyam earliest available work on Tamil grammar, portrays the Tamil Society as
consisting of our varna divisions
According to this text , traders belonged to the vaisya group
In the deep south, especially in the Madurai and Tirunelveli regions the Pandya country,
these traders are found associated with some heterodox religious groups
chiefly groups established their centres in the agrarian tracts marutam for the reason that
surplus resources necessary for the sustenance of a non-producing group were available
there only
The chieftains of the marutam agricultural tracts started claiming descent from
Suryavamsa (Solar line) or Chandravamsa (Umar line) as the Kshatriya of north India
did
In the Sangam poems
war and the warlike qualities of the warrior heroes were glorified
The function of the
Pana singers
Viral1 dancers
was to glorify the heroes and their heroism
the society in the agrarian Marutam-- region of ancient Tamilaham -- an amalgamation
of old tribal prrictices and of Brahmanical ideals and ideology

Soclety In the Deccan

all the three major religious slystems

. Brahmani~m, Buddhism and Jainism enjoyed large following.
Sdtavahana ruler8 extended their patronage to Vedic ritualism
Example
Naganika, an early queen of the Satavahana family performed several Vedic rituals and
made gift mentioned in the Vedic texts
some of the famous teachers of the Dlgambara sect flourislhed in this period
Kondakundacharya,--the founder of the Mulasangha
which became popular in the South, lived in the region
The Mahayana eect of Buddhism enjoyed good popularity
Ruling authoritie8, rich men and workere donated liberally to the viratas and stupas
Acharya Naga juna
the greatest exponent of Mahayana faith flourished in the Deccan
Some foreign elements
Yavanor
Saka
Pahlavaa
embraced either the Brahmanical or the Buddhist religion.
the period witnessed the fusion of variou8 cultural elements in society
The rulers of foreign descent used prakrit and later on Sanskrit, in their inscriptions and
even adopted Indian personal and family names.
four-fold division of society was familiar in the Deccan
The practice of calling people according to their profession was popular
Halaka (ploughman)
golika (shepherd)
vardhakl (carpenter)
kolika (weaver
tilapisaka (oil presser)
Kamara (smith)
Joint family system was the normal feature
Sometimes some are found accepting titles of their husbands
Bhojiki, Maharathini, Mahasenapatini etc
SOCIAL CHANGE

first appearance the agrarian order

Satavahana and Kshatrapa rulers donated plots of land and even entire villages to
religious beneficiaries such as Buddhist monks and Brahmanas.
Along with land, certain economic privileges in the form of the right to collect revenue
from the village and to enjoy the right over mines were also transferred to the grantees
In the past many grants to individuals had been temporary. But now the trend was to
make the grant perpetual.

These new developments in the agrarian sector brought about serious and far-reaching
changes in the land system and economy
the religious beneficiaries became powerful authorities of the villages received by them
with the new economic and administrative privileges in addition to the spiritual control
which they exercised.
land grants to monks and priests created a new class of non-cultivating land owners.
The actual tillers were thus separated from ' the land and its produce
this type of private ownership abolished earlier collective rights over forests, pastures,
fisheries, and reservoirs.
the beneficiaries enjoyed the rights dot only over land but also over peasants who
worked on land.
led to an erosion of the rights of the peasants who became servile
the practice of land grant contributed, with several other features, to the creation of a
social order which is described by some scholars as "Indian feudalism
From the close of the first century B.C. demand for Indian goods brought merchants and
ships from the Roman world in the west in close contact with peninsular India
All these again are associated with the growth of crafts specialization or growth of skill
in producing crafts items which were required for members of the society either in local
exchange or for long-distance trade
. Loan was not unknown in the barter system of the Tamil south.
Kurietirppai-A loan of a fixed quantity of an article could be taken to be repaid in the
same kind and quantity at a later date
Paddy and salt were the only two items for which a set exchange rate was known in the
barter system of the far south
Dakshinapatha-- a route which ran from the Ganga valley to the Godavari Valley
Indian items such as spices, precious and semi-precious stones, timber, ivory and many
other articles were in great demand in the western countries.
The main source of these articles was south India
articles were shipped to the west from very early times
Direct trade with the Roman world, of which we have, evidence from the close of the
first century B.C. Proved to very significant for the economy and society of peninsular
India.
two stages in the commercial contact of Rome with peninsular India.
1. early stage with the Arabs as middlemen
2. second stage in which direct contact was established with the knowledge of the
monsoon winds
long period navigation in the Arabian sea was coastal.
Tedious and expensive
Arabs had established commercial connections with India, making the Sea as a highway
of trade before the beginning of the Christian era.

geographical positionof the Arabs was favourable to them in enjoying the monopoly in
the East-West trade
had some knowledge of the wind systems in the Arabian sea and they kept it as a trade
secret.
Thus the Arabs played the role of middlemen and raised considerable profit out of the
trade with peninsular India
the 'discovery' of the monsoon wind attributed to a navigator named Hippalus
direct contact was established by the Romans with India
This marked the beginning of a period of increase in commerce between Rome and
peninsular India
The Romans paid for the Indian articles mainly in gold
South India had commercial connections with Sri Lanka and South East Asia
inscriptions written in Tamil Brahmi Characters which refer to those who come from
Elam (Sri Lanka).
Fishing and Salt making were done exclusively by the community of Paratavas
mentioned in the Sangam as living in the naval (coastal) region
salt merchants were known as umanas in Tamilaham
In the territories under the Satavahanas
The main route to the Deccan from the north came from Ujjaini to the city of
Pratishthana (Paithan) the capital of the Satavahanas
From Pratishthana it passed across the Deccan Plateau to the lower Krishna and then
went further south to reach the famous southern cities of Kanchi and Madurai
A network of roads developed early in the Christian era from this old route linking the
producing areas in the interior with inland markets and towns and the port towns on the
western coast
fertile river valleys of Godavari and Krishna also had such network of routes to connect
the interior with the coastal towns
interesting to note that some of the famous ancient Buddhist cave sites and religious
centres in the Deccan were situated on such trade routes
religious centres were helpful in many ways to the merchant-caravans
Besides providing food and shelter they even issued loans
rulers also showed interest in the conditions of the routes.
donated liberally to Buddhist religious establishments which were located on the routes
constructed rest houses at port towns and established watersheds on the routes.
Officials also were appointed for the upkeep of them
Local Coins--Kasu, Kanam, Pon and Ven Pon.
In the Deccan, inscriptions refer to the use of Kahapanas which were silver coins locally
minted and tosuvarnas which refer to gold coins either of the Romans or the Kushans
copper and silver were in use.
From the second century B.C. Kings of small localities of members of the
important,Maharathi and other families started minting coins in their own name.

of these were added coins of Satavahana rulers minted in different metals, possibly from
the first century B.C. onward
Ancient Tamil literature refers to Yavana (Roman) ships bringing large quantities of gold
to Tamilaham to be exchanged for pepper
The Roman emperor Tiberius wrote to the Senate in 22 A.D
the wealth of the empire was being drained off to foreign lands in exchange of petty
things
In the 1st Century A.D
Pliny, the author of The Natural History, complained that every year a huge amount of
Roman wealth went out to India, China and Arabia for luxury articles.
These statements are well supported by the large number of Roman Coins found in
hoards in various places of peninsular India like Andhra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala
Roman coins are mostly in gold and silver
Copper coins are extremely rare
In the Deccan, land was measured in terms of nivartanas
grain was measured in ambanam, probably a large measure
In the Deccan wealth and prosperity of the artisans, craftsman and traders are reflected in
their donations to the Buddhist monasteries.
The guild organisations of artisans and traders were instrumental in breaking old kinship
ties and introducing a new type of relations in production of handicrafts and in - . .
trading ventures
The relationship between rulers, commercial groups and Buddhist monastic
establishments was responsible in introducing important changes in society and economy
of the Deccan
GROWTH OF TAMIL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Tamil had become literary language i.e., a full-blown language with its own system of
writing, at least by third century B.C. if not earlier
The earliest evidence, the Tamil literary tradition i.e. the tradition of writings in the
language comes from the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions in the Jain and Buddhist caves from
the Tamil Brahmi hills.
The major centres of these label inscriptions
Arittappatti (Mauylam, Madurai)
Karungalakkuti (Melur, Madurai)
Kongarpuliyamkulam(Madurai),
zakarmalai (Madurai
Many Tamil words along with the local adaptations of Sanskrit and Prakrit and pali
occur in the labels.
Tamil language used in these labels was different to the literary Tamil

The difference was due to the Jain and Buddhist immigrants from the north who were
introducing a (considerable member) of Sanskrit and Prakrit pali terms
These terms were adapted to suit the linguistic structure of the Tamil language
The Tamil heroic poems, popularly called the Sangam literature
the major evidence for the old Tamil literary tradition
The Tamil heroic poems are called the Sangam literature since they were collected and
classified by the Sangam
the Sangam-an academy of scholars
. The poems were, in fact, much earlier than the Sangam
there were originally three Sangams
last one alone have survived
they were constituted by scholars in literature
The time lag between the Sangam and the heroic poems shows that the name Sangam
literature is a misonmer.
the Tamil heroic poems were the products of the folk
They signify the tradition of bards who roamed about singing the praise of their patron
chiefs
all the poetic compositions were not of wandering bards
Some of them were composed'by scholarly poets who followed the bardic tradition
Kapilar
Paranar
Avvayar and Gautamanar
some of the well known poets of the period
scholarly bards, namely the pulavar as distinguished from the common bards, namely the
panar
It is thus not the literature of any particular social group but part of a common way of
life.
Classification
Ettuttogai or the eight collections of poems
Pattupattu or the ten idylls
two categories of anthologies that comprise the heroic poems
Narrinai
Kuruntokai
Ainkurunuru
Patirruppattu
few examples of anthologies grouped under Ettuttokai
Mullaippattu
Madurikkan
Kurunjippattu
example of anthologies under Pattupattu
anthologies are divided into akam
dealing with themes of subjective experience like love or affection,

puram dealing with themes of objectification like raid or plunder

Both the above categories of anthologies comprise collections of poems based on
akam.and puram themes.
Purananuru, a similar collection based on puram themes
two examples of Ettuttogai category.
In the same manner there are examples of both akam and puram anthologies in the
Pattupattu category
Apart from the heroic anthologies classified corpus of Sangam literature includes
Tolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil grammar
Patinenkizkanakku, the eighteen didactic texts
Both Tolkappiya and Patinenkizkanakku were composed after most of the Ettuttogai and
Pattupattu poems had been composed
The diction and the techniques of composition of the heroic anthologies keep them
distinct from other texts that are later.
Techniques of Composition composed on the principles of oral bardic literature
use of stock phrases and expressions is the most important feature
Stock phrases or expressions are readymade expressions or phrases current among the
people of those times
bards just had to master such ready-made expressions and their contexts
This is not to minimise the individual poetic talents completely
But by and large, the most important aspect was not the individual style or expressions of
the poets
The hereditarily transmitted stock phrases leave the bulk of heroic poems full of Growth
or Tamil Language and Literalure old memory
The two fundamental aspects of the traditional Tamil poetic
divisions of compositions intoakam and puram genres
Akam is subdivided into five stages of love in relation to the five tinai
Each tinai is associated with a particular mood of lov
For instance, the palai is associated with the sentiment of separation of the lovers
puram genre of poems have their own tinais (situations) and turais (contexts)
as many as nine tinais and sixty three turais which the poets could opt for the
compositions
Each akam poem had to follow the notion of tinai which had its own deity, biological
organisms, subsistence pattern, musical instruments and song
each puram poem had to abide by the restrictions associated with tn? variety of tinais or
situations of behaviour
Some of the bards like Gautamanar, Paranar and Kapilar were Brahmana
Gautamanar is mentioned to have effeciated many velvi (Yajna or Vedic sacrifice) for his
patron Celkezu Kuttuvan, Chera chief.
Epic and puranic ideas are also seen in the Tamil heroic poems

While praising the patron chiefs, the poets refer to the farmer's participation in the
Mahabharata battle
Many puranic deities are equated to their Tamil Counterparts
Mayon (the black god) well known in the poems as the Tamil counterpart of Krishna is
one example
original aspect of the Tamil language and literature does not owe to Sanskrit for its origin
But its growth and development toward linguistic and literary perfection certainly owes
to the influences of Aryan culture
linguistic maturity achieved by the Tamils by the 3rd century
The basic parts of Tolkappiyam and some of the Kizkanakku texts constitute the other
compositions here
other compositions because they do not belong to the bardic tradition of heroic poem
not far removed from the literary background of the bardic tradition
poruladikaram part of Tolkappiyam that deals with the akam and puram conventions of
old Tamil is close to the period of heroic poems.
Similarly, the tinai texts and works like Kalavazi are relatively earlier.

GUPTAS

beginning of the fourth century A.D.

the Satavahana state had disappeared before the middle of the third century A.D.
Allahabad pillar inscription--earliest inscription recording the achievements of an early
Gupta ruler, Samudragupta, comes from this region
In the closing decades of the 3rd century A.D. the Guptas were . subordinates of a branch
of the later Kushanas ruling in north-western India
Srigupta was the first king
Ghatotkacha was the next
Chandragupta-I was the first independent king with the title Maharajadhiraja.
After declaring his independence in Magadha, he with the help of a matrimonial alliance
with the Lichchhavis, enlarged his kingdom
Special category of coins
coins have Chandragupta and his queen Kumaradevi engraved on the obverse
a seated goddess on the reverse with a legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis).
coins were made of gold
the Guptas followed the weight system of Kushana gold coins

parts of Bihar, U.P. and Bengal.

during the times of his son Samudragupta that the kingdom grew into an empire

Samudragupta

Prayagaprasasti)
An inscription engraved (at a later date) on the Asokan pillar at Allahabad
information about Samudragupta's accession and conquests.
Harishena
important official of the state, had composed 33 lines which were engraved on the pillar
For the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta power Samudragupta adopted an
aggressive policy of conquests
This initiated a process which culminated in the formation of the Gupta empire

Chandragupta-I1

Samudragupta's successor
He entered into matrimonial alliances with the Nagas by manying princess Kuberanaga
whose daughter Prabhavati was later on married to Rudrasena-I1 of the Vakataka family

defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-I11 and annexed his kingdom

brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule in western India and added the regions of Gujarat,
Kathiawad and west Malwa to the Gupta empire
Two inscriptions
Udayagiri caves near Sanchi
one inscription at Sanchi
eferring to Chandragupta I1 and to his subordinate rulers and military officials, also suggest that
he was present in eastern Malwa for some time preparing for the campaigns
The Guptas, from the time of Chandragupta, started minting Saka-type silver coins-for this
region.
only added their own distinct symbols on these coins; otherwise, the coins were like Saka coins
in circulation till then
This definitely shows that the Saka areas came within the control of Chandragupta-11
success of Chandragupta-I1 against the Sakas seems to have developed later on into the
tradition of Sakari Vikramaditya, that is, of 'Vikramaditya, who was an enemy of the Sakas'
Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription

located in the Qutab-Minar complex in Delhi

'King Chandra' whose exploits have been mentioned
According to this inscription
Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with
Bactria)
The Mehrauli inscription also mentions Chandragupta's victory over enemies from Vanga
(Bengal)
An important incident which took place during this period
the visit of Fa-Hien, a Chinese pilgrim, who came to India in search of Buddhist texts.
he has given a vivid tle\cription of the places he visited
certain social and administrative aspects related to them
oes not mention the name of the King in his accounts
speaks highly of the King of Madhya-desa,
region which was directly ruled by the Gupta Rise and Growth of Guptas monarch in this
period
under whom the people were prosperous and happy.
Chandragupta-I1
known for his patronage to men of letters
ruled till about 415-16 A.D.
KUMARAGUPTA-I
Chandragupta-I1 was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta.
ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the west
owards the last year of his reign the Gupta empire faced foreign invasion which was checked by
the efforts of his son Skandagupta
maintained cordial relationship with the Vakatakas which had been established through
matrimonial alliances earlier
SKANDAGUPTA

ucceeded Kumaragupta-I
last powerful Gupta monarch
he had to fight the Pushyamitra
country faced Huna invasion from across the frontiers in the northwest
Skandagupta was successful in throwing the Huns back.
these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and the gold coinage of Skandagupta
bears testimony to that.
n comparison to the gold coins of the earlier rulers the types of gold coins minted by
Skandagupta were limited.
y his coins had less gold in them than earlier coins
he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western Indi
the Junagadh inscription of his reign
he public works undertaken during his times
The Sudarsana lake
(originally built during the Maurya times)
burst due to excessive rains
in the early part of his rule his governor Pamadatta got it repaired
Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D.
DISINTEGRATION OF THE GUPTA EMPIR
Huna Invasions
towards the end of the fifth century A.D
Huna chief Tormana was able to establish his authority over large parts of western India and in
central India
Mihirakula, his son, further extended the dominions
Administrative Weaknesses
local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority

Sarnanta system in which the Samantas or minor rulers, who ruled as subordinates to the central
authority, started to consolidate itself in the Gupta period.
Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta
escribes him as "equal to the gods: Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Sea-God), Indra and Antaka
(Vama), who had no
antagonist of equal power in the world
Like the King who has been given a divine status in the Smriti scriptures
the Gupta monarchs too came to be considered a divinity on earth.
Udayagiri inscription of the time of Chandragupta-I1
Virasena Saba
, the minister for war and peace, was holding this office by inheritance
The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien states
capital punishment was not given at all.
existed an espionage system as in the earlier period
The army was paid in cash and its needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores
called Ranabhandagarika
Amongst other duties this officer was to look after the supply of offensive and defensive
weapons such as battle-axes, bows and arrows, spear pikes, swords, lances, javelins, etc
Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti stat
one-sixth of the produce should be claimed as the royal revenue
Uparikara

levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another
organization of traders had to pay a certain commercial tax (Sulka)
non-payment of which resulted in cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to
eight times of the original Sulka
King had a right to forced labour (Visthi), Bali and many other types of contributions

King's income from royal lands and forests was considered as his personal income
Nagarasresthi
(head of city merchants).
Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader).
Prathama-Kulika (head of the artisan community
Prathama Kayastha (head of the Kayastha community)
In villages where there was a headman called Gramapati or Gr3madhayaksha.
The village disputes were also settled by these (bodies) with the help of Grama-vriddhas or
village elders
Sudarsana reservoir (Tadaga) in Saurashtra in Gujarat. Originally built in the Maurya period,
this reservoir was
thoroughly repaired when it was extensively damaged in the time of Mahakshatrapa
Rudradaman (middle of the second century A.D.).
again severely damaged in the time of Skandagupta.
Parnadatta, his newly appointed governor of Saurashtra and Parnadatta's son Chakrapalita,
undertook the repair of the reservoir this time
ghati-yantra
araghatta.
tie a number of pots to a chain
the chain with the pots reached down to the water of the hull
by making the chain and the pots rotate
ensured that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty i
Harshacharita of Banabhatta
course written in the seventh century A.D.
very charming description of how cultivated fields, producing crops like sugarcane, were being
irrigated with the help of ghati-yantra
In regions like Bengal, rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs;

in peninsular India
tank irrigation became gradually the norm
the number of ruling families had vastly increased and thus the number of persons who received
land but did not cultivate themselves went on increasing
The virtues of giving land were highly praised and those who took away gifted land were
threatened with many evil consequences.
All this led to the appearance, in society, of a class of people who enjoyed superior rights over
land and by virtue of these rights and by belonging to higher varnas had high economic and
social status
domestic female slaves were cruelly exploited
a text like the Kamasutra
which was probably written in the Gupta period tells us how much hardship they had to go
through at the hands of their masters.
different varieties of silk cloth
Kshauma
Pattavastr
mentioned in the texts of this period
Amarakosha
Brihat Samhita
Texts
generally dated to this period
list many items
It seems that in comparison with crafts production in the preceding Saka Kushana period, crafts
production in the Gupta period suffered some setback
Dharmasastras written by the brahmanas in this period.
Dharmasastras assign different ranks to different groups of craftsmen,
although in their scheme the craftsmen and artisans held a status lower than that of the
brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaisyas.

Dharmasastras also suggest that each group of craftsmen formed a jati or caste
the Kumbhakaras or potters formed one caste,
the Suvarnakaras or goldsmiths formed another caste
generally the trend among.craftsmen was that persons following one craft formed a jati or a
caste
Crafts
11)
divided into four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra)
each varna performing the set of functions prescribed for it and enjoying whatever rights were
given to it.
ideal social order and the state was expected to preserve it.
Brahmanas came to exert considerable influence on the kings from the Gupta period and this is
quite clear from the way they received land from the kings and others.
the number of brahmana settlements variously called Brshmadiyas, Agraharas and so on started
increasing and they started spreading, among other things, the idea of a varna-divided social
order.
t was assumed that the varnas would perform theif:&tIes; in reality, they may not have done so
suggest that real society was dikr!%tftifi&#'the ideal society and this was also recognized by the
brahmana writers of the%@##&%tras.
tried to determine the status of various castes or jatis in s&@t$%$~lGlh~fictitious explanations
of their origin
e semi-kshatriya status (vratya Kshatriaya)
fictitious origins were thought of for tribal groups who came to he absorbed into the
Brahmanical society.
The Dharmasastras also speak
apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress
varnas take to professions and duties not assigned to them when they found it necessary to do so
with the spread of the Brahmanas to different parts of India, the so~ii~l structure came to be
very complex.

The new society had to absort many social groups thus. the actual social structure came to vary
from region to region, although certain ideas were common to them
Brahmanas
highest varna
four varnas
the antyajas or untouchable
considered impure
even their touch was considered impure
their physical presence in areas where higher varnas lived and moved was not allowed
The Chandala
the Charmakara
similar groups were considered impure and outzastes
position of woman or higher varnas was low
not all women were so privileged
Although we hear or' personalities like the Vakataka queen Prabhavatigupta who wielded
considerable power
to function mainly as an ideal wife and ideal mother
In many Brahmana texts, women we're even considered, for various reasons, to be of the same
category as the Sudras
The ideal city-dweller was the nagaraka, i.e. the urbanite who, because of his affluence, lived a
life of pleasure and refined culture
POST-GUPTA KINGDOMS IN NORTH INDIA
Yasodharman
Yasodharman's Mandasor Inscription
Two stone pillar inscriptions from I Mandasor in Madhya Pradesh, one of which is dated in 532
A.D., refer to a powerful king Yasodharman
The Maukharis

we find references to them in Patanjali's work and in other early documents

Harsha inscription of 554 A.D. mentions the rise of Yajnavarman from Gaya during this period
tirst three Maukhari kings
Yagnavarman
Sardulavarman
Anantavarman
Some of these kings held simply the title of Samanta which indicates that they were acting as
kings under the over-lordship of the Guptas
From the Asirgarh Copper seal
Harivannan,
Adityavarman
Isvaravarma
sanavarmi~
Isanavarmi~
Sarvavarman,
ruled over Kanauj in U.P
first three kings had the title of Maharaja
Isanavarman is called Maharajadhiraja
Later Guptas
From around the middle of sixth century A.D. till about 675 A.D
the kings who ruled Magadha were known as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas
Aphsad inscriptio
names of 8 Gupta Monarchs
from Gaya
Krishnagupta

Harshagupta
Jivitagupta
Kumaragupta
Damodaragupta
Mahasenagupta,
Madhavagupta
Adityasena.
Their most powerful ruler was Adityasena,
ruled in Magadha in 672 A.D
Later Gupta power survived the empire of Harshavardhana and Adityasena signalised his
accession to power by the performance of a horse sacrifice
According to the Aphsad inscription
his empire included Magadha, Anga and Bengal.
Parama-Bhagavata
got a temple of Vishnu constructed.
Later Gupta line came to an end with the expansion of the power of the Gaudas of Bengal
westward
But the Gaudas themselves were subdued by Yasovarman of Kanauj.

The centuries between the eighth and the thirteenth

prominent
from the point of view of
from the point of view of
making of cultural traditions in India
most arresting feature of thew traditions is regionalism
reflected in
reflected in
formation of political power
ts
development of art
transformations in languages and literature
even religious manifestation
Andhr
, Assam
Benga
Gujara
Karnataka
Karnataka
Maharashtm
Orissa
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu,

outcome of significant material changes.

outcome of significant material changes.
developments in the no!?-agrarian sector were setting the tone of feud socio-economic
formation
the cultural
the cultural
The Mudrakshasa
The Mudrakshasa
play writtcn in Sanskrlt
by Vishakhadatta
ascribed to the fifth century
speaks of different regions whose inhabitants differ in customs, clothing and language
The identity of some kind of subnational groups is recognized by the Chinese pilgrim HsiuanTsang who visited India in the first half of the seventh century and mentions several nationalities
Kuvalayamala
a Jain text of the eighth century
largely concerned with western India
existence of 18 major nationalities and describes the anthropologcal character of sixteen peoples
pointing out their psychological features
citing the examples of their language
The Brabmavaivarta Purana
the thirteenth century Bengal
explicates
deshabheda
differences based on regions/territories.
differences based on regions/territories.

differences based on regions/territories.

wide chronological and geographical horizon
the simple beginnings at Sanchi in the fifth century of the Christian era
to the great edifices at
Kanchi
Jhanjaw
Jhanjaw
Madura
Madurai
Madurai
story of more than a millennium
Shilpashastras
deal with the subject of temple architecture
Mayamata,
Manasam
Shilparatna
Shilparatna
Kamikagama
Kamikagama
Kashyapasbipa
Kashyapasbipa
Ishanagurudevapaddbati
geographical distribution
differentiation from the point of view of shapes
presiding deities and castes.

Major Styles
Nagara
Dravida
Dravida
typological features of temples
geographical distribution
square
octagonal
apsidal ground plans
respectively
regulate the vertical profile of the structure
Nagara an*, Dravida
generally identified with the northern and southern temple styles respectively
generally identified with the northern and southern temple styles respectively
All of northern India
from the foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with
temples in the northern style
from the foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with
temples in the northern style
of course, certain regional variations in the great expanse of this area
of course, certain regional variations in the great expanse of this area
mentions Lati and Vaimti (Gujarat and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles
mentions Lati and Vaimti (Gujarat and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles
Orissa style temples
he Rehka
Bhadra

Kharkhara
Gaudiya
The ~ravida or southern style
confined to the most southemly
portions of the sub-continent, specially between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari
Vesara
vagueness
location of which is uncertain
Some of the text
ascribe the Vesara style to the country between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna
but there are texts placing it 'between the Vindhyas and the Agastya
Since the temples of the Nagara type are found as far south as Dharwad (in Karnataka) and
those of the Dravidian type as far north as Ellora (in Maharashtra), a narrow and
compartmentalised geographical classification is misleading
Since the temples of the Nagara type are found as far south as Dharwad (in Karnataka) and
those of the Dravidian type as far north as Ellora (in Maharashtra), a narrow and
compartmentalised geographical classification is misleading
the temples of the early Chalukyas whose kingdom was strategically positioned in the middle of
the peninsula in the seventh and eighth centuries.
Kandariya Mahideva temple in Khajuraho
striking exanfple where the vMous architectural elements 'combined into an integrated whole.
striking exanfple where the vMous architectural elements 'combined into an integrated whole.
, the Kerala temples
displa
display variety in their plan t@s.
display variety in their plan t@s.
Square, circular or apsideended buildings are utilized.

earlibt examples in Kerala go back to the twelfth century.

Presiding Deities
not only to two great gods of the Brahmanical pantheon, viz., Shiva and Vihqu
Great Mother Goddess
Great Mother Goddess
benevolent and malevolent
benevolent and malevolent
atmospheric .and heavenly
atmospheric .and heavenly
countless folk deities such as vakshas, vakshis,' apsaras and kinnaris
even animal or bird 'vehicles' (vahanas) of these divinities
Nmdi, the agriculiural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the god's sexuality
Nmdi, the agriculiural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the god's sexuality
The river goddesses, Ganga and Yamma are identified by their vahanas, vii, crocodile and
tortbise respectively
Lakshmi's association with elephants, lotus flowers and water not only symbolise her popularity
as the goddess of fortune but more importantly as a divinity conveying the magical power of
agricultural fertility
Swan canying Saraswati typified not only her grace and elegance but classic Kshira-nira i
viveka - the tremendous intellectual discerning capacity which is an integral . I -1 element of
this goddess of learning.
Swan canying Saraswati typified not only her grace and elegance but classic Kshira-nira i
viveka - the tremendous intellectual discerning capacity which is an integral . I -1 element of
this goddess of learning.
The Kashyapashilpa has a chapter on the deities to be enshrined in the principal styles
peaceful, calm and serene deities)
to be installed in Nagara
couples or moving deities in vesara shrines

heroic, dancing or enjoying deities in the Dravidg structures.

Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples
Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples
Each temple style has its own distinctive technical language
common
common
The sanctuary, which is the main part
where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located
where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located
the shikhrua
The part surmounting the vimana
other elements of ground plan
mandapa
pavilion for the assembly of devotee
antaral
antaral
pradakshiapath,
circumarnbulatory passage surrounding these
circumarnbulatory passage surrounding these
natmandi
natmandi
dance hall
bhogamandapa were evolved subsequently
the Nagara typ
exterior

exterior
characterized by horizontal tier
as in the jagamohan or porch in front of the sanctum of the Ligaraj temple at Bhubaneswa
the viman, is usually circular in plan
Fundamentally, there is no structural similarity between the Brahmanical and the Jain temples in
the North
except that the need for housing the various Tirthankaras dominates the disposition of space in
the latter
The ~rivida styl
polygona
often octagonal ohikhara
often octagonal ohikhara
pyramidal
a pyramidal vimana, which is rectangular in plan
notable for the towering gopurams or gatetowers of the additional mandapas
From the days of Ganesh ratha of the Pallava times (seventh ceniury) at Mahabalipuram (near
Madras
to the gigantic Brihadishvara temple (c.985-1012 A.D.) of the Cholas at Thanjavur:
to the gigantic Brihadishvara temple (c.985-1012 A.D.) of the Cholas at Thanjavur:
e Dravida style took many strides

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Ecological Setting
Ecological Setting
temples have sloping tiled roof
giving rise to timber gables
To overcome the hazards of snow and hai
wooden sloped roofs are also 1 employed in the temples of the Himalayan bel
. In genera
the hotter and drier the climate, the flatter the roof
open porches provide shaded seating
open porches provide shaded seating
pierced stone. I .screens are utilised to fiter the ligh
such features which are noticeable in the famous Ladkhan temple of the Chalukyas at Ahole
(north Karnataka) are direct adaptations of thatch and timber village and community hall
>The distribution of space in Jain shrines was affected by their placements on high hill
These structures are characterized by an air of seclusion and aloofnes
typical examples
typical examples
e Shatrunjaya and Palitana hills in Gujara
the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in southern Rajasthan
the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in southern Rajasthan

e availability of raw materials

e transition from wood to stone attributed to the Mauryas of the third century B.C. was in itself a
great step forwar
local raw materials played a dominant role in techniques of construction and carving
the Pallava Kin
g Mahendravarman (early seventh century)
vichitra-chitta (curious minded
because he discarded conventional perishable materials such as brick, timber and mortar and
used the hardest rock surfact (granite) for his cave temples at Mahabalipuram
Hard and crystalline rocks prevented detailed carvin
, whereas soft and sedimentary stone permitted great precision
Friable and schistlike stones, such as those by the Hoyshal architects and craftsmen at Belur and
Halebid (Karnataka) in the twelvth and thirteenth centuries promoted the carving of mouldings
created by sharp and angled incision
. Brick building traditions continued I to survive where there was an absence of good stone and
techniques of moulding and carving bricks doubtless influenced the style of temples in these
area
e.g. the temples at Bishnupur in Bengal
e.g. the temples at Bishnupur in Bengal
influence of timber and bamboo techniques of construction represent a unique architectural
development in north eastern state of Assam
Almost no stone temples are found in the Himalayan valleys of Kulu, Kangra and Chamb
obvious that timber and brick building traditions dominate temple f~rms in these areas
sloping and gabled roofs which are preserved only in stone in the temples of Kashrnir can be
seen in these areas in pure wooden conrext
sloping and gabled roofs which are preserved only in stone in the temples of Kashrnir can be
seen in these areas in pure wooden conrext
. In the ninth celitury or s
, a remarkable multi-towered temple was excavated into a natura

escarpm :nt at Masrur in Kangra

Role of Decorative Elements
evolution of vadious styles in tenns of decorations, ornamentations and other embellishments is
a natural phenomenon
these elements did not affect the basic structure of temples
these elements did not affect the basic structure of temples
growth of pillars from simple oblong shafts in early Pallava structures to extremely finely
chiselled (almost giving the impressioh of lathe work) columns in Hoyshala temples.
growth of pillars from simple oblong shafts in early Pallava structures to extremely finely
chiselled (almost giving the impressioh of lathe work) columns in Hoyshala temples.
Later still, the temples of Madurai and Rameshvaram give extraordinary place to long corridors
studded with animals based caryatids
Later still, the temples of Madurai and Rameshvaram give extraordinary place to long corridors
studded with animals based caryatids

In general, the tendency is to make constant indrease in embellishments

the kudu which at the Mahabalipuram monuments has a plain shovel-headed firial
lion head in the Chola monuments
process of excessive ornamentation is noticeable in North India too
Shikharas, ceilings and other walls receive great attention of artisans and craftsmen
Extremely exquisite catvings in marble in the ceilings at Dilwara Jain temples at Mt. Abu do
not serve any structural purpose and are purely decorative
multiplication of roofs constitutes a distinctive feature of temples of Malabar, Bengal and the
eastern and western Himalayas
In a west coast or Malabar temple
walls resemble a wooden railing in structure and were made of wood, though stone bpies from
about the fourteenth century also exist.
exampl&

Vadakkunath temple at Trichur - 15th-16th century)

may have either a simple pitched roof of overlapping slabs, or they may have a series of pitched
roofs one above another, which bear an obvious resemblance to the multiple pitched roofs of
Chinese and Nepalese temples.
In the Kashmir Valley of the western Himalayas
temples bear two or three roofs which were also copiled from the usual wooden roofs
temples bear two or three roofs which were also copiled from the usual wooden roofs
In the wooden examples
interval between the two roofs seems to have been left open for light and air
in the stone buildings it is dosed with ornaments
in the stone buildings it is dosed with ornaments
ll these roofs are relieved by types of windows comparable to those found i6 medieval buildings
in Europe
Example of such roofs in Kashmir
Shiva temple at Pandrethan
Shiva temple at Pandrethan
Sun temple at Martand
In Rengal,
temples have been identiaed which have been borrowed from leaf-huts that are very common in
the region
In this form of temple with curved caves we also find the same tendency to a multiplication of
roofs one above another.
The temples at Bishnuvir such as the famous Keshta Raya (17th century) are built with a variety
of roofs forms on square and rectangular plans.
The temples at Bishnuvir such as the famous Keshta Raya (17th century) are built with a variety
of roofs forms on square and rectangular plans.

ORGANISATION OF BUILDING PROGRAMIME

In the erection of the structural temple an organised building programme was fonowed
Bricks were baked either on or near the site
stone was mostly quarried locally
stone was mostly quarried locally
stone was mostly quarried locally
At the site the masons roughly shaped the stone blocks which were then hoisted into position by
rope pulleys on scaffolding
Ramps were a!so constructed of timber and sand to facilitate the placing of extremely heavy
stone pieces in place
example
the stone constituting the huge shikhara of the Brihadishvar temple at Thanjavur.
Whis shilchara weighing about 80 tonnes is popularly believed to have been raised to it6 present
height of about 200 feet by being dragged on an inclined plane, whichhad its base about seven
kilometres, away at Sarapallan (literally, meaning 'elevation from depression')

Occasionally, as in Konarka, iron beams (For iron beams see Illustration No. 21) were used in
the sanctuary and hall
The architects, artisans and workmen engaged in the various activities associated with the
building of a temple were organised into groups which functioned as guilds
Kdnarka temple manuscript lists the workmen, their salaries and rules of conduct and provides
an account over several years of the various building operations.
an eleventh century panel from Khajuraho shows cuttings, chiselling and transporting stone for
temples.
CHRONOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL , SPREAD OF INDIAN TEMPLE
CHRONOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL , SPREAD OF INDIAN TEMPLE
THE NORTHERN.STYLE
Northern, Central and Western India (Fifth-seventh centuries)
The Pawati temple at Nachna (South-east of Khajuraho, M.P.)
he Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.(Jhansi District, U.P.);
the brick temple at Bhitaragon (Kanpur District, u.P.);
ihe Vishnu temple at Gop (Gyarat);
Mundeshwari temple (an unusual example of octagonal plan) at Ramgarh (Bihar)
temples at Sanchi and Jigawa (both in Madhya Pradesh).
The Deccan and Central India (Sixth-eighth centuries)
Cave temples at Ellora (near Aurangabad in Maharashtra, see Illustration No. 22)
Elephanta (near Bombay)
Badarni (north Karnataka; Early Chalukyan temples) in north Karnataka at Btdami, Aihole
(Ladkhan temples), and Pattadakal
(Papanatha and Galganatha temples).
Western and Central India (Eighth - thirteenth centuries
Harihara and other temples at Osian (North of Jodhpur, Rajasthan)
Jelika Mandir (Gwalior);

Chandella temples at Khajuraho (specially, Lakshman, Kandariya Mahadev and Vishvanatha);

temples at Roda (North of Modhera in Gujarat);
Sun temple at Modhera (Gujarat)
Marble temples of the Jains at Mt. Abu (Rajasthan)
Eastern India (Ei&th - thirteenth centuries)
Parashurameshvar Vaital Deul
Mukteshvar
Lingaraj and Rajarani temples (all at Bhubaneshwar)
Sun temple at Konarka (Orissa
the jagannatha temple at Puri (Orissa)
The Himalayan belt (Eighth century pnwards)
Sun temple at Martand
Shiva temple at Pandrethan
Vishnu temple at Aventesvamin (all in Kashmir)
temple at Masrur (Kangara, Himachal Pradesh
brahmanical temples in Nepal (Kathmandu, Patan and Bhadgaon)
THE SOUTHERN STYLE
The Deccan and Tamil Nadu (Sih-tenth centuries)
Cave temples, the Rathas and the 'Shore' templepf~he Pallavas at Mahabalipuram (near
Madras); (See Illustration No. 23)
the Vdikunthaperumal and Kailasanatha temples at Kanchipuram (also near Madras
Chalukyan stqctures at Aihole (~eguti temple)
Badami (Malegitti Shiva temple)
Pattadakal (Virup@csKa temple)
the Kailas temple at Bllora carved out under the patronage of the RashtrakuJas

Karnataka, Tgmil Nadu and Kerala (~enth-seymieenth centuries)

Brihadishvar temples of the Cholas at Jhanjaw
Ganga;! 6ndacholapuram
Hoyshal temples at Belur
Halebid and Somnathpur (all irl Karnataka)
later Chalukya temples in -ataka (at Lakkundi and Gadag)
the Pampati temple of the Pandyas at Vijaynagw
the Shrirangam (near Trichinopoly, Tamil Nadu)
Minakshi temples (Madurai, Tamil Nadu,See Illustration Nos. 24,25)
the Kattilmadam (at Chalpurarn, District Palghat, Kerala) temple
~arasguram temple at Tiruvallam (near Trivandrum).
THE VESARA STYLE
The Buddhist Chaitya halls
the western ghats in the modem state of Maharashtra may be said to be prototypes of this style.
most conspicuous feature-is the apsidal ground plan
certain vagueness about its essential components and geographical distribution
early examples
(seventh-tenth centuries) can be cited the structures at Chezarla (Andhra Pradesh)
Aihole (Durga temple),
Mahabalipuram (Sahdeva and Draupali rathas
Kerala (Shiva temples at Trikkandiyur and Tiruvannur
classic post-tenth century examples include the Nataraja shrine at Chidambaram (Tamil Nadu
the Vamana temple at Kizhavellur (District Kottayam, Kerala)
TEMPLES AND IND~N CULTURAL mOS

symbalised the very mundane urges of humans and were for varied activities of the community
as a whole
symbalised the very mundane urges of humans and were for varied activities of the community
as a whole
general education within the temple was of great importance
Many endowments to temples were specifically made for establishment of colleg&which were
incorporated into temple complexes
Teaching of such subjects as
s gramm'ar
astrology
s recital and teaching of texts such as
Vedas
the Epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas were encouraged
Music and dance generally formad part of the daily ritual of the temples
during special celebrations
and annual festivals
these played a particularly dominant role
Large temples wouldpaintab their own musicians
both vocal and instrumenta
together with dancers, actors and teachers of performing arts
The life-size delineations of I such musicians in a tenth-century temple at Khajuraho (See
Illustration No. 26)
as well as in the Sun temple at Konarka
nata mandir (dancing hall) forming an absolutely integral element in the Orissan and other
temples also provide eloquent testimonies to that effec
of course

who can forget the performance of the great cosmic-dance of the Mahadeva Shiva himself at the
Chidambaram temple
s the institution of devadasi
These teruple maidens played a significant role in dancing as well as in singing of devotional
hymns by which the temple god was entemed
The fact that the Chola emperor Rajaraja 1 (984-1-012) constructed two long street
s for the accommodation of four hundred dancing women attached to the Brihadishvar temple
(Thanjavur
Many temples had regular festivals which provided opportunities for mingling of mythology and
folklore
the annual hthayatra of the Jagarinatha temple at Pun
The undertaking of pilgrimage (tirthayatra) is yet another mechanism through which the
participation of the community in temple activities was facilitated
As temples prdvided work and the means of livelihood for a large number of persons, they were
able to exert great influence upon the economic life of people.
Even small temples needed
the services of priests
garland-makers
suppliers of clarified butter
milk and oil
One of the most detailed accounts that have been preserved of the number of people who were
supported by a temple and the wages they received is that given in an inscription on the abovementioned Thanjawr temple, and dated 1011 A.D.
The list includes
cooks, gardeners, dance-masters, garland-makers, musicians, wood-carvers, painters, choirgroups for singing h@ns in Sanskrit and Tamil, accountants, watchmen and a host of other
officials and servants of temples, totalling more than six hundred persons
SCULPTURES: STONE AND METAL IMAGES
regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well

regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well

regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well
regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well
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