Refrigeration

Topic 2

1. Introduction
Refrigeration - method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of
the surroundings and maintaining it at the lower temperature by continuously
extracting the heat from it.
The principle of refrigeration is based on second law of thermodynamics. It
states that heat does not flow from a low temperature body to a high
temperature body without the help of an external work.

1. Introduction
In refrigeration process, the heat is
continuously removed from a system
at lower temperature and transfer it
to the surroundings at a higher
temperature. This operation
according to second law of
thermodynamics can only be
performed by the aid of the external
work.
Therefore in a refrigeration system,
power is to be supplied to remove
heat continuously from the
refrigerator to keep it cool at a
temperature less than the
surroundings.

Note: For history of refrigeration, refer to Dossats

book Chapter 1.

1. Introduction
Direct and reverse heat engines

1. Introduction
Direct and reverse heat engines

2. Fundamental terms
Refrigerant diagram
The characteristics of a refrigerant can be illustrated in a diagram using the
primary properties as x- and y-axis. The primary properties are normally
chosen as energy content and pressure (P-h diagram).
Energy content is represented by the thermodynamic property of specific
enthalpy - quantifying the change in energy content per mass unit of the
refrigerant as it undergoes processes in a refrigeration system.
typically applicable interval for pressure is large. Therefore, diagrams use a
logarithmic scale for pressure.

2. Fundamental terms
The diagram is arranged
so that it displays the
liquid, vapour and
mixture regions for the
refrigerant. Liquid is
found to the left (with a
low energy content) vapour to the right (with a
high energy content).
In between its the
mixture region which are
bounded by a curve called the saturation
curve. The fundamental
processes of evaporation
and condensation are
illustrated.

2. Fundamental terms

3. Basic refrigeration cycle

3. Basic refrigeration cycle

Evaporator
The pressure-enthalpy chart plots the
properties of a refrigerantrefrigerant
pressure (vertical axis) versus enthalpy
(horizontal axis).
The cycle starts with a cool, low-pressure
mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant
entering the evaporator where it absorbs
heat from the relatively warm air/water or
other fluid that is being cooled.
This transfer of heat boils the liquid
refrigerant in the evaporator, and this
superheated refrigerant vapor is drawn to
the compressor.

3. Basic refrigeration cycle

Compressor
The compressor draws in the
superheated refrigerant vapor and
compresses it to a pressure and
temperature high enough that it can
reject heat to another fluid.
This hot, high-pressure refrigerant
vapor then travels to the condenser.

3. Basic refrigeration cycle

Condenser
Within the condenser, heat is
transferred from the hot refrigerant
vapor to relatively cool ambient air or
cooling water.
This reduction in the heat content of
the refrigerant vapor causes it to
desuperheat, condense into liquid,
and further subcool before leaving
the condenser for the expansion
device.

3. Basic refrigeration cycle

Expansion valve
The high-pressure liquid refrigerant flows
through the expansion device, causing a
large pressure drop that reduces the
pressure of the refrigerant to that of the
evaporator.
This pressure reduction causes a small
portion of the liquid to boil o, or flash,
cooling the remaining refrigerant to the
desired evaporator temperature.
The cooled mixture of liquid and vapor
refrigerant then enters the evaporator to
repeat the cycle.

3. Basic refrigeration cycle

4. Refrigeration effect
The change in enthalpy that occurs in
the evaporator is called the
refrigeration eect.
This is the amount of heat that each
kg of liquid refrigerant will absorb
when it evaporates.
In comparison, the same system
without subcooling produces less
refrigeration eect.

4. Refrigeration effect
Superheating occurs inside the final length
of tubes at which temperature dierence
between refrigerant and air is highest
Such large temperature dierence
increases the rate of heat transfer and the
refrigerant vapor absorbs much heat.
Liquid refrigerant completely evaporated
Superheating shifts from the liquid/vapor
region to vapor
It ensures the refrigerant vapor is
completely free liquid before entering the
compressor.

5. Heat pumps
A heat pump extracts heat from a heat
source and rejects heat to air or water at a
higher temperature.
Usually it is a packaged air conditioner or a
packaged unit with a reversing valve or
other changeover setup, in which the
refrigerant flow to the condenser is changed
to the evaporator.
Alternatively, air passage through the
evaporator may be changed over to
passage through the condenser.
A heat pump has all the main components
of an air conditioner or package unit: fan,
filters, compressor, evaporator, condenser,
and a throttling device.

6. Cycle analysis of ideal cycles

6. Cycle analysis of ideal cycles

6. Cycle analysis of ideal cycles

7. Cycle analysis of practical cycles

7. Cycle analysis of practical cycles

7. Cycle analysis of practical cycles

8. Components of vapour compression system

Example 1
Consider a vapour compression refrigeration cycle using R-134a based on
the following conditions:
Condenser temperature = 45C
Evaporator temperature = 10C
Sub-cooling at condenser = 3C
Superheating at evaporator = 3C
Compressor eciency = 90%
Plot the refrigeration cycle for the single stage compression.
Find the refrigeration eect and the COP.

Example 1 (solution)

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Consists of two stage of compression
system
Comprise with a high stage compressor
and a low stage compressor or several
single stage compressors in series.
The pressure between the discharge
pressure of the high stage and suction
pressure of the low stage is called interstage pressure.
To achieve a larger temperature range
(cooler temperature) without requiring a
large pressure range in the compressor

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Volumetric eciency and compression ratio

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Vapor refrigerant at state point (1) enters the
first stage of the compressor in dry saturated
state.
This vapor is compressed to the inter-stage
pressure Pi at stage point (2)
The mixture enters the second stage of
compressor at state point (3)
Hot gas compressed to condensing pressure
Pc leaves compressor at state point (4)
The hot gas is then discharged to the
condenser and condenses into liquid state at
state point (5).

Two-stage vapour compression system

Upon passing the condenser, the sub-cooled
liquid refrigerant at state point (5') flows through
the high pressure side flow control device.
A portion of liquid refrigerant evaporates into
the vapour form in the flash cooler at state point
(7) The flashed refrigerant cools the remaining
portion of liquid refrigerant to the saturated
temperature at state point (8) at the inter-stage
pressure.
The mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant in
flash cooler is at state point (6).
Liquid refrigerant flows through low pressure
expansion valve, a small amount of which is
pre-flashed and the liquid vapor mixture enters
the evaporator at state point (9). In the
evaporator, all liquid refrigerant is evaporated
into vapour form and flows to the first stage
inlet.

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

The inter-stage pressure of 2-stage compound system
The inter-stage pressure is selected such that the compression ratios at
various stages are approximately equal.
The inter-stage pressure could be approximated by the following
equation:

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Defining the enthalpy of various state points in the P-h diagram:

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

The portion of flashed vapour refrigerant in the flash cooler
In the flash cooler, there is x kg of vaporized refrigerant cools down the
remaining liquid refrigerant (1-x) kg to the saturation temperature at the interstage pressure.
From the heat balance point of view, we have

Note that x is also the dryness fraction of the liquid-vapor mixture in the flash
cooler at the inter-stage pressure. This equation could be expressed as

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Enthalpy of vapor mixture entering the second-stage compressor
Heat balance at the mixing point before entering the second stage
compressor could be show as follows:

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Coecient of Performance of the 2-stage compound system with a flash
cooler
The refrigeration eect in evaporator Qre (per kg of refrigerant through
condenser) could be expressed as:

Work input Win to the compressor (first and second stages) could be
expressed as:-

9. Two-stage vapour compression system

Advantages of using two-stage vapour compression system compared with a single
stage system:
The compression ratio of each stage in a two-stage system can be reduced so that
the volumetric eciency can be increased.
In two-stage system, the liquid refrigerant can be sub-cooled to the saturation
temperature at the inter-stage pressure which in turn increases the refrigeration
eect.
In two-stage system, the discharge gas from the low stage compressor can be desuperheated that results in reduction of discharge temperature after the high stage
compression process.
Disadvantage of multi-stages systems: High equipment cost due to complicated
equipment.

Example 2
Consider a vapour compression refrigeration cycle using R-134a based on
the following conditions:
Condenser temperature = 45C
Evaporator temperature = 10C
Sub-cooling at condenser = 3C
Superheating at evaporator = 3C
Compressor eciency = 90%
Plot the refrigeration cycle for the two-stage compression.
Find the refrigeration eect and the COP.

Example 2 (solution)

10. Vapour absorption system

The vapour absorption refrigeration
system is a heat operated system. It
diers from the vapour compression
refrigeration system only in the manner
in which the circulation of the refrigerant
is achieved.
In this system, the compressor is
replaced by an absorber, a generator
and a pump. The refrigerant used in this
system must be highly soluble in the
solution known as absorbent. The
system uses ammonia as refrigerant and
water as absorbent.
Others: Water-LiBr, water-LiCl where
water is refrigerant

10. Vapour absorption system

The liquid refrigerant in the evaporator
absorbs the heat from the medium to be
cooled and it undergoes a change of
phase from liquid to vapour. The low
pressure vapour is then passed to the
absorber. In the absorber, the low
pressure ammonia vapour is dissolved in
the weak ammonia solution producing
strong ammonia solution at low
pressure.
The strong ammonia solution is then
pumped to a generator through the heat
exchanger at high pressure. While
passing through the heat exchanger, the
strong ammonia solution is warmed up
by the hot weak ammonia solution
flowing from the generator to absorber.

10. Vapour absorption system

The warm strong ammonia solution is
heated by an external source in the
generator. Due to the heating, the
vapour gets separated from the solution.
The vapour which is at high pressure
and high temperature is condensed to
low temperature in the condenser by
cold water circulation.
The high pressure liquid ammonia then
passes through the expansion valve
where it is expanded to low pressure
and temperature. The low pressure and
low temperature ammonia liquid again
enters the evaporator where it absorbs
the heat from the medium to be cooled
and the cycle continues.

10. Vapour absorption system

The P-h cycle is similar to that of a vapour compression cycle. Process 3 to 4
is due to the mixing in the evaporator. Process 1 to 2 is due to the absorption.

10. Vapour absorption system

The heat required to operate the
system may be obtained from
anywhere and is commonly a gas
flame (Electrolux refrigeration
system). This system is popular in
caravan refrigerators.

11. Comparison between ...

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

Works using mechanical energy

Works using heat energy

Refrigerating capacity < 1000 tons

Capacity is > 100 tons

COP is much higher ( 4 to 10)

COP is less than 2

Noisy due to compressor

Pump noise is less

Chances of leakage of refrigerant are more

No leakage

Maintenance and operating cost is more

Less maintenance cost

Smaller in size

Larger in size

Wear and tear are more

Less wear and tear

Uses Freon-12 or any other refrigerant

Only Ammonia is used as refrigerant

Refrigerant vapour is compressed

Refrigerant vapour is absorbed and heated

Example 3
A heat pump uses a vapour compression cycle with refrigerant 12. The
compressor is driven by a heat engine with a thermal eciency of 40%. Heat
removed from the engine in the cooling system is recovered. This amounts to
40% of the energy supplied in the fuel.
The heat pump cycle uses an ideal cycle with an evaporator at 5oC and a
condenser at 12.19 bar. The vapour is dry saturated at inlet to the
compressor. The condenser produces liquid at 45oC.
Calculate the thermal advantage (Coecient of Performance) for the heat
pump.
The plant is to deliver 40 kW of heat with fuel power input of 14.14 kW.
Determine the mass flow rate of refrigerant.

Example 3 (solution)

Example 4
The power input to the compressor of an ammonia vapour compression plant
is 8.2 kW. The mechanical eciency is 85%. The ammonia is dry saturated at
-6oC at inlet to the compressor. After compression the vapour is at 11.67 bar.
The compression has an isentropic eciency of 90%. The condenser
produces saturated liquid.
Calculate the following.
i. The flow rate.
ii. The coecient of performance for the refrigerator.
iii. The coecient of performance for the heat pump.

Example 4 (solution)

Example 5
A practical refrigerator using ammonia as the refrigerant operates with an evaporator
pressure 1.902 bar and condenser pressure of 15.54 bar. The refrigerator uses 2stage compression and expansion to improve eciency. The refrigerant enters the
low pressure (LP) compressor with a dryness fraction of 0.8 at 1.902 bar and enters
the high pressure (HP) compressor at 6.149 bar. The refrigerant at entry to the HP
expansion valve is sub-cooled to 38oC and entry to the LP expansion valve is wet
saturated at 10oC. The refrigerant expands in the HP expansion valve to a pressure
6.149 bar into a separator where the vapour is returned to the entry of the HP
compressor. The liquid refrigerant is expanded again in the LP expansion valve
before entry to the evaporator.
Evaluate the Coecient of Performance (COP) of the refrigerator.

Example 5 (solution)

Example 6
20 lbm/min of liquid water-ammonia solution at 150 psia, 220 F and
concentration of 0.25 lbm ammonia per lbm of solution is mixed in a steadyflow adiabatic process with 10 lbm/min of saturated water-ammonia solution
at 150 psia and 100F. Find the enthalpy, concentration and temperature of the
mixture.

Example 6 (solution)

Example 7
Consider an aqua-ammonia absorption system and the following given data:
condenser pressure 200 psia
evaporating pressure 30 psia
generator temperature 240 F
temperature of vapour leaving dephlegmator 130 F
temperature of strong solution entering rectifying column 200 F
The heat exchanger lowers the temperature of the liquid, leaving the condenser at
10 F. States 1,3,4,7,8 and 12 are saturated. Pressure drop in components and
connecting lines is negligible. The system produces 100 tons of refrigeration.
Determine
(a) properties P, t, x and i for all state points of the system
(b) mass flow rate for all parts of the system
(c) power required for the pump, assuming 75% mechanical eciency
(d) system coecient of performance (COP)
(e) system refrigerating eciency.

Example 7

0
0

3
4 Weak liq. solution

9
10

11

12

5
6
Strong liq.
2
solution

Example 7 (solution)

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0