A n+-1 Solutions - Yufei Zhao - Trinity Training 2011

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Trinity Training 2011
Yufei Zhao
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Solutions
Yufei Zhao
Trinity College, Cambridge
yufei.zhao@gmail.com
April 2011
Practice problems:
1. A primitive root mod n is a number g such that the smallest positive integer k for which
g k 1 mod n is (n).
(a) Show that 2 is a primitive root mod 3n for any n 1.
(b) Show that if g is an odd primitive root mod p such that p2 - g p1 1, then g is also
a primitive root mod pn and 2pn for any n 1.
n1
Solution. (a) Since (3n ) = 2 3n1 , the problem amounts to showing that 3n - 23
1
n2
and 3n - 223
1 (when n 2). The first claim follows from reduction mod 3, and the
n2
second claim follows from the exponent lifting trick, as 3 k 22 1, so that 3n1 k 223 1.
n2
(b) Since (pn ) = (2pn ) = (p 1)pn1 , it suffices to show pn - g (p1)p

1 and
n1
pn - g dp
1 for any divisor d of p 1 with d < p 1. The first claim follows from
n2
pn1 k g (p1)p
1 by the exponent lifting trick as p k g p1 1 by assumption, and
the second claim follows from the fact that p | g m 1 if and only if (p 1) | m as g is a
primitive root mod p.
2. (Cyclotomic polynomials) For a positive integer n, define the polynomial n (x) by
Y
2ik
n (x) =
(x e n ).
1kn
gcd(n,k)=1
(a) Prove the polynomial identity

all divisors d of n.
d|n d (x)
= xn 1, where the product is taken over
(b) Prove that n (x) is an integer polynomial.

(c) Let m and n be positive integers, and let p be a prime divisor of n (m). Prove that
either p | n or n | p 1.
(d) (Special case of Dirichlets theorem) Prove that for every positive integer n, there
are infinitely many primes p with p 1 (mod n).
Q
2ik
Solution. (a) The right-hand side polynomial xn 1 can be factored as nk=1 (x e n ).
2ik
For1 k n, each factor x e n appears exactly once in the left hand side (in d (x)
n
for d = gcd(n,k)
) and all factors in the left hand side are of this form.
(b) Use induction on d. We have 1 (x) = x 1. Suppose d (x) is an integer polynomial
for all d < n. Then by (a) n (x) is the quotient of two monic integer polynomials, and
hence it must also be an integer polynomial.
(c) Suppose p - n and n - p 1. We have p | n (m) | mn 1 by (a). So p - m, and
hence p | mp1 1 by Fermats little theorem. Thus p | mgcd(p1,n) 1. Since n - p 1,
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Yufei Zhao
n
k
gcd(p1,n) 1.
gcd(p1,n) . Suppose p k m
mn 1. However, from (a) we know that
gcd(p 1, n) < n. Since p - n, we know p pk
By
the exponent lifting trick, we have

k
the
xn 1
polynomial n (x) is a factor of xgcd(p1,n) 1 . Setting x = m gives us a contradiction, since
mn 1
on one hand we have p | n (m) but on the other hand p does not divide mgcd(p1,n)
as
1
k
it is the quotient of two numbers both exactly divisible by p .
(d) It suffices to show that for every positive integer n 2, there is at least one prime p
with p 1 (mod n), since then we can find infinitely many such p by finding primes pk
such that pk 1 (mod kn) for each k 1.
For n 2, |n (n)| > 1. Let p be a prime divisor of n (n). Since n (n) | nn 1 by (a),
p - n, so n | p 1 by part (b). This gives us the desired prime.
3. (IMO 2003) Let p be a prime number. Prove that there exists a prime number q such
that for every integer n, np p is not divisible by q.
p
1
= pp1 + pp2 + + p + 1 with
Solution. Let q be a prime divisor of p (p) = pp1
p2 - q 1 (this must exist since p (p) 6 1 (mod p2 )). By problem 2, p | q 1. If np p
q1
q1
gcd( q1 ,p)
p
(mod q), then p p nq1 1 (mod q). We have q | gcd(p p 1, pp 1) = p
1,
2
which equals to p 1 since p - q 1. However, we cannot simultaneously have q | p 1
and p | q 1. Thus np p is not divisible by q.
4. (a) Prove that m (x) and n (x) are always relatively prime as polynomials for m 6= n.
(b) Show that if for some integer x, m (x) and n (x) are not relative prime, then m/n
is an integer power of a prime.
Solution. (a) The zeros of n (x) and m (x) are distinct, since the zeros of n (x) are
precisely the primitive n-th roots of unity. Thus the polynomials are relatively prime.
(b) Suppose some prime p divides both m (x) and n (x). By replacing x by x + p if
necessary, we may assume that x > 1. Let us deal with the p = 2 case separately. We
claim that if m (x) is even then m must be a power of 2. Indeed, otherwise let q be an
odd prime divisor of m, and let m = qs, then by the previous problem, m (x) divides
xm 1
(q1)s + x(q2)s + + xs + 1, which is always odd. The p = 2 case follows.
xs 1 = x
Now assume that p > 2. By the previous problem, p divides xm 1 and xn 1, and hence
m
n
p | xgcd(m,n) 1. Let pk k xgcd(m,n) 1. One of gcd(m,n)
and gcd(m,n)
is not divisible by
p, and assume that it is the latter. Then by the exponent lifting trick, pk k xn 1. If
xn 1
gcd(m, n) < n, then n (x) divides xgcd(m,n)
, which is not divisible by p by the above
1
analysis. This contradicts p | n (x). Hence gcd(m, n) = n, i.e., n | m.
m
We claim that m
n is a power of p. If not, then pick some prime q dividing n . We have
p | n (x) | xn 1 | xm/q 1. By the exponent lifting trick, the same power of p divides
m
both xm 1 and xm/q 1. But m (x) divides xxm/q1
, which contradicts p | m (x). Thus
1
m
n is a power of p.
5. Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be distinct primes greater than 3. Let N = 2p1 p2 pk + 1.

(a) (IMO Shortlist 2002) Show that N has at least 4n divisors.
k1
(b) Show that N has at least 22
divisors. (Hint: use cyclotomic polynomials)
Solution. (a) Observe that if a and b are coprime odd numbers, then gcd(2a + 1, 2b + 1) =
3, since their gcd must divide gcd(22a 1, 22b 1) = 2gcd(2a,2b) 1 = 22 1 = 3. Since
2ab + 1 is divisible by both 2a + 1 and 2b + 1, it must also be divisible by 31 (2a + 1)(2b + 1).
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Yufei Zhao
We use induction on k. When k = 1, 2p1 + 1 is divisible by 3 and greater than 9, so it must

have at least 4 divisors. Let a = p1 pk1 and b = pk . Suppose that 2a + 1 has at least
4k1 divisors. Since 2a + 1 is coprime to 31 (2b + 1), the number M = 13 (2a + 1)(2b + 1) must
have at least 24k1 divisors (for each divisor d of 2a +1, we get two divisors d and 13 (2b +1)d
of M ). Also M | N and N = 2ab + 1 > M 2 (since 2ab + 1 > 2ab > 22(a+b+1) > M 2 ). So
N has at least 4k divisors (for each divisor d of M , we have divisors d and N/d). This
completes the induction.
(b) It suffices to show that N is divisible by at least 2k1 distinct prime. We have
Q
Y
22p1 pk 1
d|2p p d (x)
p1 pk
= Q 1 k
N =2
+ 1 = p1 p
2d (2).
=
k 1
2
d|p1 pk d (x)
d|p1 pk
Consider the set of divisors d of p1 pk with an odd number of prime factors. There are
2k1 such divisors d, and they provide mutually coprime d (2) by Problem 4. Take one
prime divisor from each such d (2) and we get what we want.
6. (IMO 1990) Determine all positive integers n such that
2n + 1
is an integer.
n2
Solution. We claim that the only solutions are n = 1, 3. Suppose n

/ {1, 3}. Let p be
the smallest prime divisor of n. Then p | 2n + 1, so p | 22n 1. By Fermats little theorem,
we also have p | 2p1 1. Thus p | 2gcd(p1,2n) 1. Since p is the smallest prime divisor
of n, we must have gcd(p 1, 2n) = 2. So p | 22 1 and hence p = 3.
Suppose 3k k n. We have 3 k 22 1. So by the exponent lifting trick, 3k+1 k 22n 1. If
n2 | 2n + 1, then 32k | 22n 1. Thus 2k k + 1, hence k = 1. Thus 3 k n.
Let n = 3m. Suppose m 6= 1. Let q denote the smallest prime divisor of m. By the
same argument as above, we have q | 2gcd(q1,6m) 1, and gcd(q 1, 6m) {2, 6}, so q
divides either 22 1 = 3 or 26 1 = 63 = 7 32 . Since 3 k n, q 6= 3, so q = 7. However,
2n + 1 = (23 )m + 1 2 (mod 7), so 7 cannot divide 2n + 1, contradiction. This shows
that 1 and 3 are the only solutions.
7. (IMO 2000) Does there exist a positive integer N which is divisible by exactly 2000
different prime numbers and such that 2N + 1 is divisible by N ?
Solution. Yes. We will show by induction that for any m 1, there exists a positive
integer N divisibly by exactly m different prime numbers such that N | 2N + 1.
When m = 1, choose N = 3.
We will use the following variant of the exponent lifiting trick: if p is an odd prime, a 2,
k, m 1, ` 0, n odd, pk k a + 1, and p` k n, then pk+` k an + 1. This in fact follows
from our usual exponent lifting trick, as neither a 1 nor an 1 are divisible by p (since
a 1 (mod p) and n is odd), so the claim follows as pk k a2 1 implies pk+` k a2n 1.
Now suppose N = pa11 pamm satisfies N | 2N + 1, where p1 , . . . , pm are distinct prime
and ai 1. Suppose pbi i k 2N + 1 for each i. Write this as pb11 pbmm k 2N + 1. Then
`
by above variant of the exponent lifting trick, we have pb11 +` pb22 pbmm k 2N p1 + 1. For
`
`
` sufficiently large, we also have pb11 +` pb22 pbmm < 2N p1 + 1, so that 2N p1 + 1 has some
`
prime divisor pk+1 distinct from p1 , . . . pk . Then N p`1 pk+1 | 2N p1 pk+1 + 1, and hence we
can choose N 0 = N p`1 pk+1 to complete the induction.
8. Let N be a positive integer ending in digits 25, and m a positive integer. Prove that
for some positive integer n, the rightmost m digits of 5n and N agree in parity (i.e., for
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Yufei Zhao
1 k m, the k-th digit from the right in n is odd if and only if the k-th digit from the
right in N is odd).
Solution. We will prove by induction on m that there exists infinitely many n that works.
This is trivial when m = 1, 2.
For the inductive step, it suffices to prove the following claim: if n m 2, then the
m2
rightmost m digits of 5n and 5n+2
agree in parity, but the (m + 1)-th digit from the
right differ in parity.
m2
By the exponent lifting trick, we have 2m k 52

1 as 22 k 5 1. It follows that
m2 +n
2
n
m
m
5
5 is divisible by 10 but not 2 10 . The claim follows.
9. (Hensels lemma) Let
f (x) = cn xn + cn1 xn1 + + c2 x2 + c1 x + c0
be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Its derivative f 0 is a polynomial defined by
f 0 (x) = ncn xn1 + (n 1)cn1 xn2 + + 2c2 x + c1 .
Suppose that a Z satisfies p | f (a) and p - f 0 (a). Prove that for any integer k, there
exists an integer b satisfying pk | f (b) and p | b a.
Solution. We use induction on k to find, for each k 1, an integer bk , satisfying b1 = a
and
bk+1 bk (mod pk )
and
f (bk ) 0
(mod pk ).
Note that this implies bk b1 = a (mod p).

When k = 1, we can just take b1 = a. Now assume that k > 1 and bk1 has already been
chosen. Set
bk+1 = bk + pk r
for some integer r to be decided later. We have
f (bk+1 ) = f (bk + pk r) =
n
X
cj (bk + pk r)j
j=0
k
X
k
0
cj (bjk + jpk rbj1
k ) = f (bk ) + p rf (bk )
(mod pk+1 ),
j=0
where the modulo equivalence comes from binomial expansion. (This is related to the
taylor expansion in calculus: f (x + ) f (x) + f 0 (x).) From the induction hypothesis,
we know pk | f (bk ). Also bk a (mod p), so p - f 0 (bk ), and hence f 0 (bk ) has an inverse
mod p, say t Z, satisfying f 0 (bk )t 1 (mod p). Then setting r = f (bpkk )t , we have
f (bk+1 ) f (bk ) f (bk )rf 0 (bk ) = f (bk )(1 rf 0 (bk )) 0
(mod pk+1 ).
since pk | f (bk ) and p | 1 rf 0 (bk ). This completes the induction step.

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an 1

Trinity Training 2011

(b) Since (pn ) = (2pn ) = (p 1)pn1 , it suffices to show pn - g (p1)p

(a) Prove the polynomial identity

= xn 1, where the product is taken over

(b) Prove that n (x) is an integer polynomial.

Trinity Training 2011

gcd(p 1, n) < n. Since p - n, we know p pk

the exponent lifting trick, we have

5. Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be distinct primes greater than 3. Let N = 2p1 p2 pk + 1.

(b) Show that N has at least 22

divisors. (Hint: use cyclotomic polynomials)

Trinity Training 2011

We use induction on k. When k = 1, 2p1 + 1 is divisible by 3 and greater than 9, so it must

Solution. We claim that the only solutions are n = 1, 3. Suppose n

Trinity Training 2011

By the exponent lifting trick, we have 2m k 52

Note that this implies bk b1 = a (mod p).

since pk | f (bk ) and p | 1 rf 0 (bk ). This completes the induction step.

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