Introduction to Modern

Astronomy
Quasars and Active Galactic Nuclei
Dr Adrian Jannetta FRAS

Introduction to Modern Astronomy

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Dr Adrian Jannetta FRAS

O BJECTIVES

This presentation will cover the following:

The state of cosmology and radio astronomy in the 1950s
The discovery of quasars
Redshift, brightness variations and synchrotron radiation
Active galactic nuclei and supermassive blackholes
Unification models
What quasars tell us about the universe

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C OSMOLOGY IN THE 1950 S

Big Bang The universe is expanding
and has a finite age. Evidence
in favour are the redshifts of
galaxies (caused by the
expansion of space). The
cosmological principle
underlies Big Bang
cosmology; the universe is
assumed to be isotropic and
homogenous. There is some
evidence at the time to
support this.

There are two competing theories in

cosmology in the 1950s.

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Steady State The universe did not have a

beginning. As galaxies in the
universe separate new mass is
created in the space between
them. The perfect
cosmological principle
underlies Steady State
cosmology; the universe is
assumed to be isotropic and
homogenous at all times.
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R ECAP : R EDSHIFT
The spectra of distant objects can be
analysed to determine their redshift (or
blueshift). The amount of shift can be used
to determine the velocity of the object
relative to Earth.
For nearby objects (e.g. in the Milky Way) a
Doppler redshift might be observed.
Caused by the relative motion of the object
with respect to Earth.
For distant objects (e.g. galaxies) a
cosmological redshift occurs because the
expansion of space increases the
wavelength of travelling photons. A
cosmological redshift can be used to
estimate the distance to the object via
Hubbles law.

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O PACITY OF THE SKY

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T HE BEGINNING OF RADIO ASTRONOMY

Radio emissions from the Milky Way
discovered accidentally by Karl Jansky (early
1930s).
Grote Reber constructed a 9m parabolic radio
dish and conducted a survey of the sky in
1937.
J.S. Hey discovered radio emissions from the
Sun in 1942. He, along with S.J. Parsons and
J.W. Phillips detected fluctuations in the
intensity of radio waves from discrete sources
from the constellation Cygnus in 1946. There
seemed to be no optical counterpart.
Development of radio astronomy research and
techniques at Cambridge University by radar
experts after WWII.

"One-Mile Telescope" by Rror

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Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish founded the

Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory in
1957.

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R ADIO G ALAXIES

Left: image of the radio source Centaurus A (NRAO). Note the bipolar lobes and at the end of two jets. Centaurus A was associated with an
optical counterpart in 1949: the galaxy NGC 5128 (ESO image on right). Astronomers thought the radio emission might be due to collisions
of two galaxies. The intensity of the radio emission suggested the explanation could not be so simple. Gas collisions? Supernova chain
reactions? Antimatter galaxies?

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R ADIO SURVEYS OF THE SKY

The Mullard Radio Astronomy Group produced several catalogues of
celestial radio sources using an interferometer. The celebrated 3rd
Catalogue (published in 1959) contained hundreds of bright radio
objects.

The picture shows a radio map of one source (3C 405) which is also
known as Cygnus A.
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Q UASI - STELLAR RADIO SOURCES

Accurate positions of the radio sources were
obtained for some using lunar occultations.
Optical telescopes eventually managed to
pin down star-like objects for some of the 3C
radio sources. The first were 3C 48 and 3C
273.
Maarten Schmidt obtained a spectrum of 3C
273 and found it had a high redshift. Optical
images showed a faint jet of material.
Initially called Quasi Stellar Objects (or
QSOs). Hong-Yee Chui proposed the name
quasar in 1963. By 1970 most astronomers
were using the term.
3C 273 and its spectrum.
NOAO/AURA/NSF

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Many quasars exhibited variations in

brightness over short timescales (days or
weeks).

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R ADIO STARS OR E XTRA GALACTIC OBJECTS ?

Astronomers wondered how to interpret the large redshifts and
strong radio luminosity of quasars and the star-like objects at the
same locations. Two scenarios were debated.
Quasars are radio stars?
Unusual stars in the Milky Way?
No preferred direction in the sky; so must be nearby (a few
hundred light-years).
Moving away from Earth with high velocity?
Or intense gravitational redshift giving the illusion of high
velocity?

Quasars are extremely distant, luminous objects?

Cosmological redshift caused by expansion of space?
Must be much smaller than galaxies (brightness variations)...but
much more luminous.

The simplest interpretation of data favours big distances and

huge luminosity.
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H OST GALAXIES ?

HST views of 3C 273. With the bright central regions obscured it is easier to see the quasar is embedded in a fuzzy background.

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S EYFERT G ALAXIES
Seyfert described the characteristics
of this galaxy class in 1943, although
they were first noted by Vesto Slipher
in 1908.
Seen through optical telescopes they
tend to have bright stellar-like nuclei.
M77 was one of the first to be noticed
and is one of the brightest in the sky.

"Messier 77 " HST image by NASA,

ESA

This is a class of galaxy with bright

emission lines in its spectrum. Carl

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The nuclei undergo variations in

luminosity over short timescales
(hours years). Therefore activity
must be confined to a tiny region in
the nucleus.
Modern view: there are two types of
Seyfert galaxies distiguished by
absorption lines in the spectrum.

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NGC 7742. A type 2 Seyfert galaxy. Credit:

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B RIGHTNESS VARIATIONS AND SIZE

All of the objects considered so far show rapid changes in brightness. We can infer
from this that the objects are small.
Maximum size = (Speed of light) (light fluctuation time interval)

Brightness, m

In this picture, the light from side

A reaches us before the light from
side B. Even if the whole object
brightened simultaneously there
would still be a delay because of
light travel time.

B
B

Time, t

Brightness, m

The engine of a quasar occupies a

tiny volume at the centre of a
galaxy.

B
A

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Quasars that vary their light over

a period of a day are about the size
of the solar system (thousands of
times smaller than the Milky
Way).

Time, t

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S YNCHROTRON RADIATION
When charged particles are accelerated electromagnetic radiation is released.
Synchrotron radiation is the name given to the radiation which occurs when charged
particles (usually electrons) are accelerated in a curved path.

E le

o
c tr

ath
np

Magnetic
field line

Photon

The electrons emit photons and lose energy doing so. To an observer in a given
direction the photons are polarised.
For many astronomical objects the acceleration is caused by magnetic fields and the
particles are usually fast moving electrons.
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T HERMAL VS N ONTHERMAL SPECTRA

Stars exhibit a spectrum close to a so-called blackbody spectrum. The shape is
determined by the peak temperature (thermal spectrum).
I

Intensity

Nonthermal spectrum (e.g. quasar)

Thermal (blackbody) spectrum (e.g. star)

nm
250

500

750

1000

1250

1500

1750

2000

2250

Wavelength

Objects like quasars produce energy differently. The spectrum of synchrotron radiation
is markedly different (nonthermal spectrum).
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IRAS AND INFRARED GALAXIES

Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS)
launched in 1983 and operated for 10
months.
NASA/Netherlands/UK mission
IRAS produced a catalogue of pointlike
sources.
Most were low temperatures stars and
gas clouds in the Milky Way.
Lots of extragalactic sources!
Astronomers searched for optical
counterparts and found many previously
unrecorded galaxies.
IRAS in orbit.

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U LTRA - LUMINOUS I NFRARED G ALAXIES (ULIRG S )

Redshifts of some of the IRAS galaxies were showed them to be extremely distant and luminous (>
100 times the Milky Way). These are recent optical images of ULIRGs taken by HST. ULIRGs are
often part of interacting systems of galaxies.
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B LAZARS
Blazars have several subtypes; most
notably BL Lacertae objects. They share
the following characteristics:
Rapid variability (10%-50% each
day) implies small size (like
quasars).
Weak or no emission lines (Strange!
Synchrotron radiation should ionise
gas in the nucleus and make these).
Strong nonthermal radiation
Rapidly varying polarisation
BL Lacertae object at the centre of an elliptical galaxy (upper right).

Stellar appearance

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T HE BLACKHOLE PARADIGM
Optical observations of quasars revealed a
fuzzy appearance; quasars are tiny but
highly energetic objects at the centres of
galaxies.
Theorists searched for a possible engine for
the luminosity; supermassive blackholes
surrounded by an accretion disk became the
leading model (1964).
Blackholes are predicted by Einsteins theory
of gravity (general relativity).
Astronomers found several stellar mass
blackhole candidates in the Milky Way (e.g.
Cygnus X1)

HST views of quasars; one with a host galaxy

and one without

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The blackhole supplying the energy from a

quasar or Seyfert had to be much bigger
(hundreds of millions of solar masses).

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A CTIVE G ALACTIC N UCLEI

ULIRGs, Seyferts, blazars and quasars are all energetic phenomena associated with the
centres of galaxies. They collectively known as Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN).
AGN are thought to consist of supermassive blackhole surrounded by accretion disk of
material (from stars, gas clouds, etc). The accretion disk may be shrouded by a dusty,
opaque torus of dust.
In radio loud AGN there are significant jets and radio lobes extending for thousands of
light-years away from the central region. In radio quiet AGN these features are
missing or have no significant luminosity.
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S UPERMASSIVE B LACKHOLE

Realistic depiction of a supermassive blackhole from the movie Interstellar (2014). All of the light shown here comes from the horizontal
accretion disc. Gravity bends light from the back of the black hole to form the apparent vertical ring. Credit: Oliver James, Eugnie von
Tunzelmann, Paul Franklin and Kip S Thorne.

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Relativistic jet in giant elliptical galaxy M 87. The jet is aimed towards us and is around 5000
light-years long. Synchrotron radiation gives the jet a bluish colour. Relativistic effects make this jet
much brighter than the jet pointed in the opposite direction.
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S UPERLUMINAL MOTION
In 1966 Martin Rees predicted
that jets of material moving at
close to the speed of light in a
certain directions would
appear to have transverse
velocities greater than
light-speed.
Observations of many AGN
jets have confirmed this
phenomenon.
It is an optical illusion; when
special relativity is taken into
account there is no
superluminal motion.
Apparant faster-than-light motion in the M 87 jet.
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U NIFYING MODELS FOR AGN

Unification of radio-loud AGN. Viewing angle of the observer determines whether the AGN is a blazar, quasar or Seyfert.

Unified models propose that different classes of AGN are a single type of physical
object observed under different conditions.
Astronomers unify for radio loud (with jets and lobes) and radio quiet objects
(without).
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T HE Q UASAR E POCH
Looking at objects across the universe gives us snapshots of how
the universe looked earlier in its history.
There are few quasars close to us (recent past) and few at very
high distances (early universe).
Most quasars are found at a distance corresponding to a time
when the universe was 25% of its current age.
Much of this was known by the early1960s and it was substantial
evidence against the Steady State theory. The only other game in
town was Big Bang theory; more supporting evidence came from the
discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965.
ULIRGs represent forming quasars; starbursting cores and lots of
dust. Supermassive blackholes still forming. Energetic processes
(supernovae shocks) clear the dust and reveal a quasar or the
centre of a radio-quiet Seyfert. Still a very uncertain model.
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R ECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Galaxies with with associated clouds of ionised oxygen. These galaxies were home to an AGN
whose energy ionised clouds of oxygen outside the disk. Although the AGN is now in quiet phase
the oxygen clouds continue to glow. They are called quasar ionisation echoes. The first object of this
type to be found was by Galaxy Zoo member Hanny van Arkel in 2007.
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C OULD THE M ILKY WAY BECOME A QUASAR ?

The Milky Way probably has a
supermassive blackhole. The centre of
our galaxy is not considered to be an
active galactic nuclei although it may
have been in the past.
Stars and gas clouds have been observed
passing close to the blackhole but none
have been seen to fall in
It would take a huge pileup of stars and
gas to make an accretion disk energetic
enough to be considered a quasar. Those
conditions dont exist in our galaxy. They
are rare for any galaxy perhaps
happening just once in the life of a typical
galaxy.
If it did happen we are far enough from the centre, which is hidden by clouds of
dust, for there to be no noticeable effects.

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O BSERVING AGN

Many bright Seyfert galaxies are visible with small telescopes (e.g. M87, M77 and more). But only a few quasars are within the light grasp
of amateur telescopes. The nearest and brightest is 3C 273 in the constellation Virgo. It shines like a 13th magnitude star. 3C 273 is 2.4
billion light-years from us. This image was captured using an 8-inch Meade LX10 telescope. A bright asteroid was in the same field of view
at the time.
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F URTHER READING
K ELLERMANN , K. I. 2013.
The discovery of quasars and its aftermath.
Apr.
L IDDLE , A NDREW. 2013.
An introduction to modern cosmology.
John Wiley & Sons.
S HIELDS , G REGORY A. 1999.
A brief history of active galactic nuclei.
Publications of the astronomical society of the pacific, 111(760), 661678.
S ULLIVAN , WT. 2005.
The early years of radio astronomy.
The early years of radio astronomy, by wt sullivan, pp.. isbn 0521616026. cambridge, uk: Cambridge university press, 2005., 1.
WALLER , W ILLIAM H OWARD , & H ODGE , PAUL W. 2003.
Galaxies and the cosmic frontier.
Harvard University Press.
Z EILIK , M ICHAEL. 2002.
Astronomy: the evolving universe.
Cambridge University Press.
Z EILIK , M ICHAEL , G REGORY, S TEPHEN A, & VAN PANHUYS S MITH , E LSKE. 1998.
Introductory astronomy and astrophysics.
Vol. 322.
Saunders College Publishing Fort Worth, TX.

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