Invited Article Caloric Restriction For Longevity: I. Paradigm, Protocols and Physiological Findings in Animal Research

European Eating Disorders Review
Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)
Invited Article
Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I.
Paradigm, Protocols and
Physiological Findings in
Animal Research
Kelly M. Vitousek*,y , Jennifer A. Gray and Kathleen
M. Grubbs
University of Hawaii, USA
The initial article in this series reviews basic findings in the field of
caloric restriction for longevity (CRL). To eating disorder specialists, the data are disconcerting. The chronic dieting and
subnormal weight we endeavour to prevent and treat in humans
appear highly beneficial when imposed on animals. In the
laboratory, organisms from nematodes to monkeys thrive when
forced to undereat, as long as they receive sufficient micronutrients. The most remarkable results are obtained through the most
extreme measures: mice, for example, do best if limited to a third of
expected caloric intake, beginning soon after weaning and
continuing throughout adulthood. Deprivation can be achieved
through an anorexic protocol of steady underconsumption or a
bulimic pattern in which periods of fasting alternate with bouts
of binge eating. The benefits of such regimens include delayed
senescence, postponement and/or attenuation of age-related disease and dramatic increases in average and maximum lifespan.
Although some biological functions are impaired (including
growth, reproduction and perhaps resistance to certain stressors),
the cost/benefit ratio clearly favours CRL when calculated on the
basis of physical outcomes in late age. Advocacy of comparable
regimens for people, however, is ill-considered. Enthusiasm for
CRL can be sustained only by detaching deprivation from the
context of daily life, ignoring psychological effects, and dismissing
data on human semi-starvation and eating disorders. The experiences of participants in Biosphere 2 and individuals with anorexia
nervosa suggest that the price of CRL is unacceptably high when a
wider range of outcome variables is examined. Copyright # 2004
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
Keywords: dietary restriction; ageing; eating disorders; semi-starvation; Biosphere 2
* Correspondence to: Kelly M. Vitousek, Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii, 2430 Campus Road, Honolulu,
Hawaii, USA. Tel: 808 956 6269. Fax: 808 956 4700.
E-mail: vitousek@hawaii.edu
y
The former name of the first author is Kelly M. Bemis.
Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/erv.594
K. M. Vitousek et al.
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INTRODUCTION
For more than 60 years, compelling data on the costs
and the benefits of caloric restriction (CR) have accumulated in two separate literatures, generated by
specialists in the eating disorder (ED) field and the
study of caloric restriction for longevity (CRL).1 To
date, there have been few cross-references between
them and remarkably little recognition, by either
side, of the challenges or the opportunities that each
affords the other. Posing different questions, using
different methods, studying different populations,
the ED and CRL fields have reached sharply disparate conclusions about phenomena of clear common
interest. Continued mutual ignorance between these
specialty areas is untenable on scientific, clinical and
ethical grounds. As outlined in the introduction to
the present series (Vitousek, this issue), this article
is the first of three written to summarize the CRL literature for readers already knowledgeable about
human semi-starvation and disordered eating.
OVERVIEW OF THE CRL PARADIGM

The age-defying potential of CR was first detected
within the context of research on veterinary nutrition. McCay, Crowell and Maynard (1935) reported
the curious observation that rats supplied with calorie-poor but nutrient-dense diets appeared healthier and lived longer than control animals
allowed to consume the same diet on an ad libitum
(AL) basis. Scores of subsequent studies affirmed
the central finding and established its generality
across a wide range of species, including yeast,
worms, spiders, flies, fish, mice, hamsters and dogs.
Experiments with non-human primates were
initiated 1418 years ago (Hansen & Bodkin, 1993;
Ingram et al., 1990; Kemnitz et al., 1993). Because
the rhesus monkeys studied in these projects can last
up to 40 years on standard laboratory fare, complete
1
Acronyms abound in the field of caloric restriction for
longevity. Like other movements with a public relations
problem, it seems to be searching for a label that projects a
more positive image. A sampler of the terms tried out
includes: caloric restriction (CR), dietary restriction (DR),
food restriction (FR), energy reduction (ER), caloric restriction
with adequate nutrition (CRAN), caloric restriction with
optimal nutrition (CRON), hypocaloric diet, high-quality
low-calorie diet, and undernutrition without malnutrition.
We use CR to denote generic calorie restriction (which can
apply to involuntary food deprivation, dieting, anorexic
eating patterns, or the regimen advised by researchers in this
area); we use CRL to refer more narrowly to the field and the
practice of caloric restriction for longevity.
data on longevity may not be available for several

decades; however, the early returns suggest that
prolonged deprivation yields anti-ageing effects in
primates similar to those extensively documented
in rodents (Bodkin, Alexander, Ortmeyer, Johnson,
& Hansen, 2003; Lane et al., 2001; Ramsey et al.,
2000; Roberts et al., 2001; Roth, Ingram, & Lane,
2001; Weindruch, 1996). The robustness of the CRL
paradigm across diverse species increases the confidence with which researchers predict that comparable benefits would obtain for humans as well
(Hass et al., 1996; Lane, Mattison, Ingram, & Roth,
2002; Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000; Weindruch
& Walford, 1988).
Superficially, the message of this research seems to
reiterate standard public health principles: if we eat
well (securing all recommended micronutrients
and balancing macronutrients in just the right pyramidal proportion) and we dont eat too much, we
boost our chances of living to a ripe old age. But in
fact the message is radical and counterintuitive: if
we eat well enough to avoid deficiencies (without
fussing over the optimal details) while scrupulously
eating too little, we improve the odds of living to an
unnaturally great age that flouts our species-specific
destiny. It is crucial to understand that the CRL paradigm is not about the avoidance of excess consumption and weight that might interfere with normal
physiology. CRL aims for the deliberate sabotage
of normal physiology, through undercutting the
minimal caloric intake required to sustain it. If eating right is usually assumed to represent an approximate match between an organisms intake and the
nutritional parameters under which it evolved to
flourish, CRL advocates eating wrong, in a particular way, for a specific purpose: the postponement of
senescence and death.
When the body detects that too few calories are
being consumed, it mobilizes well-coordinated,
multilevel networks of various defenses to maintain
homeostatic mechanisms (Yu & Chung, 2001, p. 40).
The organism reallocates resources through a
myriad of complex modifications in the status quo,
reflecting a fundamental shift from a growth and
reproductive strategy to a life-maintenance mode
(Roth et al., 2001, p. 306). Insofar as it is possible to
ascribe intent to biology, it is clear that Nature
designed these conservative measures as temporary
expedients to tide the organism over until the caloric
drought ended and it could get back to business as
usual. But under the exceedingly rare combination
of circumstances in which an organism (a) continues
to ingest too few calories to support its usual routines, but (b) has regular and relatively easy access
Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

to enough calories to stay alive, and (c) obtains all
necessary micronutrients from the bit of food it
eats, while (d) remaining protected from predation
and competition that it might not be big, strong
or energetic enough to resistsome remarkable
and almost certainly accidental byproducts of its
abnormal physiology will emerge. The chronically
underfed animal will appear to age more slowly,
show greater resistance to age-related diseases and
quite possibly die substantially later than any peers
who have had the misfortune to keep eating just
right.
Many measures have been demonstrated to
increase average life expectancy and/or improve
the general health of ageing organisms. Weight control, sound nutrition, physical exercise, prevention
and treatment of infectious and chronic diseases,
avoidance of exposure to environmental toxins
all of these factors contribute to predicting which
individuals in a population will age poorly and
which well, and whether they will die relatively
young or relatively old. None of these factors, however, singly or in combination, can push back the
boundaries of ageing and death. In mammals, CR
is the one intervention that actually appears to
change the rate of ageing and increase the maximum
lifespan attainable by individual members of a species. That is what generates all of the excitement
about the CRL paradigm: it seems to break the rules,
offering scientists an opportunity to decode the process of ageing and motivated individuals a chance to
defy it.
The precise mechanisms responsible for the antiageing effects of CR have yet to be identified. Prominent candidates include the reduction of oxidative
damage (as a consequence of increased efficiency
of oxygen metabolism in the mitochondria),
decreases in glycation, neuroendocrine changes
such as altered levels and patterns of glucocorticoids, and alterations in gene expression (Arking,
2004; Koubova & Guarente, 2003; Kristal & Yu,
1994; Lin et al., 2002; Masoro, 1988, 2001; Merry,
2002; Mobbs et al., 2001; Patel & Finch, 2002; Sohal
& Weindruch, 1996; Wanagat, Allison, & Weindruch, 1999; Weindruch et al., 2001). In view of the
multiplicity of defensive reactions to CR, it appears
increasingly implausible that any single factor will
explain all of its observed effects (Yu & Chung,
2001).
The convergence of conditions outlined previously not too many calories, just enough
calories, sufficient micronutrients, lack of
competitionis so very unusual that it is not surprising the CRL miracle went undiscovered
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through centuries of vain human search for the
elixir of youth. It is plausible to imagine only two
circumstances under which more than the odd, isolated (and probably non-replicating) organism
would satisfy all criteria: it becomes a laboratory
animal that is caged, sheltered, and served up an
enriched low-calorie diet by a CRL researcher
or it happens to be a human being in a stable, safe
society who harbours a powerful and persistent
motive to eat much less than he or she desires
and the knowledge and resources to construct his
or her frugal menus wisely. In the latter category,
two groups of candidates come to mind: the subset
of individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN) who
carefully manage both the quantity and the quality
of their restrictive diets, and a tiny new cohort of
recruits who undertake CR for the specific purpose
of longevity (Manke & Vitousek, 2002). In recent
years, a handful of peopleincluding some of
the researchers who study CRLhave been
attempting to self-impose the regimen, inspired
by the glowing health of thousands of caged-andsheltered animals who lived out their extra-long
lives on half-portions of super-chow in the service
of science.
Elsewhere, we outline the case for why the CRL
field should be keenly interested in AN and why
the ED area should be equally eager to profit from
the few individuals who have begun to adopt an
essentially AN regimen for apparently non-AN
reasons (Vitousek, this issue; Vitousek, Gray, &
Talesfore, European Eating Disorders Review, in press).
At the same time, both fields of study would also be
enhanced through collaboration in the design and
interpretation of relevant animal research. ED specialists should begin by familiarizing themselves with
existing evidence on the CRL paradigm.
CRL PROTOCOLS IN ANIMAL

RESEARCH
As Weindruch and Walford (1988) note, there are
more ways than one to underfeed a rat (p. 53).
CRL research has established that the specific protocol has scant effect on longevity as long as the diet
contains all essential nutrients but sufficiently little
actual food so that defensive responses are triggered. Total calorie consumption can be limited
by providing animals with a fixed allotment on a
daily basis or by allowing intermittent AL access
to unrestricted amounts, such as 12 hours of food
availability on each of 3 spaced days per week
(Weindruch & Walford, 1988). Variations in the
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proportion of fat, protein and carbohydrate yield at
best minor effects; the key factor is overall
reduction in energy intake (Masoro, 1988, 1995;
Merry, 1995). Some research suggests that animals
respond more favourably when caloric cutbacks
are phased in gradually over weeks or months
(Walford, 1983).
In much of the rodent research, animals are
restricted to 5060% of the calories they would eat
if an unlimited supply were available. The benefits
of CR are inversely proportional to the amount consumed. Samples of female mice held to intakes
representing 35%, 45% and 75% of AL levels showed
maximum lifespans that exceeded the peak survival
age of AL controls by 54%, 47% and 19% respectively
(Weindruch, Walford, Fligiel, & Guthrie, 1986).
Obviously, it is possible to undercut too far. For
mice, the lower limit is somewhere around 30% of
expected intake, with those supplied with less than
that amount dying younger than free-feeding animals. On the mild end of the CR spectrum, modest
but discernible benefits are evident for rodents
allowed 8085% of AL consumption.
Unsurprisingly, animals on CR generally end up
much lighter and leaner than controls. Within
cohorts on equivalent levels of CR, however, bodyweight is positively correlated with longevity, so
that individuals who manage to remain (relatively)
hefty on severe CR outlast their thinner and less
metabolically thrifty peers (Bertrand, Lynd,
Masoro, & Yu, 1980; Masoro, Yu, & Lynd, 1980;
Weindruch et al., 1986). When intermittent schedules are used to achieve CR, most rodents weigh
in 3040% lighter than AL controls because they fail
to eat enough on free-feeding days to compensate
for fasting days. At least one strain of mouse, however, learns to gorge sufficiently when fed every
other day to sustain weight at near-normal levels
(Anson et al., 2003). These animals also attain
extended lifespans, suggesting that long periods
of caloric deprivation can trigger the mechanism(s)
of CRL even when overall intake and weight are not
significantly reduced.
The only other factors known to influence the magnitude of the CRL effect are the interrelated variables
of time of initiation and total duration. In rodents,
CR is almost equally effective if started immediately
after weaning or not until the end of the juvenile
growth phase (Yu, Masoro, & McMahan, 1985).
Although some advantages still accrue when restriction commences in middle age, postponement of CR
onset yields diminishing returns through the period
of adulthood. Some recent studies have found that
even older animals profit from underfeeding
(Dhahbi, Kim, Mote, Beaver, & Spindler, 2004; Mair,

Goymer, Pletcher, & Partridge, 2003); however,
others conclude that CR initiation in late age may
be more likely to hasten death than defer it (Forster,
Morris, & Sohal, 2003).
Refeeding formerly restricted animals puts them
at a survival disadvantage relative to those kept
chronically underfed (Merry, 1995). Some residual
benefit of time-limited CR, imposed only during
rodent adolescence and young adulthood, has been
suggested by a 15% increase in median lifespan and
10% increase in maximum lifespan (Yu et al., 1985).
(If the same holds true for humans, the typical 4- to
6-year duration of illness for recovered AN patients
may pay delayed dividends when they reach retirement age; however, another ironic implication is
that through facilitating symptom remission, ED
therapists may be cheating patients out of the additional years of vital senior citizenship that they
might have earned by staying anorexic.) Few studies, however, have examined this latent effect for
reversed restriction. Other research indicates that
benefits start disappearing immediately upon
return to AL eating (Dhahbi et al., 2004; Mair et al.,
2003); more ominously, it has been suggested that
ageing may accelerate after previously underfed
animals are rehabilitated (Merry, 2002). In any
event, it appears that the greatest gains are achieved
when CR is initiated relatively early and sustained
to late age.
The suppression of weight through physical exercise does not produce benefits comparable to CR.
Although regular activity has a modest effect on
average life expectancy and a substantial one on
mobility in older humans and animals, no current
evidence indicates that it can increase maximal lifespan or alter the rate of ageing (Holloszy & Kohrt,
1995; Poehlman et al., 2001). Indeed, it would be
unreasonable to anticipate that exercise could
change the fundamental rules of ageing; after all,
throughout mammalian evolution, regular physical activity was a normal and necessary part of
everyday life (Poehlman et al., 2001). Some initial
research warned that exercise might even counteract the longevity effects of CR (Holloszy &
Schechtman, 1991), causing elevated mortality in
young rats that were both physically active and
underfed. More recent studies conclude that moderate exercise is neither deleterious nor beneficial in
combination with CR (Holloszy, 1997). At least for
the purpose of achieving the life-prolongation
effect, it appears that the menu of options is
severely limited: if we are determined to overlive,
we have to undereat.
OTHER BENEFICIAL CHANGES ON CRL

If increased maximum lifespan is the most singular
and spectacular pay-off for prolonged CR, the
underfed animal can expect to profit from numerous
other advantages along the way (some of which help
to account for that ultimate reward). Taubes (2000)
observes that the list of the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in laboratory animals reads like the
packaging on a miracle cure (p. 2). In this instance,
the extravagant claims are supported by solid
science.
Many of the changes converge on the impression
that CR animals appear to be younger than their
chronologic ages indicate (Walford, Weber, &
Panov, 1995, p. 30). Elderly CR rodents seem more
alert and frisky, remaining mobile and flexible as
tendons and ligaments are slower to stiffen and
age-related loss of muscle mass is postponed. They
keep their balance better when placed on a rotating
rod, and hang on longer when suspended by their
paws from an elevated wire. The blood profiles of
underfed animals reveal decreased levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, insulin and white
blood cells. Food deprivation forestalls the deterioration of the immune system associated with
advancing age and increases survival rates and
speed of recovery following surgery. CR strikingly
lowers the incidence and/or delays the period of
risk for numerous diseases, including diabetes,
hypertension, arteriosclerosis, cancer, kidney disease, autoimmune conditions and cataracts.
Underfeeding heightens resistance to chemical
carcinogens and irradiation, suppresses the
expression of genes associated with malignancy
and retards the progression of tumours. (For summaries of the substantial literature on physiological changes associated with CRL, see Fishbein,
1991; Hart, Neumann, & Robertson, 1995;
Heilbronn & Ravussin, 2003; Hursting, Lavigne,
Berrigan, Perkins, & Barrett, 2003; Masoro, 1988,
2001; Merry, 1995; Ramsey et al., 2000; Roberts et
al., 2001; Walford, 2000; Weindruch & Walford,
1988; Yu, 1994.)
Among the most important potential benefits of
CR are its neuroprotective functions. Evidence
from animal research suggests that CR attenuates
a variety of age-related brain changes, by reducing
protein oxidative damage in at least some regions,
increasing microvascular density and cerebral
blood flow, slowing the loss of striatal dopamine
receptors, decreasing glial activation and eliminating age-related deficits in long-term potentiation. CR may also protect neurons against
283
damage from toxins and increase neuronal resistance to stroke and degenerative diseases such as
Alzheimers and Parkinsons (for reviews, see
Casadesus, Shukitt-Hale, & Joseph, 2002; Mattson,
Chan, & Duan, 2002; Mattson, Duan, & Guo, 2003;
Patel & Finch, 2002). Some of the rodent research
suggests that benefits observed on the molecular,
cellular and physiological levels are paralleled by
superior performance on learning tasks relative to
ageing AL controls. As discussed in the companion article, however, the results are not uniformly reassuring; moreover, there are as yet no
data on cognitive function from any of the primate
projects currently underway (Vitousek, Manke,
Gray, & Vitousek, European Eating Disorders
Review, in press).
IMPLICATIONS FOR OUR VIEW OF AN

ED specialists who are appalled by the advocacy of
CR for humans would be well advised not to enter
the fray by contesting its benefits in debate with
either CRL experts or any AN patients who invoke
the paradigm to justify their own restriction. We
would lose such arguments on the merits. The
health-related boons of sustained CR with adequate nutrition are indisputable. For many years,
the ED community committed an analogous error
in clinical work with AN patients. Struck by the
suffering the disorder causes, we dismissed the
considerable psychological benefits it also confers
on affected individuals, who may rank-order particular advantages and disadvantages quite differently from observers (Vitousek, Watson, & Wilson,
1998). We should not repeat the mistake with reference to the assets of CRL, which are impeccably
documented and, by any standard, highly consequential.
In particular, ED specialists should not make the
mistake of assuming that the real-world effects of
CR on human longevity are already evident in
the shortened life expectancy of AN patients. Clinicians are often baffled when they first learn about
the death-defying powers attributed to CR, since
standardized mortality rates for AN samples are
estimated to be between nine and 17 times higher
than expected population risk (e.g. Fichter &
Quadflieg, 1999; Herzog et al., 2000; Lowe et al.,
2001). No one suggests, however, that CR done
wrong promotes health and longevity. Most AN
patients do practise faulty CR, and the data indicate that those who die implement it particularly
poorly and/or die from causes related to their ED
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but not directly attributable to their CR. For example, in one study, all seven deaths examined (which
represented 5.1% crude mortality over an 11-year
follow-up period) occurred in patients who were
both anorexic and bulimic (Herzog et al., 2000).
Six of the seven individuals had abused alcohol;
one died from acute alcohol intoxication and three
committed suicide. Suicides account for between
17 and 42% of the ED-related deaths in AN samples
(Emborg, 1999; Lowe et al., 2001; Nielsen et al.,
1998).2 Much of the mortality attributable to physical causes results from some combination of rapid
weight loss, intakes far below 50% AL and/or purging none of which is consistent with the principles of sound CRL. The more relevant reference
group is the subset of AN patients who sustain
their low weights through steady abstemiousness,
selecting diets that feature the same healthy food
choices (e.g. fruits, vegetables, bran, tofu, yogurt,
fish) favoured by CRL practitioners. ED specialists
will recognize that pattern as a variant of chronic
AN that is associated with minimal risk for medical
crises or premature death in the few anorexic individuals who can sustain it.
On the basis of the remarkable data on the benefits of long-term, correctly implemented CR,
should ED professionals reconsider their
position on the merits of restriction? Maybe we
should stop trying to convince anorexic patients
that they have got it terribly wrong and concede
that in fact they have got it more right than the
general public and most healthcare professionals
yet appreciate (or could ever manage to achieve,
once they did). Perhaps, rather than dispensing
well-intentioned advice about the value of normal
eating and weight, we should be soliciting our
patients expertise about how to subvert both.
Or, less facetiously and in complete accord with
the animal data on CRL perhaps we should
shift our treatment goal from eliminating dietary
restriction to refining dietary restriction.
2
CR cannot be absolved from making some contribution to
the AN suicide statistics, in view of the association between
food deprivation and depression in normal individuals
(Keys, Brozek, Henschel, Mickelsen, & Taylor, 1950); in
addition, many AN patients link their suicidal ideation to
despair over the constricted life required by CR and selfloathing for their inability to sustain it. It is probable,
however, that pre-existing psychopathology (quite likely
exacerbated by CR) explains most of the variance in deaths
by suicide. It is more awkward to contend that the negative
effects of bulimia should not count as direct costs of CR. Binge
eating is a lawful response to caloric insufficiency, and
purging a predictable reaction to its occurrence in people
committed to caloric control.
Following the evidence of CRL research, we might

urge our anorexic patients to replace their pathological set of motives with a more defensible, empirically supported impetus for the same basic
behaviour pattern.3 We might encourage those
who are still adolescent to defer CR until they are
18 or 20 (although the animal literature suggests
they need not wait if they dont mind sacrificing a
bit of adult stature). If the disorder is not yet fully
established, we could counsel individuals with incipient AN to work their way gradually into restriction, since some data indicate that maximum CR
should be achieved incrementally. If patients have
already gone a little too far, we could advise them
to fine-tune their CR level to a relatively modest
3040% reduction in normal intake (although, once
again, some animal evidence gives the green light
down to 65% below AL level). We should certainly
underscore the importance of consuming all requisite vitamins and minerals. We would stress, just
as we do at present, the inadvisability of compensatory tactics such as vomiting and laxative abuse, and
should discourage excessive exercise. Indeed, as the
objective shifts from the anorexic motive of attaining low weight to the approved motive of promoting
health and longevity, all compensatory behaviours
become antithetical to the goal rather than alternative but risky means of trying to achieve it. To take
advantage of the life-extending benefits of the CRL
paradigm, our patients need to focus their efforts
on the one strategy that makes all the difference: lifelong dietary restriction.
Before deciding to redirect our professional
efforts, it is appropriate to review the items on the
cost side of the decisional balance for CRL. It will
not come as a surprise to ED specialists that there
is a catchin fact, there are quite a lot of them.
3
If our suggestion that AN patients might be encouraged to
replace haphazard CR with proper CRL seems far-fetched,
the following post to the CR Society listserve is instructive:
[CR practitioners should] reach out to specific groups who
might derive serious benefit from [CR] membership . . . [including individuals with] anorexia or bulemia
[sic]. [We] can take these people in, not telling them that
they are ill, but rather informing them that thinness is not
only OK, but desirable . . . They can be taught that both goals
[i.e. thinness and health] can be met together, and that they
will stay young and beautiful many extra years by [ensuring
adequate nutrition on a CRL regimen]. Instead of going to
therapy to deal with their mental aberration, they will attend
[CR support groups] to encourage their desire in a healthy
direction (Adzoe, 2002). Our own recommendation for the
fine-tuning of anorexic restriction is rhetorical; this correspondent seems disturbingly sincere.
285
WHERE ARE THE COSTS?
not interest researchers unless they impact the outcome variables that do: retardation of the ageing
process, resistance to disease and extension of the
lifespan. Most observers of human CR would be
disposed to classify phenomena such as cold intolerance, orthostatic hypotension, elevated stress hormones, decreased sex hormones, hunger, food
preoccupation, irritability and social withdrawal as
costs of caloric deprivation. None of these variables,
however, seems to interfere with the targeted outcomes of CRLindeed, one or two may actually
facilitate them. Accordingly, none of these consequences is consistently recognized as a liability in
the context of CRL research. Where others may view
the thin, cold, hungry, asexual, subfertile, moody
and occasionally dizzy organism with peculiar lab
values as unwell, CRL investigators point to their
criterion data: if such an animal can remain active,
disease-free and alive longer than its normally nourished peers, it is manifestly thriving.
With reference to research focused on the mechanisms of CRL, this indifference to extraneous costs is
not as callous as it first appears. Some investigators
take the position that the raw just eat less protocols
used with animals are not intended for direct translation to the human case. Radical restriction is simply a tool for elucidating mechanisms that might
be targeted in future through mimeticsdrugs
that exploit the underlying processes without
requiring self-starvation (e.g. Ingram, 2003; Lane,
Ingram, & Roth, 2002; Lane et al., 2002; Roth et al.,
2001; Spindler, Dhahbi, Mote, Kim, & Tsuchiya,
2003). Yet even toward this objective, it may be crucial to examine the full range of CR effects, since
desired and undesired elements in this well-coordinated multilevel network (Yu & Chung, 2001, p. 40)
could prove to be interdependent. Moreover, many
researchers do advocate the adoption of CR itself by
humanssometimes tentatively and provisionally
(e.g. Bucci, 1992; Roberts et al., 2001; Weindruch,
1996) and sometimes with an unsettling messianic
fervour (e.g. Mattson et al., 2002; Pinel, 2000;
Walford, 1983, 2000). When animal studies are construed as pilot projects for an intended application to
people, neglect of potential ill-effects is indefensible
on ethical grounds as well as scientific ones.
There are, of course, inevitable costs to caloric
deprivation. The reason for their inevitability is
tucked away in the verb of a sentence used earlier
to introduce the benefits of CR: when an organism
is not getting enough calories to eat, it automatically
reallocates resources, shifting priorities for energy
utilization. By definition, the underfed organism
has less fuel available for distribution than its
When immersed in the CRL literature, it is easy to

overlook the possibility that there is any downside
to the intervention. The enthusiasm of CRL researchers for their powerful paradigm is understandable
and infectious, and rarely shadowed by qualifications. The calculation of costbenefit ratios for CRL
is not discussed in most review articles. Because no
entries are recorded in the minus column, there do
not appear to be any liabilities to counterbalance
the spectacular gains; therefore, the problem of
assessing the relative importance of conflicting considerations simply does not arise. The lone disappointment that is commonly expressed is that
humans may lack the fortitude to self-apply extreme
restriction (e.g. Mattson et al., 2002; Pinel et al., 2000;
Roth et al., 2001; Weindruch & Walford, 1988). The
view that perhaps humans should not do so, even
if they could, is seldom entertained.
To the ED specialist who is all too familiar with the
detrimental effects of AN and aware of the data on
natural and experimental semi-starvation, the CRL
silence on the matter of costs is initially disorienting.
With increased exposure to this topic area, the pattern becomes easier to understandwhile remaining difficult to accept or excuse.
At least in part, CRL researchers take a more
benign view of CR because they create and study a
more benign form of CR. The devastating picture
of caloric deficit suggested by famine victims and
many AN patients unquestionably exaggerates the
costs of pure CR and masks some of its benefits.
In the laboratory, investigators can ensure that
semi-starvation is carefully calibrated and deficient
in nothing but calories. Because researchers retain
total control over the restricted organisms intake,
they can also prevent its reactions to CR from disrupting CR itself. Under the pressure of hunger,
the underfed animalunlike the free-ranging
humancannot make poor food choices or break
down and overeat. In addition, the research context
eliminates not only the extraordinary stresses that
generally accompany privation in the natural environment but the ordinary perturbations of daily life
at liberty. Laboratory animals are typically isolated
in individual cages, protected or exempted from
germs, temperature variation, work, fatigue, social
interaction, parenting and competition. In effect,
their only job is to cope with CR, so that all of the
meagre energy supplied by their otherwise optimal
diets can be put straight to that purpose.
Another reason that the downside of restriction is
less salient in the CRL field is that negative effects do
286
normally-eating fellows; therefore, if some functions
are geared up, others must be shifted down. As it
turns out, the processes that Nature privileges
during times of food shortage are just the sorts of
variables that CRL investigators select for close
examination, while the functions that Nature opts
to shortchange or to disrupt are precisely those that
fail to capture their interest. Most of the benefits of
the CRL paradigm are manifested on the molecular,
cellular and physiological levels; many of its costs
show up in the behavioural, soft cognitive, affective and social domains. Because CRL specialists
are generally animal physiologists by training and
inclination, it is unsurprising that they are more
struck by the wonders CR works in the systems they
favour than by the damage it does elsewhere.
The scanty but ominous data on behavioural outcomes will be the focus of the second paper in this
series (Vitousek, Manke, Gray, & Vitousek, European
Eating Disorders Review, in press). The remainder of
the present paper outlines the subset of physiological adaptations that carry direct costs for the foodrestricted animalat least under some conditions
and with reference to the achievement of particular
goals. A notable feature of the biological economies
of CR is that their impact is context-dependent. With
a few exceptions, the physical price paid for restriction must be calculated on a sliding scale according
to the organisms circumstances and objectives.
ADVERSE PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF CRL

Growth Retardation
One of the most obvious costs of CR is the suspension
or delay of physical development. If an organism has
not yet attained full size when rations are reduced, it
will get bigger more slowly and end up of slighter
stature. If it has not yet reached sexual maturity, it
will do so later than expectedor perhaps not at
all if restriction is severe and sustained. These consequences are well known to ED specialists. Early onset
AN is associated with slower growth, decreased
adult height and primary amenorrhea. Research
with animals on CRL confirms that pure caloric deficit can produce all of these effects even when dietary
intake is otherwise optimal.
Initially, researchers speculated that the interruption of development might be key to the benefits of
CR rather than merely one of its unfortunate sideeffects. Perhaps the energy spared from the costly
processes of growth and maturation fuelled extension of the lifespan or reset the timetable for progressing through adulthood and senescence. Most
experts concluded that if people could secure extra

years only by stunting their growth in childhood,
CRL was not an ethical option for human use. A
few advocates were not so easily dissuaded. At
one point, the most fervent popularizer of CRL ventured right up to the edge of recommending prepubertal restriction (Walford, 1983). In fact, Walford
suggested, parents who provide sufficient food to
maximize genetic height potential are doing their
children a disservice:
Thats fine if you just want big kids who are sexually
developed at a younger age so they can breed like
rats . . . Settling for a slower growth rate and slightly
smaller body size under a regime of caloric undernutrition would secure a longer life with fewer diseases, and very possibly increase intelligence.
(Walford, 1983, p. 107)
The tone of Walfords reference to big kids
who . . . can breed like rats is disconcertingand
also revealing, in that it illustrates the surplus meaning often attached to AL and CR consumption by the
messianic branch of the CRL field. Like patients with
AN, some advocates invest the control of natural
appetite and normal weight with moral significance,
implying that non-restrictive eating is somehow a
sinful and bestial choice as well as an imprudent
one (Walford, 1986, 2000; Weindruch & Walford,
1988). Walfords intimation that inches can be
exchanged for IQ points is simply baffling. Although
CR may help preserve cognitive function to a more
advanced age, there is little evidence that it augments intellectual capacity.
As it turns out, there is also no need for a forced
choice between inches and longevity. Animal
research has established that CR can be deferred
until the growth phase is completed, with only slight
shrinkage in the margin of added life expectancy. In
a recent book, Walford (2000) still notedperhaps a
bit wistfullythat calorie restriction beginning in
childhood would yield the greatest extension of
maximum life span (p. 77); however, he joined his
colleagues in rejecting the option of juvenile CR.
Walford identified two reasons for deeming the
trade-off unacceptable: the sacrifice of stature, and
the fact that CR imposed on very young animals
occasionally kills them, even though the survivors
do go on to enjoy remarkably long lives (Walford,
2000, p. 77).
Reproductive Function
However long the underfed organism survives, it is
less likely to enjoy an active sex life along the way or

to generate its fair share of progeny. Every aspect of
reproduction takes a hit on CR, in males and
females, to a degree that varies by species, strain,
age and severity of restriction. The fertility of mice
is obliterated by even modest caloric reductions; rats
are knocked back, but eventually get about making
more rats if CR is not extreme (McShane & Wise,
1996; Merry & Holehan, 1991; Nelson, Gosden, &
Felicio, 1985). Rodent strains that are bred for rapid
development and larger size may retain more normal functioning than wild-type and leaner animals
on equivalent levels of CR (Leakey et al., 1994).
The reproductive moratorium has clear adaptive
advantages for the semi-starved animal. It is not
depleting its energies on courtship, mating, pregnancy or lactation at a time when the odds of producing healthy offspring are remote. Because periods
on CR extend the reproductive lifespan once the
organism is refed (Merry & Holehan, 1991), the animal also buys time to procreate in future if conditions become more favourable. Few evolutionary
biologists believe, however, that CRs life-extending
properties were selected through the fecundity of
elderly famine survivors. In the rough-and-tumble
of life in the wild, animals rarely survive long
enough to approach reproductive senescence. Most
experts conclude that the longevity effects prized by
human fans of CRL are incidentalthe unselected
consequences of conservative shifts in physiology
that were favoured because they helped organisms
hang on through brief periods of food shortage
(see discussions in Allison et al., 2001; Austad,
1997; Graves, 1993; Harrison & Archer, 1991; Hart
& Turturro, 1998; Holliday, 1989; Phelan & Austad,
1989; Shanley & Kirkwood, 2000).
As discussed in the companion article on behaviour (Vitousek, Manke, Gray, & Vitousek, European
Eating Disorders Review, in press), the shutdown of
sexuality on CR poses an obvious problem for
human applications. Astonishingly, its implications
go unmentioned by advocates, apart from the
acknowledgement that women would need to take
a break from CR in order to conceive, carry and
nurse children. Across the CRL literature, there is a
conspicuous silence about the loss of libido expected
in both males and females on significant dietary
restriction.
Cold Intolerance
Organisms on CR become frigid in a literal sense as
well. To avoid squandering energy on heat, basal
body temperature is turned down. Underfed animals, like individuals with AN, are likely to feel
287
chilled in environments that the fully fed find comfortable, and will be less able to withstand cold
stress. In one of the original CRL experiments in
the 1930s, two failures in the laboratory heating system killed 35 of the 73 rats on CR; all subjects in the
AL condition survived the cold snaps (McCay,
Maynard, Sperling, & Barnes, 1939). In a small footnote to contemporary CRL research, it has been
reported that water-maze testing often proves fatal
to aged CR mice, presumably as a function of lower
body temperature and reduced thermal insulation
as well as decreased buoyancy (Means, Higgins, &
Fernandez, 1993). Although few humans on CR
would be confronted with comparable sink-or-swim
situations, both anorexic patients and CRL practitioners describe cold intolerance as an unpleasant
side-effect of restriction.
On the positive side, rodents on CR cope better
than AL animals when lightly baked in radiant
ovens, and show a slower age-related decline in
the synthesis of heat shock proteins (Aly et al.,
1994a, 1994b; Heydari, Wu, Takahashi, Strong, &
Richardson, 1993). In fact, in a mirror-image mishap
decades after McCays CR subjects perished in their
unheated laboratory in New York, restricted rats
had the edge when the air conditioning failed at a
facility in Texas: 84% of AL rodents succumbed to
the heatwave, while 75% of those on CR pulled
through (Heydari et al., 1993).
Stress Resistance
Little is known about whether CR facilitates or compromises response to most other forms of stress. The
paucity of research in this area is surprisingnot
only to us as ED specialists, but to a prominent
CRL researcher as well. Weindruch (1996) has commented that: Oddly enough, stress resistance has
been little studied in rodents on low-calorie diets,
and so they have little to teach about this issue
(p. 52). The matter of resilience to stress is clearly relevant to proposed extensions of the CRL paradigm
outside laboratory settings. Except for specimens
with the bad luck to be assigned to a water-maze or
heat shock study, the only stresses encountered by
the average CR rodent are tedium, confinement, the
occasional blood draw and (presumably) hunger.
The world that humans inhabit is more taxing and
intrusive, periodically subjecting them to competing
task demands, sensory overload, sleep deprivation,
interpersonal pressures and exposure to a wide
range of pathogens. It would seem worthwhile to
evaluate whether facsimiles of these conditions have
differential impact on the health and behaviour of CR
288
and AL animals. The net effects of life lived alone in a
germ-free laboratory may differ from those that
come with immersion in a bustling, sometimes hostile milieu (which is also dense with food cues).
On the physiological level, the evidence suggests
that CR regimens are chronically stressful in their
own right, producing elevated mean corticosterone
levels (Armario, Montero, & Jolin, 1987; Han, Evans,
Shu, Lee, & Nelson, 2001; Leakey et al., 1994; Patel &
Finch, 2002). One complication of assessing stress
hormones in CR rodents is that the daily peak shifts
from the onset of darkness to the time just before
feeding and then plummets during meal consumption (Stewart, Meaney, Ailken, Jensen, & Kalant,
1988). Some investigators speculate that this jolt of
preprandial anxiety may actually contribute to the
life-prolonging effects of CR (Masoro & Austad,
1996), noting that mice subjected to regular electric
shocks or periods of cold exposure enjoy longer lives
too (although the verb seems incongruous under the
circumstances). Other investigators emphasize the
paradox inherent in the data on stress hormones
during CR (Mattson et al., 2002; Patel & Finch,
2002). Chronic elevation of glucocorticoids from
other causes is associated with a broad range of ill
effects, while CR-induced changes are either directly
beneficial or counteracted by other protective factors
activated by restriction.
Resistance to Injury and Infection

The data on the bodys response to injury and infection on CR are mixed. Aged CR mice retain the
potential capacity for more rapid wound healing
than their AL counterparts; however, this latent
advantage is demonstrated only if they are renourished for a month prior to the infliction of a test
injury (Reed et al., 1996). (By extrapolation, that
seems like good news for elderly CR humans facing
elective surgery for which they can be fortified in
advancebut unhelpful for any underfed seniors
who take an unscheduled tumble down the stairs.)
Consonant with anecdotal and some research evidence from human semi-starvation and AN (e.g.
Armstrong-Esther, Lacey, Crisp, & Bryant, 1978;
Bowers & Eckert, 1978; Brozek, Wells, & Keys,
1946; Golla et al., 1981; Leyton, 1946; Thygesen,
Hermann, & Willanger, 1970), animals on CR show
normal or increased resistance to some microorganisms, but may be less capable of fighting
off others or combating established infections
(Dong et al., 1998; Roecker, Kemnitz, Ershler, &
Weindruch, 1996; Sun, Muthukumar, Lawrence, &
Fernandes, 2001). As noted earlier, little is known
about how their immune systems would respond

to constant bombardment by pathogens in the natural environment (Lipman, Dallal, & Bronson,
1999; Weindruch et al., 2001). Most of the work on
immune function has been conducted in vitro, rather
than by deliberately exposing intact CR and AL animals to disease. In consequence, researchers can better predict how semi-starved cells react to single
infectious agents in the Petri dish than anticipate
how semi-starved bodies might cope with the array
of germs lurking outside the laboratory or handle
active illnesses they have failed to fend off.
Bone Density
One specific discrepancy that may surprise ED
experts is the omission of decreased bone density
from the list of CR liabilities. Osteopenia and osteoporosis are among the most predictable and disabling physical effects of AN (Grinspoon et al.,
1999; Katzman & Zipursky, 1994; Lennkh et al.,
1999; Pomeroy & Mitchell, 2002; Rigotti, Neer,
Skates, Herzog, & Nussbaum, 1991; Serpell & Treasure, 1997; Siemers, Chakmakjian, & Gench, 1996). In
CRL research, however, underfeeding has minimal
effect on rats bone mineral content (Sanderson
et al., 1997). Equivocal results have been reported
to date from the primate studies (Ramsey et al.,
2000; Roberts et al., 2001). Slight reductions in bone
mineral density and peak bone mass have appeared
in both male and female monkeys on CR, but may
simply reflect their lower weight status.
The mismatch between the animal and human
findings on bone density could be attributable in
part to differences in diet composition or the pattern
of weight loss. In AN, however, adequate calcium
intake may reduce bone degeneration but does
not appear to prevent it (Bachrach, Guido,
Katzman, Litt, & Marcus, 1990; Biller et al., 1989;
Castro, Lazaro, Pons, Halperin, & Toro, 2000). Moreover, decreased density has been recorded in nonanorexic women who lose as little as 10 pounds
(Prior, cited in Roberts et al., 2001). No data are yet
available on the small cohort of (mostly male) individuals who have adopted high-quality low-calorie
regimens for the purpose of longevity. According
to an informal scan of self-reported status posted
to a CRL interest group, early signs of osteoporosis
have been detected in a few cases (Johannes, 2002).
Clearly, such anecdotal accounts provide no useful
information in the absence of baseline data, control
groups and verification of dietary intake; it is reassuring only that freelance CRL practitioners seem
aware of the potential risk and that at least some
are monitoring this aspect of their health on CR.

Another possible explanation for the apparent
inconsistency between the animal and human
data is a true species difference in response to
underfeeding. Although the age-mitigating and
life-extending properties of CRL are robust, the animal literature does include numerous examples of
species, strain and sex differences in specific parameters of response (Harrison & Archer, 1988; Masoro
& Austad, 1996; Rikke et al., 2003; Weindruch, Kemnitz, & Uno, 1995). On the one hand, such discrepancies provide valuable information that can be used to
narrow the field of possible CRL mechanisms. For
example, the fact that rats (but not mice) can maintain cyclicity on moderate CR confirms that a complete shutdown of reproduction is not essential for
CR-induced life extension (Allison et al., 2001). On
the other hand, distinctive patterns of response
obviously limit the confidence with which findings
can be extrapolated across species or even subgroups. Although the central CRL effect may well
obtain for humans, it is difficult to predict its magnitude or to rule out the possibility of untoward effects
not observed in other tested species. On the basis
of the scanty information currently available,
decreased bone density is one prime candidate.
Individual Differences
Another variable that may differ across species and
strains is the optimal degree of reduction below AL
intake (Weindruch et al., 1995); even when desirable
CR levels are established on the group level, it is
likely to remain hazardous to generalize across individuals. Although rodents are described as brighteyed, sleek and glossy-coated on drastic 5065%
cutbacks, several of the rhesus monkeys in the
Wisconsin CRL project began to deteriorate on the
modest 30% restriction level prescribed, showing
hair loss and a clinically ill appearance (Ramsey
et al., 2000, p. 1135). Apparently, these primate participants had entered the anorexic zone. A full complement of micronutrients notwithstanding, caloric
deprivation was impairing rather than enhancing
their physical condition. The protocol was modified
to permit intake adjustments on the basis of body
composition measured by dual-energy X-ray
absorptiometry (DEXA), in order to allow a margin
of safety for each animal.
Individual differences in response to CR do not
receive comparable attention in rodent studies, for
which subjects can be purchased and randomly
assigned in large batches. If the occasional rat or
mouse languishes on the CR level to which it has
been allocated, it is not whisked off for DEXA scan-
289
ning of its body fat content and issued extra rations
based on its personal needs. Even if a few animals
die from underfeeding, the consequences are minimal (except, of course, for the animals themselves).
Data points from stray casualties of CR barely deflect
group results, since, as noted earlier, many of the
survivors go on to enjoy remarkably long lives
(Walford, 2000, p. 77). Primates are more precious,
in part because each has a proportionally greater
impact on averaged outcomes. Accordingly, when
some monkeys appeared to suffer from CR, investigators intervened, changing the CR itself rather than
waiting to see just how adversely the ailing animals
would be affected by adherence to the original
protocol.
Such concern for individual outcomes anticipates
the vigilance that would be required in the monitoring of human CRL. At least for some organisms, the
margin between flourishing on CR and foundering
on CR appears distressingly narrow. Unfortunately,
fine-tuning of optimal-but-safe restriction through
regular DEXA scanning is not a realistic possibility
for people outside the context of research. Moreover,
it is troubling that some CRL experts have not hesitated to recommend levels of human CR equivalent
to the 30% reduction that made a number of monkeys look clinically ill. None of these advocates
has highlighted the risk that moderate, correctly
implemented CRL might jeopardize rather than
improve the health of normal humans who adopt it.
Marked variability is already evident in the small
group of humans who are attempting to implement
the CRL regimen. Just like individuals desperate to
control their weight, people determined to extend
their longevity seem to differ in the ability to tolerate
CR. Some describe their hunger as manageable or
even enjoyable, and claim to be energized by restriction. Others find hunger oppressive and sometimes
intolerable, and report feeling fatigued, impaired
and unwell. In the on-line community of CRL practitioners, these subgroups are termed cruisers and
strugglers. The former are strikingly reminiscent
of patients with restricting AN; the latter seem to
share characteristics with those more likely to
develop bulimic behaviour in response to dieting
(Vitousek, Gray, & Talesfore, European Eating Disorders Review, in press). Because the phenomenon of
human CRL is relatively new and virtually unstudied, it is too soon to know whether individuals will
shift category membership from cruising to struggling (or from restricting to bingeing) as a function
of duration, matching the temporal pattern associated with AN (e.g. Eddy et al., 2002). As ED specialists routinely observe, even those patients who react
290
positively to extreme restraint in the early going
tend to find it increasingly difficult to sustain over
time.
Less commonly, individual CRL practitioners
report serious side-effectsagain of a type familiar
to ED experts but apparently not anticipated by professional advocates of CRL. For example, one man
who had practised CR for several years began to
experience cardiac irregularities at a BMI of 18, on
an ostensibly CRL-consistent regimen of 1500 kcal/
day (Best, 1998). Prudently, he decided to retreat to a
more moderate CR level and a higher weight. Now
more than 10 years into CR, however, he reports that
he still has difficulty restraining his incessant compulsion to overeat and currently follows a less rigorous regimen in hopes of keeping [the] psychological
strain [of CR] to a tolerable comfort level (Best, 2002,
p. 2).
PUTTING THE CONSEQUENCES IN

CONTEXT
For the most part, the present paper has stayed
within the boundaries set by CRL experts, narrowing the scope of review to the physical outcomes of
nutritionally correct CR administered under controlled conditions. As long as costbenefit analyses
are restricted to that frame of reference, we concur
that a lab animal gains far more than it loses through
random assignment to a CR regimen. In trade for
being a bit smaller, colder and presumably hungrier
than fellow subjects condemned to normal eating,
the food-deprived organism will defer disease, disability and death. Indeed, CRL researchers suggest,
the restricted animal should not be pitied for its
plight, but congratulated on its good fortune
(Masoro, 1992; Weindruch, 1996). In the breadth
and magnitude of benefits bestowed, no other treatment from the most benevolent of caretakers can
match the simple act of underfeeding. Cell membranes, blood vessels, muscles, kidneys, heart and
brain all profit when substandard amounts of vitamin-enriched chow are dished up each morning
(or perhaps on alternate days) over the lengthened
lifespan of the lean and lucky recipient.
In contrast, the physical costs of nutritionally
sound CR are surprisingly modestand most of
them are negotiable. As noted earlier, the price the
body pays must be calculated in context, varying
as a function of each organisms specific circumstances and goals. Accordingly, it is possible to maximize the net gains of CR by engineering
environments that minimize its liabilities. Standard
protocols for animal research are well suited to the

purpose. Experimental subjects are protected from
pathogens, predators and aggressive conspecifics.
With no competition for resources, no social position
to maintain, no mate to attract and no offspring to
nurture or defend, the underfed rodent or primate
can delete many potential drawbacks of CR from
its personal costbenefit calculations. Its slighter stature and lower weight carry no disadvantage under
the conditions arranged on its behalf; in fact, the
downsized specimen is actually better fitted to the
cage-bound niche it occupies. In its climate-controlled habitat, even the discomfort associated with
cold intolerance can be prevented.
The importance of context is also evident when
laboratory routines are disrupted, by accident or
design. The paired anecdotes about the failure of
heating and cooling systems at facilities in New York
and Texas provide a particularly stark example
(Heydari et al., 1993; McCay et al., 1939). CR proved
fatal to rodents plunged into the harsh reality of winter in the northeast; CR was life-saving for rodents
hit by a sudden blast of summer in the southwest.
Obviously, the altered capacity to tolerate extreme
temperatures on CR cannot be characterized as an
asset or a liability in any absolute sense, turning up
on opposite sides of the costbenefit ratio for groups
of animals faced with different environmental challenges.
More generally, the disparate fates of these chilled
and roasted rats remind us that the success of any
adaptation can be judged only with reference to specific circumstances. Underfed animals are brilliantly
adapted to the laboratory setting, which exempts
them from risks, responsibilities and reproduction
so that all available energy can be allocated to the
maintenance of basic physical functions. Any time
those conditions change, however, costbenefit
ratios must be recalculated. In some cases, the balance will continue to favour CRindeed, adversity
may reveal latent assets (such as resistance to heat
shock) not evident in more benign environments.
In other instances, however, the costs of restriction
will rise so precipitously that the package deal represents a poor bargain for the underfed organism. The
moment that a larger and stronger animal is introduced into its domain, CR status becomes a potentially lethal liability; if the wrong germ turns up in
the lab or feedings are briefly suspended, its
depleted state presents an immediate threat to
survival.
There is nothing sinister about studying food
deprivation under circumstances that show the
CRL effect to particular advantage. Indeed, the

favourable terms arranged in the laboratory are
essential to defining the outer limits of CRL and
identifying the mechanisms through which it operates. The problem arises when investigators forget
that they are assessing the value of a context-dependent phenomenon within a specific context. Advocates emphasize the remarkable robustness of the
CRL effectyet while the paradigm holds across
diverse species on a variety of regimens, it is consistently examined within a narrow range of environmental conditions. As researchers move towards
the implementation of human CRL, it is especially
surprising that they have made few attempts to
anticipate potential interactions between CR and
other independent variables associated with human
life at liberty.
The prospect of human restriction is often discussed as if the only new term that needs to be
checked out in a well-established equation is the
identity of the underfed species. On the basis of what
they have learned through decades of research, specialists are confident of obtaining comparable
results: since animals thrive on CR, people will too.
But what investigators actually know from decades
of study is more qualified than this broad statement
implies. When the omitted context of that research is
reinserted, the syllogism runs into trouble. A more
complete version would scan something like this:
since animals (housed separately in stable, protected
environments) thrive (physically) on (correct, sustained,
externally controlled) CR, people will too. If all of the
parenthetical conditions could be carried over to the
human case, we agree that similar results should be
expected (although we would choose a less expansive term than thrive to summarize them). Most
of the specified conditions will shift, however, along
with the species. Like lab animals, contemporary
humans are usually shielded from predation and
extreme cold; on other dimensions their circumstances are radically different. People do not live isolated in individual compartments, but in close
connection to partners, children, friends and coworkers. Their environments are diverse, fluctuating, demanding and occasionally dangerous. Freeliving humans cannot be furnished with (or limited
to) a lifetime supply of nutritionally sound rations,
but must make dozens of daily decisions about their
own intake; under the pressure of deprivation, they
are especially disposed to make poor ones.
Moreover, humans will insist on considering a
wider range of outcome variables relevant to gauging
the merits of the intervention. By focusing exclusively on physical consequences, specialists have
inflated the net profits of CR by keeping whole
291
classes of costs off the books. Although varying the
set of environmental conditions will not necessarily
lower the overall rating of CR, expanding the criteria
used to measure its success certainly will. Critical
thinking about the adaptive purpose of the CR syndrome supports that conclusion (as does the available evidence from both animals and humans). The
system of defensive responses to food shortage
evolved to serve survival, and furthers that objective
with remarkable vigour and efficiency. The system
was not designed to facilitate sociability, sexuality,
parenting, play or psychological well-being; in fact,
as discussed in the companion article, it appears to
do a comparably vigorous and efficient job of disrupting them (Vitousek, Manke, Gray, & Vitousek,
European Eating Disorders Review, in press). As soon
as CRL researchers concede the relevance of outcomes unrelated to physical health and survival,
the recognized price of restriction will soar.
TRANSLATING THE CRL SYLLOGISM TO

THE HUMAN CASE
The importance of attending to all the terms in the
CRL syllogism is suggested by two of the most apt
human examples currently available. Both provide
preliminary support that CRL would improve at
least some aspects of physical health in the human
case; both also warn that its costs may be prohibitive
when CR is attempted in the context of normal daily
life and measured by a broader range of outcome criteria. More specifically, both suggest that the experimental conditions set up to support CR in the
laboratory are not just useful means of studying the
regimen, but prerequisites for its sustained practice.
Biosphere 2
The first example comes from the Biosphere 2 project
(Allen, 1991; Alling & Nelson, 1993; Walford, Harris,
& Gunion, 1992; Walford et al., 1995). This quirky little quasi-experiment is often cited as the most
encouraging evidence to date that the CRL effect
would hold for humans; more mysteriously, it is also
construed as proof that the regimen is reasonable
and feasible for people to adopt. To the extent that
any conclusions can be drawn from the Biosphere
story, we would extract a different take-home message (Vitousek, Manke, Stumpf, & Gray, in preparation). Rather than demonstrating the feasibility of
human CRL, the Biosphere data foreshadow its futility. If we were invested in promoting the regimen,
we would be less inclined to put this poster project
for CRL on display than to roll it up and hide it in
the back of a closet.
292
The condensed version of the Biosphere story is
that between 1991 and 1993, eight scientists and
technicians spent 2 years on closely monitored CR
while enclosed in a glass-domed complex in the
Arizona desert. Unlike the conscientious objectors
recruited for the Minnesota Study (Keys et al.,
1950), the participants had not signed up to semistarve for science. They had enlisted as crew members for a highly publicized attempt at selfsustained living within a sealed environment. The
CR subplot came about through misadventure,
when crop yields proved insufficient to meet the
dietary requirements of both human and animal
residents. In lawful response to deprivation, the pigs
stopped making piglets, the chickens laid few eggs
and the goats produced less milk. Shortchanged by
all their intended food sources, the four men and
four women of Biosphere 2 rapidly lost weight.
Intakes averaged 18002200 kcal/day during the
first 6 months, easing to 20002400 kcal/day over
the remaining 18 months of enclosure (Silverstone
& Nelson, 1996); maximum weight loss approached
20% for males and 13% for females.
One of the crew members was Roy Walford,
already a prominent CRL researcher and long-term
CRL practitioner (Walford, 1983, 2000; Weindruch &
Walford, 1988). While an ordinary nutritionist
would have freaked out and insisted that food
be brought in (Walford, in Kahn, 1996, p. 48),
Walfords background prepared him to recognize
the opportunity within the ordeal. Here were eight
human subjects caught up in a CR protocol much
like those he routinely imposed on rodents back
home in his UCLA lab: confinement to a small space
on short rations of high quality and equal portion
size in the context of a shared, sheltered and virtually germ-free environment. In contrast to other
human samples, this committed little cohort was
unlikely to drop out of the study and unable to cheat
on their diet. Like people stranded on life rafts or ice
floes (e.g. Callahan, 1986; Greely, 1886), the enclosed
Biospherians could gratify their hunger only
through fantasy. Following the classic traditions of
the semi-starved, they did so with relishindulging in animated discussions of food, imagining
themselves in supermarkets and restaurants, compiling cookbooks, and making lists of all the delicacies they looked forward to eating in the future.
Some took to chewing on peanut shells, fennel stalks
and banana skins, and some to hoarding their
rations. There were also a few deplorable incidents
of banana-stealing, discouraged through the installation of locks on the community storeroom and
freezer (Alling & Nelson, 1993). For the duration of
the 2-year mission, however, the only real behavioural choices were to undereat or to abandon the
premise of self-sufficiency. With Walfords assurance that their health would be enhanced rather than
jeopardized through prolonged CR, all eight Biospherians stuck with semi-starvation.
As Walford predicted, many physiological indices
showed dramatic shifts in a desirable direction, paralleling short-term changes seen in lab animals on
CR. Blood pressure, cholesterol, fasting blood
glucose, insulin and white cell counts were all lowered from 18% to 42% (Verdery & Walford, 1998;
Walford, 2000; Walford et al., 1992, 1995); body temperature also decreased, but could not be measured
with precision because the available thermometers
were not calibrated for values below 96 F (Walford,
Mock, McCallum, & Laseter, 1999). The duration of
internment was too brief (by some 25100 years) to
ascertain whether crew members would age more
slowly or reach a lifespan of 130, but the immediate
results seemed to presage such possibilities.
Unfortunately, the moment team members were
released from the portion-controlled confines of
their complex, they got right down to the business
of undoing CRL. Although most had found the regimen arduous during their stint under glass,4 at least
some had planned to continue moderate restriction
after the project ended, in hopes of preserving their
positive lab values (Alling & Nelson, 1993; Silverstone, 1993). Yet despite 2 years of direct experience
with successful CR (and, presumably, 2 years of
earnest advocacy from their expert-in-residence),
the Biospherians food preoccupation predicted
their subsequent behaviour more accurately than
did their intent. Once back in the world within
which all other humans must implement the CR
regimen, seven of the eight promptly relapsed into
AL eatingand eight of the eight rapidly gained
4
Consistent with the positive spin placed on every aspect of
life on CR, Walford repeatedly maintains that the Biospherians were not overly hungry and did not feel undue
hunger while on their restricted regimen (Walford &
Walford, 1994, pp. 20, 24, 29). All the accounts we have
located from Walfords fellow team members contradict his
characterization of their experience. For example, Silverstone
(1993) indicated that hunger was an almost constant
companion, Nelson (in Erickson, 1993) that hunger was a
nearly constant, nagging presence, Alling and Nelson (1993)
that hunger [was] . . . always there to struggle against and
Leigh (Associated Press, 1996) that [it] made us all a little
cranky, always being hungry. The classic semi-starvation
phenomena that emerged in Biosphere 2including food
fantasizing, maximizing, hoarding, stealing, massing, substitution habits and mistrust of others over the distribution of
rationsare also inconsistent with the claim that participants
were not overly hungry.

weight. The only participant who stayed loyal to CR
was, of course, Walford himselfyet he too put on
considerable poundage, despite a reported caloric
intake (1600 kcal/day) substantially lower than his
documented consumption (18002400 kcal/day)
during confinement.
Six months after leaving the Biosphere, most of the
positive physiological changes produced by semistarvation had disappeared without a trace (Verdery
& Walford, 1998; Walford et al., 1999). One adaptive
response proved more durable: the depression of
metabolic rate (Weyer et al., 2000). Twenty months
after the doors were unsealed, the group weighed
in at 105% of baseline levels (Walford et al., 1999).
Walford concluded that unsustained CR is a bad
idea, since fat-stored toxins are released during periods of weight loss, while body fat levels rise and
temporary benefits reverse when weight is regained
(Walford, 2000; Walford et al., 1999). Therefore, he
advised, substantial CR is advantageous only if people keep it up in perpetuity. As Walfords own pilot
data memorably illustrate, people wont.
The Biosphere 2 project provided a rare opportunity to demonstrate that humans respond like mice
and monkeys when placed on correct CR in a constricted, controlled environment. Ironically, the data
also suggest that the benefits may not be available on
any other terms. All participants seemed to find the
costs of CR unacceptably high when transferred to
the context of their natural environmentswith
the (partial) exception of the one Biospherian who
had already organized his personal and professional
identity around the virtues of undereating.
Anorexia Nervosa
The second example comes from our own specialty
area: the observation of patients with chronic, relatively stable AN. If rodents and primates allocated
to a CR condition are the most fortunate of laboratory animals, these individuals hold the winning
ticket in the human species. Through their own
initiativealbeit for different reasonsthey have
found their way to a dietary regimen that should
be associated with unprecedented health, vigour
and longevity.
In some senses, individuals with longstanding AN
make even better exemplars of human CRL than the
tiny sample of enclosed Biospherians. Their existence affirms that at least a few people can practise
radical restriction at liberty; their persistence means
that we can trace its effects over much longer periods
than the token 2-year stint in Biosphere 2. Of course,
only a fraction of AN patients will meet criteria for
293
correct CR over time, and their compliance cannot
be verified with precision. Experts stress, however,
that the critical element in the CRL paradigm is
simply prolonged caloric deficit in the absence of
malnutrition. Some AN patients clearly fulfill those
specifications. So what can this subgroup of individuals tell us about serious, sustained CR outside the
context of the laboratory?
One ready conclusion is that CR does indeed
work for human beings, at least in the same limited
sense affirmed by the Biosphere data. CRL advocates were excited (if not surprised) when food
restriction was shown to lower the blood pressure,
body temperature, glucose levels and white cell
counts of the eight Biospherians. Precisely the same
results can be read off the medical charts of thousands of AN patients. (Moreover, such benefits are
discernible not only in the model cases who adopt
nutritionally sound CR, but the considerably larger
percentage of patients who practise unsanctioned
forms of restrictionalthough the animal research
predicts that only the former will enjoy the full array
of long-term benefits.) Two recent datasets also offer
tantalizing hints about the potential protective
power of prolonged CR. In one records-based study
of patients with possible, probable or definite AN
seen up to 63 years earlier, the total sample appeared
at heightened risk of death from psychiatric causes,
including suicide and alcoholism; however, allcause mortality was not elevated and there was a
decreased risk of death from cardiovascular disease
(Korndorfer et al., 2003; see discussions in Palmer,
2003, and Sullivan, 2003). Because of diagnostic
uncertainties and lack of information about diet
and duration, these findings are no more than suggestive. But through the noise of methodological
limitations, the signal that CRL researchers would
most like to discern emits a faint hum. Whatever
damage AN may reflect and/or inflict in other areas
of patients lives, it could be working wonders in
their circulatory systemsjust as imposed CR
improves the cardiovascular health of underfed
rodents and monkeys. Another retrospective study
of 7303 women previously hospitalized for AN
found a 53% lower incidence of breast cancer over
the follow-up interval (Michels & Ekbom, 2004)
ironically, almost precisely matching the risk reduction for mammary tumours in energy-restricted
mice (Dirx, Zeegers, Dagnelie, van den Bogaard, &
van den Brandt, 2003).
On the other hand, data from the ED field suggest
that CR virtually never works, in the sense that it is
rarely sustained over time and generally done quite
badlyeven by individuals who are fiercely
294
committed to keeping it running and doing it right.
Dieters regain, restrained eaters limit their intake in
theory more than practice, and a majority of restricting anorexics slide inexorably towards bulimia.
Quite commonly, AN patients find themselves
unable to continue hard-core restraint without ever
having made an affirmative decision to let it go.
After yearssometimes even decadesof grimly
successful CR, they can no longer summon the
strength required for the constant battle with their
own biology.
We can also learn more about the significance of
the silent terms in the CRL syllogism by analysing
how some AN patients manage to restrict as
valiantly and persistently as they do. At the start of
their disorder, the external circumstances of anorexics-in-the-making show little resemblance to those
of lab rats or Biospherians. By the time AN is well
established, however, most have recreated a
strikingly similar environment. In effect, anorexic
individuals construct their own virtual cages and
move in for the duration of their illness. Each finds
her way, individually but lawfully, to the same set
of conditions that researchers create for animals on
CR: isolation from others; protected, predictable
and constricted surroundings; minimal demands
or expectations; fixed and monotonous rations; elimination of activities and goals incompatible with the
maintenance of CR. It seems probable that those are
the only circumstances under which severe restriction can be practised or endured. For psychological
reasons, individuals with AN may be willing to pay
the astronomical costs of chronic deprivation that
less troubled people reject as unacceptable. Advocates of CRL are urging the general public to reconsider, in view of the objective benefits to be gained
from an anorexic lifestyle. From our perspective, it
is fortunate that their efforts will seldom succeed
(Vitousek & Gray, 2002).
Recently, experts have begun to acknowledge that
CRL may not gain widespread acceptance (e.g.
Mattson et al., 2003; Pinel et al., 2000; Roth et al.,
2001)but they have yet to come to terms with
why that is so. Many seem to view the human reluctance to semi-starve as a blend of ignorance, shortsightedness, weakness and hedonism. Whatever
the merits of these models in explaining the steep
rise in obesity rates, they do not provide an adequate
account for the rejection of radical CR and subnormal weight. To understand why Biospherians and
lab animals refeed the moment they are reprieved
from restrictionor why anorexics must retreat
from the world in order to pursue itwe need to
look to the CR syndrome itself. In addition to the
conservative biological changes that foster health

and longevity, the network of defensive reactions
to CR includes profound, predictable shifts in behaviour, cognition and affect. These neglected elements of the syndrome clarify why it can be
examined only in captive animals, enclosed Biospherians and self-imprisoned individuals with
ANand are the subject of the second paper in this
series (Vitousek, Manke, Gray, & Vitousek, European
Eating Disorders Review, in press).
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European Eating Disorders Review

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

OVERVIEW OF THE CRL PARADIGM

data on longevity may not be available for several

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

CRL PROTOCOLS IN ANIMAL

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

(Dhahbi, Kim, Mote, Beaver, & Spindler, 2004; Mair,

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

OTHER BENEFICIAL CHANGES ON CRL

IMPLICATIONS FOR OUR VIEW OF AN

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Following the evidence of CRL research, we might

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

WHERE ARE THE COSTS?

When immersed in the CRL literature, it is easy to

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

ADVERSE PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF CRL

experts concluded that if people could secure extra

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Resistance to Injury and Infection

about how their immune systems would respond

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

PUTTING THE CONSEQUENCES IN

protocols for animal research are well suited to the

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

TRANSLATING THE CRL SYLLOGISM TO

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

conservative biological changes that foster health

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

year of study. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences,

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

systematic neglect of behavioral and psychological

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

Caloric Restriction for Longevity: I

Eur. Eat. Disorders Rev. 12, 279299 (2004)

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