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http://www.archive.org/details/introductiontohuOOuniv

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369, Physiology 369,

Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369 and Zoology 369).
>

Preliminary Edition, Revised September, 1964

Copyright

University Committee on Human Ecology

University of Illinois
1964

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301-3

Course Guide
to

Introduction to Human Ecology

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369, Physiology 369,
Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and Zoology 369.)

Teaching Staff
Alfred W. Booth, Professor of Geography (223 Davenport; X-3-3006).
Jerome D. Fellmann, Professor of Geography (122 Davenport; X-3-3135)

Kenneth E. Harshbarger, Professor of Nutrition, Dairy Science Dept.; Assoc.

Head of Dept. (315 An. Sci. Lab.; X-3-1836).
Alan H. Jacobs, Instructor in Anthropology (137g Davenport X-3-1313)
S.

Charles Kendeigh,* Professor of Zoology (200 Vivarium; X-3-1632)

Norman D. Levine,* Professor of Veterinary Parasitology and of Veterinary Research

(143 Vet. Med.; X-3-2766, X-3-1937)

Lawrence

I.

O'Kelly, Professor of Psychology (129 N. Race St., Urbana; X-3-3483).

Morell B. Russell, Professor of Soil Physics; Assoc. Director, Agric. Expt. Station
(109 Mumford; X-3-0240)

Frederick Sargent, II,* Professor of Physiology (31 Burrill; X-3-3002)

Course Administrator
Demitri B. Shimkin,* Professor of Anthropology and of Geography.
Administrator. On leave of absence.

Acting

Course

Robert W. Touchberry, Professor of Genetics, Dairy Science Dept.; (215e An. Sci.
Lab.; X-3-2627).
Leigh M. Triandis, Assistant Professor of Psychology (433a Gregory; X-3-2769).
Robert C. White, Map and Geography Librarian (418b Library; X-3-0827).
Librarian.

Course

Betty W. Starr, Secretary, Department of Anthropology and of the University

Committee on Human Ecology.
(137c Davenport; X-3-3616).

* Senior Staff Member, Center for Zoonoses Research,

September, 1964

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IIX

I,

Objectives, Organization and Procedures.

"Introduction to Human Ecology" seeks to give advanced undergraduate

1.
and graduate students in the biological and social sciences, including regional
planning and other areas of application, a working knowledge of principles,
techniques and findings useful for the study of the relations between human
Because human ecology is a specialized
populations and their environments.
aspect of the general adaptation of living organisms to their environment,
the first part of the course undertakes a brief but intensive review of ecology
Beginning with an analysis of environments, it then surveys physioas a whole.
logical requirements, life cycles and regulatory mechanisms in animals as a
foundation for understanding biological communities. The second part of the
course deals with the biological and cultural aspects of human adaptation.
It stresses man's neuropsychological specializations and their consequences.
It reviews, type by type, the expansion of human productive capacities and of
human societies, from hunting and gathering to modern industrial societies.
the ecology of health,
Finally, the course focuses on problems of application:
and the use of ecological principles in regional planning.

Throughout the course, emphasis will be placed upon elements, relations

2.
and processes unifying animal and human ecology, on one hand; and on the mechanisms
and consequences of biological and cultural evolution, on the other. Quantitative measures and models will be used as guides, but will not be extensively
developed.
Ample references to the basic literature pertinent to ecology will
give students means to extend their knov/ledge during the course and subsequently.
Pedagogically, the course represents a compromise between the needs
3.
for highly specialized competences and the unification gained through a single
mind.
The staff will present lectures in series of at least a x^?eek's duration.*
The course administrator will be present at all lectures, in order to maximize
continuity.
In addition, every student will be assigned to a staff member for
guidance in his semester paper and for periodic consultations.

The course requirements will include careful grasp of the lectures

4.
and required reading, which will be verified by one mid-semester examination
and the final examination; preparation of a 5,000-10,000 word paper based on
use of the reference data and suggested readings, and demonstrating a serious
exploration of one aspect of human ecology; and participation in classroom
discussions. Approximately one-quarter of the grade will be derived from
the student's paper. However, the overall grade will depend on the intuitive
judgment of the staff in each case. With the expected maturity and quality of
the students, the probable median should exceed "B".

*Brief summaries of the salient points of each group of lectures accompanied

by references to required and optional readings will be distributed to the
students periodically.

iii

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IV

The basic reference data for the course (see bibliography), as well
5,
as the specifically assigned readings for each group of lectures will be on
reserve at the Map and Geography Library (418b Library). Furthermore, Mr. White
will attempt to locate, so far as feasible, the other copies which may be available elsewhere in the University, and to make this information accessible to
students.
Students unfamiliar with the concepts of human ecology will find
Marsten Bates' Man in Nature to be a lucid, readable elementary survey.
At the level of 3 hours, or a half-unit of graduate credit, the semester
6.
paper will serve fundamentally as an integrating device for each student's understanding of the principles of ecology as applied to a given topic.
It is expected
that the required readings, the basic reference data, and supplementary suggestions by individual lecturers will provide ample substantive bases for the paper.
Added research is neither expected nor encouraged at this stage; problem formulation, the selection of pertinent evidence, and logical analysis are the objectives.
For added credit, indpeendent investigations of some depth will be required.

II.

Schedule of Lectures and Mid-term Examination.

Lect.

Title

Lecturer

Sept. 21

The nature of human ecology

Sargent

Sept. 23

The earth's environment as a

physico-chemical system

Geog. Staff

The evolution of terrestrial

environments

Geog. Staff

Date

Sept. 25

Sept. 28

Contemporary environments (biomes)

Geog. Staff

Sept. 30

Physiological and morphological

mechanisms in homestasis

Sargent

Oct. 2

Processes of growth, maturation

and aging

Sargent

Oct. 5

Reproduction and fertility in

mammalian populations

Sargent

Oct. 7

Organic control mechanisms:

genetics as cybernetics

0' Kelly

Oct. 9

Organic control mechanisms:

basic processes of external
regulation

0' Kelly

Oct. 12

10

Organic control mechanisms:

integration and control in
higher animals

0' Kelly

Oct. 14

11

The biotic community as a concept

Kendeigh

Oct. 16

12

Successions, climaxes and biomes

Kendeigh

Oct. 19

13

Speciation, adaptation, dispersal

and the ecological niche

Kendeigh

Oct. 21

14

Nutrient cycles, food chains,

and population dynamics

Kendeigh

Oct. 23

15

Energy flows and biological

productivity

Kendeigh

Oct. 26

16

The evolution of Homo sapiens

Sargent

Oct. 28

17

General biological characteristics

of Homo sapiens

Sargent

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18

The psychoneurological
specializations of man

Nov. 2

19

MID-TERM EXAMINATION

Nov. 4

20

The mechanisms and institutions

of human socialization

An thro. Staff

Nov. 6

21

Patterns of human utilization of

the natural environment

An thro. Staff

Nov. 9

22 & 23

Processes of socio-cultural evolution

Stages of socio-cultural evolution

An thro. Staff

Nov. 11

24

Evolution of the food quest

An thro. Staff

Nov. 13

25

Agricultural Ecology--The
Climatic Factor

Booth

Nov. 16

26

The Nature, Properties and

Geographic Distribution of Soils

Russell

18

27

The Soil as a Medium for Plant

Growth

Russell

Nov. 20

28

Agricultural Ecology-Tropical
Subsistence Agriculture

Booth

Nov. 23

29

Agricultural Ecology Agriculture

of the Indian Subcontinent

Booth

Nov. 25

30

Agricultural Ecology--The
European Peasant Economy

Booth

Nov.

VACATION

Nov.

25,

p.m.

Nov.

30,

p.m.

Dec. 2

31

Commercialized agriculture

Russell

Dec. 4

32

The Nature, Mechanisms and

Consequences of Changes in
Human Populations

Sargent

Dec.

33

The Nature of Cities and the

Rise of Urbanism

Fellmann

Dec. 9

34

The Pre-industrial City:

Western Europe

Fellmann

Dec. 11

35

The Industrial City and

External Urban Relationships

Fellmann

Dec. 14

36

The Classical City of the

Industrial Era

Fellmann

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The Emergent Urban Community

Fellmann

Applied human ecology: principles

of epidemiology

Levine

38

Applied human ecology: malaria

and other insect-borne diseases

Levine

39

Dec. 16

37

Dec. 18

Dec. 21

VACATION

Dec. 22,

p.m

Jan. 4,

p.m.

40

Applied human ecology: new

frontiers in epidemiology

Levine

Jan. 6

41

Changing animal populations to supply

human needs.

Touchberry

Jan.<8

&
Jan. 11

42

Jan

43

Applied human ecology:

tion interactions

44

Concluding remarks: Emphases

and limitations of the course?
further perspectives in human
ecology

Jan. 15

Jan. 26

FINAL EXAMINATION 8:00

Food popula-

11:00

Uarshbarger

Sargent

Staff

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viii
III.

Basic Reference Data

The extensive scope of human ecology and the variety of pertinent substantive data necessitate the use of a considerable body of reference materials,
The sources cited below represent materials
even at an introductory level.
with which every serious student of human ecology should be familiar, and it
In addition,
is expected that all students will browse through this literature.
selected portions will be assigned as required readings in support of particular
groups of lectures, or individual lectures. These materials, plus a limited
number of suggestions offered in connection with individual lectures, should
provide ample data for the student papers.
In order to facilitate the use of these volumes, each has been annotated
with suggestions as to its significance for human ecology. Also, a guide to
particularly important chapters of the monumental History of Technology has
been provided below.

Bates, M. : Man in Nature

1961.
pp. 116.

1.

N. J.,

Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Englewood Cliffs,

A broad yet simple treatment of the field of human ecology by an

outstanding authority on the tropics. Highly recommended to all students for
initial orientation.
Theodorson, Geo. A. (ed.):
Evans ton, 1961. pp. 628.

2.

& Co.

Students in Human Ecology

Row, Peterson

A somewhat more advanced treatment which comprises a selection of

essays on concepts and methods in human ecology.
3.

Ist Edition (1951) or 2d

Time's Arrow and Evolution
Princeton Univ. Press. Princeton, N. J. pp. 220.

Blum, H. F.:

Edition (1955).

A brilliant analysis of the origin and evolution of life from a physicochemical standpoint, with particular reference to biological implications of
Although a difficult
the second law of thermo -dynamics (conservation of energy).
work in parts, it represents an indispensible part of the theoretical structure
of modern ecology,

The Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern

4.
von Bertalanffy, L.
Biological and Scientific Thought
Harper Torch Books TB-521.
1960. pp. 216.
:

Also of great theoretical importance, particularly in advancing the

concepts of "open systems" and "steady states" to clarify the apparent anomalies
between biological (also, socio-cultural) systems and the second law of thermodynamics.
The thesis is lucidly presented so that the intelligent reader with
some biological background can grasp the broad significance of this new viewpoint.

viii

i3E

5.

von Neumann, J.:

New Haven, Conn.

The Computer and the Brain

Yale University Press,

pp. 82.

A work of extraordinary brilliance which analyses the characteristics

of human neurological behavior as a radically different system from that of
mechanical computers. The findings of this study have basic applicability to
This work, although profound, can be understood
all organic control systems.
by readers with limited mathematical background.
6.

Huxley, Julian.:

Evolution in Action

Harper, New York.

1953. pp. 182.

This short essay was taken from a series of popular lectures given
Professor Huxley, grandson of
a few years ago at the University of Indiana.
Darwin's "bulldog", the redoubtable Thomas Huxley, is one of the world's leading authorities of evolutionary biology, and "Evolution in Action" is a carefully
weighed statement of contemporary evolutionary theory.
7.

Dobzhansky, Th.

Evolution. Genetics and Man

Wiley, New York.

1955.

pp. 398.

Professor Dobzhansky, of Columbia University, is a leading student of

genetic mechanisms in evolution, and is a talented literary expositor of his
subject. Of greatest importance to the student of human ecology is Dobzhansky's
concept of the "gene pool", basic to an understanding of the statistical reasoning that supports a great deal of evolutionary theory.
Kendeigh, S.
1961.
pp. 468.

8.

N.

J.

C:

Animal Ecology

Prentice-Hall.

Englewood Cliffs,

A comprehensive treatment of the entire field of animal ecology from

the structural, regional and historical viewpoints.
Carefully organized for
ease of use, the work summarizes basic findings, presents critical measures,
succinctly discusses case materials, and cities major relevant sources. The
theoretical treatment of the biological community Is particularly outstanding.
9.
Kroeber, A. L.
Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America
Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley.
1939.
pp. 242.
:

This is the classical ecological interpretation of a major world

region.
It analyzes the relation of population densities and cultural growth
to environmental and historical factors.
Although some of the content is outdated, the conceptual treatment has been a landmark in human ecology.

hiAT

10.

Indians

Driver, H. E. and W. Massey: Comparative Studies of North American

Philosophical Soc. vol. 47, pt. 2, 1957, pp. 456.
Trans. Amer.

A basic complement to Kroeber's study, this deeply insightful monograph

details the contents of the major cultures of native North America. Then it
undertakes quantitative investigations of great theoretical importance to test
the validity of ecological interpretations of social structure.

Population and Progress in the Far East .

Thompson, W. S.
11.
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1959. pp. 444.

Univ. of

A judicious survey of the population trends, resources, and economic

It provides a valuable foundation
development of the major Asiatic nations.
for more intensive ecological studies of each country, and for comparisons with
other areas.

Population Trends in Eastern Europe ,

Kiser, C. V. and F. Boudreau:
12.
Mllbank Memorial Fund, New York, 1960. pp. 336.
the USSR and Mainland China .
This volume summarizes present-day knowledge of population dynamics,
determinants and controls in Eastern Europe and the USSR. These represent major
components of the ecological systems of industrializing countries, modified
structurally by the effects of World War II and the consequences of totalitarian
regimes. The detailed information on the vast uncertainties of Chinese population
data provides cautions applicable to the demographic "statistics" of most underdeveloped countries,

Family Planning. Sterility

Freedman, Whelpton, and A. A. Campbell.

13.
and Population Growth
1960.
.

The demography of voluntary fertility as practiced in the United States.

14.
Singer, C, et al.
London, 1954-58.

History of Technology

5 vols.,

Oxford Univ. Press,

The indispensable source for the study of the development of material

culture and economic organization in the western world. The treatments of
Eastern Europe and Russia are seriously inadequate. Note that even this tremendous
undertaking fails to encompass non-western developments.

Salient chapters Include the following:

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vol.

From Early Times to Fall of Ancient Empires.

London:

Oxford, 1954.

Oakley, K. P.:

"Skill as a human possession."

pp. 38-57.

Childe, V. G.:

"Early forms of society."

pp. 58-84..

Harrison, H. S.:

pp. 154-186.

Forde, D.

pp. 327-352.

Zeuner, F. E.:

"Domestication of animals."

pp. 353-375.

Zeuner, F. E.:

"Cultivation of plants."

pp. 520-557.

Drower, M. S.

"Water-supply, irrigation and agriculture."

pp. 744-773.

Hooke, S. H.:

"Recording and writing."

pp.

1-37.

"Discovery, invention and diffusion."

"Foraging, hunting and fishing."

vol. II.
The Mediterranean Civilizations and the Middle Ages.
1956.
pp. 1-41.

Bromehead, C. N.:
century

London:

Oxford,

"Mining and quarrying to the seventeenth

pp. 493-536.

Goodchild, R. G.:
"Roads and land travel," with a section
on harbours, docks and lighthouses.

pp. 629-657.

Gille, B.

pp. 753-776.

Singer, C.

vol. III.

Machines.
"East and West in retrospect."

From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution, c. 1500-c. 1750.

pp. 27-71.

Smith, C. S. and R. J. Forbes:

pp. 110-133.

Salamon, R. A.:

pp. 269-299.

Briggs, M. S. :
"Town-planning from the ancient world to
the Renaissance."

pp. 620-647.

Price, D. J.:
"The manufacture of scientific instruments
from c. 1500 to c. 1700."

pp. 709-722.

Hall, A. R.:

"Metallurgy and assaying."

"Tradesmen's tools, c. 1500-c. 1850."

"The rise of the west."

mj^

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OC

xii
vol. IV.

The Industrial Revolution.

London:

Oxford, 1958.

Farm

pp. 1-12.

Beaumont, 0. and J. W. Y. Higgs:

Implements."

pp. 13-43.

Fussell, G. E.:

pp. 149-167.

Forbes, R. J.:

pp. 230-257.

Clow, A. and N. L.
"The chemical industry:
industrial
revolution."
with the

pp. 489-503.

Kennard, J.:

pp. 504-519.

Rawlinson, J.:

pp. 603-682.

Ubbelohde, A. R.J. P.: "The beginning of the change from

craft mystery to science as a basis for technology."

vol. V.

"Agriculture.

"Agriculture.

Techniques of farming."

"Power to 1850."
:

"Sanitary engineering:

Sanitary engineering:

The Late Nineteenth Century.

London:

interaction

water supply."
Sanitation."

Oxford, 1958.

pp. 1-25.

Fussell, G. E.:

pp. 26-52.

Morris, T. N.:

"Management and preservation of food."

pp. 208-234.

Jarvis, C. M.:

"The distribution and utilization of electricity,

"The growth of food production."

electricity."
pp. 322-349.

Ellis, C. Hamilton:

pp. 636-657.

Galloway, D. F.:

pp. 799-813.

Wilson, C.

pp. 814-842.

Fleek, A.

"The development of railway engineering."

"Machine-tools."

"Technology and industrial organization."

"Technology and its social consequences."

\rH

xii
vol, IV.

London:

The Industrial Revolution.

Oxford, 1958.

"Agriculture.

Farm

pp. 1-12.

Beaumont, 0. and J. W. Y. Higgs:

Implements."

pp. 13-43.

Fussell, G. E.:

pp. 149-167.

Forbes, R. J.:

pp. 230-257.

"The chemical industry:

Clow, A. and N. L.
with the industrial revolution."

pp. 489-503.

Kennard, J.:

pp. 504-519.

Rawlinson, J.:

pp. 603-682.

Ubbelohde, A. R.J. P.: "The beginning of the change from

craft mystery to science as a basis for technology."

vol. V.

"Agriculture.

Techniques of farming."

"Power to 1850."
:

"Sanitary engineering:
Sanitary engineering:

London:

The Late Nineteenth Century.

interaction

water supply."
Sanitation."

Oxford, 1958.

"The growth of food production."

pp. 1-25.

Fussell, G. E.:

pp. 26-52.

Morris, T. N.:

"Management and preservation of food."

Jarvis, C. M.:

"The distribution and utilization of electricity,

pp. 208-234.

electricity."
pp. 322-349.

Ellis, C. Hamilton:

pp. 636-657.

Galloway, D, F.:

pp. 799-813.

Wilson, C.

pp. 814-842.

Fleek, A.

"The development of railway engineering."

"Machine-tools."

"Technology and industrial organization."

"Technology and its social consequences."

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

LIST A
BASIC REFERENCE DATA

572
B31m

Bates, M. Man In nature .

(Copies also In Biology, Commerce, Physical Education, Undergraduate)

570
B46bE
1960

Problems of life
Bertalanffy, L. von.
Stacks)
Biology,
also
in
(Copies

575
B62t

Bliam,

575
D65e

Dobzhansky, T. G. Evolution, genetics and man .

(Copy also in Agriculture)

Uncat

Driver, H. E.

506
APT

Driver, H. E.
Coinparative studies of North American Indians .
v. 47, pt. 2.
(IN American Philosophical Society Transactions,
(Stacks)

H. F.
Time's arrow and evolution .
(Copy also in Engineering)

n.s.

Comparative studies of North American Indians .

V. 47

612.63
F87f

Freedman, R., et.al. Family planning, sterility and population

growth
(Copies also in Agriculture, Commerce)

301

Hawley, A. H. Human ecology .

(Copies also in City Planning, Commerce)

H31h

H982ev

Huxley, J.
Evolution in action .
(Copy also in Undergraduate)

591.5
K34a

Kendeigh, S. C. Animal ecology .

(Copies also in Biology, Natural History Survey, Veterinary Medicine)

572.97
K91c

Kroeber, A. L.

913.05
CA
V. 38

Kroeber, A. L. Cultural and natural areas of native North America .

IN University of California publications in American archaeology
and ethnology.
(Stacks)

614
M59p
1959

Mil bank memorial fund.

Proceedings...
Population trends in
1959.
Eastern Europe, the USSR and Mainland China .
(Copies also in Commerce, Stacks)

575

pt.

609
Si6h

Cultural and natural areas of native North America .

Singer, C, er.al. History of technology.

5 vols.
(Copies also in Engineering, Reference; Architecture vols. 4 & 5 only)

xiii

YOOJOOLi

OT

'(TAJirjn

rn-% *-

*,

i i*..

.",
.

:wi/AtU.

uCi/i

.^0<iAi

.nov .J

,'^5!]tne[(i:}i3a

'

'

.2 .H

>

*J

0\^.

jiovIxO

oOc'

^^'-

iB.aa
:.
oaI& 3J.lqoD)

-'SLJ^

'.\2^^_..

K.'^oi^,

jTi

r.iPS:.l92fLJlB3^

(i-

,vff^.fr--

sTl

"

;,

.alov c

.XGoJfofjffaaJ

ib y-'

r'-^

.8-

W.Sid
'\Ki

."''K'eH

'^

'<qo3)

.rl^isbacvl

oale aslqoO)

."

IOC

V9S89H
^..lei

E^eS

~
olQJi

ondUs

Jii'BiS)

aoT?

.?j.^

.j[t'H'22:i

'^^

.D

!r.->r!A

<9f!.l3iboM Y-rfJ'i9-.

.r-Pmbsri^

Jl

ni cbXb

.'u

'

-*

.e.r

i^5-:

.bntf5

t"'

i.;

f?nn

?"J

.v

iBjr'sosiora

jTnsdliM

^Id

..j

,sonni^

COti

xiv

301.308
T34s

Studies In human ecology

Theodorson, G. A., ed.
(Copies also in City Planning, Conmerce, Veterinary Medicine)

330.95
T37p

Population and progress in the Far East .

Thompson, W. P.
(Copy also in Commerce)

510.84
V89c

Von Neumann, J. The computer and the brain .

(Copies also in Engineering, Labor and Industrial Relations,
Mathematics, Physics, and Undergraduate)

'-X-

(ontoibiiM

\{-xo(ii-x93t>'r

.0o-j.BmioO

.'orunno-il

y^in fd osis p^iroH)

c^jir

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

LIST B

OTHER REFERENCES

612.591
Ad7p

Adolph, E. F.
(Biology)

Physiology of man in the desert

612
Ad7p

Adolph, E. F.
(Biology)

Physiological regulations .

572.05
AM
n.s.

American anthropologist .
(Commerce, 1952-date; Stacks, 1899-1951)

610.5
AMTR

American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

(Biology)

371.8505 American Scientist .

SX
(Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics, Stacks)

910.6
AS

Association of American Geographers.

(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

301

Barnett, H. G.
(Commerce)

Innovation:

B261
152.8
B28p

Bartley, S. H.
(Education)

Principles of perception .

276.2
B41c

Bell, H. I.
(Stacks)

581.19
B64p

Bonner, J. F.
Plant biochemistry .
(Agriculture, Biology, Chemistry)

333.7
B812n

Brown, H. S., et al.

Next hundred years .
(Commerce, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Reference, Undergraduate, Union Browsing)

913.05
CAL

Anthropological records .

612
C16w2

Cannon, W. B. Wisdom of the body

(Biology, Commerce, Engineering, Physical Education, Stacks,
Under gr a dua te)

338.1
C547f

Clark, F. L., and Pirle, N. W,

(Agriculture, Stacks)

599.8
C54a

Clark, W. E. LeG.
Antecedents of man .
(Biology, Commerce, Natural History Survey)

Anna 1

the basis of cultural change .

Cults and creeds in Graeco-Roman Egypt .

(Stacks)
.

3CV

Four thousand million mouths

:aoD3

n'^b.-

Ase.-J>

..

.;tf.. b-?!^:.

,on'--.'rbrn7

Jsd1cj:ot1^^S-'''

2.C,

.?

2A

(noil-

wctS

.'a

,fi;^F-?a

.^

5v,.-

r-,,;,-,

,.i-

y.it

I^

b(TP

i-i^O

915
C86a
1951

799.296894
D24W

Cressey, G. B. Asia's lands and people .

(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

Darling, F. F. Wild life in an African territory

(Biology, Veterinary Medicine)

546.2
D29w

Davis, K. S., and Day, J. A. Water, the mirror of science ,

(Engineering, Undergraduate)

575.1
D65b

Dobzhansky, T. Biological basis of human freedom .

(Biology, Education, Journalism)

616
D78s

A systematic treatise, historical, etiological .

Drake, Daniel.
and practical, on the principal diseases of the interior valley
of North America, as they appear in the Caucasian, African .
Indian, and Esquimaux varieties of its population
(Stacks)
.

330.5
ECDE

Economic development and cultural change

(Commerce, City Planning, MAP AND GEOGRAHIY)

616.805
EL

Electroencephalography and clinical neuro-phvsiology .

572.05
FA

(Field Museum of Natural History.

Fieldiana, anthropology .
Publications. Anthropological series XV)
(Stacks)

551

Finch, V. C, et al.
Physical elements of geography.
(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Stacks, Undergraduate)

F49p

(Biology)

1957

910.5
GEOR

Geographical review
(Agriculture, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY; Stacks, v. 1-34 only)

550.6
GE

Geological Society of America.

(Geology)

330.9
G43a

Ginsburg, N. S. Atlas of economic development .

(Agriculture, Commerce, Labor and Industrial Relations,
MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Undergraduate)

915
G43p

Pattern of Asia .
Ginsburg, N. S., ed.
(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Undergraduate)

575.3
H34f
1958

Henderson, L. J. Fitness of the environment

(City Planning)

914

Hoffman, G. W. A geography of Europe, including Asiatic USSR.

(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

H672g

1961

570.5

HU

Human Biology .
(Biology, Agriculture)
xvi

Bulletin.

..V

.if--..

ft
.-

:-.

aJJ JO a3Ll^J-.TBV

'ar^luc,

'

'

.'yria^

jc.orqolsyah

.:.i?o

{...:

;n

-l!nrj.ooa5_

mi/iv

fAM>

c.OCC

-rC'^'J

vtii

,a(:rii-JnJ'ia

liIl*Si^i?Ji2fi.'.
lBi7:J&;:L.o.r ft.-.

.:

-o

jp

-,.001

(9.-JB{>i-,to-iS70fantJ

'

''

,y

.'-

,j:iud-*.n.lO

nu:\'l.nu'i.t-:K)
,'/!/.. .'i;i-JDaO

C.-Ofe
fiEAO

GWii Sf'-l

..

.1

570.5
ILL

Illinois biological monographs

Illinois University.
(Biology, Natural History Survey, Stacks)

612.67
In7b

Biology of ageing
Institute of Biology.
(Biology, Veterinary Medicine)

573.4
In8m

International Symposium on Man's Role in Changing the Face of

Man's role in changing the face of the earth
the Earth.
(City Planning, Engineering, Labor and Industrial Relations,
MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

507

Kansas University Museum of Natural History.

(Biology, Natural History Survey)

K13p

Publications .

K29s

Soils that support us_

Kellogg, C. S.
(Agriculture, City Planning, MAP AND GEOGRAraY, Natural History
Survey)

633
K66e

Ecological crop geography

Klages, K. H. W.
(Agriculture, Biology, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Natural History Survey)

631

Sleep and wakefulness .

612.8217 Kleitman, N.
K67sl
(Biology)

Human brain

612.82
L33h

Lassek, A. M.
(Biology)

330.9
L51c

Lee, D. H. K.
Climate and economic, development in the tropics
(Biology, Commerce, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Veterinary Medicine)

q591.69
L578p

Levine, N. D.
Protozoan parasites of domestic animals and of man .
(Biology, Veterinary Medicine)

392.5
L57s

Levi-Straus, Claude.
(Commerce)

321.8
L668p

Lipset, S. M.
Political man
(Commerce, History, Journalism, Labor and Industrial Relations,
MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Undergraduate)

631

Lyon, T. L., et al.

Nature and properties of soils.
(Agriculture, City Planning, earlier editions in other locations)

L98n
1960

Structures elementaires de la parante .

614.53
M14m

Macdonald, G.
Epidemiology and control of malaria
(Biology, Veterinary Medicine)

614.42
M45e

May,

575.1
M46f

Medawar, P. B.
Future of man
(Biology, Commerce, Undergraduate, Veterinary Medicine)

J. M.
Ecology of human disease
(Physical Education)

xvii

-i.:.i;;isK

,x^rlo^.:.

Ja.1

<>;ii;i.-:'jJ9V

,\{so.io.>'")

dT'iI

\-:.c^.....

Csnisi^ji-

3E9j1'^''

^''''^
.

jR-tuSeK 5o muse:
(v3V7xj3 Y'^Ojf'i-I j.B'iu-J::.V.

:>'VoJ-!l

vin"*

?-.'^--KyI

Vu,=

r r.-.'/

r^;^

,v3ot
.

V^osaill Is:io3.
'..yavT!.''

rc^.

'.-:I"_iI2JiiL_i.

(X3V3u2 yuoaslli

i fiiu;!

,y^

;-i'';

,&3j>ntlu^3>fc^

.fdav'-f

.>o?
;:

i>ari

v:f ,:;

n.'.

-j.

.-rs

-r^j

'.

iJUiiiJ

aWA

bne

^M

fl.

,Si:

j.t.:

>

,8noiJ5i9J{

,l 3s
V iMi*'j.!'Z

iiO

I
-.

A p ff .t J

f f^

-fs.r.

"it'"'

:.*.

,.J .T

,novJ

'r.d

i:.!;

r,.;'

,^;^^H

(.o/rijib",!"

\"iGni".

livx

612.6
N14r

Nalbandov, A. V. Reproductive physiology; comparative reproductive

physiology of domestic animals, laboratory animals and man
(Agriculture, Biology, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Veterinary Medicine)

506

New York Acadeny of Sciences.

NEW

(Biology,

Annals.

Stacks)

Uncat

Nobach, C. R. Heritage of the human brain .

(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

612.82
N66h

Nobach, C. R.
(Biology)

333.7
P369p.

Pioneer settlement in the Asiatic tropics

Pelzer, K. J.
(Agriculture, Commerce, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

612.82
P42h

Pfelffer, J. Human brain

(Biology, Undergraduate)

612.05
PHR

Physiological reviews
(Agriculture, Biology, Chemistry, Home Sconomics)

150.5
PRB

Physchologlcal bulletin.
(Education 1952-/-, Stacks 1904-1951)

330.9
P98e

Putnam, P. C.
Energy in the future
(Engineering, Stacks)

570.5

QU

Quarterly review of biology

(Agriculture 1946 -^
Biology 1951 -f-

338.27
R31e

Resources for the Future. Energy in the American economy. 1850-1975

(Commerce, Geological Survey, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

136.08
R62b

Behavior and Evolution

Roe, A., and Simpson, G. G., eds.
(Biology, Education, Natural History Survey)

566
R66v
1945

Vertebrate paleontology .
Romer, A. S.
(Biology, Geology, Undergraduate)

Uncat

Scholander, P. F. Evolution of climatic adaptation in homeotherms,

(MAP AND GEOGRATriYJ

575.05

Evolution of climatic adaptation in homeotherms

Scholander, P. F.
In Evolution, v. 9.
(Biology, Natural History Survey)

EVO

505
SJ

Heritage of the human brain

Natural History Survey 1951

Stacks 1936-1950)

Science
(Agriculture 1905 -^
Biology 1883-/Chemistry 1940 -^
Engineering 1930-fGeology 1956-/Home Economics 1928^-

"j-

Mathematics 1901-/Natural History Survey 1883

Physics 1952 -^
Reference 1952-^
Stacks 1883-1951 T*
Undergraduate 1952-/Veterlnary Medicine 1895-f)
xvlii

-f-

,"

iv>:tn-.''

^7

..

o. ::;'

eo.sid

Up

^SV^IiC

.:

'

J.

^'

t-

bj

.A

,j./^

i^nr-rerfJo?

0<"! t

'D\;s'j

iiivx

J,--

..

>-

:.i

^13)

,aoa

80
'^--

'

605
SA

Scientific American ,
(Agriculture 1948 +
Biology 1958 +
Engineering 1959 +
Geology July 1959 +
Law 1956 +

Uncat

Protein malnutrition in young children

Scrimshaw, N, S., and Behar, M,
From Science 133: 2039-2047.
(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

561

Plant life through the ages.

Seward, A. C.
(Geology, Stacks)

SeSp

Library School, current

Mathematics 1956 +
Reference Room 1959 +
Stacks 1952 +
Veterinary Medicine 1961 +

384
Shl9m

Shannon, C. E. Mathematical theory of communication

(Education, Engineering, Journalism, Library School, Mathematics,
Music, Physics)

573.6
Sh2m

Shapiro, H. L. Migration and environment

(Biology, Stacks)

575
Si5m
1950

Simpson, G. G.
Meaning of evolution
(Biology, Commerce, Education, Engineering, Home Economics,
Undergraduate)

616.05
SO

Societe de pathologic exotique.

(Veterinary Medicine)

301
Solr

1958

Society for the Psychological

Study of Social Issues.
Readings in social psycholog y.
(Commerce, Education, Journalism)

915
Sp3a

Spencer, J. E.
Asia, east by south
(Agriculture, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

Uncat

Steward, J. H., and Shimkin, D. B.

Some mechanisms of socio From Daedalus. Summer 1961.
cultural evolution
MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

Bulletin

St4t

Steward, J. H. Theory of cultural change

(Commerce, Undergraduate)

591.33
Su8a

Sussman, Maurice.
Animal growth and developmen t.
(Biology, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Physical Education, Undergraduate)

612.65
T15g

Tanner, J. M. Growth at adolescence

(Biology, Education, Physical Education)

575.04
T19e

Tax,

301

S.,

ed.

Evolution after Darwin

(Biology, Commerce, Geology, Natural History Survey)

xix

>.

t,

'

.-

i-

See; viuL
4.

TfttblHD n^niov

.-n'-MTlunism

ni.

bnc

nl3:Jo-2''

\-goIc';ri
t)?'?;!

,.'

vnvi

.v;' ;!r-

.'-l

:.:\fa3

(v:

.V7-.J

,"ri.Hp":?rf:,*i;l3

..frr-

eve
rr

.9npi3j;{9 0i3Olofj3pq ah D3si3o8

X!.^2i'iJji3.

fiousal

l.i:c.o2

^q ybuja

.r.i3i.jolori07;B"J sriS

i.r^pE
(rsf^.l,

-o^^?^

.n.t

iDub2

.;

?t;

I'fiS.

hmv

ftjl

.,11.

.1

IOC

v;191do3

6-:.'..

J.

,,

,r..:rBWij:tS

.^ J".

gO.^Jd

p.'

,0::.^.

-^

^BonU

(':

i-;;-;

j^asiii

(ttjBubc:ig.f<jf.f:y

,no

(fIO.LlF.Jt

,v.i?cfr^ia)

XPJ.
(xvgvttuci!

Yt.'>"!?.Jr!:

1571

,vr;,oIoJiC"

a:

iSO

^"-^

614.49
T21p

Taylor, I., and Knowelden, J.

(Veterinary Medicine)

577.3
T37o
1942

On e;rowth and form

Thompson, D'A. W.
(Agriculture, Biology, Physics)

Prtnclples of epidemiology

630.9624 Tothill, J. D. Agriculture in the Sudan .

T64a
(Agriculture, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)
616.9605 Tropical diseases bulletin .
TR
(Biology)
338.105
TRO

Tropical science .
(Agriculture)

338.1
Un3962f

United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization,

Food and people, a UNESCO project, v. 6. Food, soil, and people
(Agriculture, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

572
Un3b

U.S. Bureau of American Ethnology.

(Stacks)

630
Un3mi
no. 705

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Miscellaneous publication.
Graphic summary of world agriculture
(Agriculture, Natural History Survey, Stacks)

630
Un3al
1957

soils .
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Yearbook of agriculture
(Agriculture, Biology, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY, Stacks)

333.7
Un395r

U.S. President's Materials Policy Commission. Resources for freedom .

(City Planning, Commerce, Engineering, Natural History Survey,
Stacks)

Uncat

Washburn, S. L. Tools and human evolution .

Scientific American, v. 203.
(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

612.01
W67b

Williams, R. J. Biochemical individuality; the basis for genetotropic

concept
(Agriculture, Biology, Chemistry, Physical Education, Veterinary
Medicine)

Uncat

Williams, R. J. Chemical anthropology

Scientist,
v. 46.
(MAP AND GEOGRAHIY)

633
W688c

Wllsie, C. P.
Crop adaptation and distribution.
(Agriculture, MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

Bulletin

No. 705.

1957

From

XX

an open door .

From American

"

(V;.

.0^

,ov;

,..'

.jfioijBOii'Juq auoansflsJoaxH

j!

)..-'>

\y.o-.^i\'l

Qtl.''.

iiJ;!

,SJi;jiviDJ.-X3A>

.aiijliwai^sA

..,,r-i..

.2.11

.cJqnri

c'-f

,srii7990igr:3

'>

i.

,a?i3r.:.Tt;oO

T29CnU

^gninnRl*! virDt

-.'I

C"

'

.on

l<f

.It;i.cij.*v)

lf--i\j-irM

-io

si^":.

Yf;'Viti2

X)2C-

M]

614.05
INT

Bulletin
World Health Organization.
(Biology, Veterinary Medicine)

614.06
WOR

World Health Organization.

614

World Health Organization.

(Veterinary Medicine)

W89in

Chronicle .

(Stacks)

Monographic series .

No. 8.

Uncat

Mar. -Apr. 1960;

World Health Organization. World Health
Special issue, 1960; Sep. -Oct. 1961; Extra issue. 1962)
(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

614.05
WIl

World Health Organization, World Health

(Stacks, bound vols.; Undergraduate, current Issues only)

312
W94p

Wrong, D. H,
Population and Society
(MAP AND GEOGRAPHY)

1961

616.91
Z66r

Zinsser, H.
Rats, lice and history
(Agriculture, Biology, Stacks, Undergraduate)

301

Zipf, G. K. Human behavior and the principle of least effort

(Engineering, German and Romance Language, Journalism, Labor
and Industrial Relations, Stacks)

Z67h

xxi

U'-r-

2C

.r.

,VoloiF)
M)

sni^jsjoV)
2 norf

{SMi

.Oi-'sai

f.-.-.;fxE(

'j

IdvT

.lDO-,r^
.:ui^

1 bI:ioW
:.-n:3

,u.;t.-:_-

'

.".i

,gnoiW

.rtio;

r-!^T;^.

;I

Uta

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECO1.OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)
Lecture

1.

The Nature

of

Human Ecology

Human ecology seeks

(Shimkin)

common elements,

organizational
systems, and processes in the vast array of human behavior. Such
generalizations, if validly achieved, provide bases for interpretations,
classifications and predictions of human activities that are both intellectually
elegant and pragmatically needed.
to identify

The focus of human ecology, like that of ecology generally, is the

interacting population in a specific framework of time, space and habitat.
The essence of ecological analysis is the measurement and interpretation
of physical transactions within the population, and between the population and
Guiding concepts in such interpreits physical and biological environment.
tations are those of physiological requirements, of differences in state between
external and internal environments, and of self-regulatory mechanisms. In
the study of societies and communities, physical locations, positions in transactional sequences, and relative biomasses define functions (ecological niches),
roles and developmental trends (serai stages). These universal features
provide analytical bases for the further typology and interpretation of group
and individual behavior.
1.

in

Basic hypotheses

Human ecology, as developed in this course, assumes that regularities

human behavior can be derived from a limited number of general constraints

or boundaries and central tendencies, including the following:

a.
Man's definable, relatively precise, physiological requirements
which can further be restated in terms of physico-chemical tolerances,
exchanges and balances.

Man's fixed life sequence,, which permits the continuity of man

only through the social acts of reproduction and the care of helpless
young. It also yields sharply different consequences for given physicochemical and perceptive experiences at varying stages of development
and senescence. These provide foundations for role differentiation and
cooperation.
b.

To an

exceptional degree, man's inherited response system is

modifiable by learning. The capacity to communicate objective as
well as expressive information renders learning cumulative, and
underlies a new dimension of adaptation: c'ulture.
c.

1.

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Lecture

1.

d.

Cultural evolution, in

to the

development

common

with biological evolution, has led

of diversity, specialization and

complex inter-

relationships. But the basic mechanisms of cultural evolution-innovation, pattern formation, diffusion, and integration- -have been
radically different from the ramification, dispersal and competitive
selection characteristic of biological evolution.

Man's adaptive capacity has been vastly extended by the use of

tools, materials and energy, by plant and animal domestication, and
by food preparation. In consequence, man occupies alternative
ecological niches, which have permitted his enormous dispersal and
e.

population growth.

Culture has also created artificial environments, notably the

cultivated field and the city, and exercised other selective effects
profoundly influencing biological evolution among almost all species.
f.

Similarly, culture has increasingly inhibited and transformed

g.
into symbolic form major aspects of human motivations and behavior.

Such symbolization has had a dual ecological role: self-regulation,

e.g. in sexual behavior; and self-stimulation, e.g. in art, religion
and war.
,

Analysis of the multi-stage relationships between man and his

physical environment, via culture and society, represents a basic
aspect in the rational solution of many human problems in health
population management, land utilization and resource development.

h.

2.

Corollaries

The constraints detailed above are believed to be applicable to

all human societies. The ecological features primarily differentiating
cultures and subcultures from each other seem to be (1) the nature
of the dominant productive processes, e.g. animal-powered agriculture;
(2) the spatial organization of the population with associated movements
and exchanges; (3) the codes governing status, authority, and means of
a.

conflict resolution; and (4) the nature, magnitude and durability of

goods and services generated beyond the current consumption levels.

These differential classifications reflect

the end-effects of particular

historical events in particular environments.

The essence of ecological analysis is an explicit demonstratkti of

physical interdependencies via circular transactions, e.g. nitrogen
exchanges in food chains or cycles of economic exchanges. The
coefficient of exchange, i.e. values received in relation to those
expended, represent differential costs in a biological or social
community and are basic indices of dominance.
b.

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Lecture

1.

3.

Data and methods

Human ecology has emerged from the anecdotal stage, has accumulated
important bodies of case materials, and has begun rigorous quantification,
particularly in biometeorology. At present, the three main areas of needed
development are the rigorous limitation of ecology to unequivocally identified
elements and interrelationships; the analysis of considerable bodies of extant
data from the standpoint of precise mathematical models, e.g. Poisson
distributions, Markov chains, etc.; and the development of measures, statistics and analyzed data to bring out, comprehensively and reliably, the
parameters of various elements of human ecology, e.g. the comparative labor
utilization patterns of various peasant agricultures. A critical approach is
essential, for even classical concepts such as floral associations may
actually represent subjective interpretations of random coincidences
(Mcintosh, 1958).
,

4.

Applications

Epidemiology, a discipline based on identifying disease chains, is the

most developed area of applied ecology. Today, it faces increasingly complex
problems in viral diseases, cancer and behavioral disorders, while those
problems of nutrition which depend on changing economic patterns and food
habits remain difficult.
Agriculture presents multiple problems, particularly in connection
with the cumulative effects of land abuse, and the hazards of narrowing
sources of plant and animal selection. In tropical agriculture the questions
of new domestications of plants and animals as sources of protein, and of the
maximum utilization for usable product of the immense output of solar energy
are particularly acute.

The maximization

of amenities, the minimization of travel-times and

of traffic hazards, the elimination of air and water pollution, and the maximi-

zation of the efficiency of labor and capital encompass the major ecological
aspects of regional planning in industrialized societies. In non-industrial
societies, the greatest area of ecological application is in the minimization
of conflicts between emerging socio-economic forms and the conservation of
resources, human and natural, needed for sustained growth.
5.

Sources.

The basic reference data comprise a carefully selected set of sources

covering the major areas of general and human ecological research. Bates
(1961) and Theodorson (1961) are useful summaries; Blum (1955),
von Bertalanffy (1960), and von Neumann (1958) present physico- mathematical
foundations, including the mechanisms of self-reguiation; Huxley (1953),
Dobzhansky (1955), and Kendeigh (1961) yield essential knowledge on evolution,
genetics, and animal ecology. For human ecology directly, the basic sources

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Lecture

1.

are Kroeber (1939) and Driver and Massey (1957) on preliterate cultures;
Singer (1954-58) on the material culture of the V> estern world; and Thompson
(1959), Kiser and Boudreau (I960), and Freedman et al (1960) on major
demographic problems.
.

Much

else can be cited. In the periodical literature, outstanding

(1949) comparison of culture growth in the Old and
New World; Livingstone's (1958) remarkable analysis of the cultural foundations
of malarial infection, and sickle-cell epidemiology in West Africa; and
Gregor's (1959) insightful study of competition between agricultural and
urban land use in California. Thus this course serves only as an introduction
to a vast field of research and application.

works include Steward's

Required Reading
Bates, M.

Man

in

Nature, pp. 1-11, 59-79.

Other references

1329-1339,1959.

1.

Gregor, H.F.: "Push

2.

Livingstone, F.B.
"Anthropological implications of sickle-cell gene
distribution in West Africa," American Anthropologis t 60: 533-562, 1958.

3.

Mcintosh, R. P.

4.

Steward, J.H.: "Cultural causality and law. A trial formulation of the

development of early civilizations," American Anthropologist 51: 1-27,

to the

desert,"

Science 129:

1949.

"Plant communities,"

Science 128:

xl5-120, 1958.

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.,

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Vetinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture

2.

The Earth's Environment as a Physico-chemical System

(Shimkin)

The essence of science is the integration of particular, seemingly

unique, observations into homogeneous general systems of classification,
process and prediction. This integrate involves the discovery of common
properties and of isomorphism in structures, so that appropriate translations of terms and transformations of relations can generate identities.
Valid integrations simplify the interpretation of observed phenomena, are
insensitive to minor changes in models and measures, and are likely to
uncover attributes hidden to naive views. But integration is always incomplete,
because the immense variety of properties of most phenomena eludes description let alone measurement. Furthermore, since all real observations of
events and relations are probabilistic rather than categorical, complex and
multi-stage systems can be reliable reconstructed from simple, precise
measurements. Disaggregation, the discernment of relevant classes, the
identification of index measures, scaling, model construction and testing
comprise the cycle of analytical approximation, which must be reiterated
until satisfactory consistency and comprehensiveness are gained.
Analytical undertakings are still rare in human ecology. Zipf's (1949)
studies comprise an insightful but methodologically inadequate attempt to test
human behavior as a system of minimizing anticipated effort; Putnam's (1953)
work is a broad, comparative evaluation of energy use in comtemporary and
future economies, but is vitiated by many factual errors. The Paley
Commission's (1952) report is broad and sophisticated, but limited to the
materials utilization patterns of the United States alone. Nevertheless,
smaller studies and work in plant and animal ecology indicate clearly that
human ecology can be usefully systematized in terms of physico-chemical

measures.
This systematization applies most strongly to synchronous or shortin which components such as the genetic capacities of the biota,
and the cumulative effects of long-term geological processes are accepted as
invariants. Moreover, the synchronous parameters and forces can usefully be
divided into world constants and variables of the natural and cultural terrestrial
environment. The former include such factors as the strength of gravity on
the earth's surface, and the presence of a high-altitude ozone barrier limiting
the penetration of ultra-violet rays. These have profound consequences, e.g.
in retaining liquid-phase water and gas-phase oxygen at the earth's surface,
in setting limits to bone-skeleton terrestrial sizes, in reducing mutation rates
and the velocities of chemical reactions, etc. They set universal patterns.

term analyses,

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Lecture

These generalizations are central from

the standpoint of unifying

ecology, including human ecology, and relating it to other observed phenomena.

This unity develops from the facts that: (1) man, as a living organism, shows
properties comparable with all other forms of life; and (2) man's cultural
products, including his social organization, comprise systems the geometry
of which and the transactions accomplished by which can be equated with those
of other living and even inorganic systems. These comparisons, while in no
sense defining culture or yielding an organismic view to culture, are nevertheless fruitful.

Let us examine the physico-chemical aspects of human ecology from the

standpoint of man as an organism. His relations must be considered from two
aspects, evolution and synchronous or short-term processes. The first is
not readily amenable to direct physico-chemical analysis, except in very
general terms, e.g. that it is a reflection of astronomical disequilibria; that
it is made possible by the high degree of energy absorption of the aqueous
system of the earth's surface; and that it represents a reduction in the entropy
of the earth's surface- - i.e the development of organization and heterogeneitythrough the mechanism of a peculiar, highly active, self-regulating, catalytic
system: life.
.

On

the

short-term or eychronous level, the possibilities of analyses

These analyses may be divided into two broad classes:.

are greatly increased.

1.

Phenomena which are world constants. One

of the

most fundamental

(a) This permits the presence

temperatures, e.g. liquid water between
0 and lOO^C at the earth's surface, gaseous nitrogen and oxygen, etc.
(b)
Another consequence is the set of structural and physical effects resulting
from the interrelationships of (1) the strength of organic materials, (2) the
partial pressure of gases in terrestrial environments.

is the

strength of the earth's gravitational field,

of specific phase states at particular

Another world-wide constant is the relative coolness and limited

radiational excitation of the earth's surface. This permits (a) low temperature
processes of energy and unit transfer, (b) build-up and transferance of thermodynamically unstable giant molecules and (c) low efficiency of work capacity
of organic matter.
2.

The variable phenomena constitute four types

of relations:

Geographical location: Climatic variables and many

derived phenomena such as vegetation and soils (Senstius, 1958) can
be predicted from latitude, altitude and continentality. The last factor
is governed by the rotation of the earth and the relations of land and
water masses, but can be directly expressed by the relative frequency
of continental and marine air masses in the locality.
(a)

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Lecture

Space and time configurations. The analysis of the distributions

environmental factors, resources, populations and activities in time
and space constitutes the fundamental method of translating observations
into mathematical functions which then lead to the empirical search for
the predicted factors and relations. For example, a linear function
indicates the presence of two constants and one operational variable.
The most fundamental theoretical distinction between distributions is
that between random and non-random types. Among non-random
distributions, linear and non- linear continuous functions, and generation
functions (lattices, trees, etc.) are basic types. Other measures of
distributions: central tendencies, skewness, and the like yield further
interpretations. Finally, the relations between distributions, e.g. the
transition probabilities of points in successive measures, provide
dynamic meas'-res. Overall, the power and flexibility of configuratLonal
analyses can be enhanced by use of alternative coordinate systems
(orthogonal, polar, cylindrical), and scales (arithmetical, logarithmic,
exponential). The significance of formal "analogies" in the discovery
of properties has been amply shown by the fruitfulness of information
theory as an outgrowth of distributional comparisons with the statistics
of entropy (Shannon and Weaver, 1949),
(b)

of

The complexity of temporal concepts, particularly as applied to ecology,

needs emphasis: not only duration but sequences and periodicity (e.g. in
growth and photosynthesis in plants), not only geophysical but biological time
scales are in question. See Strehler and Mildvan (1960).
Energy.
Energy studies provide the basis for hierarchical
ordering in ecology. In man, the control of exogenous energy through
machines has multiplied available energy. Analyses of the energy
(c)

cycle including levels of efficiency of use, storage, reversibility, etc.

yield measures of effectiveness, interdependence, stability and adaptive
potentiality which are directly comparable throughout the entire range
of ecology.

Water, nitrogen, phosphorus and iron. Life is an

aqueous phenomenon, and agriculture and modern industry, too,
utilize far more water than any other substance. Davis and Day (1961)
give a fine survey of this phenomenon. Among other materials in the
(d)

Materials.

biochemical cycle, nitrogen as the building-block of protoplasm, and

phosphorus as the carrier of organic energy are particularly crucial.
Note the importance of organisms as geological mechanisms for the'
transport of these materials (Redfield, 1958). Iron by far the most
important metal of industry, indicates the scope of both current and
past generating activities (investment).

Required Reading

Blum, H.F.: Time's Arrow and Evolution,

pp. 60-86.

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Lecture 2

ether references
Barthwick, H.A. and S.B. Hendricks: "Photoperiodism in plants," Science
132: 1223-1228, 1960.

The Mirror of Science

Davis, K. S. and J. A. Day: VI' ate
Science Study Series, No. 18, 1961, pp. 196.
.

Paley,

W.

S. et al.(The President's

for

Freedom

5 vols.

Putnam, P.: Energy

in the

N.Y. Doubleday.

Materials Policy Commission): Resources

Washington (U.S. Govt. Printing Office), 1952.

Future

N.Y.

Van Nostrand, 1953.

"The biological control of chemical factors in the

environment," American Scientist 46: 205-221, 1958.

Redfield, A.C.

Senstius,

M.W.: "Climax forms

of rock weathering,"

American

vri'.

nt

Scientist 46:

355-367, 1958.

The Mathematical Theory of Communication.

Shannon, C. E. and
V. eaver:
Urbana. University of Illinois Press, 1949.
.

Strehler, B. L. and A. S. Mildvan:

Science 132: 14-21, 1960.

Warburg. O.

"Photosynthesis,"

"General Theory of Mortality and Aging,"

Science 128:

68-73, 1958.

Human Behavior and the Principle

Addison-Wesley, 1949.

Zipf, G. K.:

of

Least Effort

Cambridge,

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOi.OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)
Lecture

3.

The Evolution

of Terrestrial

Environments (Shimkin).

Terrestrial life is a phenomenon possible only under highly specialized

physico-chemical conditions. The environmental requirements essential, let
alone optimal, for individual species are even more restricted. In consequence,
environmental variations have greatly intensified the effects of mutation as an
evolutionary force by reiterated disturbances in selective advantages and
population equilibria.

These variations are basically controlled by geological events,

especially cycles of continental uplift or subsidence. Continental drifts in
relation to the earth's axis of rotation may also be involved (Ewing and Donn,
1956 and 1958). Astronomical causes, especially cycles of solar activity,
have also been proposed. Geological events lead to climatic changes, especially greater or lesser variations in temperature, precipitation and evaporation; moreover, altitudinal changes directly affect mutation rates by
intensifying or minimizing variations in cosmic and ultra-violet radiation upon
biota. Climate dominates soil development, and exercises major controls
upon selection in plants, hence in the dependent food chains. Among the
secondary agents of ecological change, man, his symbiotes and his parasites
have been especially prominent.
Paleontologically, developments since the Cretaceous period have the
greatest relevance for understanding the development of present-day biota. By
that time, marine biology had largely modernized (Ladd, 1959), while on land
both early flowering plants and placental mammals had appeared. Equable
climates reflected general continental peneplanation, while isthmian and
insular stepping stones were numerous. In consequence, cosmopolitan
dispersions of flowering plants and early mammals were the predominant
evolutionary process from the Cretaceous until the early Eocene (Axelrod,
1959; Simpson, 1947). The presence of the breadfruit tree (Artocarpus) in
Greenland, and of palms (Palmae) in the Dakotas is illustrative (Seward, 1931,
pp. 378-414).

The Oligocene was a period of more limited migration; flows persisted

especially between Asia and North America. It was also the beginning of basic
changes continuing to the present. These included concurrent mountain building
(especially the Alpine -Caucasian-Himalayan system) and marine subsidence
(Bering Strait). General cooling, latitudinal temperature zonation and, above
all, continental steppes and deserts developed. Associated with drying was an
increasing shift in flora from woody to herbaceous; even in England, the
9

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Lecture 3

10

proportion of woody species fell from 97 per cent in the Eocene to 57 per cent
in the Oligocene. By the Pliocene period it had reached 22 per cent (Dorf,1960i.
This change meant that more rapidly replenished grasses, with seeds and
flowers containing highly concentrated fats, proteins and polysaccharides
(Bonner, 1950, esp. pp. 245-279, 352-381), displaced leafy browse for
primary herbivore subsistence. Better nutrition undoubtedly accelerated the
transition from archaic herbivores and predators, to better-muscled largerbrained modern types. Field rodents developed in symbiosis with grasses.
The development of the most specialized ruminants, the deer, antelopes,
cattle and their allies (Pecora) began in the Oligocene and reached its climax
in the Pliocene (Romer, 1958, pp. 442-474).
Since the Pliocene, world climates have been characterized by
relatively low temperatures, with cyclical changes between rather moist
episodes of polar glaciation and subtropical storminess, and periods of subarctic storminess and subtropical drought. Intense stresses and physical
barriers to migration drastically reduced biotal species in the great Holarctic
region from Western Europe through Siberia to the United States --which in its
entirety has far fewer life forms than India alone (Dobzhansky, 1950). Local
refuges, especially mountainous areas such as Mongolia, and north-south
channels, such as the Mississippi, provided the basis of restocking by adaptable, highly mobile, quickly breeding animals. Plants have recovered slowly,
especially since the development of extensive and deep permafrost. This took
place probably in the later Wlirm-Wisconsin period when reindeer and Arctic
foxes replaced wooly rhinoceri, mammoths and horses as subarctic species.

Man has developed and dispersed

recent world of isolated, varied

biota in the Afro-Asian tropics, in Australia, and in South America; of
moderate diversity in temperate Europe, the Far East, and Pacific and
eastern America; of monotonous poverty in the deserts, grasslands, dark
in a

forests and tundras of the Holarctic core. Through fire, deforestation and
cultivation; through direct extermination or through the activities of his
symbiotes and parasites, man has accelerated species loss through the world.
Domestication has modified a few species; some, such as maize, have become
totally dependent upon man for their survival. The dispersal and development
of domesticates have also induced major changes in other biota, e.g plant
rusts (Johnson, 1961).
.

Because agriculture and the domestication of animals developed

independently in a considerable number of localities in the Old and New "Worlds,
and initially involved many species, the widening of cultural exchanges has
promoted biotal transfers not otherwise possible in the present world
environment. For man, the combination of Eurasian and American resourceswheat, corn, potato, cattle, chickens, etc. --permitted vast world wide
increases of population. Yet the displacement of domesticates as well as wild
plants and animals is widely evidenced by cultivated exotics in refuge areas
such as Ethiopia and the Andes, by historical records and by archeology.
Moreover, as Dobzhansky (1950) has noted, northern biota are more characterized by plasticity than by ecological maximization. In particular, dry-land

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Lecture

crops, such as wheat have replaced natural rain forests, as in India,

only as inefficient, wet-season producers, using only a fraction of the available
heat, minerals and moisture.
field

Today, man's survival depends upon a handful of species, habituated

to the artificialities of domestication, and narrowed in response by selection
for maximum yield rather than plasticity. The effective development of as yet
forbidding habitats and capacity to adapt to environmental changes which are
certain to come may not be easy. Environmental control (as by irrigation
and perhaps limited weather modification), induced mutations in domesticated
species, and chemistry can do much. Yet better use of native biota, e.g the
domestication of the well-adapted, highly productive game animals of Africa
{Darling, 1960), deserves serious attention, especially in the tropics and in
deserts. In general, the maximum preservation of varied germ plasms in
refuge areas, or wildlife conservation, is not mere sentimentality but simple
insurance against the unknown demands of future environmental evolution.
.

Required reading

Animal Ecology

pp. 280-292.
or
Dorf, E. "Climatic changes in the past and present," American Scientist
48: 341-364, 1960
and
Dobzhansky, T., "Evolution in the tropics," American Scientist 38: 209-221,

Kendeigh, S. C.

1950.

Other references
Axelrod, D.

I.

"Poleward migration of early Angiosperm flora," Science

130: 203-207, 1959.

Bonner, J., Plant Biochemistry

New York: Academic Press,

1950, pp. 537.

Darling, F. Fraser, "Wild Life Husbandry in Africa," Scientific Anne rican

November, 1960, pp. 123-135.
Ewing, M. andW. L. Donn, "A theory of ice ages," Science 123:1061-1066,
1956 and 127: 1159-1162, 1958.
Johnson, T., "Man-guided evolution in plant rusts," Science 133: 357-361,1961.

Ladd, H. S., "Ecology, paleontology and stratigraphy," Science 128: 69-78, 195

Romer, A.S., Vertebrate Paleontology

2ded., 8th printing.

Chicago Press, 1958. pp. 687.

Seward, A. C. Plant Life through the Ages.

Chicago: Univ.

of

New York: Macmillan,

1931.

Simpson, G.G., "Holarctic Mammalian Faunas and Continental Relationships

during the Cenozoic," Bull, of the Geological Soc. of Amer
58:613.

688, 1947.

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INTRCDUCTICN TC HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Contemporary Environments (Biomes)

Lecture 4.

Thus

far

we have considered three general

The analytical assumptions

(Shimkin).

topics:

human ecology

as a partial but
systematic approach to defining elements of the biological and behavioral
characteristics of man.
1.

of

The statement and partial development of the role of major

2.
physico-chemical phenomena in the determination of the nature of terrestrial
life, e.g. (a) geophysical phenomena, (b) geometrical relations, and (c) flows
of energy and materials.

An introduction into the understanding of adaptation as a directional

3.
process, in which two phases must be discriminated: (a) The environment in
which man entered as the end result of an evolutionary process dominated by
the effects of dessication and cooling
upon the late Mesozoic biota, (b) Man's
effects in the past, especially in accelerating species loss, and his capacities
for modifying and his dependences upon other forms of life.

Now we

more detailed assessment of the particular means in

which physico-chemical phenomena exercise differential effects upon life forms
shift to a

and result in basically different capacities in the great regions or biomes

These discussions are a first-step in problems to be analyzed
further by Professors Kendeigh, Russell and Booth.

of the world.

Three general points are emphasized:

1.
Plants have the most complete biological adjustment to the
environment, including climate, geology, tope- and hydrography. In contrast
to animals, their adjustments involve fundamental adaptations of the cellular
as well as the organic and behavioral levels.

Plants also determine the capacity of animals to use the environment

through food chain and through the development of micro-habitats and microclimates. Thus biomes are basically characterized by natural vegetation.

Among

terrestrial animals, the fundamental determinants are

capacity for access through media for movement, food and refuge for rest
and reproduction. Animals can and do invade areas of high stress, e.g the
tundra and high altitudes for periodic use if these fundamental conditions are
met. Thus, a basic feature of animal relation to biomes is inter-zonal use,
optimizing physiological and behavioral :o.dsptation.
12
2.

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13

Lecture 4

Man shares

3.

by a number
alterations;
and deficits;

competative

these features with other animals, but is distinguished

of added features --(a) capacity for both micro- end macro habitat
(b) capacity for exchange through adjustments of local surpluses
(c) capacity for inhibitation and symbolization which reduce
processes and develop new objects.

relations to biomes have thus become more generalized. The

crucial features are those of specialized surpluses, contact, and exchanges,
i.e. relation to the broader human society. Concentrated resources, e.g.
agriculture and mining, are especially worked. But human beings still reflect
the underlying constraints even in industrialized societies, i.e. , the constraints
of availability of food and climatic stress. Thus the major habitat areas are
deciduous forests (China, Western Europe, and U.S.), chaparral (Mediterranean) and grasslands. Limited entry can be seen in the desert, boreal
In

man

forest, and arctic regions.

environments, the most comprehensive yet sensitive

bases of ecological classification are determined by the characteristic forms
of native vegetation, as exhibited both in relatively stable climaxes and in
serial associations. Plant root development, size, density and temporal
patterns of activity reflect the effects of climatic variables--sunlight, temperature, wind and water balance; of physiography; and of faunal activity. Overall,
the world's terrestrial environments can be grouped into nine basic biomes:
tropical, temperate deciduous, and coniferous forests; chaparral; tropical
savanna, grasslands, deserts; alpine; and arctic. In continuity of biological
activity and in the gross annual output of biological mass, these biomes range
from tropical forest to arctic, in descending scale. However, natural and
artificial grasslands, i.e field crops, produce a maximum of concentrated
In terrestrial

food for

mammals.

(Kendeigh, 1961, esp. pp. 276-350).

The habitats of birds and mammals are determined primarily by food

habits, the means of acquiring moisture, and by patterns of rest, reproduction
and care of the young. Social factors such as territoriality and group migratbn
are also important in population dynamics (Errington, 1956). Cover and
protection from predation are significant. Adaptations to physiological stresses,
especially temperature and moisture control, vary in type: morphological
selection, as expressed by Bergmann's, Allen's and Rensch's rules; behavior
in action at maximum stress, via hibernation or estivation; micro-habitat
selection or development to escape stress; and migration. Although some
generalities are evident, e.g. the predominance of morphological adaptation
in ruminants, of micro -habitat development via burrows and food storage among
rodents, and of migration among birds, the response patterns to stress are
highly varied. Thus, among North American weasels, the ermine ( Mustela
erminea ) increases regularly in size from least in tropical to largest in windy
arctic localities, in accord with Bergmann's rule. However, Mustela rixosa,
the least weasel, lives in the high Arctic, as a predator on lemmings within
the snow micro-habitat. And the long-tailed weasel, Mustela penata, which
ranges from British Columbia to Bolivia, reaches its greatest sizes in the
tropics (Hallj 1^51). Finally, although a few mammals and birds have

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Lecture 4

14

obligatory habitats and restricted ranges, the utilization of varied habitats

for procuring food, for nesting and other needs appears more widespread.
In general, environmental use by mammals and birds involves a web of
cyclical movement between primary and secondary foci of activity.

Man's relations to biomes or natural environments must be viewed

from two general aspects: responses and alterations. Man's responses
have included definite morphological adaptations on the levels of both gross
and micro-structures. The importance of intense solar radiation in the
presence of nudity, and of malaria, as selective factors favoring dark pigmentation and the sickle-cell gene, respectively, seem clearcut. Other relations
are very complex. Thus, body size and limb length among American Indian
populations correspond excellently to Bergmann's and Allen's rules (Newman,
1953); however, the same relations do not hold in Asia. Examination of the
matter shows better reflections of cold and heat stresses among prehistoric
than among contemporary Asiatic populations. In general, later migrations
and the genetic stability of rather large interbreeding populations among
Asiatic farmers and pastoralists have offset local environmental selection.
Conversely, the dwarfing effects and osteological changes of dietary inadequacies on entire human populations have been excellently shown by studies
of changes in size and structure among Japanese, Jewish and Italian
immigrants to the United States. (Shapiro, 1939).

Behavioral adaptations in man are also varied. Similar cold stress

conditions in Tierra del Fuego and the Aleutians had entirely different
correlates in clothing and housing. The exploitation of the tropical forests
by Burmese and by Amazonian Indians has also been incomparable. Nevertheless, major environmental factors are never eliminated by man; the
adaptations may be submerged yet influential. For example, in maximum
use of tropical-forest biomes in agriculture, as by the Chinese, and in the
maximum use of temperate deciduous forests, as by the Danes, a basic
difference in annual cycles persists. There is continuous activity, with two
to three harvests per year, in one case, and periodic activity, with one harvest,
in the other; the productivities per acre-year and the distribution of human
efforts are correspondingly different. Even in urbanized societies the
reflections of biomes are manifold. In the United States, the patterns of
population distribution are markedly different in the deciduous forest, grasslands, and complex chaparral-desert -grassland-forest biomes of the Vi est.
The effects of waterways, topographical barriers and random location in
undifferentiated plains are discernible as forces of different strength in each.

Human

alterations of natural environments have been most pervasive

temperate deciduous and grasslands biomes, in which most of the

world's population lives. These alterations may be expressed in terms of
four processes: physical destruction and reconstruction, pollution, biological
depletion, and biological reconstruction. Fire has been man's oldest means
of environmental alteration; increased grazing for game and land clearance,
accompanied by ash fertilization, for agriculture have been major objectives.
in the

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'

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Lecture 4

15

Coniferous forest and chaparral are especially vulnerable to fire. Intense

grazing and browsing exercise selective controls on vegetation, and also
open the way for irreversible erosion, especially on slopes, and in humid
areas underlain by limestones (Pyrenees, Yucatan). These are the most
extensive effects associated with man. Cultivation is generally localized;
it covers some 70 to 80 per cent of prime producing areas such as the Black
Earth belt of European USSR and the U.S. corn belt, perhaps a third of the
world's natural temperate deciduous forest and grassland areas, and much
smaller fractions of other biomes. Industrial, transport and urban developments drastically change environments; Doerr and Guernsey's (1956) analysis
of the physiographic impacts of strip coal mining is Illustrative. However,
except for the pollution of water habitats, these effects are usually localized.
Urbanization, in fact, is associated with population concentration, withdrawals from cultivation, and the redevelopment of empty areas (Klimm, 1954).
Stabilized urban and agricultural associations, as in Western Europe, are, in
fact, associated with artificially developed soils, plantings, and animal life of
considerable density.

Every natural biome, even in its altered variants, has characteristic

patterns and processes. These may be illustrated by some basic contrasts
between the tropical forest and arctic biomes. The tropical forest reflects
uniform temperatures, rarely below 10C or above 40 C; humidity is high,
and rainfall considerable even in dry seasons. Chemical and biological
activities are intense; leaching, water-logging, and shade constitute limiting
factors. For plants, rot and insect are major threats, so poisons, gums and
other protective mechanisms have high selective value, as does height. Food
shortages limit animal life, and favor dependence upon specialized, reliable
sources; hence, a multiplication of niches. Conversely, the stability of the
environment gives little value to food storage.

biome, on the other hand, the intense seasonality of life

is most striking; at latitude 70*^N, about 85 per cent of the year's sunlight
comes between April and September. Temperature differences, from maxima
of about 15C to minima of -55C are intensified by severe wind action, which
limits plant life to low- lying forms and sheltered areas. Precipitation is low,
and water availability also limited by permafrost. Chemical activities are
minimal, and mechanical weathering, especially through frost, most active.
Limits on root development inhibit higher plants; mosses, lichens and their
allies form climaxes. (Folunin, 1955). Food, especially berries, preserved
over the winter constitutes a major supply for early migrant water birds, and
for reindeer. Competition with insects inhibits mammalian use of the tundra
in summer; while winter winds restrict life largely to the snow micro-climate.
In the arctic

Required Reading
Kendeigh, Animal Ecology, pp. 293-300, 324-331, 340-350.

h 01il.709J

f^i

ssngjnl

sldsionlxjv '^.lir/ysqes O'la leTiBqerio bnr, Jao-iol auoTolinoD

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f?dJ lo bijiii .s Hqiifhsq JloU n-ioo- ,?, .U srJi bns ?i28ij nBoqoiu?! lo Had dhs'S
doum bne ,a,S9JB bnxilaa.sfrj brm Hs-iqI suouhioob sisiaqrasj iBiijJfin a'b^^ow
-I'plsvob nfid'Ui bna 1icxian^'ii. ti^i-iiaubnl .asmoid iiariJo 'iQ ?.^ojJoB^l igilisma
,9'iij oJ

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16

Lecture 4

Other references

Dobzhansky, Theodosius: "Evolution

38:

in the

tropics,"

American

Scientist:

209-221, 1950.

Doerr, Arthur and Guernsey, Lee: "Man as a geomorphological agent: the

example of coal mining," Annals of the Association of American
Geographers: 46: 197-210, June 1956.
"Factors limiting higher vertebrate populations,"
Errington, P. L.
Science 124: 304-307, 1956.
:

Hall, E. R.:
4:

American

V.

easels.

Univ. of Kansas Publ. Mus. of Natl. Hist.

1-466,1951.

Klimm, Lester E. "The empty areas of the northeastern United

The Geographical Review 325-345, July 1954.
:

States,"

Newman, M.T.
of the

"The application of ecological rules to the racial anthropology

aboriginal New World," American Anthropologist 55: 311-327,
:

1953.

Polunin, Nicholas:
322, 1955.

Shapiro, H.L.:
1939.

"Aspects of Arctic botany,"

Migration and Environment.

American

307-

London: Oxford Univ. Press,

Wedel, Waldo R. "Some aspects of human ecology in

American Anthropologist 55: 499-514, 1953.
:

Scientist 43:

the central plains,"

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mXRCDUCTION TC HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)
Lecture

5.

Physiological and Morphological Mechanisms in Homeostasis

(Sargent)

Every organism

characterized by three basic features: (1) an

organizational identity and isolation from the surrounding environment by
means of a membrane barrier; (2) a defined range of activities systematically
varying through time and maintained by genetic and other self-regulatory
devices; and (3) identity, organization and activity achieved through a series
of complex exchanges with the environment by means of which the organism
captures enough energy and maintains appropriate balances to keep its internal
structure in a relatively steady state called homeostasis.
is

Organisms are not mechanistic aggregates of components and processes.

Parts behave differently in isolation than when in the living organism. An
organism is a hierarchy of composing parts in a hierarchy of organizing
relations (Woodger, 1924). As a consequence of its organization, the organism
exhibits adaptiveness and apparent purposiveness of structure and function.

Organism and environment are inseparable. When thinking of living

organisms, one must consider an outer or extra-organismic environment and
an inner or intra-organismic environment. The conditions necessary for life
are found neither in the inner or outer environments but in both at once
(Bernard, 1949)
.

Organisms are happening, not in being; matter and energy perpetually

stream through the organism and at the same time constitute the organism
(von Bertalanffy)
Thus organisms are open systems. The matter from the
external environment becomes highly organized in specific ways. The flow
of matter and energy is organized in such a way that the organism represents
.

a steady state.

The matter and energy requirements of the organisms are met by

breathing and eating. The energy, which is derived from the sun, is stored
in the plants by photosynthesis. Organisms require a constant intake of matter
and energy, i.e. energy and nutrient balances must be maintained to sustain
life.
Each species has specific energy and nutrient requirements. Most
species can adjust to undernutrition but none can adjust to dehydration. Energy
is consumed in metabolic processes and by homeostatic mechanisms. Heat
produced in catabolic reactions must be dissipated so that the organisms can
remain in heat balance. Oxygen is required to make this energy available to
the cells and tissues. As a result of catabolic reactions metabolic wastes,
which are largely acidic in nature, are produced. These wastes must be
buffered so that harmful changes in the acid-base balances do not develop; the
buffered metabolic wastes are transported to the lungs and kidney for elimination.
17

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yd
y,
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ob aaoriBlBd ^^aJ-idbioB adJ li; -.i.^i -d-j Itj^urnicd J^di oa b-^nsTiud
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rd jsrn

^nua

i,

.,

>

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Lecture

18

The animals from which the primates and the genus Homo ultimately
evolved originated in the sea. Ages ago the primate antecedents migrated
onto the land. That the ancestors of man survived the migration was the
consequence of their fitness (L.J. Henderson) for maintaining life in a
terrestrial environment rather than in a marine environment. The properties
which comprise this fitness constitute basic physiological regulations, viz.
(1) resistance to desiccation (regulation of body water); (2) maintenance of a
relatively constant temperature in a variable external environment (homeothermy); (3) adjustment to the influences of gravity; (4) resistance to the
influences of solar radiation; (5) provision of a moist surface across which
atmospheric oxygen can diffuse; (6) provision of an aqueous environment for
conception and development of fertilized egg; and (7) provision for parental
care for the offspring.
of physiological regulatory mechanisms is to
maintain relatively constant the chemical and physical properties of the
aqueous milieu interieur (C. Barnard) of the organism. This inner environment bathes the cells and tissues of the body and has physico-chemical

The major function

properties remarkably similar to the marine environment from whence

terrestrial animals evolved. The state of dynamic equilibrium which is
maintained in the internal environment has been identified as homeostasis
(W. B. Cannon). The related regulating processes can be thought of as

homeostatic mechanisms.

Homeostatic mechanisms or physiological regulations operate by

detecting deviations (excesses or deficiencies) from set points. Sensitivity
of enteroceptive mechanisms are related to the capacity of the organism to
survive excesses or deficiencies. Homeostatic mechanisms operate by feedback processes:
(Message)
Stimulus

:^Recepter
^

^Control
Apparatus

(Message)

Effector

->Response

Feedback

Homeostatic processes exhibit a phylogeny which illustrates the

concept of stabilizing evolution (Schmalhausen, Koshtoyants). Nerveless
organisms show a direct response to the outer environment by metabolic
reactions. Organisms with nervous systems exhibit indirect responses.
Receptors detect environmental changes and signal control devices to initiate
adaptive responses. The stimuli for nerveless organisms still retain their
significance for organisms with nervous systems: they become stimuli for
special extero- and enteroceptive receptors of the nervous system, e.g.
oxygen, carbon dioxide saturation, temperature, light, osmotic conditions,
certain electrolytes, etc. iVletabolic adaptations continue important. The
metabolic state of the receptors takes part in reactions, for receptors are
energy transducers.
Neuro-regulatory processes depend upon specific
metabolic products such as hormones and neurohumors.

p.

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Lecture

the

19

These organismic concepts will be illustrated in a consideration

physiological regulation of body temperature and acid-base balance.

of

Required Reading
Scho lander, P. F.: Evolution of climatic adaptation
Evolution,

in

homeotherms.

15-26, 1955.

9:

Problems of Life An Evaluation of Modern Biological

von Bertalanffy, L.
and Scientific Thought. Harper Torchbooks (TB 521), Harper and
Bros., N.Y., 1960. pp. 123-146.
.

Other references
Physiological Regulations

Adolph, E. F.:

Cattell, Lancaster 1943.

Adolph, E. F.: Early concepts of physiological regulations. Physiol. Rev.,

_41: 737-770, 1961.
Adolph, E. F.

(ed):

The Development

of Homeostasis.

Academic Press,

N.Y., 1960.
Bernard, C.
Cannon,

"W'

Introduction to Experimental Medicine.

B.:

The

W Isdom

of the Body.

Henderson, L. J.: The Fitness

of the

Schuman, N.Y.,

Norton, N.Y.

1949,

1932.

Environment. Beacon Press, Boston,

1958.

Prosser, C. L.: Perspectives of adaptation: theoretical aspects. Handbook

of Physiology - Environment. Section 4, (.D.B. Dill, ed.) Am.
Physiol. Soc. Washington, 1964, pp. 11-25.
,

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no:!

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOi^OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369 and

Zoology 369)
Lecture

6.

Processes

of

Growth, Maturation and i^geing (Sargent)

The life cycle of an organism can be viewed as an ever-changing

developmental trajectory which is determined by the interaction between
the genotype and the environments through which the organism passes.
The main processes of this sequence are growth, maturation and senescence. The fundamental characteristics of these developments are
(1) that they progress in an orderly fashion, and (2) that they leave the
organism in a different and irreversible state at each stage. The trajectory
begins with the fertilization of the ovum and involves growth, cellular differentiation, and morphogenesis. From conception to maturity the physical
development of the organism follows an S-shaped curve. When the organism
has matured, physical growth terminates and the capacity for reproductive
activity begins. The animal releases sperm or ova which originate a new
cycle of development. From maturity the animal experiences degenerative
changes which ultimately lead to death.

The orderly sequence

developmental trajectory
represents the integrative action of a complex of processes. A biological
"clock," or a number of 't locks," may be responsible for the timing of
these processes. How the rhythm of this "clock" is set has not yet been
determined. Some investigators argue that it is endogenous; others claim
that it is regulated by environmental or cosmic forces.
of the stages in the

Prior to maturity there is little dimorphism. Females are more

advanced physiologically and mature earlier. After maturity is attained,
the dimorphism is marked. The adolescent period is a physiological crisis
but is nevertheless holistic or integrated. Skeletal calcification, permanent
teeth, body size and weight, and sexual characteristics are intercorrelated.

W hen the period of maturation is defined as the interval from birth

adolescent growth spurt, one finds that species vary widely in the rate at
which they mature:
to

Animal
Guinea pig
Mouse, rat
Sheep

Period
40-100 days
30-50 days
6-8 months

Animal

Period

Cattle

8-12

Rhesus monkey
Chimpanzee

Man
The slow maturing

of

man may

months
2-4 years
7-10 years
11-16 years

be related to the processeti of acculturation.

20

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Lecture

21

open-systems of the organism

is the task of the homeostatic mechanisms. The adaptability of the organism
is a function of the maturity of the homeostatic mechanisms. The fact that
the adaptive capacity of homeostatic mechanisms parallel the life sequences
presumably resutls from the fact that the mechanisms evolved from selection
pressures exerted during the phylogeny of the species. The mechanisms
function most effectively during pre-reproductive and reproductive periods
because the adaptive value of the genotype can be transferred to the gene pool
of the species only at this time. Natural selection does not operate after this

The maintenance

of stability within the

time.

increasing liability to die. Strehler views the evolution

somewhat as follows: organisms are organized dynamic systems capable of
coupling free-energy and matter for survival and reproduction. Organisms
persist because they effectively reproduce and survive despite an inconstant
environment. The energy transducers of adapting organisms include growth,
maintenance and repair. Ageing is the consequence of imperfect development
of maintenance and repair transducers. Perhaps ageing is an accidental byproduct of adaptations that had survival value in infancy and childhood. J.S.
Holdane views death itself as an effective mechanism of evolution.

Ageing

is the

vulnerable to stresses from its total

environmental surroundings during certain stages of its life sequence, notably
while it is an embryo, a newborn, an adolescent, and aged. Among the
environmental impacts which modify the orderly sequence of this developmental trajectory are under- or malnutrition, environmental temperature,
noxious agents from the physical and biotic environment, and stresses
arising from the cultural environment.

The organism

is particularly

Since the genotype is past-oriented by virtue of the evolutionary

process, the norm of reaction of the organism may not be adequate for
new experiences. Thus organisms tend to exhibit abnormal reactions to
environmental conditions never before experienced. Such reactions have
been termed morphoses (Schmalhausen). Iatrogenic diseases and molecular
diseases are, in many instances, morphoses.

Required Reading

Brown, F.A.

Jr.: The rhythmic nature of animals and plants.

,
Scientist, 47: 147-168, June, 1959.

Gray, G. W.: Human growth.

Shock, N.W.:

The physiology

Scientific
of ageing.

American, 189
Scientific

Am.

65-76, Oct. 1953.

American, 206 100-111,

:

Jan. 1962.

Sussman, M. Animal Growth and Development. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1960. pp. 1-5; 92-102.

lo

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Lecture

22

Other references

Comfort, A.: Ageing. The Biology of Senescence.

Rinehart, and Winston, N.Y., 1964.

Revised ed. Holt,

Dobzhansky, T.: Genetics of homeostasis and senility. In Genetic Concept

Tj.: 1234-1241,
for the Origin of Cancer. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.
,

1958.

Tanner,

J.

M.: Growth

at -Adoiescense.

Springfield:

C.C.Thomas,

1955.

212 pp.

Thompson, D'A. W.: On Growth and Form. N.Y.: Macmillan Co.

1942

pp. 78-285.

Strehler, B.L.:

Time, Cells, and Ageing,

Academic Press, N.Y., 1962.

Strehler, B. L. and Mildvan, A. S.: General theory of mortality and ageing.

Science, 132
14-21 (July 1) 1960.
:

Yapp,

W.

B., and Bourne, G.H.

London, No. 6. 1957.

The Biology

of

Ageing

Symp.

Inst. Biol.,

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOJ-OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)
Lecture

7.

Reproduction and Fertility in Mammalian Populations

(Sargent)

sexes, the male and female, are partners in the diecious

reproduction of mammals. Each is highly specialized morphologically,
physiologically and psychologically to perform their respective roles in
this complex process. The period of reproductive activity begins with
maturity. The length of the reproductive period of a species is determined
by the female, for she becomes anovulatory (ceases to produce ova) at the

Two

menarche; the male may exhibit active spermatogenesis long after the
menarchial age of the female. Contributions to the gene pool of future
generations can only be made during the reproductive period of the sexual
partners of the species.

Reproduction begins with the fertilization of the egg or ovum from

the female by sperm provided by the male. Among mammals fertilization
occurs internally with the female who provides the fertilized egg with an
aqueous environment for its subsequent development. Within the amnionic
sac the ontogeny of the fetus recapitulates its marine phylogeny. The
temperature of the amnion is closely regulated by homeothermic mechanisms
of the mother at a temperature which assures rapid development. The fetus
is nourished by the mother through the placenta and the newborn is nourished,
again by mother, at the mammary glands.
Reproductive activity and reproductive efficiency are influenced by
a spectrum of external and internal factors. Among some mammals
olfactory stimuli not only signal the male that the female is receptive but
also determine the regularity of the oestrus cycle and the success of mating.
Many species of mammals are seasonal breeders; domesticated animals,
including man, are "continuous" breeders but even these species exhibit
seasonal variation in reproductive activity. The seasonal rhythm of reproduction may be related to the photoperiod. Internal factors influencing
reproductive efficiency include neurohumoral feed-ir^ack mechanisms of the
hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal system, the rate of ovulation, the age of the
female, the age of the gametes (ovum and sperm), and a "friendly" uterine
environment. The nutrient regimen of the mother also determines the
incidence of embryonic malformation and mortality.
Theoretically the sex ratio of a

mammalian species should be

100

males per 100 females. The primary sex ratio (i.e. the ratio at conception)
is not known but among humans and cattle the number of males among
abortions may exceed the females by a factor of three or four. The secondary
,

23

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Lecture

24

ratio at birth) varies widely from 50 per cent for each sex.
that genetic factors, the condition of the uterine
environment, and the frequency of sexual activity by the male are among
processes which cause the eex ratio to deviate from 100/100

sex ratio (i.e.

The evidence suggests

If

fertility is defined as the capacity of

sexual partners to produce

follows that a great many exogenous and

endogenous processes may modify this ability. The evolution of vivipary
and homeothermy provided physiologically for the care of the conceptus.
Parental care evolved as a behavioral process to support the survival of the
offspring until they were capable of an independent existence and to train them
in the traditions of the species. V, ith the evolution of parental care, fewer
offspring had to be produced in the reproductive period, reproductive efficiency
increased, and more energy could be diverted from reproductive processes to
other systems and functions.

normal and

effective offspring,

it

of civilized man probably is crucial

care for the slowly maturing children but in
not only in providing parental
making possible transference of culture, an important element of cultural
evolution. Parents caring for offspring in a way that promotes their survival

The long post-reproductive period

can be viewed as part of the breeding population. Williams (1957) suggests that
actually parents are not post-reproductive until the children are self-sufficient.

it

is

The human male exhibits a slow decline in reproduction. In the female

abrupt. Williams (1957) makes the intriguing point that the menarche

may have had

selective advantage some time during human evolution.

"Menopause, although apparently a cessation of reproduction, may have arisen
as a reproductive adaptation to a life-cycle already characterized by senesceice,
unusual hazards in pregnancy and childbirth, and a long period of juvenile
dependence. If so it is improper to regard menopause as a part of the ageing
syndrome." (Williams, 1957, pp. 407-8).

Required Reading
Kendeigh, S. C.
Parental care and its evolution in birds.
graphs, Vol. 22, Nos. 1-3, 1952. pp. 298-302.
:

111.

Biol.

Mono-

Nalbandov, A. V.
Reproductive Physiology
Comparative Reproductive
Physiology of Domestic Animals, Laboratory Animals and Man.
W. H, Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1958, pp. 5-8; 66-73;
205-217, 246-266.
.

Other references

Lawrence, P.S.: The sex ratio,

Biol., 16:

fertility,

35-79 (Mar.) 1941.

and ancestral longevity. Quart. Rev.

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Lecture

25

Parks, A.S., and Bruce, H.M.: Olfactory stimuli in mammalian reproduction. Science, 234:1049-1054 (Oct. 13) 1961.
Williams, G.C.:

Pleiotropy, natural selection, and evolution of senescence.

Evolution, 11:398-411, 1957.

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture

8.

Organic Control Mechanisms: Genetics as Cybernetics

(O'Kelly)

Until the advent of man, by far the most important mechanism of

evolutionary change in brain systems was the device of genetic inheritance.
Each generation of a given species manifests a wide range of trait variability
and is subjected to selective pressure. To the extent that the trait variability
is genetically linked, survival to a breeding age insures a statistical bias for
preservation of that trait. Thus, it is useful to view genetic mechanisms as
means for steering the development of species characteristics.

Concept of the "gene pool". The basic characteristics of organisms

are derived from their chromosomal composition, the genes in complex
fashion influencing the adaptational potentialities of any individual. Oversimplifying the matter in ways that will be mentioned in the lecture we may
assume that the totality of available genes for a given species form a "gene
pool". Mating can then be viewed as sampling from the gene pool. Free
"random" mating would then give, for each generation, a representative
selection of all genetic determiners in the pool for that species, unless
special circumstances would occur to bias the chance nature of the genetic
lottery. It is, of course, precisely these biasing circumstances that are at
the heart of the evolutionary process. Any circumstance that produces bias
from randomness in the sampling in one generation will tend to change the
population characteristics of the gene pool in the next generation.
,

The evolutionary process of "natural selection. " While our knowledge

of the means of evolution has progressed to the point that we can speak
confidently of the fact of evolution, the basic points of Darwin's theory are
still valid.
To remind you, the steps in his argument may be summarized as
follows:
1.

production of offspring

in

excess of the number

that can survive to a reproductive age.

2.

offspring manifest variability in amount and kind

of traits that contribute to survival.

3.

the excess population leads to inter- and intra-

species competition.
4.

outcome
fit

5.

of this competition is death of the less

before achievement of reproductive age.

progeny of survivors tend

characteristics
26

to inherit parents'

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27

Lecture 8

Modern additions to evolutionary theory cotne largely with reference

to genetic mechanisms of variability, Darwin was always uncertain concerning the means of transmitting traits from one generation to another. For a
time he leaned towards a Lamarkian inheritance of acquired characteristics,
and he even tried his hand at a genetic theory based on the assumption of a
blending of hereditary determiners. Mendelian insight for unit-character
nature of inheritance, and DeVries' discovery of "spontaneous" changes in
chromosomal or gene structure (mutation) puts the explanation of transmission and of the source of trait variability on firmer ground.

A variety of circumstances contribute to these basic

modification. The following list is not exhaustive.
1.

ways

of species

gradual and relatively sudden or "catastrophic"

geological changes serve to separate groups. By presenting different habitat conditions the criteria for successful
adaptation may change. The biasing effect of mutations in
the new separated gene pools can then steer development
into different channels. Prevention of interbreeding
between the isolates may preserve genetic peculiarities
which would not have been emphasized in the total group.
(See, Glass, H.G. The genetics of the Dunkers. Sci.
Isolation

Amer.

1953, 189, #2, 76-82).

2.

Hybridization Closely related species may be interfertile, and if they interbreed, the rather greatly changed
gene pool may result in sufficiently biased selection to
lead to new and variant species.

3.

Migration

As Professor Shimkin has already mentioned,

a variety of circumstances may operate to produce an

altered range for a species, causing in turn new competitive
circumstances and altering the criteria of survival. Here
it is important to recognize that migration may be a
critical factor not only for the incoming species, but for
those whose habitat is invaded.

The temporal scale on which evolutionary development has taken

place was covered in previous lectures. It is worthwhile, however, to
again be reminded of the staggering truth that each one of us is alive because
our own ancestors, back through unbroken generations for the past 2 billion
years were well-adapted enough, and luc^y enough, to live, each in his own
generation, long enough to reproduce. What a collection of time -tested
adaptive structures go into the makeup of any contemporary living system.
However, all is not necessarily joyous in this contemplation. Our contemporary scene, species -wise, is a testimony to past successes. Our present
structures (and thus functions) are only possible if they have been of positive
adaptive significance (or irrelevant to survival). Structures of negative

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Lecture

28

adaptive significance do not last long. Selection, by and large, has been
dependent on adequacy of regulatory mechanisms, as we saw in Dr. Sargent's
lectures. But, since the screening criterion is always "past-oriented,"
operating on previous generations, we inherit the adaptations that were good
for them- -this may lead to adaptive failures in the screening criteria change
(geologic, climatic or cultural changes, for example.) Rates of acquisition
and disappearance of structures in species may be critical to species survival.
Structural specialization can lead species into evolutionary blind alleys, and
on the whole seems to have the effect of tailoring species for rather narrowly
specific habitats. These structural adaptations are the key to the ecological
composition of the life-space; the structure of an animal or plant dictates
where it can live, and what associates it can have. We all know that
catastrophes can result when this fact is overlooked (introduction of rabbit
to Australia, lamprey eel to Great Lakes, English sparrow to U.S.
etc.)
Evolutionary adaptations and "genetic steering" go beyond and across species
boundaries.
,

Required Reading
Huxley, J.

Evolution in Action

Dobzhansky, Th.

pp. 1-62.

Evolution, Genetics and Man,

pp. 109-133.

Other references
Lack, D. Darwin's finches.

Rand, McNally & Go.

Reynold, H.

C:

Sci.

Amer.

188

(4):

66-73, 1953.

The histomap of evolution.

The opossum.

Sci.

Amer.

188^(6):

85-96, 1953,

Roe, A., & Simpson, G. G, (Eds.): Behavior and evolution.

Yale Univ. Press, 1958. pp. 27-75, 103-127.

New Haven:

The meaning of evolution. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press,

1950. (available as paper-back in abridged form. This is a modern
classic of sorts, and should be in every biologist's library).

Simpson, G.G.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geoprapliy 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociolcpry 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture

9.

Organic Control Alechanisms: Basic Processes

Regulation (O'Kelly)

of

External

Professor Sargent's presentation of homeostatic mechanisms showed

living systems maintaining steady states by internal structural and functional
adaptations. Most homeostatic mechanisms operate by means of transformations and exchanges of substances between internal components of the system.
Homeostatic processes cannot continue to maintain steady states indefinitely,
however, without means of renewing basic materials. Maintenance of steady
states requires energy, and thus demands inputs of energy-rich materials and
outputs of waste products.

Thus, along with internal regulation, the survival of the system depends
on it coming into contact with sources of input which will make up for the
deficiencies or the excesses which have accumulated as a result of homeostatic
functioning.

Here we get

of materials into the cell,

emergence of behavior. If there was a free flow

and out from the cell, there would be no behavior,

the

no need to react differentially with respect to different parts of the environment. Some living creatures approximate this sessile state, and most of
those that do are in a marine habitat. The organism living in an heterogenous
environment must be able to achieve capacity to move from place to place in
order to contact his sources of supply.

The development of animals has been critically influenced by the

heterogenous distribution of materials in their habitats. One of the most
basic features of multicellular forms, the differentiation of limiting membranes
to form an internal aqueous buffer region between the cells and the external
world, was forced by the lack of uniform correct conditions for maintenance
of cellular life. The evolutionary pressures that push organisms into an ever
wider variety of habitats are matched by the structural-functional specializations that shield them threats to their steady states. This reaches a most
dramatic peak in man in, for example, his elaboration of space capsules as
a sort of outer shell that mimics the integument in its protective function.
Both external and internal regulation are possible by structural
adaptations. In the suggestions for a model of regulation which follow it
should be remembered that the distinction between internal and external can
frequently be artificial and arbitrary, or in fact, at some stages of regulation,

may

not exist.

29

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Lecture

30

Stimulus

-^

Detector

^v.

/\

Searching
and
Orientation

2^^

Corrective
Behavior

:^

Satiety

Feedback

The problem of detector systems A "self-regulating" system must

be able to detect a degree or amount of accumulating deficiency or excess
that is threatening to its steady state, A variety of structures within organisms
function as "imbalance detectors." They must be thought of as working in a
fashion similar to sense organs, i.e.
they must be sensitive to some particular index of the condition they safeguard, they must have differential thresholds, to distinguish between large and small departures, and must be capable
of originating signals communicable to the corrective apparatus of the body.
Physiological and (to a lesser extent) anatomical evidence identifies such
detector systems for plasma concentration (index of dehydration), body
temperature changes, blood glucose level, CC2 tension of blood, etc. Organ-;
isms are not ideal with respect to their inventory of detectors since there ore
many requirements for steady state constants for which no detector systems
exist, e.g.
nutritional need for trace elements and vitamins. If no detector
system exists there is obviously no way that organisms can orient themselves
appropriately, even if the required substance exists in their environment.
Also, as examples to be cited in lecture show, it is possible for organisms
to behave in such a fashion as to override or ignore detector signals.
.

The problem of orientation or search systems A regulatory system

must contain a provision for instigating the organism to search through the
possibilities of its environment and to orient it with respect to a needed state
of affairs. Thus, a hungry animal must be able to differentially seek out and
orient towards foods, a thirsty animal towards water, etc. The neurological
mechanisms responsible are difficult to stipulate, probably because so much
.

V. hat the psychologist calls "perception memory"

"attention" are all manifested in this orienting behavior. Research has been
directed towards identification by the experimenter of specific cue -need
relationships. What qualities of water differentiate it from food? What
characteristics of closely related species serve to identify appropriate and
inappropriate mating partners? Finally, there is an important question of
the relative contribution of genetically determined and learned mechanisms,
both of which seem to be invariably involved. (Salmon return to fresh water
to spawn, a genetically stable discriminatory pattern, but appear to learn the

of behavior is involved here.

stimulus cue patterns necessary

ground.

to

insure return to their native spawning

The third component of a regulatory model would be a provision for

These components seem to be very stable structural

correctional behavior.

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Lecture

31

adaptations, and comprise the functions which actually restore the steadystate, such as eating, drinking, urination, copulation, shivering, sv/eating,
respiring, etc.) However, considerable elaboration of correctional behavior
by learning is possible. (Example: urination and defecation among sociological adults in our culture. Actual consummatory response is a primitive
reflex, but necessary preliminaries highly modified by learning.) It is
important to recognize that orientation and correction are interactive, as is
well illustrated in phenomena of preference behavior; hungry animals will
make selection of more "palatable" over less palatable food, even at sacrifice
of caloric value.

Finally, a regulatory system must make provision for detection of

satiety, a mechanism for terminating correctional action when the steady
state is restored. Requirements are similar to those for the need detector
system as sketched above, and in many cases the satiety may be detected by
simple removal of the circumstances which stimulated the detector component
in the first place. Other instances point to specifically different mechanisms
for satiety detection than simple subsidance of signals in the need detector
component. (Example: an animal stops drinking water before ingested water
can be distributed to cells whose dehydration initiated the drinking sequence.)
Some satiety systems, because of the lags in metabolic transport, have an
anticipatory function, "predicting" restoration of the steady state. Much of
satiety detection involves states of afferent conduction from "stretch receptors'
in hollow -walled organs, such as stomach, intestine, bladder, rectum, etc.

Required Reading
von Bertelanffy, L.
The theory of open systems
Science, JJJ.: 23-29, 1950.
:

in

physica and biology.

Other references
Adolph, E. F.: Physiology of
Press, 1947.

Man

in the

Desert

New York:

Interscience

Adolph, E. F.: Physiological Regulations, Lancaster, Pa,, Cattel, 1943.

453-469.

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INTRODUCTION TO

HUivI/N

ECCi.OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,

Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 10.

Organic Control Mechanisms: Integration and Control

Higher Animals (O'Kelly)

in

The preceding lecture dealt with organic control systems in their

most general form. Today we will consider some aspects of such systems
as we find them operating in vertebrate forms. In the higher mammals
particularly, steady state maintenance becomes inseparable from a number
of complex behavior patterns.

Two

aspects of external regulation must be explained: (a) an

energizing component, and (b) a directional component. Consider an animal
in a completely steady state with respect to all of its metabolic requirements.
External, as well as internal, regulatory demands are at a minimum, and
similarly, behavior would be also minimal. (Such an animal, and such a
state, is of course purely hypothetical). However, as Kleitman has demonstrated, the sleeping animal approaches such a state. Let us start our
analysis by considering the problem of sleep and waking.

Following Kleitman, we can assume that sleep is the natural condition

of the animal, and that the basic problem is to explain wakefulness. He shows
that the primitive or very young animal is awake only when disturbed by
internal or external disequilibrating circumstances, that is, when it is
hungry, thirsty, cold, wet, in pain. At all other times it is asleep. The
wakefulness then, in his terminology, is of necessity and the over -all sleep
pattern is polyphasic, its rhythm being determined by the combined waxing and
waning of deficiencies and excesses. For very primitive forms the tides of
activity and passivity are of the polyphasic type throughout the life cycle. In
the higher animals, however, there is an ontogenetic development or transition
from the wakefulness of necessity to what Kleitman calls (rather "jnfortunately)
wakefulness of choice. Here the animal is awake and active in growing independence of basic homeostatic status, and learned patterns of sleep-waking
displace the primitive polyphasic; in man, quite generally, the "wakefulness
of choice" leads to a diphasic sleep rhythm, with many cultural as well as
physiological determinants of its time distribution within the 24-hr. period.
,

The structural equipment responsible for maintaining the animal in a

waking or sleeping state is becoming increasingly well known, and it is also
becoming obvious that the neurological mechanisms underlying these states
32

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Lecture 10

33

are also responsible for, or provide the investigator with some glimpses of,
the basic integration scheme underlying all behavior. Let us start by noting
a useful index of neural activity in relation to the sleep-waking continuum: the
electroencephalogram (EEG). The brain manifests a continuous rythmical
electrical activity which may be detected, amplified and recorded from
electrodes placed on the surface of the scalp. The EEG frequency and
amplitude characteristics are related, in an orderly fashion, to the degree
of behavioral alertness of the subject. The frequency continuum of the EEG
ranges from very slow (1/2-2/sec.) waves in deep sleep and coma, through
10/sec. activity in a state of relaxed inattention, to 30-40/sec. in states of
active arousal of attention. Amplitude is inversely related to frequency.
In the preceding lecture we noted that the detector systems, like all
sensory structures, must perform the dual function of transmitting specific
information and making a contribution to a generalized alerting. Anatomically,
two great afferent neural systems can be differentiated with respect to this
dual function
All sense organs originate messages that are carried by the
specific projection systems to circumscribed areas of the brain, each area
corresponding closely to a particular sensory surface. Thus we have visual
and auditory and cutaneous receptors, and corresponding areas of the brain.
The informational aspect of environmental signals is carried into the central
nervous system via this specific system. In addition, each specific afferent
tract gives off collaterals that feed into a non-specific or diffuse afferent
system, in which excitation from all sensory sources is mingled; this system
then projects diffusely to most areas of the cerebral cortex, and performs a
generalized alerting function. The alerting is relatively independent of the
specific informational content of the environmental signal. It can be detected
by the EEG, where "desynchronization" or a shift from 10/sec. to 20-40/sec.
activity denotes the alerting function. The major anatomical tract responsible
for carrying the diffuse excitation is the reticular formation of the brain stem,
and it is commonly referred to in the trade as the ascending reticular activating system ( ARAS)
Some of the evidence for the functional role of this
system, and its importance to organic regulation will be given in lecture.
.

hypothalamus (small, centrally located region of brain at the

the cerebrum), are located many of the structures which serve as

In the

base of

detectors, lying in intimate association with blood vessels, and generally

neural or neurosecretory in function. In addition, the hypothalamus contains
areas which seem to be critical for maintenance of both the sleep and waking
state. It may be assumed that the energizing effects of steady state departures
are mediated through the combined action of the detector regions and the sleep
and waicing "centers."
further insight for mammalian organic contro 1 comes from the
discovery that animals will actively work to receive electrical stimulation in
a number of areas of their brains. These areas, promptly dubbed "pleasure
centers" have the property of reinforcing the behavior which led to their
Still

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34

Lecture 10

stimulation. While it is still too early to hazard more than a guess as to the
role they might play in the intact animal it is probable that they are part of the
mechanism that aids the animal to maintain his orientation towards needed

environmental substances.

To briefly summarize the material covered in these three lectures, we

have seen that the survival requirements of living systems have, by providing
criteria of structural adequacy, given direction to development, and that the
mechanisms so evolved furnish an important part of the equipment through
which all forms of behavior are mediated. In all vertebrates these mechanisms
can be'fcaptured" by the individual modifications in brain function that come
about through the capacity of the organism to learn. Later developments in the
course will be concerned with some of the extraordinary large number of ways
that organic control mechanisms for system survival can work themselves out
in both biological and social settings.
Required Reading
Olds, James. Pleasure centers in the brain.
French, J. D. The reticular formation. Sci

Sci.
.

Amer. Oct.,

Amer

1956.

May, 1957.

Other references
Ellingson, R. J.

Brain waves and the problems of psychology.

Psychol.

1-34, 1956.
Kleitman, N.
Sleep and Wakefulness. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press,
Revised ed. 1963.
Lindsley, D. B.: Psychological phenomena and the electroencephalogram.
EEG Clin. Neurophysiol. 4: 443-456, 1952.
Bull.

53:

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.1 priori.

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Environments, Organisms and Communities: Introduction

to

Lectures 11

to 15

(Shimki n)

This course began with attempts to define the basic hypotheses and
of human ecology. It then sought to characterize one major set of
ecological variables--the environment- -as a system of physico-chemical
conditions and relations which evolved in a highly specialized form as a
consequence of geological, climatic and biological events since the Cretaceous.
The contemporary terrestrial environment is, furthermore, differentiated
regionally by forces varying in type and intensity largely with latitude, altitude
and degree of continentality.

methods

a second set of ecological variables. All life has

a series of physico-chemical processes which can only be carried
on in aqueous solution, and in the presence of narrowly variable chemical

Organisms comprise

in

common

concentrations, temperatures and pressures. This necessary homeostasis

is thermodynamically unstable and depends upon continued captures of external
energy to maintain a structure and an iterative cycle of activities, known as the
steady state. In multicellular animals, the steady state also must be considered as an iterative succession of generations: the life sequence provides a
mechanism for minimizing cumulative random mutations by periodic replacements of unadaptive, aged individuals, and by reducing reproductive capacity
The life sequence and
to a limited period of high physiological efficiency.
sexual reproduction transform organic adaptations into social processes, in
which role differentiation, cooperation, and genetic intermixture compound
the primary biological activities of homeostasis, mutation and death.

complex societies,
organic adaptations are time -directed, or cybernetic, phenomena. All
biological events, including all human activity, comprise resultants of two
forces: past activity incorporated in a memory and released, or fed back
as inputs into subsequent events; and disbalances in synchronous forces.
These disbalances arise from external changes, cyclical homeostatic events
and, in multicellular animals, irreversible life sequences. The cybernetic
mechanisms are complex at all levels, involving digital and analog operations,
time sensing, time-space (Fourrier) transformations, etc. (v. Neumann).
They include intro-cellular systems (chromosomal and other), central systems
(especially the central nervous system in vertebrates), and social systems.
The most fundamental of the last, up to the rise of linguistic transmission, has
been genetics
In particular, departures from randomness in breeding, induced
At

all levels,

from

the intra-cellular to those of

35

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Introduction to Lectures 11 to 15

36

by geographical or social isolation, lead to systematic differentiations

frequencies and, hence, in derived characteristics.

in

gene

world, organisms occur only in a community of varied

species as well as of varied individuals. The relations between species and
populations are complexly functional, particularly in relation to the food chain.
Hence, the third dimension of ecology is the biological community which
Professor Kendeigh will discuss in Lectures 11-15. Here again many
processes and relations, both external and self -regulating will be visible
once more, but in a new context of increasing complexity.
In today's

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 11.

The Biotic Community

(Kendeigh)

important- -the ecology of

animals is also the ecology of man. There is nothing unique in the relations
of man to his environment that does not occur, in at least a rudimentary
manner, in the relations of animals to their environment.

An understanding

of

animal ecology

is

A community or biocenose is a unit aggregation of organisms consisting of a distinctive combination of species. The habitat is a specific set of
physical conditions that surround a species or a community. The ecosystem
is a particular biotic community and its habitat.
Organisms vary in importance in the community in respect to their
restriction, abundance, seasonal occurrence, societies, and influence.
Dominants are the most important organisms. They determine the composition and character of the community, receive the full impact of the climate
or habitat, and establish the physical conditions under which other organisms
must live (reactions). Or they exert dominance by direct attack on other
species (coactions).
Plants are generally dominant on land. Each principal type of vegetation contains a distinctive aggregation of animal species. Each species of
plant and animal plays a particular role in the life of the community as a
consequence of the ecological niche that it occupies. There is thus a division
of labor, the culmination of a long-time evolutionary development through the

animal kingdom.

communities and habitats because

of morphological adaptations, physiological adjustments, behavioral responses
and community interrelations.

Animal species occur

in particular

Leibig's law of the minimum s tates that the functioning or occurrence

is limited by that essential environmental factor or combination
of factors present to the least favorable extent.
of an

organism

When subjected to a gradient of intensities of an environmental factor,

either experimentally or in Nature, animals show a preferendum, being most
abundant or comfortable in the intermediate or optimum situation and become
37

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Lecture 11

38

less abundant or more uncomfortable toward each extreme of the factor until
they disappear altogether. The normal or Gaussian curve is of utmost
significance in understanding animal activity and distribution.

Readings

in

Kendeigh's Animal Ecology

Required

Supplementary

Pages 6-21, 26-30

Chapter

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 12.

Succession, Climaxes and Biomes

(Kendeigh)

Succession is the replacement of one community by another. This

may be brought about by (a) evolution, dispersal, extinction; (b) changes in
the earth's surface; (c) changes in climate; (d) reactions and coactions of
organisms themselves.

Succession proceeds until a climax community is reached. The

concept of climax is most useful for the biosere. Seres developing on rock,
clay soil, floodplains, or in ponds have different plant stages, but convergence
of all bioseres takes place to the same climax community.

The reactions of organisms that bring about succession involve:

stabilization
of substratum; (2) adding humus to increase fertility;
(1)
The
(3) improving moisture content of soil; (4) decreasing light intensity.
coactions involve invasion of new communities of species and extirpation of
old

communities--a complex process.

The nature of the climax depends on the climate. There is a general

world-wide agreement between types of vegetation, climate, and soil. These
major climax biotic communities are biomes. The serai communities are
immature or developmental stages of the biome. The biome represents a
distributional unit of major importance for analyzing the intimate relations
of animals to their environment on a geographical scale. The major biomes
are the temperate deciduous forest, coniferous forest, woodland and chaparral,
tundra, grassland, desert, tropical forest and tropical savanna. The distribution and activities of primitive man were intimately related to these
biomes.

.'v.-

Readings

in

Kendeigh's Animal Ecology

Required

Supplementary

pages 21-26, 105-112

276-279, 284-291

Chapter 8
Chapters 22-27

39

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 13.

Origin, Dispersal, Speciation, and the Ecological Niche

(Kendeigh)

By dispersal we mean

outward spread without return of individuals

from their homesites. This dispersal is primarily by young animals or
immature stages and takes place largely because of population pressure
Dispersal takes place in all directions
( competition) in their home areas.
until stopped by barriers. These maybe physiographic, climatic, or biotic.
the

most major animal groups is supposed to have

been the oriental tropics. Dispersal from here has been over land bridges to
other parts of the world. Once having dispersed, populations may become
The center

of origin o f

geographically isolated.
Speciation
populations which
new ones.

This leads

to speciation.

process of evolutionary differentiation between

may result in one species becoming split into two or more

is

the

A species is a group of populations capable of successful interbreeding

and which are reproductively isolated under natural conditions from other such
populations. If interbreeding regularly occurs between adjacent populations,
although they differ in various characteristics, they are considered as races
or subspecies
.

Geographic isolation allows independent variation and difference in

natural selection to occur with the development of reproductive isolating
mechanisms, which in increasing order of effectiveness are ecological,
ethological, and mechanical or genetic.
Such geographic isolation has permitted the evolution of the great
faunas of the zoological regions of the world. Each region in turn may be
subdivided into faunal areas or communities ( biociations) distinctive in genera
and species of animals.
ith speciation there is nearly always a divergence into a different
ecological niche from that of the parent species. The ecological niche includes
both the microhabitat to which the species is adapted and the relations which it
establishes with other species occurring in the same community. Segregation
of species into different niches results from competition, and, once established
and becoming inherited, reduces competition between them.
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41

Lecture 13

According to the competitive exclusion principle (Cause's rule) an

ecological niche cannot be simultaneously and completely occupied by
stabilized populations of more than one species. Niches may differ in many
ways: often very slight differences may be sufficient to permit two species
to occur in the same community or in adjacent communities: adaptations to
physical factors of substratum, type of vegetation or cover required, stratum
of vegetation used, time of day active, season of year active, food.
Readings

in

Kendeigh's Animal Ecology

Required
pages 145-156, 257-260,
245-254,

Supplementai-y

pages 255-276

'^

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)
Nutrient Cycles, Food Chains, and Population Dynamics
(Kendeigh)

Lecture 14.

animals consume a wide variety of food species, providing

Some selection is made depending on its nutritional
it is of a certain type.
value, palatability, size, protective devices, but especially on its availability.
In general,

One species of animal may feed upon another but ultimately they must
feed on plants so that food chains are formed. Dozens of food chains may
occur in the same community, involving the same and different species, so
that a complex food web is formed. The food web may be simplified by
grouping all species with similar feeding relations into the same trophic level:
producers; primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary consumers;
transformers.
Species in the lower consumer levels are usually of smaller size,
greater numbers, have higher rates of reproduction, and are of greater
diversity than those in higher trophic levels.

The relation between size and numbers is well shown by the pyramid
of numbers
There are always a larger number of small animals in a community than of large ones. The relation of abundance to trophic level is also
well shown by a pyramid made up of the biomass of each level. The ratio of
biomasses from one level to the next higher is commonly 5:1. The maintenance
of number s or biomass of the different trophic levels in more or less constant
ratios with each other indicates that under natural conditions there is a balance
.

of nature.

Since plants absorb nutrient materials, such as nitrogen or phosphorus,

the soil and carbon dioxide from the air in order to photosynthesize food,
and since animals must consume plants to get their food or consume one
another, and since all organisms decompose when they die to release nitrogen,
phosphorus, carbon, and other elements that can then be reabsorbed by plants,

from

there is continual cycling of nutrient materials through the ecosystem.

In serai stages, nitrogen-fixation exceeds denitrification, so there is
progressive increase in the fertility of the soil. In climax communities, the
relative number of legumes carrying nitrogen-fixing bacteria is reduced so the
cycle is often balanced and the ecosystem is in a steady state

Readings
Required
Chapter 13

in

Kendeigh' s Animal Ecology

^2

Supplementary
Chapter 11

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOi^OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 15.

Energy Flows and Productivity (Kendeigh)

The cycling of nutrients and activities of organisms require energy.

The amount of work accomplished depends on the amount of energy available.
The source of all energy is the sun. The efficiency of photosynthesis is low,
usually less than 1%, although somewhat higher with cultivated crops. Gross
primary productivity is lowest in deserts and semi-deserts, but increasingly
higher in communities with denser vegetation, and highest in some aquatic and
forest communities.
transferred from one trophic level to another by predation,
but considerable is lost at each trophic level, partly through excretion of
This
indigestible material, wastage from kills, and non-predatory deaths
and
may
in
the
soil
transformers
the
available
to
is
still
energy, however,
detritus.
again be taken up by higher trophic levels feeding on bacteria and
Energy is converted Into work or lost as heat to the atmosphere at each
trophic level, so it does not circulate as do nutrients; it flows through the
ecosystem and must be replaced continuously.

Energy

is

Crops of game animals, plants or trees, or food, removed by man

from the ecosystem, represent a yield. Yield is highest if taken at the lower
levels. The ratio of productivity between trophic levels is roughly 5:1. When
a yield is taken out of an ecosystem, one removes not only energy but also
minerals. Energy can be quickly replaced if a good stand of green plants is
left,

but replacement of minerals is slow.

Food, space, and climate, constitute the ultimate limiting factors on

the population size attained by any species. All populations increase in size
The reproductive or biotic
at a rate corresponding to a sigmoid growth curve.
potential of population growth is exponential but is seldom realized in nature
because of environmental resistance. Absolute growth rate is most rapid at
the point of inflection; beyond this point, inhibiting factors progressively slow
up rate until it becomes stabilized at an asymptote. Density-stabiljzing factors
must be density-dependent varying in intensity with the size of the population.
These are competition, reproductivity, predation, emigration, and disease.
Different species become stabilized at different population levels, dependent
on their requirements for food, space and favorable climate. These latter
,

limiting factors are density-independent

43

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Lecture 15

44

Any population may be increased in size when the influence of the

density-stabilizing factors is reduced and the limits set by space and food
are raised. For obtaining maximum sustained yield from any species of
economic importance, the size of the yield or harvest should be regulated
to keep the population level at the point of inflection on the growth curve.
Readings

in

Kendeigh's Animal Ecology

Required

Supplementary

Chapters 14, 16

Chapters 15, 17,

pages 159-162

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 16.

The Evolution

of

Homo

sapiens

(Sargent)

The creature customarily identified as MAN is classified taxoniomically

in the Order of Primates, in the Suborder Anthropoidea, in the Superfamily
There is only one species of modern
Hominoidea, and in the Genus Homo
evidence
demonstrates that the Order of
man. Homo sppiens. The fossil
Primates has existed for some 75 million years. Homo sapiens appears to
have been present for not more than 50 thousand years, or about 2,000
.

generations.

The evolutionary trends which are peculiar

to the

Order

of

Primates

preservation of generalized structure of limbs and limb skeleton,

enhancement
of free mobility of digits, (3) development of digits with
(2)
flattened nails and sensitive tactile pads, (4) progressive reduction of snout,
(5) perfection of visual apparatus, (6) reduction of the effectiveness of the
olfactory apparatus, (7) simplification of dentition, (8) progressive expansion
and elaboration of the brain, particularly the cerebral cortex, and (9) development of an increasingly efficient apparatus for nourishing the fetus. These
trends together with a lack of structural and functional specialization are
probably the consequences of living in an arboreal ecological niche.
include

(1)

The evolutionary history of the hominoids which modern anthropologi^tes

have pieced together is most incomplete, for a continuum of emergence of
Homo from primitive hominoids cannot be convincingly demonstratid from the
fossil evidence so far discovered. The main features of the probable evolutionary continuum, however, seem to be established, many of the events
can be dated with reasonable accuracy, and the paleo-ecological setting for
this emergence can be described. There is now overwhelming evidence that
culture played a dominant role in man's adaptive radiation from the hominoids.
About one million years ago, late in the Pliocene epoch or early in the
Pleistocene epoch, the taxonomic lines identified as the family Hominidae and
the family Pongidae emerged from ' common hominoid ancester. This
development, according to current evidence, took place in East Africa.
Australopithecus was a bipedal hominid of the Lower Pleistocene, who lived
in open grassland not unlike modern South Africa. His hands were free and
he probably used implements of stone and bone for hunting small animals and
the young of large species to supplement a primarily vegetal diet. His brain
capacity was between 450 and 600 cc. The acquisition of bipedalism and the
45

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Lecture 16

46

use of implements exerted selective pressures which led to expanded brains.

In the middle Pleistocene, 125 to 250 thousand years ago. Pithecanthropus
appeared. He occupied the same ecological niche as Australopithecus and
appears to have eliminated him. Geographical conditions favored the wide
dispersal of Pithecanthropus and his remains have been discovered in southeastern Asia and southwestern Europe. He had a locomotor skeleton remarkably similar to Homo; his brain had a capacity of 900-1100 cc. He exhibited
great technological advances in the manufacture of stone implements and seems
to have discovered fire. The major glaciations of the Middle Pleistocene not
only favored dispersal of this hominid but also brought about geographical
isolation. Large scale interbreeding was prevented and regionally distinctive
cultural and technological traditions developed. There were also marked
morphological differences in the various skeletons of Pithecanthropus Whether
these regional differences in skeletal remains and cultural artifacts represent
a beginning of human speciation promoted by geographical barriers or merely
the inherent variability within the peoples of that time cannot be decided from
the evidence now in hand.
.

Further technological advances and ground living and hunting exerted

additional selection pressures for larger brains. \l hen Homo sapiens emerged
some 35 to 50 thousand years ago, during the middle of the last glaciation of
Pleistocene, the brain capacity had reached 1200-1500 cc, a value not
dissimilar to that of the modern representatives of the species. Homo sapiens
spread widely and rapidly over Europe and Asia and soon surmounted all
geographical barriers to become one large interbreeding population. Because
of man's mobility and gregariousness, speciation 'would appear to be unlikely.
The question of continuing evolution of man is a topic of current debate (Hulse).

Required reading

Le Gros Clark,

E.

Scientist, 47:

Washburn,

The crucial evidence for human evolution.

299-313 (September) 1959.
:

S. L.
Tools and
75 (September) 1960.
:

human

evolution.

Scientific

American

American, 203: 62-

Other references

Bartholomew, G.A. Jr. and Birdsell, J. B.

Ecology and the Protohominids
American Anthropologist, 55: 481-498, 1953
,

Bordes, F.: Mousterian cultures

(September 22) 1961.

in

France.

Daniel, G. E.
The idea of man's antiquity.
176 (November) 1959.
:

Science, 134:

Scientific

803-810

American,

201:

167-

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.

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(iL iddujdjqac;)

.orU'isil

Lecture 16

47

Yale Univ. Press,

Dobzhansky, T.: Mankind Evolving.

New Haven,

1962.

Emiliani, C: Dating human evolution. In The Evolution of Man (Sol Tax, ed.)
Evolution after Darwin. Vol. II. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago,
1960.

The human revolution.

Hackett, C. F. and Ascher, R.:

52: 70-92, 1964.

Howell, F. C: The Villafranchian and human origins.

(October 2) 1959.

The Human Species.

Hulse, F. S.:

Kulp, J. L.: Geologic time scale.

Le Gros Clark,

V.

E.

Evolution of the
Scriven, M.:
130:

Science, 133:

New

Scientist, _48

Scientist,

Science, 130:

Random House, N.Y.,

831-844

1963.

1105-1114 (April 14) 1961.

The Antecedents of Man An Introduction to the

Primates Quadrangle Books, Chicago, 1961. 374
.

Explanation and prediction

477-482 (August 28) 1959.

Simons, E.L.

Am.

in

evolutionary theory.

Science,

a review of the past decade.

179-182 (June) 1960.

fossil primates:

American

Washburn, S. L. and Howell, F. C: Human evolution and culture.

The Evolution of Man (Sol. Tax, ed.) Evolution after Darwin.
,

Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960.

pp. 33-56.

p.

In

Vol.

II,

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INTRCDUCTICN TC HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 17.

General biological characteristics of

Homo

sapiens

(Sargent)

Man is a primate. He exhibits the biological traits of this order of

mammals. Whereas the evolution of mammals has been characterized by
somatic specialization and progressive adaptation, primates have been
distinguished for their lack of specialization and progressive adaptability.
Genotypic fitness is both a function of the organism and of the environment. Fitness can only be judged in terms of the capacity of the organism to
survive in a particular environment or in a range of environments. The
capacity to survive develops in two ways. (1) Genetic diversification leads to
environmental specialization, i.e. adaptation to a specific environment or to
a limited range of environments. (2) Genetical controlled adaptive plasticity
of the phenotype leads to fitness for survival in a wide variety of habitats,
i.e. adaptability or broad norm of reaction.
.

Genotypic fitness is the result of processes not conditions. The

internal environment is not inherited. The physiological mechanisms which
permit the organism to react to environmental circumstances so as to preserve
the internal environment are inherited. This view is what is implied by the
idea of the genetics of homeostasis (Lerner). By natural selection the useful
regulations tend to survive.
the variety of environments which a species encounters,
the greater will be the fitness of the genotypes which make the development
of organs and functions autonomous and independent of the environment
(Dobzhansky, 1956). This process has been called stabilizing selection

The greater

(Schmalhausen).

Stabilizing selections

makes

the

organism homeostatic.

Inborn differences among animals and among men are exhibited as

polymorphic variation (e.g. sex and heterozygosity), metrical or polygenetic
inheritance, genetically controlled adaptive plasticity of the phenotype, and
molecular and metabolic diseases. Genetic diversification in man is the
basis of biotypes.

Human

biology is not merely an extension of the principles of animal

biology to man. From the strictly biological viewpoint man possesses few
characteristics which can be identified as unique. To be sure, he can be
distinguished anatomically. Functionally, however, human beings differ
48

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Lecture 17

49

from other animals more in degree than in kind. We may then ask, as does
(1957), what are the differences between other animals and man?
(1957, p. 138) concludes that "man is unique among animals because
of the tremendous weight that tradition has come to have in providing for the
continuity, from generation to generation, of the properties to which he owes
his biological fitness." Tradition and culture are synonymous in this context.

Medawar
Medawar

Indeed, culture has become so much a part of man that

separate it from his biology (Dobzhansky, 1962).

it

is difficult to

Organisms demonstrate "biological fitness" if they are endowed with

organs, systems and processes which enable them to sustain themselves in
and prevail over their environments (Medawar, 1957). For man there are
in-born endowments and the technological creations of his culture. Both have
exhibited evolution, but cultural evolution has been the more rapid (Blum, 1963)
Both contribute to his biological fitness. Medawar (1957, p. 142) views
tradition (or culture) as "a biological instrument by means of which human
beings conserve, propagate and enlarge upon those properties to which they
owe their present biological fitness and their hope of becoming fitter still."
Biological fitness is greater among organisms that are adaptable than
that are adapted. Man is adaptable. His adaptability arises from
his genetic individuality, his phenotypic plasticity, and his culture. Each
human being is a unique combination of genetic traits. One individual is
anatomically and functionally, with the exception of monozygous twins, unlike
any other (Medawar, 1957). This inborn diversity and the genetical system
responsible for maintaining that diversity allows selection to happen with the
result that evolution proceeds. The important selective forces in the environment are weather and climate, food and water shortage, predation, and
disease.

among those

Since there

is a diversity of genotypes controlling these homeostatic

finds that the characteristics of the internal environment and
of physiological regulations exhibit an inter-individual variability which suggests
that they arise from polygenetic inheritance. Evidence for this concept has

mechanisms, one

been reviewed by R J. AA illiams and will be illustrated with observations of

F, Sargent on biochemical and physiological properties of the blood and on the
functioning of major organs and systems among 200 young men. Man's
individuality must be carefully considered in cultural ecological concepts
which, in the past, have tended to treat him as a statistical unit.
.

Adaptability is not only a consequence of morphological, functional and

behavioral plasticity (phenotypic changes) but also of the environment. Adaptability can only be thought of meaningfully in an environmental context. The
adaptability of the human genotypes must be judged in terms of an ability for
survival in four general environmental types: the material environment, the
biotic environment, the cultural environment, and the conceptual environment.
In this lecture we shall discuss some aspects of human adaptability in the

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50

Lecture 17

material and biotic environments. In the next lecture, aspects of human

adaptability in the cultural and conceptual environment will be discussed.
shall be viewed as synonymous with the
atmospheric environment. In regard to his adaptability to the atmospheric
environment, one of man's biological weaknesses is uncovered. Man's
heritage limits his functional capacity to adjust to wide variations in atmospheric temperature. Man is a tropical animal. He has a high and narrow

The material environment

"zone of thermal neutrality." Only between 23 and 33 C can naked man

maintain a relatively constant rectal temperature with minimal levels of
metabolism. The zone of thermal neutrality for the monkey, another tropical
animal, is even narrower- -28 - 30 C. On the other hand, the Arctic huskie
can maintain his rectal temperature without elevating his metabolic rate from
t30 to -40 C. Man can acclimate to hot atmospheres but he has only
limited ability to acclimate to cold. Man's dispersal from his tropical center
of origin has been accomplished far more through the use of acquired technological skills than through physiological processes.
the biotic environment that man obtains the energy and
matter required to meet his daily nutrient requirements. Man is primarily
an omnivore, for he satisfies his nutritional needs from both plant and animal
It

is

from

meeting his nutritional needs he exhibits considerable adaptability. Some men can subsist on a diet which is derived largely from animal
foods and others subsist on vegetarian diets. Man can also adapt to undernutrition and his capacity to function during semistarvation is remarkable
among the warm-blooded animals.
sources.

In

man's diseases arise from the microbial organisms of the

biotic environment. Man, however, has the capacity to adapt to these
infectious agents through the production of antibodies. These gamma-globulins
are produced by genetically controlled reactions with the cells of the lymphatic
and reticulo-endothial systems. These antibodies counteract invading organisms and when the defense reaction is successful, the human has acquired an
immunity to subsequent invasions by the particular species of microbe.

Many

of

Required Reading

Am.

Williams, R. J.: Chemical anthropology- -an open door.

Scientist, 46:

1-23, 1958.

Other references

Blum, H. F.
51:

On

the origin and evolution of

human

culture.

Am.

Scientist,

32-47, 1963.

Dobzhansky, T.: The biological basis

N.W.,

1956.

of

human freedom

Columbia!]. Press,

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51

Lecture 17

Medawar, P.B.: The Uniqueness

Medawar, P. B.

The Future

of

of the Individual.

Methuen, London, 1957.

Basic Books, N.Y., 1960.

Man.

Williams, R. J.: Biochemical Individuality. The Basis for the Genetotropic

Concept. John VI iley and Sons Inc., N.Y., 1956. Paperback Ed. 1963.
,

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 18.

Psychoneurological Specializations

in

Man

(Sargent)

Human

evolution has been both endosomatic (biological) and exosomatic (cultural). Exosomatic evolution is Lamarkian for cultural traits are
acquired or learned traits. At the same time, the evidence from anthropological research demonstrates convincingly that culture created selection
pressures which led to remarkably rapid growth of the human brain.
Distinctive characteristics of Homo sapiens are (1) his capacity for
symbolic thought, (2) his use of language and writing in communication, (3)
his technological skill in modifying the material and biotic environments
and in utilizing both inorganic and organic constituents of these environments,
(4) his extensive division of labor, and (5) his capacity to modify human
behavior. The manifestations of these characteristics comprise the cultural
environment. The system which has supported the development of culture

has been the brain and the nervous system.

The history of the human brain extends over more than 400,000,000
years. The major evolutionary changes which have led to the development
of the brain and nervous system of Homo sapiens have been the enlargement
of the cerebral cortex, the perfection of the visual apparatus, the reduction
of the olfactory apparatus, and the development of the reticular (integrating)

and lemniscal (affector-effector) systems.

In

mammals

the cerebral cortex consists of the paleocortex,

archicortex, and neocortex. The paleocortex and archicortex together

comprise the rhinencephalon or smell brain and are present in all vertebrates. The basic functions of the rhinencephalon are smell, emotion, and
regulation of visceral function. The neocortex first appeared in reptiles but
became the dominant part of the cortex in mammals, particularly primates
and man. As the neocortex enlarged, the smell brain decreased and many
sensory and motor functions were encephalized. The enlargement of the
cortex was accomplished by folding of brain mass and increase in size and
number of nerve cells. The major functions which have encephalized have
been psychic and associational ones associated with the frontal lobes. The
visual sense has moved from the midbrain to the occipital cortex. The
olfactory sense has

become

less acute.

well-developed visual sense is an important primate characteristic.

The importance of this sense for man is indicated in the fact that the neurons
of the optic nerve constitute more than one-third of all the neurons entering
and leaving the central nervous system. The crossing-over of the neurons
from nasal retina and the non-crossing of neurons from the temporal retina
seems to be an adaptive radiation associated with frontality of the eyes. This
52

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Lecture 18

53

phylogenetical development together with encephallzation of the visual sense

made binocular vision possible.

The development of the lemniscal systems, particularly the pyramidal

system, made possible coordinated movements and fine manual dexterityanother primate trait. The development of the reticular system played an
important part in this motor evolution, for it is an important integrative

mechanism

in

behavior.

With the development

tate and inhibit the functions of

remember, and

the capacity to

neocortex has

of the

come

more primitive parts of the nervous system,

make symbolic abstractions and

the capacity to

communicate pragmatic non-expressive material.

acquired and enlarged by man's educability.
Within the mind of each

the capacity to facili-

Cultural traditions can be

man

there develops a concept of himself in

relation to his particular culture. This conceptual environment is symbolic
and mystical yet very real. When there is no individual conflict between the
conceptual and cultural environment, the person enjoys mental health. When
a conflict arises, mental disease is the consequence.

Required Reading

Nobach, C. R.: The Heritage of the Human Brain.

Natural History, New York, 1959. 30 p.

American Museum

of

Other references
Hackett, C. F., and Ascher, R.:
52: 70-92, 1964.

Man

Huxley, J. S.:
of

Man,

Penfield, W .:
1959.

Harper, N.Y., 1941.

Stands Alone.

Am.

Scientist,

(The uniqueness

pp. 1-32).

Lassek, A. M,: The

Menninger, K.

The human revolution.

Human Brain

The Vital Balance.

C. C. Thomas, Springfield, 1957.

Viking, N.Y., 1963.

The interpretive cortex.

Science, 129

1719-1725 (June 26)

Pfeiffer, J.: The Human Brain, Harper & Bros., New York, 1955, pp 1-104.
(A. readable semitechnical treatment which makes perusing valuable).

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Lecture 19

53A

EXAMINATION PERIOD

siyjoej

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

The Mechanisms and

Lecture 20.

Institutions of

Human

Socialization

(Shimkin)

Man

a large, slowly maturing and rather weak forest-edge primate.

to starvation; an ability to run, climb and
swim; good sight and hearing; high manual dexterity; great learning ability,
and- -above all- -an extreme socialization permitted by flexible, efficient
communication represent his major biological assets. Man's socialization
has much in common with that of other animals, but is unique in the range of
behavior controlled, in the variety of roles distinguished, in the complexity
of the social structures engendered, and in its capacity for adaptive developis

Omnivorous habits, resistance

ment.
Socialization as an evolutionary force. The advent of sexual
reproduction and of other behavioral cooperation in food procurement, mutual
protection against predators and the environment, and in the care of the young
profoundly modified the effects of individual mutation and survival as evolutionary forces. In societies, as opposed to unstructured populations, competition is both limited and intensified; territorial, age and other groupings
emerge as partial or complete reproducing isolates. Role specialization
permits fuller use of the habitat, while sharing and sexual reproduction mean
more complete consumption and biological transfer of available food. In
particular, sexual dimorphism and other reiterated variants conserved by the
society change the mathematics of selection. Bounded, polymodal distributions
replace normal distributions for the corresponding variables. Instead of
independent probabilities, there are now conditional probabilities, dependent
upon some least survival of every indispensable role in the society. At the
same time, time -dependent self-correcting devices emerge. For example,
constant male -female ratios characterize each new generation regardless of
the anomalies in sex ratios brought upon the parent generation- -up to the
destruction of one sex, and total extinction. Thus societies are far more
resilient than were aggregates. Finally, because societies offset individual
weaknesses or limitations by cooperation, they are far less affected by
Liebig's Law of the Minimum than are unstructured groups.
1.

2.
Mechanics of human socialization. All living cultures, and
perhaps all cultures since the time of Neanderthal man, are characterized
by extensive and efficient systems of socialization. These embody two
aspects: the socialization of each generation, and the preservation of social
norms. In essence, socialization involves the extension of a common system
of external regulation from individual organisms to all members of a group.
5.4

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Lecture 20
In

man,

55

this

complex task involves

six

phenomena:

a. Play or self -stimulation, which develops basic cognitions,

releases somatic tensions, and develops habits of experimentation.
,

Inhibition by parental or other discipline, which induces

b.
value dichotomies (yes-no, good-bad), a recognition of role differences and,
through managed frustrations, enhanced symbolization. Ail societies inhibit
basic drives by limitations upon sexual activity, especially the universal
prohibition of intercourse between parents and children; by restraints upon
aggression; and by strong pressures toward food sharing. Inhibited drives are
socially controlled through the displacement of emotional objects, through the
internalization of responses, and through the development of substitute

satisfactions.

Orientation, or the orderly structuring of perceptions, which

seems to involve a successive discrimination of persons (self, mother, man,
etc.); of states (hunger, thirst, etc.); of animals and things; and, finally, of
relationships (space, number, time, etc.). This rationalization, which
c.

removes the "contamination of field and image" observed among young

children by Piaget, takes place in all cultures, but is strongly influenced in
detail by language and other cultural categories (CarroU-Casagrande).
Reciprocal communication through efficient speech, a universal
which includes the capacity to express subjective states and
induce empathic reactions (as among chimpanzees), but also to replicate
preceptions through exposition, and to elicit desired actions through commands
d.

human

trait,

or pleas.
e.
Patterning which transforms learned behavior into reliable,
quickly initiated yet flexible systems of action. Patterning involves a conceptual standardization of categories and relationships, a reduction of random
variations, and increasingly free utilization of the range of combinations
permitted by the pattern, e.g. a multiplication table.
,

f.
Code extension, which means successive adaptation to new
roles by appropriate learning, the partial suppression of old behavior ( e.g.
infant speech) and finally the achievement of a new integration, with added
capacities for code (or role) switching.

Socialization is a difficult set of processes, which every

human group

consciously promotes through reinforcement by response, guidance and

sanction. This begins in early infancy; by six months, babies' babblings are
no longer random but approximations of adult phonemes. In pre -literate
cultures, the problem of code standardization is acute, particularly wherever
small communities and short life expectancies limit training possibilities.
Patterning and emotional reinforcement through coding in verse and song,

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Lecture 20

55

and through religious associations often help reinforce memories and preserve

norms.
3.

The

institutions of socialization.

All known human socialization develops with a context of functional

structures, social codes and modal interaction patterns which is in part
common to all cultures and in part distinctive for each. Some such distinctbns
are directly adaptive, e.g. as reflections of different population sizes and
densities, and others are conventional yet important as symbols of identity.

Functional structures. Simple, face-to-face communities

composed of families and homogeneous associations comprise the totality of
many societies and the basic constituents of all. Families are universal
units of approved sexual activity, nurture and consumption; they also have
varying degrees of productive and regulatory functions. Asymmetrical roles,
with differences in permitted behavior, authority and responsibility are
inherent, and often reinforced by religious sanctions. Families vary greatly
in type, and include nuclear, reduced, extended; macro-families (lineages,
phratries); and those augmented by fictional kin (adoptions, godparental kin),
variations in descent (patriliny, matriliny, bilateraiity), in stability of
marriage, in residence patterns, in spouse and parent-child statuses, and in
the degree of reinforcement by property relations induce much operational
a.

variation.

Homogeneous associations, the formal or informal groupings of agemates, often of the same sex, are the essential action groups of every society
for play, work, religion, warfare, etc. They are characterized by uniform
orientation, largely parallel or reciprocal roles, clear in-group and outgsroup symbols, and corporate existence despite rapid changes in membership.

Families and homogeneous associations combine roles and activities

into minimal communities which, among some impoverished cultures such as
the Alacaluf of southern South America, meet only periodically. Regulation
through assent, status reinforcement, and circular interactions and exchanges
of goods, services and members within the simple community constitute its
basic functions in all cultures, from hunters to urbanites. Other basic
characteristics include a locus and a territory; more rarely, names and
other symbols of identity.

Larger social aggregations will be discussed

in

Lecture 22, under

socio-cultural evolution.
b.
Social codes
All societies depend upon systems of rules which
permit communication, define goals (regulation by emulation), set bounds
(regulation by sanction), and formulate paradigms for cooperation. Languages,
.

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..rioJJiiiova ;.'iuJiuo/-ol303

Lecture 20

57

kinship systems, ceremonial and monetary exchange systems, and legal codes
exemplify such systems. Ail social codes are characterized by five features:
(1) Bodies of underlying social theory including doctrinal foundations
(religion, mythology, proverbs, etc.) as sources of authority, and replicable
rules of application (if: then. .). (2) Systems of reinforcement by teaching
and reward. (3) External and internalized sanctions, especially ridicule
(e.g. by "joking relations"), supernatural intervention, ostracism and
expulsion, physical punishment and guilt, often with severe psychosomatic
consequences (hysterias). (4) Graduated levels of application, as illustrated
by discriminations of responsibility and competence, intent, etc. (5) Incomplete logical consistency, as real systems rather than formal, canonical

ones.

Modal interaction patterns. Basic differences between

socializing contexts arise from variations in the frequency distributions and,
c.

hence, the probabilities of specific types of interactions in given communities.

Knowledge of these probabilities results in corresponding anticipations,
rationales and courses of action. In general, interaction patterns can be
characterized in terms of eight features: (1) Periodicity (irregular,
periodic, continuous); (2) Patterning (random to categorical); (3) Cbncentration
(diffused to focused); (4) Mediation (direct relations to multi-stage ones);
(5) Trajectories (reciprocal, circular, or uniderectional flows); (6) Efficiency
(from reverberatory interactions to absorbing ones, with no return); (7) Automaticity (unconditional versus conditional interactions); and (8) Stability (overtime, or in physical or social space). In all cultures some interactions
exhibit each of these characteristics but the modal frequencies vary. Although
much more needs to be done in this area, it is clear, for example, from
L^vi-Strauss' pioneering work that the automatic, circular exchange systems
of western Pacific cultures have profoundly different ecological dynamics
from the conditional, absorbing systems favored by western laissez faire
economics. One promotes minimum welfare for a maximum population; the
other, selective welfare and maximum resource accumulation. One is current
time oriented; the other, future-time directed.

Required Reading
V. G. Childe:

"Early forms of society,"

Singer et al

in

I:

38-57.

Other References
S.

H. Bartley:

Principles of Perception

Harper & Bro.

New York,

1958

(esp. pp. 22-95).

J.

B. Carroll and J. B. Casagrande: "The function of language classifications

in behavior," in E. E. Maccoby et al
Readings in Social Psychology
3d ed. N.Y.: Henry Holt & Co.
1958.
:

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Lecture 20

58

C. Levi-Strauss: Les Structures Elementaires de la Parente (The Elemental

Structures of Kinship) Paris: Presses Universitaires ae Jf'rance, 1949
(esp. pp. 35-86, 524-591).
J.

H. Steward: Theory of Culture Change.

Press, 1955. (esp. pp. 101-172).

Urbana: University of

Illinois

H^

:>

I--,

-i-.. i;

Jw

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Human

Lecture 21.

A major

Utilization of the Natural

Environment (Shimkin)

man's socialization, which evolved as early as the

Upper Paleolithic and which appears to be a common property of all living
fruit of

cultures, is a distinctive strategy for exploiting the natural environment.

The cumulative effects of applying this strategy have developed new capacities
in man and forced him into commitments of effort which have characterized
the bulk of all cultures. Common problems and limited numbers of alternative solutions have been persistent forces toward cultural parallelism,
convergence and diffusion. Nevertheless, no known society is fully pragmatic
and stereotyped; conversely, expressive behavior and innovations in all
societies are continually finding pragmatic use and becoming patterned. The
essence of socio-cultural evolution is a dynamic balancing between the forces
of change and of stabilization in increasingly larger, better equipped and
better integrated societies.
1.

this

The strategy

of

human environmental use

Six

components embody

complex:

Economic organization, which involves a division of labor

a.
through specialization and cooperation; the recognition of equities, or property
rights, for current, past or potential services; the exchange of goods and
services between individuals and groups; and the regulation of demand, production and distribution in accord with the community's social codes.
Specialization and cooperation within the family are pre-human; however.
Upper Paleolithic hunting for the mammoth, horse and reindeer with the
surrounding demanded new levels of organization, discipline and coordinated
effort. Since sites for surrounds were limited and had to be free of human
smell to be effective, concepts of trespass on group property arose. Ethnological data indicate that among the simplest cultures individual property
includes personal things and incorporeal rights, e.g. magical songs and
fetishes endowing the possessor with hunting luck, curative powers, etc.
The latter reinforce role differences; at the same time, the prospect of their
transfer by ceremony or at death gives them economic value in old age. In
general, the span of private property increases with social complexity, but is
always limited within in-groups. Special institutions- -work groups, firms
and bureaucracies- -also develop in complex societies to perform given tasks
and hold appropriate properties.
59

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b;isri9Jos-ijs.do evsri liDJri.y Jiol^a 'lo a-in^ajiimraoo oJni rairi b?o':cl hr.a nfiiri ni
rrj'iu:ilt!r> IIb ^o :Uijd atJJ
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Lecture 21

60

Exchanges may be distinguished as automatic, always within a

closed group, e.g. primitive food distribution and modern social-security
payments; and conditional, upon effecting some desired exchange (in goods,
services or status) from unspecified sources. Freely accessible assemblies
of persons and goods, or markets, and general codes of equivalence, or
money, facilitate conditional exchanges. The relative returns, or terms of
trade, in exchanges provide basic measures of social dominance; however,
since relative scarcities (and related values) differ between individuals and
groups, the terms of trade are multi- valued, and may be simultaneously
favorable (or unfavorable) for both exchangers. The most effective exchanges
offer credit at interest. They thus include anticipation, feedback and evaluation of risks.

Regulation of consumption, production and demand is universal. The

formation of consumption units via cohabitation is restricted by incest taboos;
by requirements of prior service, property exchange, and ceremony; and by
supernatural and physical sanctions. This may effectively limit reproduction
where, as in Tibet and Ireland, institutionalized celibacy has religious reinAnother fertility-inhibiting pattern is found in Near Eastern
forcement
urban cultures by polygany among the aged, with prostitution and homosexuality being recognized gratifications for younger males. Conversely, societies
with strong inhibitions of homosexuality, with premarital license, and with
systematically equalized economic returns, such as the Russian peasantry
prior to\^orldWar II, maximize fertility, even survival is selectively
regulated; both infanticide and the exposure of the aged regulated population
among such Arctic peoples as the Chukchi and the Eskimo. Infanticide and
abortion are old, widespread and effective means of regulating population
size found in primitive, peasant and urban cultures: Polynesia, rural
Bulgaria, Japan, Hungary, Sweden, etc. Often, as in Japan and Hungary,
half or more of all conceptions are aborted. Private property accumulation,
sharp status differences, and social mobility promote population limitation
in all known cultures. Finally, other types of demands are also socially
influenced, in both level and kind. This plasticity of demand, whether selfinduced or externally enforced, represents one of man's fundamental adaptive
assets.
.

b.

Tools and instruments.

The former move, shape and chemi-

cally transform matter. They also comprise containers such as baskets and pots,
insulators and allied modifiers. Organisms, such as yeast or cattle, can be
tools. Instruments extend perception and logical span, insure reliability of
action, and economize efforts by feeding back past experience. Linguistic
concepts of category, of time, space and number, and of logical relations
underlie the systematic, socialized use of tools and instruments. Identifiable
traditions of tool working date back to the Middle Paleolithic.

The systematic harvesting of foodstuffs and materials.

c.
Orderly observations, an epistemology of things useful and noxious, mobility.

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Lecture 21

61

and appropriate devices are essential. These generate natural cycles and
distributions of human activity, enhanced in effectiveness by division of labor
and exchanges. The perception of utility in by-products has greatly extended
the range of useful foodstuffs and materials. For example, both acorn meal
in aboriginal California and bitter manioc in the Amazon were undoubtedly byproducts of poison extraction, wherein the primary product was used for
stunning fish and killing fleeting game and the food came as a starvation
expedient. Metallurgy (from easily reducible oxides) probably arose from
using fire for cooking, baking pottery or flint extraction. Finally, the
reduction of external competition, e.g. by burning off unwanted timber,
and of internal competition, e.g. in herds, by castration of extra males aid
harvesting. Upgrading through deliberate selection and breeding is new.

The capture of external energy. Fire, gravity, domestic

d.
animals, wind, gas expansion and radiation comprise the forces successfully
tapped by man for productive use. Vast increases in the scale of external
energy use have taken place in industrial countries; in the United States in
1955, inanimate energy use per capita came to 61 million kilocalories (SchurrNetschert, p. 264), compared to a maximum of 2,500,000 kilocalories ingestec
as food both directly and also via animals, making allowances for loss in
conversion between fodder and animal products. Increases in the thermal and
economic efficiency of energy use, in the ready transmittal of energy, and in
the range of its applications have also been fundamentally important.
e.
The transformation of materials and energy Man has,
through heat, fermentation, and other physico-chemical reactions been able
to up-grade foodstuffs and materials to usable form, and to recover otherwise
wasted materials and energy. Grinding, more rarely chemical treatment
such as reduction (hominy), and cooking transformed grains into food; brewing
did as well, but also led to vitamin-B synthesis and to exhiiiration. Fermentation by well-tolerated bacteria to generate environments too acid for highly
toxic strains helps preserve grain, dairy products and fish; drying, salting,
freezing represent other resource extenders. Materials recovery, e.g.
scrap reprocessing, immensely conserves energy and resources; in the
United States today, about half of all metal worked and a third of the paper is
from scrap.
.

Storage and feedback of reserves

Stored materials,
accumulated tools and instruments (or fixed capital), and recorded or
memorized information comprise man's means of insuring continued
consumption and survival with intermittent effort. These reserves allow
experimentation without stress, and the discrimination of maximum returns.
f.

2.

developed

Man's ecological capacities. In general five capacities have

consequence of mcm's &trc,tegy of environmental use:
,

in

His mobility, perceptive abilities, computational skill,

strength and manipulative dexterity have been artificially multiplied
a.

memory,

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Lecture 21

62

He has replicated his digestive system of energy and

b.
materials captured by numerous, extensive and varied external, artificial
circulations.

He has created

macro-habitats as well as microhabitats; with his symbiotes and parasites he has partially achieved an
artificial biome.
c.

artificial

Through these means, he has developed a capacity to occupy,

not merely a niche, but an eco-space, with considerable exchanges possible
between desired trophic level and population density.
d.

Finally, through storage, he has provided the means for altere.

natives over time. Thus, man has gained the possibility for a range of
behavioral activity and inactivity far beyond all other species.

Ecological commitments and the limits of pragmatism. In general,

the meeting of primary needs, especially the food quest, have occupied the bulk
of human activity until the Industrial Revolution. At a maximum, with the aid
of imposed controls, and with periodic hazards of famine, even the leading
cultures of the eighteenth century could free a fifth of their populations for
urban life, and a very few for cultivated leisure and pomp. Yet even the
poorest people have significant forms of expression- -Upper Paleolithic
and African Bushman painting, Australian and Shoshone oral literature,
Eskimo sculpture. And even dilettantes and wastrels may precipitate
discovery: statistics arose from the gambling table. Religious movements
may spring out of periods of intense moral concern, as in the Roman Empire
(Bell), but once established may act as ecological regulators of major
importance. The religious origins of modern hospitals and universities are
cases in point. Thus ecological pragmatism, although a powerful guide to
human culture, is a limited one.
3.

Required Reading
C. Daryll Forde: "Foraging, hunting and fishing,"

in

Singer

I:

154-186.

Other References
H. Idris Bell: Cults and Creeds in Graeco-Roman Egypt
Philosophical Library, 1953. pp. 105.

New York:

H. E. Driver and
E. Massey: Comparative Studies of North American
Indians. (Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. vol. 47, pt. 2) Phila.
1957,
esp. pp. 363-407.
.

S.

H. Schurr and B. C. Netschert: Energy in the American Economy ,

1850-1975. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1960. esp. pp. 31-190.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 22.

Processes of Socio-cultural Evolution (Shimkin)

During the nineteenth century, students of culture accepted without

significant exception, the idea of human cultural unity. The phenomenon
was believed to arise from inherent similarities of the human mind. Cultural
differences were ascribed to varying levels of achievement on a single
evolutionary scale, the apex of which was represented by the totality of
contemporary Western civilization.

Within this frame of reference, theories of considerable sophistication

emerged. In particular, Herbert Spencer's Principles of Sociology formulated basic concepts of cultural growth:

"Recognizing the primary truth that social phenomena depend in part

on the natures of the individuals and in part on the forces the individuals are
subject to, we see that these two fundamentally-distinct sets of factors, with
which social changes commence, give origin to other sets as social changes
advance. The pre-established environing influences, inorganic and organic,
which are at first almost unalterable, become more and more altered by the
actions of the evolving society. Simple growth of population brings into play
fresh causes of transformation that are increasingly important. The
influences which the society exerts on the natures of its units, and those
which the units exert on the nature of the society, incessantly co-operate in
creating new elements. As societies progress in size and structure, they
work on one another, now by their war-struggles and now by their industrial
intercourse, profound metamorphoses. And the ever-accumulating, evercomplicating super-organic products, material and mental, constitute a
further set of factors which become more and more influential causes of
changes. So that, involved as the factors are at the beginning, each step in
advance increases the involution, by adding factors which themselves grow
more complex while they grow more powerful." ( Principles of Sociology,
I:

14).

Spencer anticipated many later findings. For example, his social

typology approached Julian Steward's levels of socio-cultural integration.
Spencer differentiated simple, compound, doubly compound, and trebly
compound societies (the last being unstable empires). These levels were
differentiated by the increasing formation of classes (arising ultimately out
of primitive captive slavery), and of occupational groups. Within each level,
there were different intensities of integration (from headless, to stable
63

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64

Lecture 22

headship) and ecological variants (nomadic, semisettled, settled). Finally,

all societies could be grouped into one of two configurations, militant or
industrial. Each level, integrative pattern, ecological variant and configu(Ibid
esp. I: 537-563).
ration generates appropriate social correlates
Illustrative of these correlates is the following: "Generally when the militant
type is highly developed, the political head and the ecclesiastical head are
identical- -the king, chief descendant of his ancestor who has become a god, is
also chief propitiator of him (Ibid. I: 548)." Over seventy years later,
Robert Lowie, utilizing extensive data for native America, rediscovered this
theory.
.

ar I, critical field work and theoretical studies, especMalinowski and their students yielded findings
Bronislaw
ially by Franz Boas,
discrediting early evolutionism. Four areas of weakness were established:

After World

V.

The specific correlations between cultural stages and traits

1.
postulated especially by Morgan and Marx did not correspond to the facts.
Neither primitive communism nor primitive promiscuity could be substantiated;
bilateral or patrilineal rather than matrilineal groups characterized the
simplest cultures. Subsistence systems and socio-political institutions
had no regular correspondences: Plains Indian hunters had strict police
systems with true legal authorities, institutionalized warfare, social grading,
etc. Conversely, Philippine cultivators dependent upon great systems of
irrigated terraces lacked central authority and cities, yet had elaborate,
effective laws based on kinship obligations, arbitration by go-betweens and
stylized feuding.
Man's environmental adaptations were both incomplete and often
2.
secondary. Oriental cultivators used cattle solely as draft animals, eschewing dairy products. African herdsmen used dairy products and cattle blood,
but failed to use animals for power. Moreover, Eskimo technology was
found via archeology to be, not a response to Arctic harshness, but a reduction of cultural elaboration reached far earlier in the richer area of the
Bering Sea.
Correlated with the disproof of naive environmentalism was
increasing evidence of widespread cultural diffusion. Borrowing emerged as
3.

a major alternative to internal evolution.

4.
Above all, the bankruptcy of Victorian values in World War I and
the discovery of substantial intellectual achievements, and of consistent

rationales, even among humble peoples such as the Trobriand Islanders

(Malinowski), the Winnebago (Radin) and others, led to a rejection of a single
evolutionary scale. Were West African rhythms or the subtleties of artistic
distortion in West African sculptures really inferior to the thump-thump of
Victorian hymns or the gingerbread of Victorian architecture? Did laissez
faire provide ethical standards more advanced than those of the Crow?

Ab'iliioa .baliioa'sn'.oa ^oibBtcuin)

,\.ilKn.i"i

lo jnrilairn
-i)p.f1ao;:> b/JB

anoi-ts-iugxlnooowJ

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ol';''

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Lecture 22

65

An

additional generation of research has been needed to reexamine

the empirical evidence of cultural variation and development. Since World

War

a neo-evolutionism more fully reconciling theory and evidence has

arisen in the United States, led especially by Julian Steward. The essence
of this viewpoint, also termed multilinear evolution, is as follows:
II,

Socio-cultural evolution can be accepted as a synthetic obser1.

vation of world-wide, historic trends toward objectively more effective
technologies, population growth, more extensive social and spatial ordering,
and behavioral diversification. Various stages of capacity by these criteria
can, furthermore, be defined as levels of socio-cultural integration. These
include kinship-based, subsistence-dominated societies; stratified and
nucleated aggregations, integrated, theocratic monarchies; etc. This
taxonomy is a basic device for structural analysis, but it involves no
assumptions of common historical origins, nor any moral evaluation. It
explicitly excludes phenomena of a biocultural and expressive nature which
are largely independent of economic capacity.
2.

While physical factors such as food supply, means of trans-

portation, and the like limit attainable levels of integration, stimulusresponse hypotheses are inadequate to explain cultural developments.
Societies usually have several alternatives to stress situations, e.g.
population control, and historically observed conditions of extreme stress
induce messianic movements and other escapist reactions (Plains Indian
Ghost Dance, etc.) rather than adaptation. An alternative hypothesis of
cultural development is as follows:
a.
Cultural innovations are constantly developing as results
of transmittal errors, intellectual play with exciting patterns, contextual

changes and deliberate disjunctions.

Their acceptance depends upon a social

perception of distinctiveness, physical or psychological utility, and compatibility with existing practices.
Societies aggregate behavior into patterns characterized by
b.
codes of relationship which conform to physical requirements ( e.g. technology) and to group standards of symmetry, comprehensiveness and closure.
Patterns yield approved combinations of action, within which behavior is
institutionalized and facilitated (vision quests or scientific research), and
beyond which even useful adaptations tend strongly to be inhibited.
3.
Internal innovation and diffusion (or borrowing) are not alternative but complementary forces of change. Diffusion is maximized by
parallel evolution which permits the ready integration of new elements into
existing patterns, e.g crops between agricultural people. It induces widespread effects from changes in economic opportunity and other social
alternatives, e.g. the lessening of kinship ties as a consequence of desires
.

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Lecture 22

66

Finally, it produces conflicts which lead to

replacement, rejection or accommodation between old and new. In culture,
functionally equivalent traits follow the law of competitive exclusion. Coexistence is possible only when psychologically distinctive attributes are
given each, e.g. traditional clothing for holidays.
for individual betterment.

comparative ethnography
(including those of modern cultures), and of ongoing change are consistent
with generalizations based on broad equivalences of structure and function
(kinship-based societies as opposed to "matrilineai clans'.').
4.

The observed facts

of culture history,

Required Reading
J.

H. Steward and D. B. Shimkin: "Some Mechanisms of Sociocultural

Evolution," Daedalus Summer 1961, pp. 477-497.

Other References
H. G. Barnett: Innovation

The Basis

of Cultural

Change, New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1953.

M.S.

Briggs: "Town-planning from the ancient world to the Renaissance,"

in Singer III, pp. 269-299.

A. R. Hall:

"The rise

of the

west,"

in

Singer

III,

pp. 709-722.

H. S. Harrison: "Discovery, invention and diffusion,"

C. Singer:

"East and

\,

est in retrospect,"

in

Singer

II,

in

Singer

I,

pp. 58-84.

pp. 753-776.

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gnibuJonl)

oJ b

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iG lulinooiooS lo afninj-.d:i9'

ifu

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!, .n 'v-

'OOSiQ"
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.,.

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:aoaix^BH
-t-vr-T^"

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Stages of Socio-cultural Evolution (Shimkin)

Lecture 23.

identification of approximate landmarks of social development or

levels of socio-cultural integration, in J. K. Steward's terminology, retains
considerable analytic value even when stripped of imputations of historical
"law" or inevitable sequence. These landmarks can serve as devices for the

The

functional study of similar cultures in different contexts of time and place.

Conversely, the diversity of types ascribable to larger geographical areas
at particular times leads to questions about the nature and mechanics of their
interrelationships. Both approaches aid in isolating basic cultural adaptations
from more mobile patterns and elements, which might be regarded as stylistic

overtones.

Three general approaches have been tried

in cultural typology.

Toynbee's (1947) and Kroeber's (1944)

traditions
or civilizations, such as those
regional
investigations,* centers on
of China, India and Western Europe, and seeks to define the stages of growth
and decline for each. In Toynbee's work, these reconstructions have been
exemplifications of a general theory of cultural growth, from a period of
initial ecological challenge (physical or social), a "time of troubles" during
which effective responses are found, dissemination to a "universal state",
to a final decadence and supersession. Kroeber is more circumspect, and
gives no necessary sequence to the pulsations of creative activity which his
data indicate to have been intermittent phenomena in every major culture.
Both men emphasize non- material culture: Toynbee, religion; and Kroeber,
1.

The

first, characteristic of

the arts.

The technique

of identifying stages by index features, such as

agriculture and writing, characterizes the writing of the nineteenth century
2.

This system is more

evolutionists, including Spencer and E. B. Tylor
objective, but faces the dual hazards of excessive grossness, if only one
index item is used, or of uncertainty when multiple criteria are utilized and
fail to coincide.
Should the intellectual achievements of the Maya, writing
and a positional number system, outweigh the administrative triumphs of the
Incas? Is it most important that the Hittites and the Incas had remarkable
similarities in the nature of their kingship, supporting social stratification,
socio-religious mechanisms, religious organization and ceremonialism, law
and administration? Or should the differences in agricultural practice--hoe
.

*Both

of

which are derivative from Oswald Spengler.

67

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QldfijhBxnsT hiii\ af.onl sril bnc aoJijiili orii JsdJ Jnsnoqrxii Jao'jTi Jj al ?aBonI
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biBWBO.'fXib'xS; :?^v|.iBvi^sib 9TIB ribxjiw. lo

dio8*

Lecture 23

68

versus plow, irrigation versus dry farming, potatoes rather than grapes -be given primacy? Finally, the problems of rejuvenated and recurrent
institutions are difficult. Can clan systems expanded through elaborate
rationalizations of relative seniority and fictional genealogies to meet the
military and administrative needs of nomadic states, as among the Turks,
still be identified as kindred? Are the theocratic pretensions, the class
stratifications, the bureaucracies, the police systems,, the economic
controls of Western European Enlightened Autocrats sufficient to group these
societies with the Asiatic and Mediterranean Empires from Cyrus' Persia

onward?
The ultimate tests of groupings such as these are their capacities
provide plausible and fairly uniform explanations of variance, and especially to disclose unsuspected similarities in cultural characteristics
and dynamics. At present, a seven-fold, socio-political classification
appears to be broadly valid and analytically fruitful.
to

a.
Kinship-based, subsistence-dominated societies. Such
structures were universal until the invention of fishing techniques in the
Mesolithic, and were still extant within the past century among marginal
peoples (South African Bushmen, African and S. E. Asian Negritos,
Tasmanians, Central Eskimo, Basin Shoshoneans; Siriono, Ona and Alacaluf
in South America, etc.). The fundamental features in these groups are limits
in food resources and mobility restricting permanent groups to 50 persons or
fewer, hence to traceable kin. Collective hunts and other times of fleet food
surplus permit the assembly of simple communities of, say, 150 persons.
These are prime occasions for courtship and ceremonialism. Shamans are
usually the sole specialists, but distinct behavior patterns between particular
sets of relatives and individual, incorporeal property are common. (Steward,
1955, pp. 101-142).

Expanded primary societies are associated with improvements

b.
supply (large-scale fishing, intensive gathering and small-scale
agriculture) or in mobility (water transport, reindeer, horses) permitting
permanent groups of several hundred and temporary assemblies of a thousand
persons or more to arise. Limited, often unstable, status differentiation
and elementary political authorities (chiefs, shamans or priests, police),
devices of self-identification (group names, cemeteries, war cries) and
rituals are common. Warfare over economic resources is characteristic.
In general, expanded primary societies include semi-sedentary peoples
(Mohave, Yokuts, Pomo, Hupa in California; Pueblo Indians; Ge of Eastern
Brazil) with important plant resources, and mobile hunters (Ostyak, Tungus,
Chukchi of Siberia; North American Plains Indians; Guarani of South America).
The former probably represent a general state emerging in favored localities
during the Mesolithic and early Neolithic; the latter are late acculturations
to contacts with richer cultures or impoverishments in hostile environments.
(Steward, 1955, pp. 143-172).
in food

^'{Ji

as ad?

aji.

.'93

Lecture 23

69

Ceremonially centered, multi-community, differentiated

c.
societies seemingly reflect population growth, economic diversification,
including local specialization (agriculture, animal husbandry, mining,
whaling, etc.), effective local communications, and regional solidarities
based upon common religious values. A priesthood, often hereditary, tends
the ceremonial centers, and assumes instructional, welfare and juridical
roles. Regional support permits wealth accumulation at these centers;
periodic markets and commercial handicrafts are also frequent correlates.
Such societies have been represented in pre -dynastic Egypt, florescent
Mesopotamia, coastal Peru (Chavin), Cahokia in the Mississippi Valley;
the historic Natchez of the southeastern United States; the Lobi of West
Africa, the Nagoo of Assam and elsewhere. (Adams, Collier, Palerm, 1955).
Stratified conquest states have been widespread in time and
Shang China, Assyria, the Scythic kingdoms, the Aztec confederacy,

d.

space:

Confederacy, and many Polynesian and African kingdoms are

This type of society seemingly arises from ceremonially
centered groupings under the impact of two forces: an increasing concentratbn
of wealth and power which becomes ever more demanding or intensified
competition between groups from population growth, rising mobility (the
Eurasian steppe), etc. Militarism allied with religion justifies absolutism,
looting, human sacrifice, slavery and concubinage. Sharp differences in
behavioral codes arise for rulers and ruled; among the former, warrior
classes with internal mobility, courts and attendants, ideas of dignity and
honor, are frequent. New requirements in material culture --arms, fortifications, transportation, roads- -promote planning, directed labor, and mass
production. At the same time, tyranny yields constant unrest. (Creel, 1937).
the Iroquois

illustrative.

e.
Integrated, bureaucratic monarchies. In the Near East after
2,000 B.C. among the Incas, and especially in Achemenid Persia, Han China
and the Mourya Empire of India, the unstable conquest states grew into highly
regulated, centralized empires. Bodies of officials replaced the bulk of
personal rule, procedures and records ramified, civil as well as military
public works became prominent, taxation replaced looting, open cities and
widened commerce (often aided by currency and standard measures) generated
wealth, while conspicuous consumption was much in evidence. National
religious and official languages, as well as hierarchical levels of local
organization, were imposed upon heterogeneous populations, which were often
moved and mixed to reduce possibilities of revolt. Many of these features have
recurred in subsequent eras, up to contemporary totalitarianism. (Gurney,
,

1954).
f.
Law -based, corporate states. In the Old World, but not in
aboriginal America, the major bureaucratic monarchies developed into less
centralized and less authoritarian systems inadequately designated as "feudal.''

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Lecture 23

10

of these changes was an increasing emphasis upon personal

choice and responsibility, exemplified by the concepts of conditional land
tenure (fiefs); of personal obligations for prayer, alms, ritual abstinences,
and other-worldly salvation; and of potential release from worldly pressures

The essence

through monasticism. Human sacrifice vanished and slavery, although

continuing, received censure. Corporate bodies- -guilds, religious organizations, nobles and peasants--became the foci of social activity, including
welfare and burial. These bodies were largely self -regulating, and public
law attended mostly to inter-group conflicts. These changes appear to have
been associated with greater requirements of capital and skill in urban
activities (metallurgy, masonry, etc.), which promoted military autonomy
at low cost, and with agricultural stagnation. Societies of this type arose
in the Mediterranean in late Hellenistic times, and characterize much of the
Middle East and India even now. (Coon, 1951).

Mobile, persuasion-controlled, high-energy societies are

g.
developing world-wide today. High agricultural productivity, unparalleled
urbanization, mass communications, general education and individualized
status have been superimposed upon law-based corporate systems to yield
structures of extraordinary complexity, controllable only with the informational means of the machine age
3.
The third approach to cultural classification is in relation to the
development of major cultural patterns. For example, industrialization has
comprised two phases, elemental and complex. Elemental industrialization
we find to be a system of maximizing the output and efficiency of fabricating
activities by the introduction of five complementary practices:

The breakdown of products and processes into parts and

(1)
stages susceptible to separate handling.

The standardization of these parts and stages so that uniform

outcomes emerge from the assembly of similar units, or the conduct of simi(2)

lar series of procedures,

(3)

shift

from self-sufficient sets

of skills and

procedures

to

specialization and systematic exchange.

(4)

change from purely custom work

to satisfy

needs as they

arise to the anticipation of demand.

A change from unit or irregular volumes of production to

(5)
standardized batch or even continuous flow output.
Applying these concepts to specific cultures, we can note that
virtually no hunting and gathering people have the cultural prerequisites for
industrialization. At the same time, elemental industrialization is an old

phenomenon, well developed by 2000 B.C.

istic of

many agrarian

societies.

in the

Near East, and character-

ov

lio-^^.

krw

ianoe.'ioq nortji 2i85rJcTm'j pnia^iB'xori an

s9nf,rlo saorJ^

sor:

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o rn9Jr.Y,a -s sd. cl {.nil 9w

9vjl lu Horjouboijnj 9rii yd agbiyiJoii

gnisJii

:>iqrc.(00

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(1^)

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9;i-:. 9d.1

y;d

oi oai'XB

(a)

^P

b&v^oievob

llov/^

^nongriionsrlq

Lecture 23

71

Since the eighteenth century, elemental industrialization has been

transformed in Europe, the United States and Japan by a series of developments which have proceeded in two distinct lines, market economics or
private capitalism and command economics or State capitalism. Both lines
of evolution have been evident in every country. In the United States, for
example, land grants underwriting railroad construction and protective
tariffs were present along with entrepreneurship. In Russia, both before and
since the Revolution, the peasant entrepreneur has continually given State or
State -fostered activities intense competition in the area of consumer goods
and services (Shimkin, 1952). Nevertheless, a general dichotomy seems
valid

The main developments leading from elemental

to

complex industrial-

ization have included the following:

(1)

New, impersonal, hierarchical and self-perpetuating

organizations have developed for decision-making, the administration of

resources and personnel, and the direction of production. These are the
private firm and the public bureau, and the factory.

Conscious, systematic and institutionalized efforts have been

undertaken to expand resources and promote useful innovations. Under State
capitalism, the motivations for such efforts have centered in the promotion
of national power, and Academies of Science have served as typical instruments. Under private capitalism, profit opportunities and competitive
pressures have provided stimuli, while the instruments have been diverse.
Individual efforts protected by patents and similar guarantees; various
contract arrangements; and specialized organizations have all been employed.
(2)

These innovations have been particularly expressed in the

inanimate energy for motive power and in the mastery of a

(3)

harnessing of
tremendous range of physico-chemical processes. Together, these innovations
have made possible tremendous increases in the volume of output and in labor
productivity, and entirely new classes of goods and services.
Simultaneously, they have introduced new problems of
(4)
obsolescence for skills, natural resources and equipment. In consequence,
the demands of industrialization upon the surplus of an economy are intensified
by the need to replace the old-fashioned as -well as the worn-out, in addition
to providing for growth in demand. Under State capitalism, economic
compartmentation permits highly selective replacement, and the real costs
of obsolescence in low -priority sectors are reflected in open or hidden subsidies and underemployment. Under private capitalism, the effects of
obsolescence are ubiquitous and the costs are reflected in unused capacity
and unemployment.

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'

72

Lecture 23

Finally, the system of industrialization has spread from

other economic activities, to varying degree. A modern
American poultry or grain farm is precisely as much an industrial establishment as a textile mill.
(5)

manufacturing

to all

Required Reading
Steward, J. H.: Theory of Culture Change
1955, pp. 178-209.

Urbana: Univ. of

Wilson, C: "Technology and Industrial Organization:

in

Press,

111.

Singer V:

799-813.

Other Readings
Ancient Mesopotamia," pp. 6-18
of J. H. Steward (ed.). Irrigation Civilizations: A Comparative Study
(Washington: Pan American Union, 1955).

Adams, R. M.: ''Developmental Stages

in

Collier, D.: "Development of Civilization on the Coast of Peru,"

in Irrigation Civilizations , op. cit

pp. 19-27

Coon,

C:

Caravan.

The Story

of the Middle

East

New York:

Holt, 1951

pp. 376.

Creel,

H.G.: The

Birth of China.

New York: Reynal & Hitchcock,

1937.

pp. 402.

Gurney, O. R.: The Hittites.

Kroeber, A. L.

London:

Penguin Book, 1954.

Configurations of Culture Growth.

California Press, 1944. pp. 882.
:

pp. 240.

Berkeley: Univ. of

urban civilization in Mesoamerica,"

pp. 28-42 of Irrigation Civilizations op cit.

Palerm, A.

"The agricultural bases

of

Shimkin, D. B.: "Industrialization, a Challenging Problem for Cultural

Anthropology," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 8: 84-91, 1952,

Toynbee,A.: A Study

of History

D. C. Somervell.

Abridgement of Volumes I-VI by

New York: Oxford,

1947.

pp. 618.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369,and

Zoology 369)
Lecture 24.

Evolution of the Food Quest.

(Shimkin)

Introduction to

Lectures 24-30

of man's capacity to procure, process, store and

distribute food has been the foundation of all other cultural advances, and the
source of man's most pervasive influences upon natural habitats. At the
same time ecological possibilities and constraints have continually dictated

The development

the technological evolution of the food quest. The biological characteristics

of the plants and animals exploited, and the climate, soils and topography of
each habitat have set corresponding requirements. Thus, while domesticates
and food procurement technology have been diffused between areas, and
while natural conditions have often been greatly modified, each of the biomes
(from tropical forest to tundra) and each of the zoological regions (from
Ethiopian to Holarctic) has had a distinctive evolutionary sequence for the

food quest. Even where, as in Australia and New Zealand, entire biotas have
been transplanted, the relations between native and introduced species have
precipitated unique problems, e.g. the rabbit nuisance in Australia and the
sheep-killing habits acquired by New Zealand parrots.

Five basic types of food procurement can be recognized: hunting,

fishing, gathering, agriculture and pastoralism. Hunting appears to have
been a practice even of the Australopithecines, but fishing appears only in
the Mesolithic era, and the wet, warming climate of the Boreal period.
Fruits, nuts and greens form part of all Primate diets, but the systematic
gathering of seeds, edible piths and roots necessitated technological innovations --digging sticks, winnowing baskets, seed grinding, straining, cooking,
etc. These seemingly developed in the early Atlantic period in the Old and
New Worlds alike, perhaps 10,000 years ago. V, ithin two or three thousand
years they were succeeded by agriculture of several types, which unquestionably developed independently in several centers.
Agricultural evolution has involved repeated parallel developments
irrigation, manuring), diffusions of successful domesticates, and the
suppression of competitors. Thus, Chenopodium or goosefoot was once an
important crop both in the Old and New Worlds, although it is today only a
weed. Especially important stages in agricultural development include
( e.g.

the development of draft-animal p;.owing, sickles, irrigation and permanent field operation in the Near East by 3000 B.C.; (2) the domestication of
the major Mediterranean tree crops- -olive, orange, etc. --by 1000 B.C.;
(3) the great crop interchanges between the West, China and India from about
(1)

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Lecture 24

74

100 B. C. to about 700 A.D.; (4) the crop and animal interchanges between
the Old and New Worlds after 1492; (5) the introduction of mineral fertilization, liming and associated soil-improvement techniques about 1750;
(6) agricultural mechanization, from about 1860; and (7) scientific genetic
selection, including hybridization, and pest control via insecticides, since
about 1900. Each stage has permitted new spurts of population growth,

world wide.
Pastoralism is the youngest form of food production. The earliest
herding people, in the inner Asian steppes, were sheep raisers and seed
gatherers about 2,000 B.C. Herding is often combined with part-time
agriculture, as among the Turkmen, or made more certain by tame hay
cultivation, often with irrigation (Altai Turks). In the Arctic, reindeer
pastoralism has been an extension of reindeer-mounted hunting and the use
of decoy reindeer after the extermination of the wild reindeer. It dates only
to the fourteenth century in most of Eurasia.

The significance of the food quest in human ecology is determined by

These are (1) the abundance, nutritional quality and reliability

five factors.

(including possibility of storage of the food resources exploited); (2) the

quantities of labor and materials needed to procure and process the food;
(3) the organization of space (land use, migrations, etc) and of time (vegetative cycle, migrations) necessitated; (4) the possibilities of maximizing
output and returns by specialization and exchanges of other products ( e.g. ,
commercial fishing, fur trapping, mono-crop agriculture); and (5) the terms
of trade engendered by the social setting of food production (entrepreneurship,
debt-slavery, serfdom, etc.).
Illustrative applications of these principles to non-agricultural
peoples are as follows:

Aboriginally, life in the deserts and uplands of the Great Basin of

North America depended upon a continuous gathering of seeds, roots and
pinon nuts, supplemented only occasionally by jackrabbit or antelope meat
gained through collective drives (Steward, 1938, 1955). Extreme dispersal
and frequent migrations throughout a well-known foraging area were essential.
Except in favored localities families were the permanent social units, with
larger gatherings feasible only for short periods; the material culture was
restricted to the minima transportable on human backs or readily manufactured on the spot. Yet the population densities achieved ranged from 1.5
to 16 persons per 100 sq. km.
compared to 0.8 to 12 persons per 100 sq.km.
for the far richer Plains (Kroeber, 1939, pp. 139-140). The basic advantages
offered by pursuit of the 40 million bison of the Plains, once the horse had
been acquired, were the possibility of transporting far more goods, of
maintaining seasonally far greater social aggregates, of very extensive
migrations (hence, intercultural stimulation), and of continuous warfare.
,

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Lecture 24

75

But these advantages were limited by intermittent contact with the herds,
because of their wide movements and conflict between Indian tribes.
Buffalo meat in abundance was available for half the year at best; in winter
particularly, dispersal after smaller game--elk, deer and antelope--was
essential, and survival

moose

most

difficult (Shimkin, 1947).

In central Alaska, the aboriginal pattern of hunting for caribou,

and beaver, supplemented by fishing, permitted only a very thin

population (6.5 persons per 1000 sq. km.) (Kroeber, loc. cit. ). Although
warfare, chieftainship, and wealth stratification were moderately developed,
nuclear families were the sole winter groups, and starvation was a continuous problem.

Fort Yukon area in Alaska had a density

persons per 1000 sq.. km. New luxuries in housing, clothing, and
transportation (large dog teams) were evident. All this had been achieved
through the commercialization of trapping, which gave far higher returns in
imported food for game caught than was directly obtainable from the land.
But an unstable balance had been generated by new medical and relief aid;
the former reduced the 1943-49 death rate to 33 per 1000 (compared to an
extraordinary birthrate of 58 per 1000), and the latter provided a sixth of the
gross resources of the population. Game was being depleted at an increasIn 1947, the population of the

of about 14

ingly rapid rate. Above all, unstable demand for furs, the high capitalization in equipment and perishables needed by each trapper, and the legal
uncertainties of trap-line titles made the future precarious. With new
resources, however, the labor inputs of trapping had been reduced to perhaps
six months' efforts; summer gardening could expand the subsistence base,
but alternative employment opportunities for a genuine solution were lacking
(Shimkin, 1955).

a far more productive form of food procurement than

hunting. Kroeber 's study shows that, except in the Southwest, the North
American population distribution was largely determined by marine and
river fishing possibilities. Two basic types of fishing are known: (a) shore
fishing, involving traps, weirs, or nets and gathering at favorable localities,
e.g , for mollusca; and (b) floating fishing. The former is associated with
precise property controls and identifications of fishing rights, e.g. Northwest
California and medieval Europe. In the latter, the ownership of fishing
vessels is the basis of wealth and social leadership, e.g. , maritime Lapps
and Chukchi. In both cases, the role of men is economically predominant.
Also considerable leisure permits the development of crafts, and
ceremonialism in permanent residences.

Fishing

is

The productivity of fishing underlies considerable amounts of

population growth and associated traits, e.g. extensive dog-sled operation
and winter mobility. A major danger in fish-based economies is the narrow

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Lecture 24

76

ecological basis of fish life. Fish, in general, are very sensitive to changes
Pacific salmon, are
in temperature and salinity. Also, some species, e.g.
cyclical in their frequencies. In the "on year" there may be ten times as
many as in the "off year." In the Pacific Northwest, from northern California
Frequency changes
to the Gulf of Alaska, there are five species of salmon.
are very moderate from year to year. The hinterland provides other food
resources such as roots, nuts and game so that the economy was fairly
broadly based. There was a great deal of cultural florescence, e.g. Tlingit
and Haida, including the famous potlatches or competitive wealth disposals.
,

Dog Salmon (Oncorrynchus keta), the

hinterland was much poorer, and the result was a much weaker development
of culture, especially in Kamchatka. There was a great deal of pressure

On

was only

the Asiatic side, there

the

from starvation, and neither chieftainship nor wealth displays developed.

See mammal hunting is more profitable but is highly localized. Seal
rookeries are found on certain beaches only, walrus live on moUusca, and
all mammals migrate extensively. It was especially necessary to have
competent boating technology. With this, and the use of the vegetable poison
aconite, the Aleuts and several other North Pacific groups were able even to
kill whales. These mammals provided not only food, but excellent fuel, hides
and other materials (Heizer, 1943).

Required Reading
"Domestication of animals,"

Zeuner, F. E.:

Singer,

I:

327-352

Or
Zeuner, F. E.: "Cultivation of plants," Singer,

I:

353-375

Other References
J. \\
Y. Higgs: "Agriculture: farm implements"
Singer, IV: 1-12.
Fussell: "Agriculture: techniques of farming" Singer, IV: 13-43

Beaumont, O. and

Aconite poison whaling in Asia and America" Bureau of

American Ethnology, Bulletin 133: 415-468, 1943.
Helbaek, H.
"Domestication of food plants in the Old V. orld" Science 130:
365-372. 1959.
Kroeber, A. L.: Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America,
pp. 242 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1939).
Laufer,B,: Sino-Iranica Field Museum of Natural History. Anthropological
Series XV: 185-630, 1919.
Reed, C.A.: "Animal domestication in the prehistoric Near East" Science
130: 1629-1638, 1959.
"Wind River Shoshone Ethno -Geography" University of
Shimkin, D. B.
California Anthropological Records 5: 245-284, 1947.

Heizer, R. F.:

39rr.j

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Lecture 24

77

"The Economy of a Trapping Center: the Case of Fort

Yukon, Alaska" Economic Development and Cultural Change III:
219-240, 1955.
Steward, J. H,: Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Bureau of
American Ethnology, Bulletin 120, pp. 346, 1938 (Esp. pp. 46-49,
230-258).
Theory of Culture Change Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 1955, (esp. pp. 101-121.
:

:?io'I

lo 3SF.D

orfj

^v:

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9TUi09J

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 25.

Agricultural Ecology

The Climatic Factor (Booth)

Agriculture, including both crop production and animal husbandry,

one of man's most significant occupations, is also the only significant one
which is even now, closely adjusted to the physical environment. Although
ail elements of the environment are factors in the ecology of crops and
domestic animals two, climate and soils, are especially significant. Of
all the elements of the crop environment, climate is the least susceptible
to change by man. A major exception to this observation is man's ability
to supply deficiencies of precipitation.

Climate is a composite or generalization of weather conditions and

However, no real picture of climate
is usually expressed in terms of means.
can be obtained without some consideration of extremes. This is particularly
true when dealing with climate as a factor of crop ecology since it is often the
extreme conditions rather than the average conditions which are the control-

Two

critical figures of special significance in

defining limits are a temperature of 32 F. and an annual moisture situation
in which precipitation is 60 per cent of evaporation. On the basis of these
ling or limiting factors.

two criteria certain broad climatic regions may be defined. These climatic
regions are useful for ecological purposes since they correspond generally
with major biotic, soils, and to some degree, landform regions.
ramifications are closely related to
solar energy intake. Since it receives on the average the most direct rays
of the sun the greatest energy receipts are at the equator. Receipts decrease
poleward with the annual total at the poles some 40 per cent of the equator
receipts. However, annual variations in the length of day as well as the
angle of the sun's rays result in seasonal variations in solar receipts so that,
for example, at 40 latitude solar receipts at the summer solstice exceed the
daily receipts at the equator at the equinox, the time of maximum reception

World temperatures

in all their

for that latitude.

A seven temperature
climatic classification.

zone pattern

is

common

There are: a tropical

many systems of
zone bounded by the mean
to

monthly temperature of the coldest months of 64 F. (which practically

insures that no temperatures of 32 or less occur), a subtropical or mild
winter zone bounded on its poleward margins by a mean monthly temperature
of 32 for the coldest month, a middle latitude or cold winter zone bounded on
its poleward margins by a mean monthly temperature of 32 for the warmest
78

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sjidijqsoaua Je^si ?dJ ai sJerriiiD .jnsrr-no-iivas qo-io aril) lo ajagmsio arii lis'
vjfijda a'nsiTJ ?.r noiifivfaado airii oi noiiqsoy.'^ -ioi.5!ri k' .rrsfTi vr! g^nci-jo ol

enoiiibnoo

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(oiJc'jtia o'lfjiaiorri l-^rjarie us bns .'^ C lo S'luJcisqiToJ b s-sc aJiajii gniniJab
aaerij lo eiacd erl3 aO
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u jn)r/ieqrf!H.i ylriinprn njB9irj

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Lecture 25

79

month. A possible substitute for this last boundary is the mean monthly
temperature of 50 for the warmest month, an isotherm which corresponds
to the poleward limit of tree growth (the timber line).

The moisture factor is somewhat less significant than the temperature

factor in crop ecology than in biotic ecology or soil formation since man has
made major adjustments in his culture to precipitation deficits. Several
systems of precipitation effectiveness have been proposed. In nearly all
cases boundaries have been established by comparing rates of precipitation
with rates of evaporation. Complications are added to describing a moisture
system by unequal seasonal distribution of precipitation and by the lack of
reliability or dependability of precipitation in many areas. Theoretically
there should be seven moisture zones on this planet based upon a consideration of zones of diverging and converging air circulation. These would be

increased to thirteen if seasonal shifts are considered. Land and water

contrasts, mountain barriers, ocean currents, and other considerations
so seriously disrupt this basic system that for most practical purposes the
zonal idea must be abandoned. For each of the temperature zones four
moisture divisions may be recognized, a constantly wet, a wet-and-dry with
over all effective precipitation, a wet-and-dry with over all non-effective
precipitation and a dry. Sixteen theoretical types of climate emerge from
this combination of critical temperature and moisture boundaries. Basic
biotic ecological and soil boundaries correspond to those of these climatic
regions. Agricultural ecological boundaries show somewhat less correspondence.

Certain critical crop and agricultural system boundaries for the

United States are examined.

The optimum and limiting conditions

and wheat are examined.

for basic cereals, rice, corn,

Required Reading
Klages, Ecological Crop Geography, pp. 1-9, 73-82, 294-321.

Other References
^Ailsie,

Crop Adaptation and Distribution.

Finch, Trewartha, et. al.. Physical Elements of Geography (appropriate

sections on climate).

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 26.

The Nature, Properties and Geographic Distribution

of Soils

(Russell)

over the land surface of the earth

under a wide range of
developed
are natural geologic bodies that have
climates and from diverse parent materials. The term soil is applied to
the upper part of the regolith which has been subjected to significant biochemical weathering. Hydrolysis, hydration, oxidation, carbonation, and
solution accompanied with a pronounced increase in interfacial area of the
solid phase are the major features of the physico-chemical weathering
leading to soil formation. The weathering is accompanied by biological
processes and the accumulation of organic matter. The translocation of
weathering products accompanied by deposition and resynthesis results in
the development of layers or soil horizons having distinctive properties.
Soils are classified on the basis of the occurrence and properties of the
several horizons which comprise the soil profile.

The

soils that

form a

thin mantle

The principal factors that govern the soil forming processes and
thereby determine the nature and properties of the soil formed are: parent
material, climate, vegetation, topography, and time. Through the interaction of these factors, soils are formed which differ widely from place to
place. On a broad scale climate is perhaps the most important factor affecting
development. This is reflected in the similarity in geographic distribution
of the Great Soil Groups and the major climatic regions of the world. Local
soil

differences of soils arise

other four factors.

more from

the interplay of the differences in the

The soil is a porous body composed largely of inorganic particles with

variable amounts of organic constituents. The voids between the solid
particles are filled with reciprocally varying amounts of water and air. The
inorganic particles which comprise roughly fifty per cent of the bulk volume
of most soils range widely in size and are conventionally classified as sand,
silt, or clay. The mineral fraction is composed primarily of alumino -silicate
minerals, with iron and the alkaline earth elements as the major substituted
bases. The finely-divided mineral fraction commonly called clay is composed
of highly hydrated alumino-silicates having a micaceous form and high physicochemical reactivity.

The organic fraction

of the soil varies between wide limits but is

usually of the order of two to five percent in the surface horizon of cultivated

80

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aifii'ib Jsrr; Jn-Dijcq saisvib n.'Oil bnB p.sicrcho
oj bsilqqii ai iloa iiJioJ ^>dT
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bn ^iiciij/jnocl'iso jrioiJcbixo ..noiJBibxrf .aJBYloibxH .gniigriJn jw iijoimgifa

r)jTS9

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bsaoqcfioo ai \;^Jo bgiiuo ^inoiTimoo noiioB-ii Icianijn. bsbivib-Ylsnil sdT .aoasd-o:>.raY.Ciq" dgnf bnjtj xn'iol aoooocoim k gnivcd aoJ^OiiJa-pnirnnlc !:)9JG-](bxd\idjiid lo
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Lecture 26

81

soils of temperate regions.

plants and animals with the

It

is

composed

of the

decomposing tissues of

major portion or humus present as a slowlymetabolizing colloidal ligno-protein complex. Soil organic matter modifies
the physico-chemical behavior of the inorganic soil components, serves as
an energy and nutrient source for the soil micro-organisms, and is a reservoir for nitrogen and other essential nutrients for higher plants.
dynamic part of the soil usually occupying
from 10 to 35 per cent of the bulk volume of most soils. It is a dilute aqueous
solution containing cations which are in dynamic equilibrium with similar ions
absorbed on the surface of the soil particles. The liquid phase is the habitat
for the soil micro-organisms and is the medium for transport of ions and
weathering produced within the soil. Because of the dipolar character of the
water molecule and its tendency to form H-bonds with electron-rich surfaces,
water is a dominant factor in ail of the physical reactions occuring in the soil.

The

liquid

phase

is a highly

The gaseous phase

similar to the atmosphere except

that it is normally saturated with the water vapor and usually contains 10 to
100 times as much CO2 and slightly less oxygen. Molecular diffusion is the
principal mechanism
involved in the interchange of gases bdween the soil
voids and the atmosphere. When soil voids are absent or waterfilled, anaerobic conditions are created which significantly alter the chemical and biological reactions of the soil and impair the growth and functioning of plant
roots present in the poorly aerated soil.

The

soils of the

of the soil is

world may be classified into the following seven groups:

1.
Soils of the cold zone - the tundra soils -- these occur at high
latitudes and are of little agricultural importance. Biological and chemical

weathering are minimal and the substrata is often permafrost. The accumulation of organic matter gives a peaty surface often overlying poorly oxidized
blue-gray sticky subsoil. Drainage is poor and surface irregularities caused
by alternate freezing and thawing are common.
2.

group

Light-colored podzolized soils of timbered regions. This is a large

of soils including the podzols. Brown and Gray-Brown Podzolics and

Red and Yellow Podzolics.

The process of acid leaching called podzolization

dominant soil-forming factor in these soils of the humid mid - latitudes
Bases are removed from the surface horizons creating a bleached ashy A
layer and iron and aluminum secondary minerals and hydrogels are accumulated
in the subsurface horizons.
is the

Soils of forested warm temperate and tropical regions. Severe

hydrolysis and oxidation result in destruction of the silicate minerals in a
process known as latosolization
Iron, aluminum and manganese oxides and
3.

hydrates remain and may form cemented horizons called laterite. Latosols
are very low in bases but often have good physical properties even when very
high in clay.

PS ^'luiood

18

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82

Lecture 26

Dark-colored soils of semi-arid, sub -humid and humid grasslands.

The chernozems, brunizems and chestnut soils--the dominant soil forming
process is calcification. The leaching occurs at neutral to alkaline pH levels
and the divalent cations are not removed from the profile. A zone of CaCO
accumulation occurs at a depth approximating the average penetration of ram
water. Soluble salts of sodium and potassium may occur at lower depths in
4.

the drier parts of the region.

Light -colored soils of arid regions. Sierozems, Red desert and

Brown soils. These soils are developed under very low rainfall. CaCO^
accumulates at or near the surface and soluble salts of sodium and potassium
occur at shallow depths. Organic matter accumulation is low. Severe cemen5.

tation or caliche

ayers are common.

These are soils whose characteristics are

local feature so that they are atypical of the norm.al soils
of that geographic region. The hydromorphic or bog soils are dominated by
excessive moisture with the consequent accumulation of organic matter and
poorly ozidized or glei subsoils. The planosol or claypan soils of south
central Illinois also are intrazonal because of their atypical hydrology. The
6.

Intrazonal soils.

dominated by some

halomorphic or salty soils of the subhumid and semi-arid regions are dominated by the presence of high concentrations of sodium, potassium, or
magnesium bicarbonates, sulphates, or chlorides. The process operating
is called salinization. Excessive lime may yield black soils called rendzinas
or in the humid forested regions brown forest soils.

Azonal soils.
These are soils whose properties are determined
largely by the parent material on which little or no soil formation has
occurred. Included in this category are the lithosol s, regosols and the
alluvial soils. The latter are of great agricultural importance.
7.

summary we can say

body occurring at the

interface between the earth's crust and the atmosphere. It is formed by bioand physio-chemical weathering of the regolith and results from the dynamic
In

that the soil is a natural

interaction of the parent material, climate, vegetation, topography, and length

of the weathering periods. The characteristics and processes of soils are
dominated by physical, chemical, and biological reactions which occur in
large measure at the solid -liquid interfaces present in the soil. Thus the
soil may be considered as an integral part of man's ecosystem. Its role in
the production of food will be discussed in the next lecture.

Required References
Kellogg, C. E.

The Soils

that Support Us.

Lyon, Buckman, and Brady.

USDA

1957

YEARBOOK:

The Nature and Properties

Soils.

of Soils

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.gsoii'jil

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 27.

The Soil as a Medium for Plant Growth (Russell)

Terrestrial plants depend on the soil for nutrient elements and the
water that they require for growth. In addition, higher plants require a
source of CO, light, and suitable ambient temperature conditions. The
major nutrient elements supplied by the soil are nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur, with lesser amounts of iron,
boron, manganese, zinc, copper, and molybdenum.

Although most of these elements are present in substantial quantities

in the minerals found in soil they may not be available for plant use because of
the chemical or crystalline form in which they occur. To be absorbed by
plant roots the nutrient ions must either be present in the soil solution or as
exchangeable ions on the surface of the solid phase soil components. The
capacity of the soil to hold ions in such an excnangeable form is one of its
most important properties. In acid soils the exchange sites are dominated
by H+ and A1+++ rather than by the more useful Ca''"*', Mg+^and K"*" ions.
Such deficiencies may be corrected by liming and fertilization.

The ability of soils to supply nitrogen for higher plants is largely

associated with the biological transformations of the soil organic matter.
Soil micro-organisms break down to ammonia the complex nitrogen compounds of dead plant and animal tissues that become incorporated into the soil.
The ammonia is either absorbed directly or is oxidized to the nitrate form by
the soil bacteria and then taken up by plant roots. A significant part of the
phosphorus used by plants also is made available through the organic matter
cycle.
The soil also serves as a short-term storage facility for the water
required by growing plants. Even in humid regions the intermittent rainfall
does not coincide with the steady use of water by actively transpiring plants.
Through the mechanism of storage in the soil the discontinuous water supply
can be modulated to meet the steady water demand of the plant. The capacity
of the soil to store water in a form usable by plants is related to the depth
and porosity of the soil and to its affinity for water. The ease with which
water can move through the soil also is important in determining how effective
the soil will be in modulating the water supply.
In their natural state soils differ

important

to

widely in productive capacity.

recognize, however, that productive capacity is subject to

83

It is

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Lecture 27

84

modification by suitable cultural practices. Corrective measures include

liming, fertilization, use of legumes, drainage, subsoiling, terracing,
irrigation, fumigation, etc. However, little can be done on a practical
field scale to change the basic physical and physico-chemical constitution
of the soil except by slow changes in the amount and depth distribution of
organic matter.

The

roughly 32x10 acres but only

about seven and one -half percent is cultivated and an additional seven and
onehalf per cent is used for permanent meadows and grazing. A general
view of the world's land indicates that about half of it is unsuited for cultivation. This includes the tundra, the high mountains and the major desert
regions. Much of the remaining half is stony, sandy, hilly, salty, or too
wet, but could be utilized with appropriate technology. Most of the good
land in the humid temperate zones is now under cultivation although much of
it could be used more intensively.
Much of the northern Podzol region is
sparsely used and cultivation could be expanded considerably in these regions
despite serious climatic limitations.
total land surface of the earth is

The major areas

of undeveloped soil are in the tropical regions of

Africa, South and Central i^m erica. Southeast Asia, and some of the major
islands of the Southwest Pacific. The potential area for cultivation in the
tropics probably exceeds the combined present cultivated acreage of the United
States and the USSR. Tropical soils are, in general, highly weathered and
low in nutrient elements. Their virgin productivity stems from the fact that
the essential nutrient elements are kept continuously in the biotic cycle. The
low nutrient retention capacity of tropical soils makes necessary an agricultural technology that minimizes the escape of nutrients from the system.

Expansion of cultivation into semi-arid and desert regions through the

use of irrigation requires a dependable supply of high quality water, suitable
terrain, and adequate subsurface drainage to prevent the accumulation of
soluble salts. Some of the technical and socio-economic problems of an
irrigated agriculture will be discussed.
general sense, soil may be considered as a renewable natural
resource. It serves as a "staging area" for the nutrients and water needed
for crop production. Soil productivity is subject to modification by the
application of technology which makes possible the correction of basic
In a

deficiencies of the soil as a plant growth medium. Through the application

of such technology, soil management and crop production become more intimately dependent on the whole economic and cultural system.

Required Reading
Kellogg, C. E., The Soils that Support Us.

T? o"i<tnOwi

t'S

ir,;..;

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Lecture 27

85

Lyon, Buckman, and Brady.

USDA

1957

YEARBOOK:

USDAMisc. Pub.
Kellogg, C. E.

The Nature and irropertles

of Soils.

Soils.

#705, 1949.

A Graphic Summary

(UNESCO REPORT). Food,

of Viorld Agriculture,

Soil and People.

.^'not**? bn/5

lio-''.

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,wn9H

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 28.

Agricultural Ecology

Tropical Subsistence Agriculture (Booth)

The humid tropical environments here considered are areas with

either the tropical rainforest or the tropical wet-and-dry type of climate,
with a range of native vegetation from two- story rainforests through single
story rainforests, light tropical forests, and park savannas to savannas and
with a range of mature soils from true latosols to reddish or degraded
chernozems. Such immature soils as alluviums, volcanic, rendzinas,
organic, and lithosols have some special significance in these agricultural
environments.

may

be utilized in distinguishing agricultural systems.

A primary criterion is related to the disposal of the products of agriculture.
A general subdivision of agriculture types on this basis is a division into
subsistence and commercial. Subsistence agriculture may further be divided
into shifting and sedentary. Beyond thic point tuch factors as the basic tools
used (dibble stick, hoe, plow), the basic crops produced (root, cereal, tree),
the use of animals, the use of fertilizers, the extent of irrigation, the
patterns of fields and settlements, and others may be utilized in establishment
of further categories. In the present instance, a subdivision of shifting
agriculture into nomadic and non-nomadic types and of sedentary into garden,
dry field, and wet field types will be utilized.

Several criteria

Shifting agriculture, often referred to as fire

agriculture, because of the almost universal use of fire as an aid to clearing
land, may represent the original form of agriculture. The usual steps in this
system involve the girdling or cutting of trees, the burning over of the land,
the planting of seeds with the aid of the dibble stick, the guarding of the growing crop, the harvesting of the crop, and the abandonment of the land. The
universitality of this system is suggested by the inclusion of the name of this
system in the language of nearly all areas where it is or has been practiced.
Disadvantageous features of this system include low productivity, often
devastating deforestation and soil erosion, and the encouragement of primitive social and political organizations.
Shifting Agriculture

Sedentary Agriculture, Garden Type - The evolution from shifting to

sedentary agriculture is most often brought about by population pressure or
governmental controls. One of the three forms of sedentary agriculture is
garden culture. In this form the most desirable and adaptable plant species
are concentrated either by elimination of undesirable species or the planting
of desirable species in small plots usually directly adjacent to the settlement
86

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1c.

Lecture 28

87

units. A three-story arrangement consisting of root crops, bush and vine

crops, and tree crops often result in continuous harvesting cycle. Under
western influence commercial tendencies are developed in this system.

Sedentary Agriculture, Dry Field Type - Continuous cropping of the

same parcel of non-alluvial, non-irrigated land offers one of the most
difficult problems of tropical agriculture. Only if there are unusual physical
circumstances or if exceptional care is taJcen of the land does this permanent
system of agriculture prove successful. Volcanic or limestone -derived soils
on gentle slopes, agricultural practices which include, amongst others, the
use of the plow, the rotation of crops, and the rearing of animals, as well as
a stable population, are amongst the usual ingredients of this system.
Sedentary Agriculture, Wet Field Type - The most productive system
of subsistence agriculture which has been developed in the humid tropics is
the one which centers about the production of paddy or wet field rice. This
system implies the use of flat land with small leveled fields which have been
diked to hold the water required in rice growth. The water may be derived

from normal precipitation, from stream flooding, from a system of irrigation,

or from some combination of these three water sources. The human labor
requirements of this system during the growing season are great. The leveling of fields, the construction of dams or dikes, the construction or maintenance of terraces, the preparation of the fields, the transplanting of the crop,
the application of fertilizer, the cultivation of the fields and the harvesting of
the crop are all done traditionally with only the simplest of tools and without
too much use of animal power.

Required References
Ginsburg, Norton,
Pelzer, Karl J.
Tothill, J. D.

The Patterns

of Asia.

Pioneer Settlement

in the Asiatic

Agriculture in the Sudan.

Tropics.

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,noJioW ^^-ludp.nrO

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 29.

Agricultural Ecology
(Booth)

Agriculture of the Indian Subcontinent

All of the various types of tropical subsistance agriculture are found

in the Indian Subcontinent. This variety is related in part to a great diversity

Landforms vary from major mountain systems to

small alluvial plains; vegetation associations from rainforest to desert; zonal
soils from latosolic to tundra; and climate from tropical rainforest to icecap.
For present purposes four fundamental environments based largely on rainfall
considerations may be recognized. These are, the very wet (over 80"), the
wet (40"-80"), the dry (20"-40"), and the very dry (less than 20"). In the
very wet areas, collecting and gathering, shifting agriculture, the sedentary
garden type, and the sedentary wet field type are all practiced. In the wet
areas both sedentary wet field and sedentary dry field, as well as some shifting agriculture, are practiced. In the 20" -40" zone the dry field type is
dominant except where potentials for irrigation exist. In the dry zone,
of physical

environments.

irrigation agriculture is the dominant type.

In the wet Ganges Delta Land variations in soil types and extent of
flooding are major factors in crop ecology. Cropping potentials in turn explain
variations in agricultural systems and population densities. In the upper delta
are broad areas of older alluvium no longer flooded upon which have been
developed latosolic soils. These essentially flat-topped doabs are not utilized
agriculturally and are covered by almost useless scrub and degraded remnant
forests. By contrast the valleys of the active streams which cut across these
doabs are in continuous paddy cultivation. Lower in the delta the depth of
flooding (along with soil types) plays an important role in crop determination.
Thus on the high levels with sandy soils garden crops and a quick maturing
variety of rice occupy the land. On the long slopes of levels with loamy soils
where from 5 to 15 feet of water accumulate is found the best rice and the cash
crop, juta. In the clayey marshey lowland cropping is only possible during the

winter season.
southeastern India also exemplifies environ mental variations and concurrent cropping variations. Along the immediate
coast are the sandy offshore bars and beach ridges with intensive garden culture
based upon coconut palm production. Inland of the bars are partially filled
lagoons and interspersed alluvial aprons. A watery environment perfectly
adapted to paddy rice cultivation. Next are the f tanning low terraces and
spurs of the Western Ghats which are devoted to dry rice and root crop
production. Finally inland are the slopes of the Ghats given over at lower

The Maleoan Coast

of

88

(Si)'.-'.

YS'^iooS

(riiooS)

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ii;-i no ^{Jaj^psJ i^os;:d sinsoiiiOi.'ns JBJnefr.-'ifanu^ 'luo'i e.aeoq-ujq jness-tq j.o'il
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infix:.
bs-i^sb bnBduioa aa^i/Is^u JaoxniB yd ba^ov-oo 3-ib bnfi yllGTii'iJuoi-f^R
ossH: saoioe jno xiairfw aajjas-iia aviJoc' arh lo ayailsV 9d3 JaBiJnoo ycf .sJaoTol
"^o fjlqob '3xtJ i;.)feb -^di ni' i9 wo J
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.noiJoubo-iq
.

-Mi

-^.-'.OBT-ioj -^iol

Lecture 29

89

elevations to plantation agriculture and to shifting agriculture and primitive

gathering and collecting at higher elevations.
In the

Western portion

of peninsular India is a large

area of bedrock

consisting of layer upon layer of basaltic lava flows. Upon this has developed
the distinctive regur soil. These self-fertilizing, sticky, water-retentive
soils are the bases of a distinct and unusual double crop system of dry
agriculture in an area of a single season of modest rainfall.

Required Readings
Ginsberg, Norton.
Spate

Rawson,

Patterns of Asia
India and Pakistan

The Monsoon Lands

of

Asia

rr.

iJ3

:-nc 9';:jJl;ijiiB

^^niJ'^f''''

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i^r.c<?.

Oiii

noBWsS

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 30.

Agricultural Ecology: The European Peasant

Economy

(Booth)

The physical environment of northwestern Europe derives its greatest

unity from the prevalence therein of the Marine Westcoast type of climate.
The greatest diversity is associated with the landforms and soils elements of
the landscape. Climate is featured by mild winters, cool summers, and very
adequate (20" -40"), well distributed rainfall. Daylight hours are long in

summer
The

(16-20), but extensive and prolonged cloud cover reduces sunshine.

basic forest association is deciduous broadleaf but mixed deciduous and

coniferous, and coniferous association and scrub or heath associations are

found in unfavorable climatic, edaphic, and landform sites. Nearly all nondry climate landforms from ancient crystalline mountains to young folded
mountains and from structural plains to various types of depositional plains
are represented in Europe. Although the grey-brown podzolics are the basic
soils group the widespread prevalence of gradational activity associated with
a wide range of earth materials has produced a situation of great pedalogical
variety.

From the agricultural ecological standpoint both climatic and edaphic

factors are determinants of critical crop boundaries. Most significant are
the 32*^ F. mean monthly temperature for the coldest month, the 60 F. mean
monthly temperature for the warmest month, (northern limit of oaks), and the
boundaries of sandy soils, heavy clay soils, and organic soils. These have
been selected as critical since they are related to the ecology of such cereals
as wheat, barley, rye, and oats, to root crop production, and to production
of various associations of forage crops, and to the ecology of domestic animal^
chiefly cattle, sheep, and hogs.
Wheat cropping requires the areas of better soils and milder winters,
barley and oats are more tolerant of less favorable soils and climate, while
rye tolerates acid sandy soils and cold winters. Potatoes and sugar beet,
both introduced into Europe in the Seventeenth Century, are the most important
root crops with high caloric yields. Pasture has an almost year round
growing season and supports an important cattle raising industry, primarily
for dairy produce. Hogs were formerly raised on forage in the oak and beech
forests, but are now associated with farms and utilize dairy and cereal wastes.
Sheep graze the upland grasslands and heather.
The
of the

man

distinctive characteristic of peasant agriculture is the attachment

self-employment situation where labor is more

to the land in a

90

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Lecture 30

^1

important than capital. Usually implied in this relationship is essential selfsufficiency. Long father-to-son or family continuity, and relatively small
farm holdings. Normally, farm hamlets and communal cooperativeness are
also considered to be part of the general picture. Variations from these
norms in Europe were widespread, some to be explained in social terms,
others in terms of variations in physical environment.

The use

of the plow, integrated animal husbandry, and crop rotation

are the basic practices which generally distinguish western European peasant
agriculture from tropical or oriental peasant agriculture. The basic types of
agriculture are the slash-and-burn, the infield-outfield, and the familiar
three-field system. As agriculture becomes more intensive forests, pastures
and meadows, and fallow land occupy smaller and smaller proportions of the

farm

land.

Required Readings

Hoffman,

Thomas,

Geography

of

Man's Role

Europe
in

Changing the Face of the Earth, pp. 183-277.

JBijnsac9 3f qiri^frofJsJQi sxrfj ni boilqrpj vIIi3rjsLJ .lisjiqcrj njsdJ jni-iioqrai

IlGraa x'^sviicidi bas .xJiwniiiiorj -^ihniVj no noa-oJ-rradJBl gaoJ .-'{ongjoillxja
01B sa9n'3vi.ie'X9qooD Isnummoo bnc aieicncrl rnifi] ^T^iJlunjioW. .^gnifolorl m'lj;^
3aedJ mO'i2 arioilc/isV
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.arms:? iei 303 ni. bsqrf.lqxo sd qJ; ofnoa ^bso'iqBSihiw irrsw aqoriijil ni amuor;
infjrnrJOiivnQ ii3oi3Y;rfq- ni snoijfjiiBv 1o aniisJ ni a'isriic

-Hl^a.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 31.

Commercialized Agriculture (Russell)

The industrial revolution has been accompanied by major changes in

agriculture. The development of transportation systems, the great increase
in per capita power supply, and the application of science and technology to
processes involved in meeting the basic human needs for food and shelter
have made it possible to reduce to less than ten per cent the portion of the
population needed to produce the food and fiber required by the total population.
the

Present day industrialized agriculture is a highly specialized component of a complex interdependent economic and cultural system. There is a
great flow of production inputs and products into and out of each specialized
component of this interdependent complex; hence, no farm, no community,
nor in fact no region or nation operates as a wholly self-sufficient unit.
Local or regional specialization may occur as a means of maximizing local
or regional ecological conditions, although political or economic factors may
override such specialization.
Plantation Agriculture - This is a highly specialized type of monoculture confined largely to tropical or semi-tropical regions. It is characterized by large operating units, with centralized professional management,
hired labor, usually a corporate structure involving absentee ownership and
often involving post-harvest processing of the crop. Crops having long growing seasons requiring more or less steady labor inputs are best suited for
this type of agriculture. Contrasting examples of plantation agriculture will
be discussed including coffee, sugar cane, pineapple, and rubber.

a highly efficient agriculture consisting primarily of one-man operating units. Capital and technology are being substituted for labor at a rapid rate. Production efficiency
per man has increased more than 50 per cent in the past 20 years. There is
a growing tendency towards monoculture or single enterprise specialization.
Management skills rather than manual skills are needed for success. The
role of cooperatives, "vertical integration", professional services and
governmental policies and programs as factors affecting farming operations
will be discussed. Comparisons are made with the collective and state farms

Midwestern Corn-Belt Agricultur e

of the

USSR

92

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is

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

The Pastoral Nomads of Asia: Ecology

Turks and Mongols (Lawrence Krader*)

To Follow Lecture

31,

of the

The name of a culture, Tartar, and of a realm, Tartary, has been

for
two thousand years. The provenience of the word is unknown,
use
but during the first five centuries A.D. it was used by Mongols and Turks
in the interior parts of Asia as a name for certain tribes or peoples of their
number. It appears in Turkic inscriptions of the 6th-8th centuries.
During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Chinese began to refer to the Turks
in

and Mongols collectively as T'a-t'a-erh. The term and the general referent
were introduced into Europe by ISth century travellers. Both the oriental
and the occidental traditions have thus designated Turco-Mongol pastoral
nomads inhabiting the territory between the south Russian steppe and the
Great Wall of China.

world was early established by

the indigenous peoples themselves, and soon after recognized by their
neighbors to east and west. Today, the historical unity is but dimly
perceived, and appears to be permanently disrupted. Political factors,
the entry of China and Russia as decisive forces in the region, have con-

The cultural unity

of this cultural

tributed to the disruption; and specialists,

scientists, have raised dust as well.

who write

in the

guise of

We

will consider the pastoral Turks and Mongols as two great wings
of a single culture related by bonds of language, history, and polity; the

framework
described

in

some

detail.

common environment, whcih

will be
Their adaptation to this environment, and their

of this relationship is a

adaptation of it is shared, based on the raising of complex herds of sheep,

goats, cattle, horses, camels, and in certain places also yaks, asses and
mules. Their communities are mobile villages of agnatic kin; they live in
tents and move with their herds as nomads. Some three milienia ago they
achieved a high degree of success in this adaptation, and maintained it with
little change until the present period when the pastoral nomads are found
only in small pockets here and there. Our task will be to pierce through the
recent changes and observe the relationship between the ecological and
cultural area. The imperceptibility of cultural change over much of the
period may give the impression of a static human ecological system. This
impression must give way to the consideration of a dynamic ecological

system.

*Based on lecture sponsored by Biological Sciences Lecture Committee and Center for Russian Language and Area Studies, May 24, 1961.
93

iOl
.

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no Lsaijcl*

rijjyjSVc.

To Follow Lecture

31

94

processes in the area may be

gotten by considering problems of delimitation. The interior parts of Asia
extend from the Great Hsingan Range of Viestern Manchuria to the Caspian
Sea, forming the eastern expanse of the arid zone of the Old World. The
central and western expanses are respectively, southwest Asia and North
Africa. The eastern region comprises the two Mongolias, Inner and Outer, and
the three Turkey-tans, Chinese, Russian, and Afghan,- our domain of Tartary,

Some understanding

of the geogrsp hie

the Asian interior.

is circumscribed by an isohyet of 300mm. "Within
precipitation is less than this sum, except
mean
annual
the
this territory,
Far removed from either Atlantic or Pacific
in the vicinity of mountains.
atmospheric circulations, the region is without access by water to the sea:
the valleys of the Irtysh, the Onon and Kerulen, which at their confluence
form the Amur, and the Huang-ho, form the periphery of the macro-zone
which, for this reason, may be called Inland Asia.

The entire region

Of the physical features, those that relate to water are of primary

human concern:
distance from the oceans,
distance from oceanic atmospheric circulations, low mean annual precipiClimatologically, in addition to the aridity
and circulation factor, the region has great amplitude of temperatures,
little cloudiness, maximum insolation, and strong wind action.
In consequence of these factors, soil erosion and the effect of dust and scale
formation on machinery are problems throughout the region.
tation, lack of outlet to the sea.

The

flora have a poverty of genera; they include Stipas, feathergrass

of the steppe and semidesert, and Agrophyrum, especially A. repens, a

desert grass. The fauna are rich in ungulates. The distribution of these
biota are of cultural significance.

Characteristics of the Ecology of Pastoral

Definition of

Nomads

terms

Pastoral nomadism is the pattern resultant from the coalescence of

independent traits, nomadism and pastoralism. Nomadism is a periodic
cyclical movement of certain faunal species, many of which have been
domesticated by man; the cycle taJies place in a unitary time period, and is
closed by return to the point of origination. Nomadism is distinct from
wandering, movement which can only with difficulty be submitted to a prograti
within a territory; it is sometimes confused with wandering, and with transhumance, both in popular usage and in the ethnographic literature.

Pastoralism is practiced by other peoples than nomads: sedentary

farmers, and peoples who are tradesmen as well as herdsmen, such as
Gypsies and Vlachs (the objects of the study of Wace and Thompson) for

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To Follow Lecture

31

S5

Pastoral nomads, in contrast to these peoples have either an

exclusive or principal reliance on animal-raising for their support, supplemented by hunting, and in the case of certain Turkic groups, by wintercamp farming.

example.

Human ecology embraces the study of adaptations to the environment

and adaptations of the environment, i-^et us consider these relationships
seriatim in connection with the Tartar nomads. Their culture has evolved
a number of adaptations to their environment: they are tent-dwellers, which
facilitates movement; their movement is cyclical, a further adaptation of
the same sort. They do nothing to replenish the grass which feeds the herds.
Water holes, the shallow currents of the spring season, and natural springs,
are trampled into brackish wastes during the moves by the herds, and are
unhealthy for man and beast to drink. The water holes and courses will take
a year to re-form, and the grass to grow again. Bergmann,who travelled
among the Kalmuks first made these observations in 1802 and 1803; they were
confirmed by my observations of the Kashkai of Iran in 1958.
Seasonal water courses and seasonal florescence in the Bet-pakdala
or Hungry Steppe and in Dzungaria allow traverse in the spring and early fall,
to which the nomads and their herds conform. Their cyclical movement and
annual period are conditions of these environmental factors.

The cycle is divided into segments, either two or four pasturings a

year. Summer and winter termini are the constant features of the nomadic
pattern throughout the culture area; whether spring and fall pasturing is
practiced is a variable, from tribe to tribe and from place to place. The
movement is subject to rigorous controls; not only the pastures but the
tracks which link them are "owned," that is, assigned by customary right
among the herding kin communities. Occupancy of pasture or use of track
by other than those who enjoy the customary right is invasion; to which there
are two modes of response: retaliatory raids and highly complicated
arbitration.

Technological and legal devices mentioned so far are primarily

adaptations to the environment. But the pastoral nomads are not simple or
primitive cultures. They are moderately advanced; convenient and a benchmark of their advanced state is the number of arrangements they have
devised in the management of complex herds. Our task in the elucidation
of this point is rendered the easier today by the ecological commentaries
made 20 years ago by Julian Stewardf who wrote: "The extent to which
ecology conditions and delimits culture depends on the culture. In primitive
societies it predetermines and delimits certain features. The more complex
societies have more complex solutions." Steward's classifications in the

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To Follow Lecture

31

96

1930s of ecologically simple and complex societies were based on observations of hunters and gatherers of the Basin and Plateau of the American
Compared with this baseline, the Turks
west: primarily Ute and Paiute
and Mongols are far from primitive. And, they are not as advanced as
their agricultural neighbors, the Persians or Chinese. They have adapted
to certain features of the environment: they have adapted others to their own
ends. Several measures for the scale of primitive to complex cultures are
applicable in human ecology. One of these is the kind and degree of control
of the environment. It should be recalled that the interior of Asia was the
ground in which Ellsworth Huntington"^ hammered out his particular theories
of geographic determination of culture and culture history, dependence on
rather than control of the environment. His explorations as a member of the
Pumpelly expedition to Anau in 1903 suggested to him that progressive
desiccation in the area during the historical period led directly to the downThis point of view still has to be combatted in 1961, as
fail of cultures.
evidenced by an article in the current issue of the American Anthropologist
by Raikes and Dyson^ in regard to West Pakistan. Thus we must struggle
not only with facts, but also with primitive thinking.
.

A simple-minded single-factor approach to human ecology has the

advantages of elegance and neatness, but does violence to the data.
Another simplification has concerned the origin and nature of
nomadism. Recent Japanese studies of Mongol nomadism have proposed
that the cyclical movement of herds of domesticated animals is likewise a
case of cultural adaptation to the environment. Behind this interpretation

is

an apt observation: the wild ungulates of the region- -sheep, goats, equidae
(including kulan or wild ass, onager, przhevalskii and camels- -are cyclical
in their movement over an annual period. But the inference drawn from
this is a reduction or simplification of the truth. The range of movement
of ihe equidae in the wild state is far greater than that of the sheep or goat.
Causing all the elements of the herd, including kids, lambs, calves, and
fosls, as well as full-grown stock to move together, is a complex adaptation of a part of the environment, in this case the herds themselves, to the
co.Timon, culturally imposed and adjusted pattern. Within this pattern there
is some variation, by cultural conditions and by natural conditions.

Cultural Conditions of Variation in the

Basic Pastoral Pattern of Nomads

Domesticated asses are herded primarily in western Asia, from the

Zeravshan in western Uzbekestan across southwest Asia. This distribution
must be ascribed to cultural factors; wild equidae: kulan or dziggetai
(E. hemionus) and onager (E hemippus), both closely related to the
domestic ass (E. asinus) have been available for domestication by Asian
cultures at various times during the past 5,000 years; they were husbanded
.

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To Follow Lecture

97

31

by sedentary farmers of ancient Shumer. The faunal environment is subject

the yak and the yak-cattle khainyk,
to control by nomads only up to a point:
east of the Altay--T'ien-Shanaltitudes
in
high
only
raised
an interbreed, are
Pamir lines; they have not been adapted to low altitude conditions, despite
the regard in which their milk and butter are held.
Variation through Natural Conditions
that cattle have best adapted to forest
terrain. Horses and sheep have
mountainous
arid
or
well
to
steppe, and less
adapted best to steppe and semidesert; goats to mountain or broken terrain;
camels to conditions of maximum aridity. The various advantageous
ecological positions of wild ungulates are minimized, within limits and not
entirely overcome, under conditions of domestication by pastoral nomads.

Simukov observed 30 years ago

Two primary

variants of

nomadism are conditioned

specifically by

terrain factors.

Kirgiz, eastern Kazakhs, and certain Khalkha Mongols nomadize in

mountain pastures. Their ecological pattern is variant from that of the great
mass of pastoral nomads who nomadize in the flat, whether plateau or lowland: Kalmuks, most Mongols of Outer Mongolia, central and western
Kazakhs, Turkmens. Mountain ecology comprises great variation in small
compass, and the track from winter camp to summer pasture is usually a
short one for Kirgiz. This is usually accomplished in a month; they have no
role for spring and fall pastures.

Nomadic pastoralism in flat country on the contrary usually comprises

spring and fall pastures. However, in the case of Kazakhs of the Chu river
valley, the summer pasture was in the Sary-Su, and the track lay across the
Bet-Pak-Dala. The Hungry Steppe is not steppe, but desert, and can be
traversed in the spring, during the period of brief desert florescence, and
allows no time for pasturing. The return to the winter camp along the Chu
is accomplished during the early fall, during the second of the double rainfall
peaks in the year. Thus herding and feeding arrangements of the nomads are
a partial picture of a complex culture: the Japanese approach is a simplification of these complexities.

Human

contributions have been the development of mutual adjustments

among all the stock, and mutual adjustment of herdsmen and herds. Herdsmen have made little adaptation of the flora: perhaps storage of winter
fodder falls in this category. Maximum adaptation has been made of the
herds, within limits, above

all

given lack of selective breeding.

adapting the environment in this way has entered

into symbiotic, that is, mutually supportive, relations with the herds. For

The pastoralist

in

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To Follow

98

J^ecture 31

herds provide food as milk and milk products: cheese,

including curds, butter, fermented milk, and distilled milk spirit. On
ceremonial occasions a sheep will be slaughtered; however, this is akin to
eating into one's capital: it is not an everyday affair. Wool, hides, and
whole skins provide clothing, shelter and transportation trappings. Wool
is beaten into felt, woven into cloth and carpeting, and braided into rope.
Wool like milk, is a replenishable resource.
the pastoralist, the

For his part, the herdsman constructs windbreaks against snowfall

and snowdrift, behind which herds may find winter forage; he stores grass
dried for fodder; he drives out diseased beasts in elementary quarantine
practice against the outbreak of epizootics; he drives off and hunts predators:
He organizes and manages range, track and pastures,
wolves, snow - leopards
controlling competition between herds.
.

The mutual relations

sis of herd and

human

of

dependence are a mode of conjunctive symbio-

society.

But man is a wolf to the herd: human calamities- -wars, revolutions,

raids, deplete herds more quickly than wolves or winter storms.

Herds and herdsmen are dependent on

the flora and the

water and

nomads do nothing to replace their supply, but leave this to

natural processes. Herds are not selectively bred; they are interbred with
wild and feral stock: camels, asses, horses, yaks. The horses are a
shortlegged stock of great endurance and wind, intermittently crossed with
the equus Przhevalskii down into the 20th century. Wild and feral forms of
these breeds are collectively called tarpans.
the pastoral

At eastern, western and northern periphery of their world of steppe

and semidesert, they have entered into competition with farmers for
resources. The lush steppe of southern Russia, fought over by Kievan
Russians and Patznaks, the forest steppe of southern Siberia, and the steppe
along the Great W' all of China, have been areas of competition for over two
millenia, down to the 20th century. This competition has been only one form,
and a minor one at that, of the relations of sedantary farmer and nomad

herdsman.
Contact of herdsmen with farmers in these marginal zones has
proceeded without interruption during the entire three millenia. fJelations
have taken the form of economic exchange, for which there exists no adequate
analysis in occidental terms. W e need a new theory of these economic
relations: exchange under non-market conditions. Traditional economic
relations of Tartars with Chinese cannot be analyzed in terms of market,
commodity, circulation of commodities, trade, although these concepts
predominate. They are ethnocentric notions derived from European

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To Follow Lecture

99

31

economics. Characterizations hitherto current of the socio-political system

of Tartary, which has often been called feudal are likewise an ethnocentric
error.

As to farming throughout the arid zone, it has been based on water

control: by storage, conduit and deflection. Irrigation systems based on
these principles are one-, two- and three-dimensional. The tilth is rich
under conditions of water control, but limited in area. Not very much of
it

can be spared for stock-raising.

This proposition must be considered in the light of the population

Farming is relatively intensive
densities of farmers and pastoralists
exploitation of the soil. Population densities of Asian farming communities
achieve rates 100 -fold higher than those of herding populations. The range
of population densities of herding populations of traditional type are from three
persons in 10 km sq to three per km sq. Translated into economic terms,
land is precious to the farmer; it is regarded by him as "wasted" if it is let
for grazing.
.

Interdependence with nomadic pastoralists was and is necessary for

farmers, therefore, but the traditional relations were clumsy and nonrational by occidental economic standards. The exchange system was
instable, frequently broke down: it was a defective institutional net.

Many Middle Eastern farming

cultures solved this problem by maintaining specialists in animal husbandry within the community, just as in the
European tradition. Inland Asian practices evolved to the point of specialization in pastoralism by entire peoples, articulated as cultures.

Chinese and Tartars are joined in an institutional web with political

and economic facies. Mongols and Tibetans are joined in a religious network,
Lamaist Buddhism. Mongols and Turks are joined in a socio-political
structure based on a common form of social organization, combined into
pyramidal political hierarchies interlocked at key points of juncture.
Within these institutional frames, relations have broken down
times in the form of alternation of forms of amicable and belligerent
relations have arisen.

A widely spread web

at

over and above these

economic and politico-military relations was developed, which went far
beyond the trans -marginal relations of Mongols with China, Kazan' Tatars
with Moscow, Turkmens with Iranians. These institutional webs include
the religious: the Buddhist monastic system emanating from India across
Tibet and Mongolia to Siberia; the economic: caravan routes which brought
Chinese silks across the width of Asia to Cairo, Byzantium, and Rome.
Knowledge of early Turco-Mongol history is in part dependent on Chinese
and Byzantine sources.
of institutional relations,

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To Follow Lecture

100

31

A controversy

has arisen concerning the independence of the pastoral

culture. I should like to elucidate certain cultural
features of the Tartars in the exposition of this controversy.

nomad society and

Through

the consideration of the institutional relations Alfred

Kroeber

concluded that pastoral nomads of Tartary are a half-culture, or a partculture, such as the castes of India, Gypsies, or Jews of eastern Europe
before Hitler. This view is possible: the definition of the constitution of
an independent culture is quite variable. Moreover, if we choose a particular
point in time: the 20th century, when pastoral nomadism has contracted to
small areas; or the 13th century, when it dominated most of Eurasia, further

credence

is lent to the idea.

But most of the Tartar nomads, over most of their history, formed
an independent set of peoples and cultures, with complex political, economic,
military, religious, relations to their sedentary neighbors.

Nomadic Pastoral Cultures

of

World

Let us survey the distribution of nomadic pastoral cultures in the

world. The Americas, and Oceania may be eliminated. Pastoral nomads
have lived, or live today, in southwest Asia, North Africa and adjacent
parts of sub-Saharan Africa: the Sudan and Nigeria, and in Inland Asia.
A thousand j'ears ago the south Russian steppe was part of the distribution.
Thus, at their peak they extended beyond their locus classicus. The distribution until the recent past has been approximately co-terminous with the
arid belt which stretches across North Africa from the Atlantic to southwest
Asia and joins the arid system of Inland Asia.

Within this great zone, the pattern of nomadic pastoralism is subject

to variations. In southwest Asia and north Africa, nomads live in angular
tents covered with black cloth. The nomads of Tartary live in felt tents,
vari-colored, in form a rounded cone set on circular lattice-frame. Clothing differs: burnoose in Arabia, and tailored clothing in the north. The Arab
herdsman has the camel for his economic support, the horse for prestige and
for war. To Arabs, the goat signifies the end of nomadism; it is raised only
by sedentary villagers. The camel is the one-humped dromedary. In Iran,
the Kashkai have complex herds, much as in Turkmenia to the north, but
live in the black tent of southwest Asia. Here, and in Turkmenia and
Uzbekistan, herds are composed of sheep, goats, asses, cattle, mules.
camels, horses, in order of numerical tize within the herds. Kazakh,
Kirgiz, and .viongol herdsmen raise no asses, nor, therefore, mules; horses
are of proportionally greater importance in consequence. Their camels are
two-humped Bactricns.

The Mongols of Outer Mongolia have a vast domain of their own:

Outer Mongolia covers 1-1/2 million km sq. Here herding and farming are
mutually exclusive enterprises; less than 200,000 hectares, or

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To Follow Lecture

31

lOi

500,000 acres in this country are devoted to cultivation, a nonsignificant

percentage of the whole. The easternmost part of the nomadic belt is a vast
and specialized area of pastorelism. The great, monopolistic regime of
livestock has long been in defective interaction, with a greater monopolistic
regime of agriculture of China. The interaction has traditionally taken the
form of exchange of pastoral for farming products, an exchange which is not
to be confused with trade. The exchange must be considered defective
because of the frequency of breakdown in the form of raids, wars, conquest
dynasties. Interaction between Mongols and Chinese has been as between
countries, or sub-continents.

To

the west, in Sinkiang and Kazakhstan, the

sedentary farmers have interacted on a scale

at

nomadic herdsmen and

or below the province level,

Individual cities of Kashgaria:

Kashgar, Yarkand, Tashkurgan (Stone-mound) developed relationships with
small-scale nomadic communities, clans and villages, rather than entire
peoples. In 1929, Gunnar Jarring, the present Swedish ambassador to the
United States, and a great Turkologist, or conversely, as he would put it,
followed a caravan of Kirgiz nomads across the T' ien-Shans to Kashgar. It
is only since that day that the border has been closed and the nomads of
Kirgizia settled.
in contrast to the Mongol-Chinese scale.

Kazakhs traditionally dealt with Tashkent, Vernyy (now Alma-Ata),

Ufa, Orenburg. Kalmuks of the Volga dealt with Astrakhan, a great city
famed for its fairs throughout the Russian empire. Their horses also
commanded good renown in Poland and prices in modern capitalistic practice,
Turkmens dealt with Mashhad, Mazanderan, Serakhs, Gorgan, Bender-Shah,
other cities of north Persia, when they were not at war with the Persians.
Again each Kazakh and Turkmen group dealt with particular cities.

The process was further narrowed in scope in southwestern Asia:

Badawin and Tay Arabs customarily deal with smaller social units of
sedentary farmers, villages and towns. The interspersal of nomadic and
sedentary groups in the Middle East is like a mosaic pattern; farther north
and east

it

is

a design of larger and larger pattern.

Over geographic space and over historical time, the cross cultural
relations of herding nomads and their sedentary farming neighbors are
subject to considerable variation and elaboration. It is a matter of careful
appraisal to adjudge the point at which an independent cultural unit is
articulated on this scale. The Tay Arab herdsmen of northern Iraq are not,
in our estimation, an independent culture, but are closely interrelated with
their sedentary farming neighbors, many of whom are of Tay derivation
themselves. The Kashkai constitute an independent culture in Iran. This
conclusion is fortified if it is regarded through eyes sharpened by the study
of Mongolia. In the eastern part of Tartary, the pastoral nomads constitute

101

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To Follow Lecture

31

102

an independent culture, if usual criteria of cultural definition be applied:

articulated social organization, including religious expression, political
independence, symbolic expression of cultural unity, degree of interaction
with neighboring groups.

Beyond the theoretical evaluation

of the question of part or

whole

cultures, there are practical considerations in the development of government

policy toward the Mongolian People's Republic, which was reopened in recent
months in the Department of State; in development of policy of the United
States Information i^gency and its radio, the Voice of America, toward
minority nations in the Soviet Union and Mainland China.

ConcluBions
Vie have considered, however briefly, the principal characteristics
of the natural environment of Inland Asia and, in its broad categories, the
ecological system of the nomad Tartars in relation to their environment,
natural and social. The Tartars are culturally advanced, but only moderately
so; they are advanced relative to the hunting peoples and reindeer breeders
north of the steppe, in Siberia. They have not achieved the degree of complex
division of labor and of complex, stable, political organization of the high
cultures to the south, China and India. Their ecological system is correlative ly developed: certain ecological relations, for example, their

noninterventive dependence on natural supply of grass and water, are

characteristic of primitive cultures; on the other hand, the symbiotic
relations with the herds are evidence of a degree of control, that is intervention by human device, characteristic in other directions of technically
advanced, complex cultures.

The close relations which have been established between the pastoral
nomads and their environment are important for the contribution their study

makes

to ecological theory. Their relationships of adaptation to the

environment and adaptation of the environment are delimited geographically.
Conditions are thus established for formulation and verification of a number
of hypotheses concerning culture and environment: notably, conditions under
which unrelated cultural modes may compete for occupancy of habitat marginal
to both; for example, competition for the south Russian steppe and for control
of the grassland immediately north of the Great V all of China. The culture
of Turco-Mongol pastoral nomadism is well defined by its characteristic
features in space and time. We may, therefore, study the conditions of its
formation and development. Its course is now all but run; we may study the
conditions of contraction to a few isolated enclaves.

Because of the sharp definition of the culture in its beginnings, its

distribution and its present state, a significant contribution can be made to
the study of evolutionary processes, with particular reference to ecological

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To Follow Lecture

31

103

conditions under which a culture is formed. This point bears emphasis: the
conditions, not causes, of cultural formation. The accumulation and flow of
scientific information has accelerated during recent decades in such a
degree that it is conceivable at the present time to investigate the evolution
of particular cultural types; the scope of such an investigation is conformable
to those of the physical geographer who is studying the evolution of particular landscapes, even though the time scales involved may be different.
There is even an overlap in techniques in the two types of investigation.
Hopefully, a comparable state of maturity of the two disciplines may be
attained
of the Tartar culture requires the combined study of
covering
some 2,500 to 3,000 years, together with the
texts,
historical
archaeological and the ethnographic records of these peoples over the same
period. Through this combined study it is possible to study the evolution of

The study

it was formed, their sedentary, literate neighbors

write about them. \^'e differentiate this kind of study from the study
of cultural evolution in general. But we may return to the more general
question when the study of this and a number of other particular evolutions

the culture, for soon after

began

to

have been completed.

Notes
1.

P. Pelliot, Horde d'Or: 232-3;

Cordier, Polo: passim.

2.

J.

Steward,

BAE

W.

Rockhill, Rubruck:

XVH; Yule-

"Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Socio-Political Groups,"

Bulletin 120.

3.

E. Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, 1907.

4.

R. L. Raikes and R. H. Dyson, "The prehistoric climate of Baluchistan

..."

AA

63.

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INTRCDUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

The Nature, Mechanisms and Consequences

Lecture 32.

Human
1.

Populations

of

Changes

in

(Shimkin)

General

causes and consequences

of the growth, fluctuations, and structural changes of human populations
is still rudimentary.
Yesterday's gross errors show that today's facts and
forecEEfits are subject to future correction.
Note that expert opinion in 1937
(Carr-Saunders) anticipated an early ageing and decline in size of the
European and U. S. populations. Again, Kroeber's 1939 estimate of the
pre-Columbian population of Mexico was less than a fifth that calculated
by Cook and Simpson in 1948. No one anticipated either the enormous
decline in fertility in the then-colonial regions or the dramatic rises of the
U.S. and Canadian, and drops of the Spanish, Italian and Japanese, birth
rates. Nor was the wide extent of population control among primitive and
peasant peoples appreciated. Thus, the demographic literature of the 1920's
and 1930's was rather self-assured, to the point of toying with "laws" of
demographic development. At present, human population dynamics appear
to be highly malleable interactions of demogrjp hie potentials, perceived
values and anticipations, and levels of social organization and conflict,
within broad bounds set by disease and the limits of food supplies.
Scientific understanding of the history,

The major demographic

facts which appear tenable are the following:

The world's population, as a general trend, has had an

accelerating growth, reaching a few million at most prior to the advent
1.

seed extraction, about 10,000-12,000 years ago. By 2,000

years ago, it appears (largely from data on China and the Roman Empire)
to have approximated 150-200 million.
By 1650, according to Carr-Saunders'
estimate, it exceeded a half billion. In 1800, it was about a billion persons,
and in 1900 it probably exceeded 1.5 billion. The current figure is between
2.5 and three billion persons, with much uncertainty in the data for China,
southeast Asia and Africa.
of fishing and

This general trend unquestionably includes important worldwide fluctuations, the period 1200-1350 A.D. probably being -ine of actual
population decline from military destruction, unfavorable weather ard the
plague. Moreover, population histories in older and newer centers of
permanent field agriculture and urbanism have been rather different. Overall, maximum population densities in old, well-favored centers have grown
2.

104

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Lecture 32
far

.105

more slowly

medium -to-high

than have the areas o f

density.

For at least three hundred years and perhaps for two

thousand years or more, the Far East, Southeast Asia and India together
have held at least half the world's population. The Near East, North Africa
and Europe have had about another quarter, but the population axis of this
area has shifted, over the last 200 years, from the Mediterranean to the
North European plain. In the rest of the world, the major historic trends
3.

have been the explosive peopling of the Arrericas and the slow growth, thanks
largely to the slave trade, of sub-Saharan Africa.
In young, healthy human populations with institutions favor4.
able to high fertility, birth rates of 50-55/1000 can be maintained for long
periods, e.g . , in Quebec between 1670 and 1790. Heavy maternal mortality,
as among nineteenth-century Russian peasants, can reduce birth rates by a
Heavy infection with venereal diseases or malaria, coupled
fifth or more.
with dietary deficiencies, may lower live birth rates even more. Cook's
figure (1943, III, p. 18) of 23/1000 for northern California Indians in 18851890 represents essentially unregulated fertility under very adverse circumstances. Under more normal circumstances, crude birth rates much under
40/1000 may be considered as greater or lesser consequences of social or
physical restraints, including selective out-migration, upon fertility.
5.
Fertility controls are both old and widespread in human
they
societies;
have been imposed by primitive, peasant and urban peoples
when the birth of children would threaten major goals, particularly those of
virtuous reputations among the unmarried, and personal and child welfare
among the married. Characteristic consequences are attempts to avoid all
births, or to space births, or to limit surviving births to some maximum
number. Fertility control, especially abortion and infanticide, to mitigate
extreme distress, ward off starvation or consciously hold down numbers
seems rarer. Hunting and gathering peoples such as the Northern Athabascan
Indians (Shimkin, 1955) are prone to such practices. Fertility control is
generally cloaked with secrecy; it diffuses poorly. Inefficacious, sometimes
purely magical, methods tend to persist. Some spread took place from India
via the Near East to Europe in Classical and Medieval times; since the end
of the eighteenth century a more general wave has spread outward from
France and England, and from urban to rural groups. However, fertility
control seems also to have gained pace independently in other areas, such as
Eastern Europe after 1850, and often been most intensely practiced in rural
conservative peasant environments under conditions of severe land pressure.
..

man

achieved largely by five means: social

means reducing marriage rates and sexual activity in marriage; sexual
anomalies particularly interrupted intercourse; chemical and physical
contraception abortion; and infanticide
Apart from a few transcendentalist
cults in Russia, human sterilization (castration or other means) has not been
a significant aspect of fertility control.
Fertility control in

is

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Lecture 32

106
a.

Large celibate populations, which include as much as half of

pre-Communist Tibet and

Finland
and
Mongolia and present-day
Ireland. Less extreme conditions are
found in other regions, such as primitive Melanesia. Common elements in
these patterns are economic preconditioning such as land ownership, for
marriage, and institutional facilities, such as monasteries, nunneries, men's
houses, pubs, widespread alcoholism and prostitution permitting benevolent
or dissipated alternatives to marriage. Polygamous societies, such as those
of Black /frica and the Moslem World, may or may not be characterized by
socially reduced fertility. Where marriages are stable, with bride purchase,
and where sexual intercourse is prohibited during nursing, spacing ensues.
This, accompanied by high infant mortality, reduces live births.
the adults, are found in several areas, especially

Sexual anomalies to reduce the probability of conception

appear to have been rather widespread, both in primitive societies ( e.g.
Black Africa) and in the modern west. However, sexual deviancies appear
to stem almost totally from other causes, especially the rejection of normal
social roles and the scarcity of normal partners.
b.

c.
Chemical and physical contraception of effective types appears
have been known in India, the Mediterranean and parts of Eastern Europe
from ancient times, but been available only to small groups of the upper
classes and prostitutes. In modern times, it had two foci of development:
France and England. In France and adjoining areas, i.e. Geneva, contraception was being practiced by the late seventeenth century among the
burgesses. Its effects were to reduce completed family sizes and to advance
the end of reproduction, among wives, from the 39th year to the 34th year and
later to the 32nd, on the average. Advanced ages of marriage and lifelong
celebacy among men were concurrent trends. In French rural areas, birth
control began to be effective after 1780, and was widespread from the first.
Here also the main effects were completed-famiiy limitation and wider spacing between births. In all these cases, maternal life expectancies and infant
survivals improved concurrently; thus birth control in France was in considerable part a segment of a larger improvement in hygiene.
to

In Britain, contraception was practiced by seventeenth century

roisterers, such as the auto -biographer Boswell, but birth control developed
as a conscious social movement after Malthus. The earliest propagandist,
Francis Place, endeavored to educate the female textile workers against the
strains of excessive and illegitimate births and abortions in the 1820's.
Birth control grew as part of the general feminist movement, but received no
decisive impetus until the sensational Bradlough-Besant trial of 1877-79. In
the United States, the Utopian Socialist Robert Owen was an early propagandist of birth control among industrial workers but here again little was
realized until the 1880's. Over-all, while the social context of continental
birth control was propertied, in both Britain and the U.S. it was deeply
associated with social protest.

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Lecture 32
11.

107

Reference Data.
1.

Required Reading.
Population and Progress in the Far East
(Univ. Chicago Press, 1959), pp. 11-32, 380-403.

Thompson, W

2.

S.

General References

a.

Basic reference data, items no. 9 (Kroeber), 11 (Thompson),

12 (Kiser and Boudreau), and 13 (Freedman, Whelpton, and
Campbell).

b.

Specialized demographic materials:

Adams, Robert M,: "Agriculture and urban

western

Science 136:

Iran,"

109-122.

life in

early South-

1963.

A careful but qualitative assessment of the intensification

and urbanization of settlement in Near Eastern flood plains from
5000 B.C. up to the Sassanian period (500-700 A.D.). A review
of factors inducing subsequent decline.
Angel, J. Lawrence: "Social biology of Greek culture growth,"
American Anthropologist 48: 493-533, 1946.

An extremely interesting attempt at correlating demographic

and cultural phenomena in Greece between 3000 B.C. and 1000
A.D. The medical aspects are well sketched, i.e. growth in
skeletal size with prosperity. The importance of racial
admixture as a phenomenon in the development of the Greek
population is stressed.

Baumhoff, Martin A,: Ecological Determinants of Aboriginal

California Populations
in

(University of California Publications

49: 155-236, 1963.

American Archaeology and Ethnology)

A fundamental

analysis of the food resources and population

of a pre-agricultural population. The new estimates for California's aboriginal total (ca, 350,000) triple Kroeber's and
"an agricultural economy would have been less
suggest that.
productive than the native economy facorn-gathering, fish,
The state of Malthusian
large mammals./ in the initial stages.
equilibrium /[which he ascribes to aboriginal California/ means
that there was no slack, so that any diversion of manpower.
to.
agriculture would result in a net loss of production.
Looked at in these terms it is clear that possible environmental
.

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108

Lecture 32

Abortion, although deeply repulsive to Christian ethics, has

been a widely practised means of birth control, in the primitive world,
among the classic civilizations and in recent times. Currently, it is
believed that fully 1/2 of all conceptions in Japan, Hungary and several
other countries are aborted. Birth control through abortion is legal on
numerous grounds in these countries and others such as the USSR, but all
attempt to dissuade women from having recourse to this brutal and dangerous
technique. The justifications for legalized abortion presented by practicing
states are attempts to avoid even worse consequences in death and mutilation
from widespread illegal terminations.
d.

e.

Infanticide,

commonly practiced through exposure,

is

usually selective. Where used to limit populations, it is largely female, and

has as its consequences disbalanced adult sex ratios and, often polyandry.
In areas where feminine virtue is prized, infanticide as well as abortion are

common among

the

unmarried.

Mortality in man is largely caused by disease, often abetted by

malnutrition, exposure and fatigue. In general, mortality rates in agricultural societies prior to 1750 appear largely to have been density-dependent.
Thus, migration to the New World, which permitted a long period of lowdensity settlement, was a major factor in the tremendous natural growth of
the American population. Conversely, the gradual, sometimes cyclical
decline of long-settled areas, such as ILgypt, Mesopotamia, coastal Peru
(Viru valley) and even the Mississippi (Cahokia), may in appreciable part
be due to the steady climb of diseases. Enteric infections and tuberculosis
are particularly suspect as causes, world-wide. Malaria, an Old -World
scourge, played an important part in the depopulation of the Americas after
1492,
6.

Diseases have two types of effect, selective and general. The first
is most important in its genetic and demographic effects; the second,
characteristic of unselective killers such as plague, typhus, cholera, yellow
fever and smallpox, leaves population little changed, except in numbers.
Since the rise of vaccination", hygiene and antibiotics, early mortality has

become increasingly

selective. In general, since genetic susceptibilities

are the major discriminating factors in survival now, the net effect, given
lower fertility, is to reduce their frequency in the population. The preservation of the handicapped, who have generally much lower fertility (if any)
than the remainder of the population has minor offsetting force.

7.
The final element of demographic significance is migration.
This is important directly because it is generally selective, and hence
changes the structures of both receiving and donor populations, and because
Since the development
it results in changes in patterns, as well as numbers.
international
exceeding
of agriculture, the greatest effect of migration, far
movements in scope and persistence, has been the phenomenon of recon-

centration termed urbanization.

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109

Lecture 32
barters

/'to

maize-type agriculture"/ are irrelevant."

(pp. 227-

28).

Bergues, Kelene

et al

La Prevention des Nais sances dans

la

Ses Origines dan s les Temps Modernes. (The

Origins in Modern
Prevention of Births within the Family. Its
Travaux et
Times ) Institut National d' etudes demographiques.
universitaires de
Documents. CahierNo. 35. Paris: Presses
TTc^mniP

'

France, 1960.
birth control,
basic synthesis of research on the history of
especially in France and England.

Depression.
Borah, Woodrow: New Spain's Century of
Americana: 35, 1951.

Ibero_-

which
incisive summary of the social mechanisms
1550 and
promoted a collapse of Mexican populations between

An

1650.

and
Carr-Saunders, A.M.: World Population, Past Growth
1937.
Press,
Present Trends. London: Oxford University

permanent importance. Its projections of

and American
stabilization and even early decline in European
declmes
failed, as did all others, to anticipate the

An analysis

of

populations
of succeeding decades.
in mortality and the rises in fertility
migrations, and of the population
Its discussions of international
^A/ar II
problems of non-European countries on the eve of World

are also valuable.

Economic Change in
Coale, Ansley J. et al: Demographic and
Research.
Deve loped Countries. National Bureau of Economic
Princeton
Special Conference Series No. 11, Princeton, N.J.:
University Press, 1960.
with
meticulous analysis of detailed trends and correlates
countries
European
marriage and fertility in selected Western
and the U. S. since World War II.

disease
Cook Sherburne F. "The extent and significance of
Ibero-Americaa
among the Indians of Baja California, 1697-1773"
:

12:

1-40, 1937,

This basic analysis estimated that, in Lower California,

in 1777.
the population declined from 41,500 in 1697 to 5,400

&.{

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Lecture 3?

110

missions, largely from introduced

v/omen
/slavery and concubinage to
diseases, p)u.s_(;i"ie.
whites? - UBS/ v'ere responsible factors. The population
have been characteristic for Spanish
decline sLown apuea.s
j^caerica. Comparab'', results are shown inS. F. Cook:
"Population r.rends araong California Mission Indians." Ibero-

Excessiv? trortalib-

in the

lusrt of

',;o

Amer ic ana

17:

1-4&, 1940.

Sherburne F. The Conflict Between the^California Indian

and White C ivilizatio n. Pt. I. The Indian versus the Spanish
Mission. Iber o-Ame r-'.c_ana^, 21, 1943; Pt. 11. The Physical and
Demographic Reaction of the Nonmission Indians in Colonial and

Cook

Provincial California. Ibid. 22, 1943; Pt. UI. The American

Invasion, '.848-1870. IbidL
23, 1943; Pt. IV. Trends in
Marriage and Divorce since 1850. Ibid. 24, 1943.
,

The most thorough study made to date of the effects of

social destruction upon the demography of a non-agricultural
population.
S oil Erosion and Population
Cook, Sherburne F.
Mexico Ibe ro-Americana 34; 1949.
:

in

Central

A careful study of the history of land deterioral.'on which

concludes that... "Spanish agriculture, deforestation, and
livestock grazing merely finished what the red man had already
nearly carried to completion" (p. 86). Also, that this indication
of Malthusian pressures requires long time allowances.
"we must concede the passage of 3,000 to 5,000 years since the
first establishment of the corn-cultivacing, pottery-making
cultures on the plateau." ( ibid. )
.

Simpson: The Population of

Cook, Sherburne .F. and Lesley
Ceutrai Mexico in the- Sixteenth Century. Ibero-Americana: 3 1
.r.

1948.

detailed analysis of Spanish population records on Mexico

which led to the radical conclusions that this area held 11
million people in 1519 (p. S3), and that this population plummeted
to 2 million by 1600 (p. 46). This estimate is 5-1/2 times as
high as Kroeber's and 80 per cent as high as the population of
the same area in 1930. Corroborating the statistical evidence
of decline are the results oi two other studies by Cook (1949)
and Borah (1951).

rioij.'il;

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Lecture 32

111

Ganiage, Jean: Trots Villages d'lle-de-France au XVIIIe Steele.

(Three Villages of the He de France in the Eighteenth Century).
Institut national d'etudes demographiques. Travaux et Documents.
Cahter No. 40. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963.
Detailed demographic histories, in well-defined socioeconomic contexts, of three rural communities in central
France. The control of fecundity within marriages performed
after 1780 is demonstrated (esp. pp. 113-4).

Nadal, J. and E. Giralt: La Population Catalane de 1553 a 1717

(The Population of Catalonia tSpain/ from 1553 to 1717).
L'immigration frangaise et les autres facteurs de son developpement.
(France immigration and other factors in its development).
L'Ecole pratique des hautes etudes. Centre de recherches
1960.
historiques. Paris: S.E. V. P.E.N.
,

meticulous study of the demographic history of eastern

Spain. It utilizes registrations from 1359 to 1553 as a base, and
the census of 1717 as a terminus. For the 164 years of basic
analysts, parish records and detailed materials on immigration
have been reviewed. The treatment of epidemic diseases is
especially valuable; it shows losses of 25 to 50 per cent of the
population in single bad plague years (1530, 1647) (pp. 25-45).
The data on the ages and occupations of the French immigrants
are also extraordinarily precise (pp. 129-153).

"Thoughts on the Historical Development of

China," Journal of Asian Studies XXIII, 3-20,

Pritchard, Earl H.
the Rjpulation of

1963.

A thorough review of recent work on the world's longest

population series. Current data indicate for Han China (i.e.
exclusive of most areas south of the Yangtze) a population of
some 60 million in 2 A.D. A comparable figure for 750 A.D.
is 75 million; for 1200 A.D. , 110 million; for 1600 A.D. ,
310 million; for 1850 A.D. , 430
150 million; for 1790 A.D.
million; and for 1953, 518 million (in somewhat larger boundaries).
,

Rosenblat, Angel:

America

(2d. ed.)

America).

La poblacion indigena y el mestizaje en

The Indigenous Population and Race Mixture in
La poblacion Indigena, 1492-1950 The Indigen-

Vol. I:
(
ous Population 1492-1950 ); Vol. II: El mestizaje y l as castas
coloniales ( Race Mixture and Colonial Castes) Buenos Aires:
Editorial Nova, 1954.
,

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Lecture 32

112

The fundamental compilation of primary Latin- American

records on the population history of the Americas by a competent
historian. A starting place for all future work; needs amplification
on the procedural aspects of Spanish censuses and enumerations.
Taueber, Irene B.: Ths Population
Press, 1958.

Perhaps the

of

Japan.

Princeton University

finest study of the history and social con-

ditioning of a population made in recent years. Emphasizes

the long tradition and effective re-imposition, post World War
of birth control through abortion in Japan.

II

United Nations: Demographic Yearbook 1961 (New York)

The fundamental source on world demography. Brings out

the basic measures and the high variability in coverage and
reliability characteristic of data on various nations.

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9-itijr>9j

INTECDUCTION TO HUMAN ECOi^OGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 33.

The Nature

of Cities and the

Rise of Drbanisna

(Fellmann)

The city is an artificial construct, not a natural ecological unit.

creation of man designed to perform tasks which, at the time of its
development, could not with equal success and efficiency be performed in
other environments. The city is not a self-contained unit; from its earliest
beginnings, the true urban unit has been characterized by the performance
of a function or functions for an area and an economy larger than, and outside of, itself. The city is, then, traditionally and contemporaneously a
functional unit. It is, simultaneously, a social unit, for its functions are
performed by people living and working in agglomeration.
It

is the

This functional and social unit is characterized by: specialization

of labor, a formally structured society, and specialization and a hierarchical
structure in land uses. There are, of course, contrasts between the preindustrial and industrial city; none the less, the described traits have been

enduring.

The problem

term "urban" is tricky. It is here

assumed to refer to agglomerated settlements which are non-agricultural in
function, and which are not exclusively dormitory in nature. \\ ith these
assumptions as given, urbanism is seen to start late in the history of man;
group dwellings of family or tribal units are not urban, nor were the hunting
of definition of the

villages of the Paleolithic era or the agricultural villages of the Neolithic.

see, then, the seeds of urban tradition in the "city civilizations" of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India.

We

Although reasons for the change from village to true urban life are
conjectural, urbanism first developed between 5000 and 3500 B.C. in
Mesopotamia and Egypt. Population pressures, migrations, and conflicts
between hunters, herdsmen, and agriculturalists, appear to have spurred
a more formal control of agricultural societies dependent upon fortified
central places and the group-supervised control of large-scale farming
enterprises requiring- -for their success- -land reclamation or other control
of the forces of nature.

These needs and the cities to which they gave rise wero found in
great river valleys: The Hwang -Ho --Yangtze Kiang in China, the basins
of the Indus and the Ganges in the Indian Subcontinent, the Assyrio-Babylonian
113

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Lecture 33

114

civilizations of the Tigris and Euphrates in the Near East, and Egypt and the
Nile Valley of North Africa. The organization of agriculture which these
complex societies undertook required, first, a true specialization of laborfarmer, laborer, soldier, metalworker (as bronze and iron ages dawn)-and required as well both a secular and ecclesiastical hierarchy for purposes
of control: hierarchies far more pervasive than the simpler control forms of
Neolithic villages.

displayed certain characteristic traits. Its existence was dependent upon the creation of an agricultural
surplus; that surplus was required to support the ruling class or classes-secular and/or ecclesiastical. Attached to these dominating groups were
specialist bureaucrats, administrators, supervisors, etc. Domination by
superior classes was maintained through inheritance, "theocratic sanction,"
and military power. The agricultural peasantry presumably supported both
the urban unit and particularly the power elite through payment of tribute;
further support comes through complete control- -by custom or ownership-of subordinate artisans and laborers.

Within

this context the pre-industrial city

The size of the urban unit is theoretically limited by its ability to

secure the necessary surplus food items as well as by its ability to control
subordinate agricultural populations. The city, to exist, is required to
secure necessities from outside of itself. These necessities must be transported. The argument, therefore, runs: the size of the city is limited by
the efficiency of transport media available to it and/or is limited by the productivity of its accessible hinterland.
return for the commodities which it consumes, the pre-industrial
city has limited alternatives: it has the option of taxing rural areas by such
devices as offering protection, demanding religious tithes, or owning as
personal property the body and the work of the rural workers. It can engage
in various forms of trade activity. In the long run, city-rural economic
relationships must exhibit reciprocity. Despite the "power hierarchy" which
it displayed, the urban unit in preindustrial societies did not engage in battle
for survival with rural areas; the concept of compatibility of interests was, in
the long run, paramount.
In

City functions at the dawn of urbanism were dominated by trade,

fortification and refuge, theological centrality, and manufacture.

The spread of the city owes as much or more to extension of local

trade activities as it does to independent invention. The development of
colony cities and outlying urban nuclei to supply domestically unavailable
raw materials, for example, led to the spread of urban units from Sumer
to the Indus Valley.

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Lecture 33

115

The mother cities--and particularly colony cities--early displayed a

distinctive and structured land use pattern. Examples may be seen both in
Ur, in the Near East, and at Mohenjo-Daro and Harrapa in the Indian Subcontinent. By 3000 B.C. functional specialization in land uses is seen.

The ordered Near Eastern city was not converted directly into a
Greek cities
comparable urban unit within the Greek or Roman World
apparently began with a dominating religious, rather than purely economic,
function. However, by the fifth and fourth centuries B. C. --traditionally,
though not actually, under the influence of Kippodamus of Miletus --more
ordered and functionally advanced cities were developed. As in earlier
cultures, the planned Greek city demonstrated the checkerboard street
system and a hierarchical structuring of land uses. In the Greek culture,
the establishment of new or colony cities was not purely a matter of economic
.

or functional rationalization. Religion, prophecy, superstition, as well as

practical considerations underlay ultimate decisions of city location and
internal form. Developing local and inter-regional trade, functional sophistication, labor specialization, and social stratification soon resulted in urban
communities embodying many modern characteristics. The advanced Greek
city was characterized by a central agora with associated shrines, public
buildings, and shops; the rectangular or gridiron street system, differentiated residential areas; paved streets; sewers; water supply; zoning
ordinances, etc. Greek cities and their Roman successors expressed in
nearly modern terms a full range of urban functions. Primarily based upon
trade, they were individually or collectively transportation centers, governmental centers, market towns, religious and educational (collectively
"institutional") towns, cultural centers, and certainly not least, industrial
communities. The Greek tradition of urbanism was transferred to the Roman
world. The came range of functionii and the same urban complexity characterized the majority of Roman Empire tSarn. Only Rome itself- -in itc later
years- -must be excluded from the list of true "urban" centers developed in the
Classical World. Rome- -though displaying many of the contemporary responses
to urban complexity and congestion --must be seen as a highly subsidized,
non-economic city-type unit.

Required Readings

Gilmore, Harlan

Gallion, Arthur B.

Hilberseimer, L.

Transportation and the Growth of Cities

Chapters 1-3.
The Urban Pattern, pp. 3-32.

The Nature

of Cities, pp. 13-80.

'.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology

Lecture 34.

3 69)

The Pre-industrial City: Western Europe

(Fellmann)

While the fall of Rome did not spell an immediate or an inevitable

decline of urbanism in Western Europe, that decline followed shortly after
the closing of trade by Western European communities in the Mediterranean,
consequent upon the spread of Islam and the refusal of Christian governments
within the former Western Empire to deal with the Moslems.

By the middle of the 7th century, sea trade had declined both in
Southern Europe as a consequence of Moslem advances and in Northern
Europe as a consequence of Northmen depredations. While both Venice
and certain Flemish cities remained important trade points, the majority
of urban Europe underwent decline with the loss of long-distance exchange
of common and bulk commodities.
The pattern of urban development during Western Europe's so-called
"dark ages" followed the sequence: disintegration of trade, thus decline of
urban life; virtual dissolution of cities, and, therefore, diminution of the
market for farm products; decline of the farm market, therefore, a general
retreat into subsistence agriculture (the "economy of consumption" as Pirenne
has dubbed it). The decline in inter-regional trade and the concomitant decline
of urban dominance is therefore associated with the rise of the cultural and
social milieu known as "feudalism."
Within Carolingian Europe the few remaining centers with vestiges
the following collective or individual characteristics:
reduction in the range of functions developed in an earlier, freer economic
society; featured ecclesiastical functions, so that in many instances the
"urban" population was composed primarily of clerics, monks, students, and
servants subservient upon the former; displayed a purely local market
function; were walled and physically restricted within protective ramparts,
with former "suburbs" demolished for protective reasons; and were to be
influenced by the rise of fortified urban nuclei embodying the castle or
fortress concept in formerly non-urban agricultural lands. Defence needs,
in an age of destruction of centralized government, become paramount; the
"burgus " develops as a new potential urban nucleus.
of

urbanism had

Western

By

the 11th century, a true commercial revival is found within

Europe; the onset of the crusades brings new social vigor, and

116

Lecture 34

|17

labor surpluses helped change conditions characterizing earlier Carolingian

Europe. Both Venice and the Flemish coast provide examples and origin
points for the spread of an active urban economy.

Revival of trade- -consequent upon the opening of the Mediterranean

to Western European shipping, upon the conquest of England and the development of new markets for Flanders, and upon the forced retreat of the
Northmen- -transformed the urban economy of Western Europe. Subsequent
economic development freed society, converted agriculture from subsistence
to commercial production, and provided a growth basis for urban development.
Both the long-standing "ecclesiastical town" and the more recently developed
"burgus" served as nuclei for subsequent urban development. A developing
merchant class composed both of immigrant Venetians and Flemish as well as
of indigenous entrepreneurs subsequently- -by their social and legal demands
within a restrictive ecclesiastical society--transformed urban populations
and altered the structure of feudal organizations.

The rise of the merchant class, and the expansion of the urban
society attendant upon it, resulted in the development of a totally new (to
feudal minds) social milieu. Involved was the rise of a middle class, the
development of a nominally free but frequently economically depressed labor
and artisan group, and the continuous erosion of the former prerogatives of
both the lay and ecclesiastical hierarchy.

The internal structure of the medieval city was directly related to

originating nucleus. Those which developed within the context of a preexistent ecclesiastical town tended initially to fill up the area within the
existing fortifications; homes, monasteries, cathedrals, and warehouses,
places of manufacture and places of business became intricately interrelated.
Where the "burg" or "burgus" was the nucleus of the new urban unit, lack of
space within the fortifications resulted in "urban sprawl" within newly
developed suburbs or "Faubourgs" or "New Burgs"; these latter were by
name and tradition distinctly contrasted to the "Old Burgs" inhabited by the
"Castellani," who never became identified with the "Burgher," or merchant,
population of the suburbs.
its

The "New Burgs" were largely unplanned; they were characterized

by:

(a) an irregular street pattern; (b) an irregularity of blocks; (c) an irregularity

of orientation of structures; (d) old and eventually useless walls, replaced by

circumferential roads.

The Medieval town was a complex

of land uses, and all uses had to

be housed within a space at least temporarily restricted by the protective

walls of the community. The market place, the permanent dwellings for
merchant and artisan, structures for the storage of goods, buildings to

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Lecture 34

118

house the intricate commercial activities of the developing community,

quarters for the meetings of community organizations and the municipal
authorities, provision for the housing of urban military establishments, area
for the church or churches and the material appurtenances of the priesthood,
cathedrals as seats of the bishops (in the larger towns), areas for monastic
institutions, and sites for the developing guild halls all were provided-leading to a complicated physical structure.
i350--for a variety of reasons--the rate of new town formations
and urban growth in Western Europe substantially declined. By 1500, the
urbanization of Europe is essentially completed as far as the distribution and
number of cities that the continent would contain for the next 300 ^'ears was
concerned. Such stability should not imply stagnation. Rather, growth,
developme nt, and maturation characterized the urban scene during the three
centuries prior to 1800. First, we can trace the rise of a mercantilistic
economy in which the restrictiveness of Craft and Merchant Guilds was
abandoned; and, toward the end of the period, we see the beginnings of the
industrialized city prototype of present urban centers. The decline
of Feudalism and the rise of the centralized state are developments which
had material urban impact.
i^fter

of

With the rise

individual Medieval

came

the decline in the independence

cities and a termination of the near equality in size and

of the central state

functions of existing urban centers. With centralism and with its concomitant
mercantilist appendages, there develops that which is now commonly
accepted: the large, complex, multi-functional metropolitan center.

Simultaneously, other urban patterns emerge: (1) the creation of an

economically, rather than politically or socially, stratified society; (2) the
development of higher urban densities and the emergence of the compact and
congested city; (3) increased specialization of land use within urban units;
(4) the development of specialized or "unifunctional" cities; (5) the creation
of a philosophy or art of urban redevelopment and planning.

Associated with the Renaissance, an increase in wheeled traffic,

and, above all, with military needs and imperial desires, the "Baroque" city
is ushered in.
"Squares", Processional -Avenues, building-height controls,
and circumferential avenues become part of the new city pattern. Simultaneously, there is increased stratification in urban residential and economic
land uses and an increasing segregation of the upper and lower economic
classes.

Required Reading

Mumford, Lewis.

'
.

The Culture of Cities, pp. 13-222.

Pirenne, Henri. Medieval Cities (passim)
Dickinson., Robert E. "The Growth of the Historic City," in Mayer
and Kohn, Readings in Urban Geography, pp. 69-83.

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 35.

The Industrial City and External Urban Relationships

(Fellmann)

The Industrial Revolution ushered in a new phase of urban development within Western Europe. The first, and morphologically determining
phase, was characterized by the railway, the steam engine, and early masstransit systems. The urban results were: (a) an increase in urban congestion,
consequent upon a limited range of power transmission, and an influx of
urban workers; (b) an increased differentiation of land use within cities;
(c) an increasing urbanization of Western Europe's population (for the first
time the number of urban dwellers exceeded the number of rural citizens);
(d) the development of new urban centers in growing industrial districts where
raw materials- -particularly fuels- -were available; (e) the emergence of a new
urban distribution pattern based upon the developing transportation (railroad)
lines; (f) the introduction of a new urban land use--railroad facilities--within
the developed community; and (g) the beginnings of a specialized, compact
pattern of suburbanization.

While urban populations were increasing, so urban complexity was

augmented. Limited possibilities in effecting separation of place of residence
and place of employment implied increasing land use densities and a furthering
of a hierarchical structuring of land -use. The development of mass transit
systems, plus the restricted location of employment centers, gave rise to a
differential structure of "rent-commandmg" abilities of urban properties.
For the first time, a truly stratified land-use pattern in the modern sense
emerges. Speculative increases in urban property values contribute to an
emerging pattern of rigidity within the land-use patterns of cities.

While internal structure- -to which topic we shall return later- -was
becoming increasingly formalized and standardized, certain obvious patterns
of urban size, spacing, and rural relationships were emerging.
In certain urban environments- -of which the United States is a classic
example--the "rank-size" relationship between cities is well expressed. This
rule, expressed by the formula S = S.
suggests that the size ranking of any
given city within the totality of uroan communities can be derived by dividing
the population size of the largest city by the size of a given city. The "ranksize" rule expresses an observed mathematical pattern of urban sizes within
the United States. It suggests, for example, that our largest of metropolitan
areas--New York City--is approximately twice the size of our second
,

119

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Lecture 35.

120

metropolitan area- -Chicago; that the fifth largest area, Detroit, is approximately 1/5 of the size of the largest S.M.A. etc. It may be observed that
the rank-size rule applies nearly equally well to the size structure of American
cities at any census date since 1790, even though individual cities have changed
their position vis-a-vis the total urban structure of the nation. Such a ranksize hierarchy- -peculiar, although not unique in the United States- -suggests
a logarithmic straight- line relationship between the sizes of American cities.
,

related to urban population-supporting

capacity. Such capacity depends upon the number and variety of functions
housed within the individual community. Only through the performance of
economic functions can an urban population exist. The observed size-hierarchy
of cities, therefore, must correspond to an assumed functional hierarchy.

Urban size, obviously,

is

Urban functions m,ay be very crudely grouped into two classes:

"central place" functions and "special" functions. The associated performance
of these two classes of functions give rise to the rank-size hierarchy already
observed.
"Central place" functions are those that we normally associate with
"market town" --retailing and wholesaling of goods, collection of farm
produce, provision of urban-centered professional and personal services, etc.
Such "central place" functions are distributed among modern urban communities
in a hierarchical structure. We observe that the goods and services we seek
are not uniformly available in every urban place; low -order central places may
contain the drugstore, the drygoods store, the filling station. We must journey
to higher-order central places to secure banking services, medical services,
access to the department store, or enjoyment of the cinema. A great many
centers perform the most commonplace of these functions, while the more
highly specialized activities- -demanding a very large total area in population
to support them- -are localized in only a very few of the nation's cities. One
consequence of this apportionment of central place functions among individual
urban places is the creation of the regular hierarchical pattern of urban sizes
which, in turn, is a fundamental constituent of the composite rank-size pattern
already examined. The theoretical work of Walter Christaller, as summarized
by UUman, clarifies this point.
the

Theoretical and empirical studies within this country and abroad, in

areas where urban centers dominantly function as central places, suggest not
only a regular size hierarchy among urban units but, as well, a regular spacing
pattern. Because of a similarity of level of functional performance, a distinct
size clustering of cities is revealed. It is usually concluded that when "central
places" dominate the urban pattern, tov/n classes are few in number and the
functional and size gradations between the classes are large. At the same time,
a dominantly "central place" hierarchy of cities results in a distinctive urban
spacing pattern

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Lecture 35.

1-21

Granting certain assumptions of uniform agricultural productivity of

a topographically homogeneous surface, a regular and distinctive urban
spacing and size hierarchy will theoretically develop. Hypothesizing the
k = 3 network (a network predicated upon the idea that there is no channelization
of movement, and each central place is uniformly accessible from the surrounding countryside) a regular pattern of town sizes should develop. Loworder towns will provide the most common of functions required by the
surrounding non-urban populations; successively higher-order communities
will house functions requiring ever larger populations and purchasing powers
("thresholds") to support them. We, therefore, see the theoretical development
of a multi- level network of urban centers made up of a number of very small
market towns, providing a limited number of commonly-needed goods and
services for a restricted hinterland; superimposed upon this basic matrix are
a succession of higher-order communities providing goods and services
requiring larger "supporting" populations.
Theoretically, the smallest towns in any given region will be located
a constant distance, a, away from their nearest neighbors. That basic distance,
a, will be determined by the acceptable travel distance from hinterland to
center. Under the k= 3 network (k = the number of lower-order places dominated
by a center in the next higher order), centers in the next higher central place
category will be located at a distance equivalent to a times V 3 and the
theoretical distance separating centers of each higher category would increase
over that of the preceding category. Such space relationships,
by V^
granting differences in world population densities and agricultural productivity,
have been observed in several sections of western Europe, and the United
States.

Required R e ading
Charles T. Stewart, Jr. "The Size and Spacing of Cities," in Mayer and
Kohn, Readings in Urban Geograph y, pp. 240-256.
UUman, "A Theory of Location for Cities," ibid. pp. 202-209.
,

Brian

L, Berry and William L. Garrison, "Alternate Explanations of

Urban Rank-Size Relationships," ibid. , pp. 230-240.

J.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)
Lecture 36.

The Classical City

of the Industrial

Era

(Fellmann)

Central place theory, as suggested in a previous lecture, is based

upon the concept that there exists a set of nodal places which serve as
centers for diffusion and distribution of ideas, services, and goods which
meet demands of a population in complementary regions both within and
without central places; and that the central places are arranged in a hierarchy
with respect to each other. This hierarchy is spatially arranged in such
manner as to maximize the satisfaction of the needs of the population within
the complementary region (alternatively known as: hinterland, trade area,
service area, tributary area, etc.). The varying levels of functions performed
by central places create a regional hierarchy of central places. Each function
has a "threshold" requirement, or minimum size of complementary region,
below which it will not be economically justifiable. The "nesting" of each
successively lower threshold within complementary regions of higher order
functions and, where justifiable, the duplication of thresholds within larger
regions, give rise to a spatial ordering called the "central place hierarchy,"

The idealized size hierarchy and spatial pattern of urban centers

subsumed under central place theory can only be achieved where the regional
economy is dominated by agricultural activities. Introduction of nonagriculturai
non-central place) functions for cities suggests inevitable departures
from idealized central place patterns.
(

i.e.

Industrialization has been a chief distorter of classical central place

urban size and distribution patterns. Central places display a limited number
of concentrated, but highly segregated, size classes; industrialization- -by
adding new functions and, therefore, new population supporting capacitiestends to blur central place size disparities. In addition, industrial functional

orientation to market, transportational, and raw material considerations

results in the effectual abolition of uniform spacing patterns presumed by
central place theory.

The working population of an urban community is usually assumed

be divided into two groups: one engaged in activities essential to the
support and growth of the community, without whose efforts money would not
be brought into the urban unit. These have been variously called 'primary"
workers, "urban growth" workers, or "basic" workers. One dependent
upon this first group, but needed by them as well, is that population engaged
in "secondary," "support," "service," or "non-basic" activities.
to

122

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Lecture 36

123

The former by their efforts presumably earn the income required

community
as a whole to purchase commodities not produced by the
by the
community itself and purchase the raw materials essential to the functioning
of that community. The latter reputedly are supported by the surplus
earnings of the primary workers and provide those primary workers with
services they do not choose to perform for themselves--retailing, public
administration, teaching, etc.
the validity of this assumed internal employment structure,
it is usually agreed that any individual urban unit has one or a series of
dominating external functions to perform: manufacturing, retail trade,

Whatever

professional service, transportation or communication, personal service,

administration, wholesale trade, finance, mining, and- -generally in the case
of larger metropolitan centers- -diversified functions, with no single activity
dominant. Varying objective and subjective techniques have been proposed
for determination of dominating city functions.

Whatever they may be, and however their relative dominance may be
determined, urban functions are performed by variously specialized populations
within a rigidly structured land use environment. Leaving aside considerations
of topography and historical accident, that land use environment is strongly
conditioned by competition for individual parcels between alternative uses, by
transport media available, by non-economic social decisions embodied in
land use, by subdivision control and zoning ordinances, and by such external
control media as existing street pattern, concepts of prestige, etc.

Within the capitalistic industrialized city developed during the mass

transit era, a distinctive and recurring land use pattern developed. That
city is best characterized as being compact, of high density, of irregular
shape, and showing a sharp division between urban and non-urban uses on
its periphery.

Compactness derived from the necessity to minimize separation of

place of residence and place of employment. High density resulted from
multiple decisions designed to minimize that separation. Irregular outline
was the consequence of differential peripheral accessibility based upon
location of mass transit lines. Compactness and sharp division between
urban and non-urban uses were the consequence of the foregoing conditions.
Within the pre-automobile city, the repetitive structure and hierarchy
was strongly affected by competitive pressures. Rent theory
holds that any parcel will, ideally, be occupied by that parcel's highest and
best use; such use of determined by the rent-paying ability of various uses
seeking occupance of the parcel. The valuation placed upon a particular
parcel by alternative uses is a reflection of differential evaluations of income
production (or other gratifications) expected to be realized from location at

of land uses

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Lecture 36

124

perfectly adjusted land use structure is not to be

expected; inertia, nonproductive public requirements, or even incorrect
accounting procedures may lead --within the short run- -to land use maladjustthat site.

An economically

ments.

The land use structure is strongly affected by accessibility and by

the economic resources of potential users. In the pre-automobiie western
city, mass transit lines radiated away from the original settlement site; as
a consequence of focusing of transit upon that site, superior accessibility
within the developing urban area was created and continued. Those uses
most demanding of--and most able to benefit from--that differential accessibility gradually displaced alternative uses within the central area. The
central business district, therefore, developed. Within that CBD, requiring
the ultimate in accessibility from all portions of the developing urban unit,
an internal stratification of land uses developed. Closest to the focal point
a "mass-buying" area of department
stores, specialty stores, and allied activities. In other locations- -also
economically and functionally determined--developed other land use concentrations; the financial and administrative district, the hotel concentration,
of

the

mass

transit lines

amusement area,

was developed

etc.

But other locations within the urban area also had superior
accessibility- -most notably at the crossing of mass transit lines outward from
the city center. At such locations subordinate business concentrations also
tended to develop. Indeed, the central place hierarchy previously noted as
obtaining in areas dominated by an agricultural economy can be seen to exist
within the built-up metropolitan area. The highest order central place in the
urban scene is the central business district; subordinate to it are major outlying business centers, neighborhood business districts, and finally the
"corner store." Breaking up that theoretical central place hierarchy are the
"business thoroughfares"--more the result of zoning decisions than of economic
responses.

the

The mass transit city is, from a land use standpoint, presumed to be
result of a complex interaction of rational growth patterns, historical

accidents, and perhaps irrational individual or public decisions. Hoyt has

suggested a pattern of urban growth in which like uses radiate from the city
center along particular avenues of access. Fixed mass transit media or
other lines of access give differential accessibility to a limited number of
peripheral locations. High quality residential areas- -representing occupance
most able to bear the cost in time and money of long distance commutationpresumably grow outward along these lines.

Therefore, from the standpoint of residential land use, the developing

urban area shows a digitate outline. Closer in to the city center are residential
areas either abandoned by higher income groups or originally occupied by lower

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Lecture 36

-1^5

income groups not so able to afford the tinrie and naoney for long distance
movement to places of employment. Similarly, industrial areas would tend
to grow outward along transport lines of significance to them- -waterfronts,
river valleys, railroad lines.

Colby, by invoking the concept of centrifugal forces in urban development, hypothesizes an urban unit constantly in flux with frequent movementboth inward and outward- -of urban functions responding to pressures of
prestige, efficiency, legal restraints, etc. Burgess and Ogburn see the
idealized city--located on the flat plain--as composed of a series of concentric circles, each representing a different land use: the internal central
business district, a surrounding light manufacturing and wholesaling area, a
deteriorating slum residential area, a zone of workingmen's homes, etc.
Harris and UUman see the urban land use structure in more complex terms;
to them, the city is a multi-nucleated structure in which individual outlying
centers of growth- -each of specialized function--have expanded until coalescence created the present observed city form.

Required Reading

Chauncy D. Harris and Edward L. UUman, "The Nature

Mayer and Kohn, Readings in Urban Geography

of Cities," in
,

pp. 277-286.

Richard U. Ratcliff, "The Dynamics of Efficiency in the Locational

Distribution of Urban Activities," ibid. pp. 299-324.
,

John

Alexander, "The Basic -nonbasic Concept of Urban Economic

Functions," ibid. pp. 87-100.
,

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 37.

The Emergent Urban Community

(Fellmann)

The previously described idealized pre-automotive capitalistic city

does not have a direct counterpart in the developing urban form of the
Communist world. It depends for its pattern and form upon a free market in
land; where such a market does not exist, and where planned allocation of land
uses obtains, different internal urban structures are developing. While
dominated by mass transit, the Soviet city places a social or cultural- -rather
than economic--premium upon accessibility. Proximity of place of residence
and place of employment is a paramount consideration in allocation of land
uses; distributional (commercial) uses are arranged in accordance with
populations requirements, but do not assume the same hierarchical structure
as within western cities.
The central business district is minimized- -its central location
taken by governmental offices, memorial parks, and cultural buildings-and commercial uses are, by plan, more uniformly distributed within the
residential areas. These latter do not assume the same hierarchical structure
as within the western world. Although high density (apartment) housing is the
rule, it is organized within "micro-regions" designed to house between four
and ten thousand persons and located in close proximity to place of employment.
Such "micro-regions" closely resemble the "neighborhood units" of former
western planning standards.
western mass transit city, already described, has
been undergoing material change. The American city is a prime case in
point, though under differing economic and political circumstances the West
European city is following suit. Within the United States, the potential for the
development of a new type of city was inaugurated during the 1930's. The
introduction of national labor laws instituting the 40-hour work week made home
ownership thinkable; the establishment of FHA mortgage insurance made ownership possible; the development of the reliable long distance automobile made
home ownership feasible for the majority of the population.

The

traditional

These three factors, in combination, spelled the end of the masscompact, high density city; for it, there was substituted the sprawled,
non-focused, metropolitan urban complex.
transit,

126

'

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"tjn'^Hi

i 1

Lecture 37

.1.27

Suburbanization in the mass-transit era involved the development of

high density outlying communities clustered like beads on a string along
commuter railroads; this pattern of discrete, high density communities
radiating outward from the central city was in part broken up by the introduction-'
in the latter part of the 19th century- -of electric inter-urban lines able to
support a lower density (though still linear) population pattern. The automobile
made possible the filling up- -at much lower densities than formerly- -of
interstitial areas formerly non-urbanized because of inaccessibility.

The consequence has been- -from the residential standpoint- -the

development of the sprawled metropolitan area, in which the dividing line
between urban and rural is frequently obscured. The consequences of such
urban sprawl are significant in shaping the contemporary urban environment.
In certain sections of the country- -as in northeastern United States (and
elsewhere by developing tendency) --the outward growth at low density of

formerly separated metropolitan centers is creating "Megalopolis." The

multiplication of individual governing and taxing units within a single functionally integrated metropolitan complex is creating urban divisiveness and
inefficiency.

The contemporary pattern

of suburbanization results materially in

100 years ago, a growth of 1,000 in the population
of a city meant only about a ten-acre addition to the total urban area; such an
increase at the present time means an addition of between 100 and 200 new
acres. The consequences are material increases in the cost of providing
urban services of an acceptable level to the greatly dispersed suburban
populations of the nation. Such populations, increasingly housed in specialized
(i.e.
functionally unbalanced) communities, have decreasing ability to "pay

lower urban densities.

their

own way."

Nevertheless, these suburban communities have constantly been

augmented oy out-migrants from the central city. Within the last ten years,
all but two of the country's ten largest cities have lost population; in the
suburban and fringe areas associated with those eight declining central cities,
population growth was in every case more than thirty per cent. Such major
population redistribution has been associated with major cultural and social
realignments. Increasingly, the central city is being abandoned to a population
composed primarily of non-whites, low-skilled in-migrants, and the impoverished elderly.

Simultaneously, the basic land use structure of the central city and
the metropolitan area is undergoing material change. Not only residential,
but also commercial and industrial land uses are suburbanized. Such outward
migration of economic functions has not only eroded the tax base of central
cities, but has additionally and substantially altered previous hierarchical
structures of commercial land uses and the former linear pattern of industrial
uses.

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Lecture 37

128

Within the central city the land use pattern has recently been primarily
affected by urban planning and land -use zoning; within peripheral areas and
suburbs, subdivision control ordinances have been dominating

in

determining

the future configuration of the community. Urban planning- -as expressed

particularly in urban redevelopment within the metropolitan area--is the
contemporary substitute for market forces in shaping the central city.

The replacement of high-density, informal, and economically determined slums by high-density, planned, formalized potential slums is a
distinctive feature of modern American urban planning. As a direct consequence
of both planning decision and market forces, the central city is becoming an
environment of contrasts; of subsidized public housing for low income minority
groups, incapable of self-support at an adequate living standard, and of high
income housing occupied by prestige groups.
Increasingly, the American urban pattern- -the environment of the
majority of American citizens- -is economically and functionally distressed.
Within "suburbia," financial resources on an individual community basis are
inadequate to meet the expectations of dominantly residential communities.
Within the central city, loss of function--and therefore erosion of tax base-presents a classic urban dilemma. The solution, we are told, lies in planning;
the important unasked question is: "Planning for what?"

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 38.

Applied

Human Ecology:

Principles of Epidemiology (Levine)

All animals and plants have their own ecologies. Epidemiology

deals with the interactions between the ecologies of man and other large
animals and those of their parasites,

parasite is an organism which lives on or within some other

organism, drawing nutriment or benefits from it. The organism on which
it lives is its host. The difference between a parasite and a predator is one
of size--a parasite is smaller than its host. Parasites may or may not harm
their hosts. Some may even help them or be necessary for their existence.
Symbiosis is the relationship between host and parasite in which the two
partners are dependent on each other for existence, such as the relationship
between termites and their protozoa. Mutualism is a similar beneficial relationship which is not obligatory, such as the relationship between ruminants
and the bacteria and yeasts in their rumens which manufacture B vitamins.
Commensalism is the relationship in which the parasite never harms the host
but derives benefit from it. Parasitosis is the relationship in which the
parasite harms its host, and paras itias is is the relationship in which the
parasite could harm its host but doesn't, usually because it isn't present in
large enough numbers. Parasites maybe viruses, bacteria, fungi, rickettsiae, protozoa, helminths (worms) of various sorts, insects, mites, ticks,
etc.

The environment of the parasite is the host. The host is a microcosm;

it is the parasite's ecosystem (or perhaps its biocenose).
The parasite's
greatest problem is getting from one host to another, and the study of this
process comes within the field of epidemiology.
Epidemiology may be defined as the study of disease in its natural
habitat, or as the study of the factors governing the occurrence of disease
or abnormality in a community or population group. These factors include
the characteristics of the population, of the causative agent, and of the
physical, biological and social environments. In other words, epidemiology
is medical ecology.

Diseases maybe infectious (measles, influenza) or noninfectious

(diabetes, pellagra). They may affect man either (1) directly, or (2) indirectly by affecting his livestock, pets or food plants. Infectious disease
is the result of imbalance in the parasite's ecosystem or a parasite population
explosion.
i^9

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130

Lecture 38

PATHWAYS OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION

I,

Vector absent
A.

Direct contact.

Finger-borne.

1.

Trachoma, childbed fever, human cowpox

(thru milkers' hands),

bovine streptococcal mastitis (thru milkers' hands), pinworms.

2.

Body contact.
Pediculosis

3.

(lice)

Biting.

Rabies.
4.

Kissing
Vincent's angina,

5.

common

cold.

Venereal
Syphilis, gonorrhea, trichomonosis

B.

Transplacental.
Congenital syphilis, toxoplasmosis,
of dogs and cattle.

C.

some ascarids (roundworms)

Air.
1.

Dust
Psittacosis,

2,

fever, pinworms, histoplasmosis, cocciodomycosis.

Aerosol or droplet.

Pneumonia, influenza, diptheria, scarlet fever, tuberculosis,

pneumonic plague.
D.

Water.
Cholera, typhoid, leptospirosis, tularemia.

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Lecture 38

131

Food
1.

Milk.

Tuberculosis, brucellosis.
2.

Mother's milk.

Toxoplasmosis, streptococci septicemia.

3.

Solid foods.
a.

Infection.

Salmonellosis, typhoid, anthrax, trichinosis, tapeworms.

b.

Preformed toxins.
Botulism, staphylococcal food poisoning, ergotism.

F.

Soil.

Anthrax, tetanus, erysipelothricosis, maduromycosis, streptothricosis.

II.

Vector present.
A.

Vectors mechanical.
1.

Vectors nonparasitic; transmission by ingestion or otherwise.

Typhoid, various diarrheal diseases (by

2.

flies).

Vectors parasitic; transmission by biting or otherwise.

Tularemia, anaplasmosis, surra.

B.

Vectors biological
1.

Vectors nonparasitic
a.

Transmission by ingestion.

Tapeworms,
b.

liver and intestinal flukes, spirurid

Transmission by skin penetration.

Schistosomosis.

nematodes.

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132

Lecture 38
2.

Vectors parasitic.
a.

Transmission by ingestion.

Dog
b.

flea

tapeworm Dipylidium)
(

Transmission by skin penetration.

Chagas' disease ( Trypanosoma cruzi)

c.

Transmission by

biting.

Malaria, filariosis, African sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma

gambiense T. rhodesiense) yellow fever, relapsing fever,
typhus, scruiS~typhus, tularemia, plague.
,

(Note that many parasites are able to use more than one mode of transmission,
e.g. tularemia- -insect bites, direct contact thx'ough infected animals, contamination of food and water).
of disease transmission are of 2 main types: Transmission with or without a vector (a second species of living organism-ordinarily an invertebrate --which transmits a disease or parasite from
one vertebrate host animal to another). The parasite multiplies in a biological

The pathways

vector it does not multiply in a mechanical v ector. If there is no vector, the

parasite may be transmitted by direct contact, through the placenta, or through
the air, water, food or soil. If the vector is mechanical, the parasite may be
transmitted by ingestion, biting or otherwise. If the vector is biological, the
parasite may be transmitted by ingestion, biting, skin penetration, etc.
;

Cutting across this classification is one based on the parasite's host

range. Some parasites are stenoxenous; they have a very narrow host range
and for practical purposes we can say that they have only a single host species.
Diseases caused by stenoxenous parasites are syphilis and the common cold.
Other parasites are euryxenous they have a number of host species, and any
of these may act as reservoirs of disease for the others. Among diseases
caused by euryxenous parasites are tuberculosis and virus encephalitis.
Zoonoses belong to this latter category. A zoonosis is a disease transmissible
between man and lower animals.
;

A disease which involves only a parasite and its host is a 2-factor

system. An example might be human pneumonia. The dynamics of pneumonia
transmission are not easy to put in mathematical terms. Factors which affect
the concentration of
it are:
(1) The number of people per unit area, i.e.
people, (2) the proportions or numbers of susceptible and immune people,
(3) the length of time the host disseminates the parasite, (4) the presence or
absence of healthy carriers, (5) the parasite's mode of transmission.
,

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Lecture 38

133

-'

the length of time the parasite can survive in the external environment,
(7) the distribution of the host population, (8) the types and numbers of
interactions between individual hosts, and (9) the general type of environment,
(6)

urban, suburban and rural.

disease which involves a parasite, host and vector is a 3 -factor

system. An example is malaria, which is transmitted from man to man by
mosquitoes. Here several new groups of factors are introduced- -those
dealing with: (1) The infectibility of the vector, (2) the propagation and
survival of the vector, and (3) the relations between the host and the vector.

Both of the above systems have to do with stenoxenous parasites.

euryxenous, there may be a 3-factor system of another typeinvolving the parasite, host and a reservoir--or a 4-factor system involving
the parasite, host, reservoir and vector. These are zoonoses. The introduction of a reservoir has a marked effect on their epidemiology, which is
even more complex than that of stenoxenous parasites.
If

the parasite is

Required Reading

World Health Organization.

The Americas (special

September-October, 1961.

issue).

World Health.

40 pp.

Other References

M. 1958. The ecology of human disease. MD Publ. New York.

xxiv f 327 pp.
Taylor, I. and J. Knowelden, 1957. Principles of epidemiology. Little,
Brown. Boston, vii + 300 pp"!
Zinsser, H. 1935. Rate, lice and history
Little, Brown. Boston.
xii + 301 pp. (This is also Bantam FC55, 1960, paperbound,
May,

J.

50 cents).

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Applied

Lecture 39.

Human Ecology: Malaria and Other Insect-Borne

Diseases

(i-evine)

Malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite which lives inside the

red blood cells. It multiplies in the red cells and destroys them when it
breaks out to invade new red ceils. The parasite's generation time is 2 or
All the parasites multiply at the same
3 days, depending on the species.
rate and break out of their host cells at the same time, causing the typical
malarial paroxysm of chills and fever. After a person has had a number of
paroxysms, he ordinarily recovers, but the parasites remain "dormant" in
his liver cells and perhaps other organs. Under proper conditions, when he
has lost some of his immunity or under stress of some kind, he may suffer
a relapse or series of relapses. Mortality from malaria is higher in
children than in adults.

The life cycle of the malarial parasite involves both asexual and
sexual multiplication. The asexual stages cause malarial fever, but the
sexual stages are necessary for transmission, which is accomplished by
Anopheles mosquitoes. They take up the sexual stages when they suck blood.
These then multiply in the mosquito for 10 days or more, and are transmitted
when

the mosquitoes bite again.

There are 4 species of human malaria parasites ( Plasmodium

P. malariae P. ovale and P. vivax ). The characteristics
falciparum
of the disease depend upon the species involved.
,

There are over 200 species of Anopheles mosquitos, but not all of
them are equally good vectors, and the epidemiology of the disease in any
particular locality depends not only upon the terrain and climatic conditions,
but also upon the particular vectors present, their breeding habits, food
preferences, susceptibility to infection, etc. The principal vector in southeastern United States is Anopheles quadrimaculatus; it breeds best in clean
open water with dense aquatic vegetation and abundant flotage; it prefers
bovine to human blood, so that the ratio of cattle to man in an area affects
the malaria transmission rate. The principal vector in the Solomon Islands
is A. farauti; it breeds in small ponds, puddles, road ruts, shell holes, fox
holes, etc. so it was at its most efficient during the combat conditions of
World War II. The principal vector in the Philippines is A. minimus
flavirostris it breeds at the edges of slow-moving streams in the plains,
so malaria doesn't occur in the mountains of the Philippines.
,

134

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Lecture 39.

135

Malaria is primarily a disease of warmer climates nowadays but

one time it was common in the temperate zone. It is still the most important human disease from a global standpoint. In 1955 there were still 200 to
225 million cases of malaria in the world, with more than 2 million deaths.
Malaria has had a tremendous effect on human culture in many ways. It was
one of the causes of the decline of the Roman empire. It has wrecked the
plans of armies from tim.e immemorial right through World War II. It was
in response to malaria that sickle cell anemia was able to become an
important disease of man in tropical Africa and other places; this trait is
due to a minor change in the hemoglobin molecule and is controlled by a
single gene; the homozygous condition is generally lethal, but heterozygotes
are more resistant than ordinary people to falciparum malaria and hence have
a biological advantage in areas where malaria is rampant.
^

at

Malaria was an important factor in the settlement of the United

States. There were a million cases a year among a population of 25 million
in 12 southern states during 1912 to 1915. The disease had been on the
decline even then, and it decreased still further due only in small part to
measures aimed directly against it. It was almost entirely eliminated from
the midwest by farmland drainage. After World War II, an intensive campaign
was started to wipe it out. During 1949, less than 5,000 cases were reported
in the U. S.
In 1958, 94 cases were reported, of which 61 were confirmed;
7 were primary indigenous cases, 4 of them resulting from blood transfusions
and 1 natural case originating in California, Arizona and possibly Pennsylvania
.

respectively.

There were no obvious technical or economic reasons why malaria

could not be eradicated from the Americas, Europe, Australia and much of
Asia during the next 25 years (Alvarado and Bruce-Chwatt, 1962, say 10 yearsi
although the situation isn't so promising in tropical Africa. This can be done
almost entirely by residual spraying of dwellings, etc. with DDT, Properly
done, residual spraying for 2 to 3 years will eradicate malaria.
,

The World Health Organization

directing the malaria eradication

effort. It estimated in 1959 that the effort would cost $1,691 million. About
$90 million a year was spent in 1958 and 1959, and about $103 million in 1960.
In 1960 about 1 billion people were living in malarious areas.
Malaria eradication was under way at one stage or another in areas where about 700 million
people lived, and pre -eradication surveys were being undertaken in areas
where 183 million people lived. As of January 1960, malaria had been
eradicated from once-malarious areas in 18 countries or territories having
a population of 108 million: Barbados, Byelo-Russia (USSR), Chile, Corsica,
Cyprus, Gaza Strip, Hungary, Italy, Latvia (USSR), Lithuania (USSR),
Moldavia (USSR), Martinique, Netherlands, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Tobago,
Ukraine (USSR), United States.
is

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Lecture 39

136

But new problems result from malaria eradication. The death rate
goes down, but if the birth rate remains constant, the population will increase
rapidly and bring with it the problem of feeding the new millions. In 1920
the birth rate on Ceylon was 40 per 1,000 and the death rate was 32 per 1,000.

was about the same, but the death rate was now 12 per
1,000, and the difference was due in part to malaria control. If both the
present birth and death rates are maintained, the population of Ceylon will
double in about 2 6 years.
In 1950 the birth rate

Required Reading
Alvarado, C.A. and L. J. Bruce-Chwatt.

American

206(5):

World Health Organization.

March-April, 1960.

World Health Organization.

1962.

Malaria.

Scientific

86-98.
1960. Malaria (special issue).
40 pp.

1962.

Malaria (extra issue).

World Health

World Health

Other References
Livingstone, F.B. 1958. Anthropological implications of sickle cell gene
distribution in Vi est Africa. Amer. Anthrop. 60:533-562.

Macdonald, G. 1957.
London, xv

Pampana, E.

The epidemiology and control

f

201 + xl

i(>

of malaria.

Oxford.

11 pp.

J. and P. F. Russell.
1955. Malaria.
Chron. World Health Organ. 9:31-100.

A world problem.

1961. Report and recommendations on malaria: A

summary. International Cooperation Administration expert panel
on malaria. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 10:451-502.

Soper, F. L.

et al.

1962,

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropologj'- 369, Geography 3 69, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and
Zoology 369)

Lecture 40,

Applied Hunaan Ecology:

New Frontiers

in

Epidemiology

(Levine).

A.
Proteins are in very short supply in tropical Africa, and the natives
must live on vegetable foods which are low in protein. Their sources of
animal protein are termites, grasshoppers, rodents, some fish, some wild
animals, and very few domestic animals. Because of this shortage of domestic

animals, the people are subject to a number of special diseases such as

anthrax from eating the carcasses of animals which have died of the disease,
and mite-transmitted rickettsial diseases acquired by catching and eating
wild rats at the end of the dry season. Still more important and widespread
is kwashiorkor, a nutritional disease due to protein deficiency which affects
children 6 months to 5 years old.

These diseases occur in man in Africa because of another diseasetrypanosomosis. They are consequences of its existence in the region.
Trypanosomosis is not one disease but a group of related ones which occur in
man and domestic animals. It prevents livestock from being raised in
significant numbers in some 4 million square miles of sub-Saharan Africa.
This creates a deficiency of protein in the inhabitants' diets, and other
diseases follow it in train.
Another consequence has been lack of animal transport. This in
turn protected the people from conquest and from "civilizing" contacts from
the north. Trypanosomosis killed both the people and their riding animals.

The whole culture

of the people is different

from what

it

would be

without the disease.

Trypanosomosis

man

caused by 2 species of protozoa of the

genus Trypanosoma Both are carried by tsetse flies. Gambian sleeping
sickness is a strictly human disease, but Rhodesian sleeping sickness is a
zoonosis, with wild game as its reservoir. The protozoa are introduced into
the body by the bite of the fly. They multiply in the blood and lymph, and
cause a febrile disease. Later on, they may pass into the central nervous
system and cause a slowly developing encephalitis--sleeping sickness.
in

is

137

39 J

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Lecture 40

138

Other species of Trypanosoma cause a group of similar diseases in

domestic animals--nagana, paranagana, surra, souma, etc. It is these which
have largely prevented livestock from being raised in sub-Saharan Africa.
Some are carried by tsetse flies, others by horseflies and deerflies. These
are euryxenous diseases, with reservoirs in the wild game, which are not
seriously affected by them.

Trypanosomosis can be controlled

in

man by

treating the whole popu-

drugs whether they appear sick or not--mass chemoprophylaxis-and also by tsetse fly elimination. The same measures can be used to control
trypanosomosis in domestic animals, but they haven't been as successful.
lation with

But control of trypanosomosis (and malaria) allows the population to

increase, and this introduces new problems. The British attempted to grow
groundnuts (peanutg) in Tanganyika after World War II in order to relieve the
general protein deficiency, but they failed because they didn't take into
account such ecological factors as soil fertility, leaching by tropical rains,
etc. French attempts to raise cotton after clearing the tropical rain forest
also failed for essentially the same reasons. The soil under the lush tropical
rain forest is thin and poor, and cannot safely be exposed to massive erosion.
In addition, attempts to conserve the large wild fauna of Africa are doomed to
failure because of increasing population pressure.

Required Reading

Scrimshaw, N.S. and M. Behar.

Science 133:

children.

Protein malnutrition
2039-2047.
1961.

in

young

Other References
Ashcroft, M. T. 1959.

trypanosomiasis
Bouillenne, R.

Brock,

1962,

critical review of the epidemiology of human

Trop. Pis. Bull 56: 1073-1093.

in Africa.

Man,

the destroying biotype

Science 135:

F. and M. Autret. 1952. Kwashiorkor in Africa,

Org. Monog. Ser. #8 78 pp.

J.

706-712.

World Health

A study made for the

Darling, F. F. 1960. Wild life in an African Territory
Game and Tsetse Control Department of Northern Rhodesia. Oxford
University Press. London, ix + 160 pp.
.

Dorn, H. F.

World population growth: An international dilemma.

1962.

Science

35:

283-290.

Lee, D. H. K. 1957. Climate and economic development

Harper, New York. 182 pp.
Levine, N.D.

Protozoan parasites of domestic animals and of man.

412 pp.
Minneapolis, iii

1961.

Burgess.

in the tropics.

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138

Lecture 40

B.

Most infectious diseases are becoming less prevalent, but schistosomosis (bilharziosis) is becoming more common and is spreading slowly
over the earth. It is being propagated by man.
Schistosomosis is caused by schistosomes or blood flukes. These
are flatworms (trematodes) which live in the veins in the abdominal cavity.
There are 3 important species in man: Schistosoma mansoni occurs in
Egypt, Africa, the West Indies (including Puerto Rico) and South America;
S. haematobium occurs in Egypt (the lower Nile delta only), Africa, the
Near East and Portugal; and S. Japonicum occurs in Japan, China, the
Philippines and the East Indies (but not in southeast Asia). India is free from
human schistosomosis except for a small focus of S. haematobium in Bombay
State

mansoni and S. haematobium are confined primarily to man, but

japonicum also occurs commonly in the pig, horse, cattle, cat and dog; it
S.

S.

causes a zoonosis.
species, other schistosomes occur in various
domestic and wild animals. Some of them may infect man, causing schistosome
dermatitis or swimmer's itch (a zoonosis), but they never reach the adult stage
In addition to these

in

him.

Blood flukes live in the veins of the mesenteries and lay eggs in the
small venules in the walls of the colon or bladder. Their location determines
the type of disease they cause. S. mansoni and S. japonicum occur in the
walls of the colon and cause a disease of the lower intestine. S. haematobium
occurs in the bladder wall and causes a bladder disease. It was known to the
ancient Egyptians as the a-a-a disease.

To reach
the tissues and

the

cause

of the intestine or bladder, the eggs erode through

lesions of varying severity. In addition, some of the

lumen

pass to the liver, lungs or other organs,

where they are caught in the capillaries and cause small lesions to form.
Schistosomosis is generally a chronic, debilitating disease and causes general
eggs

get into the returning veins and

loss of vigor.

Once

the eggs leave the host, they must reach water in order to hatch.
They swim actively until they find a snail of the right species. They bore into
it and undergo a complicated form of larval multiplication which finally results
in the formation of some thousands of free-swimming infective larvae

(cercariae) for each original egg. These cercariae

enter their final host by boring through the skin.

swim

in the

water and

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Lecture 40

140

The customs of the people and their relation to water are closely
related to schistosome transmission. The Mohammedan religion's emphasis
on washing after defecation or urination, together with lack of proper sanitary
facilities, makes for deposit of eggs in locations where they can readily reach
water. And the use of the same water for drinking, bathing and washing
serves to help complete the cycle.
The increasing use of irrigation to grow crops needed by our expanding population has brought with it an increase in suitable snail habitats, and
this has been accompanied by the spread of schistosomosis. The disease is
now present in many regions where it never existed before in North Africa,
the Near East, South America and elsewhere. It has spread from the Nile
region of Egypt to many oases. Completion of the Aswan High Dam in Egypt
will bring with it a greatly increased schistosomosis problem.
Snails are needed for schistosome development, and snail control is
therefore the key to schistosomosis control. Snails can be controlled by
eliminating their breeding places (by stream and ditch clearing, etc.) or by
treating the water with a moUuscicide (copper sulfate, sodium pentachlorophenate, barium carbonate, etc.). Other measures include proper disposal of
body wastes, avoidance of infested water, and (in areas where schistosomosis
is a zoonosis) elimination or control of animal reservoirs.
Tartar emetic and
other drugs are used in treating the disease, but they are not too satisfactory.

Required Reading

MuUer, R.

1961. Bilharzia:
3:6-18.
Sci

The new importance

of an old disease.

Tro p.

Other References
Deschiens, R.

1952. Le probleme sanitaire des bilharzioses dans les

territoires de I'Union francaise. Monogr. V, Soc. Pathol. Exot.
Paris. 100 pp. (Also Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 1951. 44: 350-377,
631-688).
,

and W H. Harry. 1958. Comments on the epidemiology

and control of bilharziasis. Bull. World Health Org. 18: 1037-1047.

McMuUen, D.B.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lectures 41 and 42.

Changing Animal Populations

(Touchberry)

to

Supply

Human Needs

Modern day farm animals differ greatly from the farm animals of 50
years ago. They belong to the same species and still have a similar outward appearance but in certain functions they differ greatly. In the state of
Illinois there are half as many dairy cows today as there were 15 years ago,
yet Illinois produces more milk today than it did 15 years ago. Certainly
all of this increase in production per cow is not a result of genetic change
but a substantial fraction of it is. Our modern day pig is far removed from
the fat lard type pig of 30 to 40 years ago. A much larger fraction of the pig's
carcass is lean meat and the fat that is present is well distributed throughout
the carcass. The layer of fat across the back of our modern pigs is not as
thick as that on pigs of 25 years ago. Further, our modern pigs have a higher
gain in weight per day, reach market weight at a much younger age and require
less feed to reach market age. In the last 15 years the changes in broilers
relative to rate of gain, pounds of feed per pound of gain, and resistance to
disease have been spectacular. The modern day hens are far superior to
their predecessors as producers of eggs. Similar phenomenal changes have
occurred in making turkeys extremely efficient meat producers.

These changes were directed toward efficiently supplying the needs and
wants of man. They did not occur by chance but are the results of applying
scientific knowledge to the solution of one of man's most important problems:
that of acquiring ample, high-quality food. Scientific knowledge from the
fields of Nutrition, Genetics, Physiology and others was used in bringing
about changes in our animals. The fact that we are able to efficiently produce
large quantities of high quality food and fiber has helped to make the United
States one of the world's leading countries.

The lectures will explain how genetics was used

in changing our
provide the needs of modern man and how it can be used
to provide future needs.
All animal populations have characteristic gene
frequencies and genotypic frequencies. To change a population from a state
that is not desired by man to one that is, involves changing the gene frequencies
or the genotypic frequencies or both.

domestic animals

to

To change

the gene frequencies man must rely on selection and

migration. Mutation is a means of changing gene frequency but to date
a feeble force and cannot be controlled so as to cause change in a given

141

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Lectures 41 and 42

142

direction. Mutation is thus more of a proposing force to bring new variations

into a population. Selection and migration are disposing forces and act on
variations that are present in the population. Selection may be defined as a
differential rate of reproduction in which individuals with desired characteristics are allowed to reproduce at a greater rate than those lacking or
deficient in these traits. Progress from selection depends on how much
those chosen to be parents exceed the mean of the population from which
they were chosen and the heritability of the trait or traits involved. The
rapidity with which selection can change a population depends on the reproductive rate and the generation interval.

Migration is defined as moving animals from one population to another.

Genetic changes brought about by this process depend on the amount by which
the populations differ in gene frequencies, the number of animals moved and
the relative reproductive rates of immigrant and native animals.

Required Readings
Falconer, D. S. Quantitative Genetics , pp 1-46 and 185-207
Ronald Press, 1960. (Call Number 575.1

F186i

(Copies are in the Agriculture and Biology Libraries).

INTRCDUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 43.

Applied Human Ecology:

(Harshbarger)

Food -Population Interactions

Food, space, and climate constitute the ultimate limiting factors on

the population size attained by any species (See Lecture 15 --Dr. Kendeigh).
The present discussion treats the food -population (human) interaction in
terms of: (1) world population, present and projected, (2) world food production, yields and patterns, (3) efficiencies of food -production practices,
and (4) modifications of food -production patterns in response to future

demands.
Population -Food Adjustm.ents. Man requires food for body maintenance, growth, and physical effort. His maintenance and growth requirements are relatively stable, whereas the energy requirements vary somewhat
with physical effort and age. In general, however, food consumption requirements are remarkably stable. Also, they are on a day-to-day basis as the
human body can store little food. Therefore, the factors which adjust food
supply to the population and the population to the food supply, either on a
1,

short- or long-term basis, are worthy of consideration.

Among

major factors which adjust the population are: (a) birth rate,
war, (d) disease, and (e) migration. Adjusters of the food

the

famine, (c)
supply include: (a) production, (b) export-import, (c) storage, (d) intensified
cropping systems, (e) livestock, (f) alternative uses of food, and (g) prices.
These and other adjusters must be considered in the solution of populationfood problems (Pearson, F.A. and Paarlberg, D.).
(b)

2.

World Population

The rate

at

which a population grows

is

determined by the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.
Within the past century the population level has increased rapidly to 2.6X10
but more important, the rate of increase has also accelerated. Between 1850
and 1900 world population grew about 0.7 per cent per annum; equivalent to a
population doubling each 100 years. Between 1900 and 1950 the average rate
of increase was 0.9 per cent; equivalent to a doubling time of 75 years.
Between 1950 and 1980 the rate of increase is estimated to be about 1.3 percent annually; equivalent to a doubling time of 50 years. (BrOwn, Bonner
and Vi eir). Although the world pattern shows relatively high rStes of
population growth in much of the world, growth rates bear little r*lationship
The less prosperoC^s
to gross national product per capita (Ginsburg).
countries are found on both sides of the mean rate of 1.6 per cent per ^ear,
,

143

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Lecture 43

However,
3.

144

the majority of such have rates in

World Food Production.

excess of the mean.

Q

Approximately one -half

of the

2.6X10

people of the world receive a daily food intake of less than 2250 calories;
about 20 per cent receive between 2250 and 2750 calories; and about 25 perThe world
cent receive in excess of 2750 calories per day (Brown et al)
pattern suggests that countries with the higher GNP/capita, i.e. greater
developed wealth, have larger food supplies for their populations, and
presumably more productive labor forces. The reverse is true of the poorer
countries, and the data indicate that about 56 per cent of the world's people
subsist on a daily food intake of less than 2000 to 2250 calories, a level
considered a minimum by some nutritionists (Ginsburg).
.

The patterns

of food production differ greatly throughout the world,

especially in the varying degrees to which animal products are included in
the diet. The inclusion of animal products in the diet- -35 per cent in the

United States, less than

per cent in Asia- -is a reflection of the capacity

economy, in terms of productivity and population pressures, to select

between conversion of plant materials via animals or the direct consumption
of such materials to reduce wastage and increase efficiencies (Brown et al)
of an

4.

Food -Production Efficiencies and Changing Patterns

It has been estimated that increases in food supply commensurate

with population demands are attainable by wider application of present
technology. Productivity can be increased by 2 to 4 per cent per year by use
of more irrigation, more fertilizer, more insecticides and rodent control, by
application of more plant-improvement techniques, and by practicing more
intensive agriculture along the lines used in Japan. Conventional agriculture
should suffice to feed 7 to 8 XIO^ people, but at standards lower than those
of the best fed people today (Brown et al )

Required Readings

Brown, H.A.

Bonner, J., and Weir, J. The Next Hundred Years

Viking Press, N.Y., 1958, Ch. 7, 8, 9, 10.
,

Clark, F. L. and Pirie

University Press,
,

N.W. Four thousand

New York, 1951.

Untruths.
1946-

N.Y.

The

Million Mouths. Oxford

Ginsburg, Norton, Atlas of Economic Development

1961. Tables 2,3,4,5,6, 9.

Pearson, Frank A. and Paarlberg, Don.

Univ. of Chicago Press,

Starvation Truths, Half-Truths, and

Cornell Univ. , Ithaca, N.Y.

State College of Agr.

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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY

(Anthropology 369, Geography 369, Health Education 369,
Physiology 369, Sociology 369, Veterinary Science 369, and

Zoology 369)

Lecture 44.

Concluding Remarks: Emphases and Limitations of the

Course; Further Perspectives in Human Ecology (Shimkin)

concluding remarks, we shall try to summarize some salient

features of the course, to indicate its basic limitations, and to suggest areas
of ongoing and needed work in human ecology both at the University of Illinois
and elsewhere.
In the

Selected emphases.

general, the course has been an

of culture from the standIn
course
of this examination,
limited
number
hypotheses.
the
point of a
of
the first area of emphasis has been on the roles of the physical environment.
These have been manifest in setting physico-chemical conditions permitting
life; for example, a temperature and gravitational relationship in which water
In addition, environmental variations, by place and over time, have
is liquid.
set limits to the possibility of certain kinds of life and developed great
selective pressures upon the evolution of all types of life. In this regard,
Shelford's concept of ecological preferenda, under which species reach
maximum density, provides a unifying generalization. Another important
generalization is that life modifies the physical environment, acting generally
as a catalyst in the selective concentration of energy and matter; in principle,
man's modification of his environment is not different from that exercised by
anaerobic bacteria.
1.

examination of large aspects

of

In

human biology and

2.
The second area of emphasis has been the definition of general
requirements for the maintenance of life, especially among multicellular
terrestrial animals. Here, the guiding principles have been those of homeostasis and self-regulation. In other words, adaptation is visualized as the
approach to optimal conditions made possible by sensing and controlling
devices governing the entire organism. Also important is the fact that
organisms operate through time with rigorously defined life sequences changing
requirements and adaptive capacities. Moreover, cyclicity--for example,
sleep and waking--is characteristic of all biological processes; hence, the
nature of a steady state must be regarded essentially as a reverbei-ation. The
greatest degree of transformation in every life sequence is manifested in
sexual polymorphism. Each complex animal reproduces only at the stage of
the single-cell sperm and egg and appears generally in a dimorphic form.
These phenomena profoundly affect the stability of populations through the

145

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Lecture 44.

146

process of meiosis and also through the intense selection which takes place
among sperm and eggs, a selection more severe by far than at any other
point in the life sequence. Sexual behavior also is the foundation of socialization which, in turn, changes selection mechanics profoundly in comparison
with purely competitive populations. Populations, in general, are the essential
units of biological persistence and of genetic selection.

Thus far, our attention has been on a wide variety of higher

3.
animals. Among the mammals, particularly, the major peculiarity has
been a great development of the central nervous system and, especially,
an increasing one of reception and control via the cerebral cortex. Allied
to this have been the fundamental phenomena of wakefulness of choice and
self-stimulation. In man, these attributes are enhanced by major capacities
to inhibit physiological drives and to symbolize them through displacements
or other types of substitute gratifications.
4.
Man, in common with all other forms of life, lives as part of a
multi-species biological community. At the very minimum, each community
must contain both plants, acting as primary fixers of solar energy via photosynthesis, and animals recycling plant nutrients into the soil. Biological
communities rest, in general, upon a division of labor between species and
upon a hierarchy of dependencies founded upon dominant species which
determine the character of the community, receive the impact of the climate,
and set up favorable niches for subdominant species. Man has achieved
dominance by the use of external energies and tools, in particular, through
land clearance, selective extermination and the selective breeding of tamed
species. Nevertheless, man's communities are not independent of the natural
biomes. Civilization has flourished largely in natural areas of deciduous
forest and grassland; almost without exception, human climax-communities
or metropolitan areas are located contiguous to large bodies of water- -on
rivers, lakes, or the sea. In general, the most fundamental control of
nature over man still operative is that of water supply.

Water supplies are essential

modern

civilization both as the

largest single flows in industrial processes and as the largest single inputs
into food production. Systems of food production have developed very markedly
in the last 40,000 years and have become increasingly reliable and less demanding of labor per unit of food produced. Conversely, food production has
5.

become extremely dependent upon precise

in

biological selection, upon the

reduction of competing species, and upon the input of stored capital. Because
of these technological variables and because of the varying impact of different
sociopolitical arrangements, food -producing systems vary largely in their
efficiency and reliability under equivalent geographical conditions. Thus,
Indian agriculture is several times less efficient in yields of calories per
acre than South Chinese or Japanese. American agriculture is less efficient
than West European but more so than that of the Soviet Union. This variation
among efficiencies contributes very largely to regional deficiencies in food
supply.

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Lecture 44.

147

Increasing efficiencies in food production, together with the

development of techniques of food preparation and storage, have permitted
the allocation of increasing shares of total human resources and effort to
other activities. However, as late as the 18th century, the highest efficiencies
reached were those in which four farmers could support five people; hence,
urbanization, government, religion, warfare and other developments of culture
were considerably limited in their scope. Since that time, the increasing
efficiency of agriculture has made possibly essentially total urbanization so
that, in the United States, agriculture, itself, comprises a specialized
industry within the intense division of labor of the total economy. Coincident
with this phenomenon has been the physical and structural expansion of cities,
not only in terms of greater areas of settlement but also in terms of expanding
hinterlands. From that standpoint, the city of New York extends 100 miles
to the north in reflection of the source of its water supplies. The entire
Mississippi River must be regarded in some ways as an appendage of ChicagoThe city relates to the natural environment in a
its outlet for waste disposal.
very specialized and mediated way. Its inhabitants are protected from direct
environmental stress but, on the other hand, are still subject to general
disturbances. For example, in the early 1950's, world-wide drought gravely
disturbed the entire functioning of cities such as New York. With increasing
pressure on water supplies, future drought cycles are likely to produce even
more serious effects. Water pollution, through sewage, industrial waste
and the ubiquitous detergents, threatens not only waterfowl but man himself.
Similarly, cities have subjected themselves to' increasing general problems of
air pollution which adversely affect the life prospects of man and vegetation
alike. Thus, the mediation of the city has been one of making the natural
habitat a less selective, yet still pervasive, force in human affairs.
6.

7.

The human social environment operates primarily on two

-common needs and aspirations intensified by mass com-

distinct planes-

munications, and specialized roles and differential mobility, particularly

related to educational opportunity. In the context of a city, economic specialization can be maximized so long as information on available specialties is
readily retrievable through quasi-random access, i.e. by telephone
directories. Economic specialization of a high order is constantly being
counteracted by technological changes rendering skills obsolete. The efforts
of the upwardly mobile to break down social controls, and of those threatened
economically to maximize them, are reflections of this basic economic
competition. These conflicts and internal changes, augmented by the effects
of physical migration to and between cities, generate characteristic social instabilities and problems, along with new creative and regulatory capacities.
In sum, the ecological functions of cities and their inherent difficulties in all
industrial societies are closely linked.
,

Questions of Application.

The models and analytical techniques of ecology are useful means of

approaching a wide variety of practical problems. The oldest area of

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Lecture 44

148

ecological application is that of epidemiology v/herein the work of Gorgas on

yellow fever, more than 50 years ago, showed the decisive effect of breaking
just one link in the infectious cycle. Epidemiology has been applied with
great success to a large variety of infectious diseases. Today, the problems
of mental health have begun to be viewed from an epidemiological standpoint,
with the work of Lawrence Hinkle and his colleagues of the Cornell medical
school being especially notable in this regard. Another new frontier in
epidemiology is that in cancer. Cancer undoubtedly is a complex phenomenon
involving differential susceptibilities, particular environmental conditions, and
specific activating agents. The etiology of a few types of cancer has been
rigorously defined, e.g. skin cancer in relation to ultraviolet radiation. For
the great bulk of neoplasms, the etiology is unknown and the present task,
vigorously pursued by the National Cancer Institute and other agencies, is one
of combining appropriate ecological field studies with refined laboratory
techniques to set up and test decisively a variety of models. Most recently,
physical agents and viruses have been joined by fungi as identified causal
agents.

The other great dimension of ecological application is in the rational

management of resources--land, energy, manpower, etc. This rationality
necessarily involves not only considerations of a limited optimization for a
limited time period but also a deep concern for the maintenance of adaptive
capacities for future generations. In this regard, managerial choices which
irretrievably damage future potentials, e.g. the reckless extermination of
species through uncontrolled pesticidal use, must be viewed with alarm. Also
crucial is a recognition that the greatest area of rational management today is
that of human self -regulation, including the extremely great need for the
control of population growth. Thus, the problems of ecology in their applied
form involve not only the elimination of given afflictions, e.g. aftosa, but the
invention of more efficient and flexible systems, codes and the like, for the
development of desired new equilibria.

Research Problems and Potentials.

"Introduction to Human Ecology" has strived to be an initial guide to
a large literature and to a considerable body of concepts rather than a closed,
self-contained course. For this reason, many aspects of the course have
been indicated rather than fully described. The hope has been that student
initiative, particular^ through the form of individual papers, would close many
of these gaps

At the same time, it is essential to note that enormous areas of

research have yet to be conquered in this field. For example, a relatively
elementary problem such as an estimate of the specific effects of different
types of assortative mating on initially random genetic pools has yet to be

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Lecture 44

149

Again, almost nothing is known about the natural

history of diseases in terms of their actual spread and the limits of their
control by natural immunities or other blocks. Almost all we have recorded
are chains of infection in acute stages. Moreover, the models we use are to
a large extent based on the patently false concepts of random social and interspecies interactions. The Center for Zoonoses Research at the University of
Illinois has begun, since late 1962, a long-term effort of careful accumulative
observations which should, for a limited number of pathogens, provide some of
the first rigorous epidemiological materials extant.

worked out

satisfactorily.

very actively expanding in a

number of institutions, in the United States and abroad. To illustrate one
important development: the University College, London, has been offering
since 1960 a postgraduate course on resource management which comprises
both thorough theoretical foundations and training in field work methods in the
laboratory and on the ground. Subjects covered in this curriculum include
physical geography, plant and animal ecology, land utilization theory, with
particular emphasis on the cultural landscape, the major uses of land, and
competition for land. Among its staff are botanists, geographers, zoologists,
and engineers. Thus, our course in human ecology at Illinois represents only
one part of a broadly awakening area of research and training.

To conclude, work on human ecology

is

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