WATER SUPPLY IN MAURITIUS

WATER CRISIS! WHAT WATER CRISIS?

Raj.H.Prayag et al.
INTRODUCTION
During the recent years at the end of the winter period, authorities responsible for the
supply of water resort to water rationing in order to cater for potential water shortage and
drastic water cuts.
The question is: how come water shortage is experienced in a country where there is an
average annual rainfall of over 2000 mm. In principle the water that falls over Mauritius
should be more than adequate for the demand.
It is a fact that the authority responsible for water management is competent, the
engineers have the required experience. Furthermore, the authorities had commissioned
various master plans, some done in the eighties, under the French cooperation program
and other master plans were prepared in 2007 and in 2012 and consequently, have all the
required engineering solutions for the sustainable management of the water resources in
Mauritius.
The paper also touches upon the authorities of the Ministry responsible for water supply
that is, the Water Resources Unit and the CWA. It seems that there is a lack in clarity
with regard to the various responsibilities. Which authority is responsible for the
catchment areas, which is a key component for the harnessing of rainfall for replenishing
of reservoirs and aquifers?
The CWA Act of 1971 at part II section 4 defines clearly the responsibility of CWA i.e.
The Authority shall be responsible for the control, development and conservation of
water resources. It could not be any clearer that CWA is responsible for protection,
harnessing, storage, treatment and distribution of water in the Republic of Mauritius.
At Part IV of the CWA Act, the duties of CWA are further explicitly defined which
covers a wide range of activities from investigating water resources; to preparing plans
for conservation, utilisation and control and development of water resources, to preparing
plans for the development of water basins and trans river basins, coordinate and
investigate on the economic use of water.
At section 21 of Part IV, of the Act, CWA should construct dams, reservoirs, drainage
canals. It even has the responsibility to stock reservoirs and water courses with fish!
What is the role and responsibility of the Water Resources Unit? When was it
created? What are its legal responsibilities?
Is there a clear legal demarcation of responsibilities between CWA and the WRU?
If so, under which ACT?

The Rivers and Canal gives responsibilities to the Ministry responsible for local
authorities, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry responsible for Forestry and the Ministry
of Environment. The responsibilities are dispersed and the absence of a lead authority is
clearly felt.
This paper looks at the water demand trend over the years against the water captured and
distributed and analyses the disparity between the two.
The paper takes the form of questions and answers and it tries to provide as much
information as possible.
What are the Mauritius National Policies for harnessing of water, its management
and distribution?
The National Water Policy has been elaborated and approved in July 2014. (To be
confirmed at level MEPU) In the most recent revision dated 2010, the guiding principles
are:

Water shall be considered as an economic good, which supports national

economic integration and development and shall be conserved, developed and
managed to provide economic benefits. As such, water should be used efficiently,
with pricing policy and other mechanisms to encourage water allocation to higher
value uses in order to maximise its net economic and social benefits.
Water shall be considered as a social good that is essential to human dignity and
social well-being. There should be explicit recognition that the poor should have
access to water at an affordable price.
Water allocation between sectors and users shall consider, among other things, the
economic benefits balanced with social obligation and environment requirements.
Due regard should be given to social development and food security.
Government will promote measures to increase water use efficiency in
agriculture.
To ensure that provision of sanitation services is integrated into the provision of
water supply for basic human needs
Measures should be put in place to ensure that water is used in a sustainable
manner, which also includes allocations set aside for environment maintenance
purposes to safeguard the future existence of aquatic ecosystems.
All new water mobilization infrastructure needs to be designed/phased with a
view to be able to adapt to the impact of climate change on the availability of the
islands water resources.

The Objectives include 100% potable water coverage by 2020 and 75 % urban sewerage
coverage by 2040. The water policy emphasizes that to solve the emerging problems in
relation to the water resources, the supply side as well as the demand side will have to be
managed more carefully than at present.

(b) In view of the huge change in the agricultural sector in terms of reduction in
areas in cane plantation, etc, is there more water available for distribution for other
uses?
It is estimated that not much water will be available, as the development of agricultural
land are mostly where there is no irrigation. (This goes against all logic !!!) Also water
for existing irrigation system is already not sufficient.
Use of treated wastewater for non-potable purposes
As part of the solution for adequate water supply in Mauritius, the use of wastewater
should be considered. In countries such as Namibia, treated wastewater is supplied
directly from the plant to the consumer taps, while in Singapore it is mixed with potable
water before reaching consumers as Nu-Water. At this stage, we propose the use of
wastewater as a substitute for non-potable use, such as for irrigation and industrial
purposes, so that the problem of social acceptability does not arise.
The state of the art WWTP at St. Martin, funded by the EU and operational since 2005,
treats wastewater received under gravity from the Plaines Wilhems area through the trunk
main sewer network, and supplies the tertiary treated water for irrigation purposes. It has
a design capacity of 69,000 m3 per day and an average of 40,000 m3 is being treated
daily. The treated water, which undergoes sand filtering as well as UV disinfection, meets
all the specifications of the EU Directive for irrigation purposes. Unfortunately, most of
the treated water has been diverted to the sea for a long time.
The treated wastewater has been initially used only in limited amounts - such as mixing,
in equal proportions, with the water from La Ferme and Magenta Canals over limited
periods to overcome the hesitancy of farmers on the western coast.
The Montagne Jacquot WWTP, funded by the Japanese and located a few kilometres
away from St Martin, has a capacity of 30,000 m3 d-1 and provides primary treatment
with chlorine disinfection for the effluent. There is a definite potential, for feasible
investment and sustainability, to upgrade this plant for tertiary treatment.
Hence, a potential of 70,000m3 per day is available, representing probably 20% of treated
water daily output of the CWA plants actually reaching the consumers, for non-potable
use. The water that can thus be saved from La Ferme reservoir can be made available for
potable use, after installation of a treatment plant.
In addition, hotels especially the coastal ones - should be encouraged to make use more
effectively of their wastewater, for their own secondary use. The case for natural
wastewater treatment plants e.g. constructed wetlands, with good quality treated effluents
is proven today, and should be considered for sustainability reasons. Small, natural
wastewater treatment plants can be set up on a decentralised basis they are less capital
intensive, with low land footprints, low energy and no chemicals consumption. And the
treated water is available for re-use immediately.

(WRU should be able to clarify for us on this point)

(c ) Should Mauritius not be revisiting the issue of Water Rights?
In the context of rationalization of water rights, an exercise was launched in 2013 to
consolidate data on water rights holders. Very few holders of water rights have come
forward.
(WRU is in a better position to clarify)
(d) How much more water can be made available from the Land Owners holding
Water Rights?
1 Million cubic metre / day (guess) (apparently not much?) However, this is twice
the volume of water being produced by CWA daily. (WRU is in a better position to
clarify)
(e) What has been the long term rainfall trend in Mauritius for the last 50 years and
what has been the demand trend over the same period?
An 8% reduction in rainfall has been noted from 1905 to 2007.
The following table depicts the variations in long term rainfall pattern over Mauritius
Period

Mean(mm)

1904-1930
1931-1960
1961-1990
1991-2010
Long Term
mean

2,090
2,260
2,100
2,000
2,120

Variance
longmean
-1.4%
+6.6%
-0.9%
-5.7%

from Period
term

Mean(mm)

1904-1960

2,180

Variance from
long
term
mean
+2.8%

1961-2010

2,060

-2.8%

2,120

On the other hand, the demand (potable water) has been rising by an average of 2 %
annually.
(f) What is the projected rainfall for next 50 years and what is the related water
demand?
Projected rainfall next 50 years: At the southern Indian Ocean level, the following
preliminary projection has been made based on IPCC model simulations: decreasing
trend of 8% in annual rainfall.

The starting point for the demand forecast is a deficiency of around 66 Mm 3 in the
capacity to mobilize enough raw water. Water demand projections indicate an
incremental increase in the water requirements for the whole island of about 124 Mm3
during the period up to 2050.
Hence, the total water mobilization requirement by the end of the planning horizon is 190
M m3 (refer to Master Plan for Development of the Water Resources in Mauritius by
NIRAS/Mega Design)
(g) What are the major constraints in harnessing rainfall for replenishing surface
reservoirs and recharging aquifers?

Further decrease in annual rainfall leading to reduction in freshwater availability

Decrease in groundwater recharge and decline in groundwater level resulting in
reduction of borehole yields, also accentuated by sea water intrusion in coastal
aquifers due to sea level rise (impact of climate change).
Increase in the rate of evaporation and evapo-transpiration specifically during the
dry season
Decreasing base flow in streams and rivers
Urbanisation within the catchment of aquifer recharge

Therefore the question is WHY?

h) Are our watersheds protected and managed? If not? Why not? What are the
constraints?
There is no legal framework in place for preservation of our watersheds. No clear
demarcation of responsibilities between the different stakeholders. However, reading
the CWA Act 1971 part II section 4, it is the CWA.
What are the proposals for developing a policy / watershed management plan?
(i) What is the national strategy for water harnessing and management?
(WRU Strategic Plan) what is the strategic plan?
(j) Master Plans prepared since 1990s?

Master Plan Study on Water Resources of Mauritius-French Cooperation (1991)

Master Plan for Development of a Sustainable Potable Water Supply in

Mauritius-GIBBs (2007)

Master Plan for Development of the Water Resources in Mauritius NIRAS/Mega

Design) 2012

(k) Why have not these Master Plans been implemented?

No directive from Government towards implementation of the Action Plan

The Master Plans have all been implemented to certain extents, on a piece meal
basis. Given funding constraints and lack of in-house capacity, the projects have
been prioritised and most important ones implemented first.

It is, however, to be acknowledged that like most government agencies, the CWA
is engaged in fire fighting most of the time and considerable funds and energy are
diverted to these activities.

(l) Look at the constraints in their implementation. Is it due to financial constraints?

Or due to lack of appreciation in the urgency to plan and implement in view of
impending huge variability in weather to come.
Funding has been a major constraint. Another explanation is lack of government
commitment towards implementation of the plan.
(m) What are the priorities in the Water Sector?

The upcoming Water Sector Reforms involving integration of CWA, WMA and
Irrigation Authority into a single Water Authority, in line with the concept of
Integrated Water Resources Management has been in the pipeline for a long time.
This merger will allow a more holistic approach to be adopted in addressing water
sector issues and will bring more synergy to the sector. The legislation is being
worked upon. In conjunction, the Water Resources Bill will also be passed.
Tackling the problem of NON REVENUE WATER (NRW), which is a major
source of concern as it results in losses of a precious resource, which is translated
into monetary losses for CWA? A reduction of NRW project is underway in
MAV (Upper) Zone, with technical input from a team of Singaporean experts. It
is proposed to extend this project to the remaining water supply systems, using a
phased approach. (much delay has already occurred)
Water balance between water produced and entering the system against
water sold? Has this ever being undertaken by the CWA? If so, what is the
finding? This is available. 50% NRW

Aiming for water security up to 2040. Population growth coupled with a booming
tourism industry, irrigation requirements as well as industrial and commercial
growth will put additional pressure on existing water supply network and hence,
projects aimed at harnessing and treating additional water resources are high on
the agenda to be able to respond to future anticipated growth in water demand.

Building resilience to the effects of climatic change viz coping with prolonged
drought conditions. This is being done by implementing projects such as interbasin transfers, drilling of new boreholes, construction of new dams and service
reservoirs, new treatment plants, replacement of strategic old and inefficient
pipelines, etc. Tapping of river sources and installation of mobile filtration plants
are also being resorted to.
A host of demand management measures comprising save water campaigns,
promotion of water reuse, rainwater harvesting concepts, etc are also being
taken. A change in mindset of people by instilling water saving culture is
targeted.

A reform of the Water Rights system is urgently called for. At present, it is

estimated that there are some 500 holders of water rights based on a system of
ownership that dates far back to colonial times. There is need for rationalizing this
system as it is recognized that water is public property and cannot be privately
owned. A modern system of large scale water allocation not based on human
rights and land title but rather as a mechanism to permit the use of a public
property and manage water in the environmental, public and economic interests of
the nation as a whole, while fully encouraging, enabling and protecting private
commercial investment and productivity.

(n) What are the national plans, if any for this sector, with regards to Climate
Change?
At national level, a National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework has been
prepared by the M/Environment. The policy framework explicitly recognizes that
water supply by 2030 may not be sufficient to satisfy projected demand. The main
objective of the document is to integrate and mainstream climate change adaptation
into core development policies/strategies and plans of the Republic of Mauritius.
Sectoral Strategy and Action Plan
Strategies
Fully develop the potential
integrated water management

Aggressively
efficiency

increase

water

Action List
1. Develop hydrological models
of
2. Identify strategies that can
improve the co-ordination of local
groundwater storage with local
surface storage and other options
3. Promote the use of wastewater for
agricultural needs
1. implement strategies to achieve a
use
nation-wide 20% reduction in per
capita water use by 2020
2. Apply all feasible efficient water

Expand water storage and conjunctive

management
of
surface
and
groundwater resources

Preserve, upgrade
monitoring, data
management

and increase
analysis and

management practices to reduce

water and improve the quality of
drainage and return flows
3. Recycle water as drought proof
water management strategy that
may also be an energy efficient
option in some regions
4. Authorise and fund new incentive
based program to promote the
mainstream adoption of water
conservation
5. Reduce NRW to 25%
1. Increase surface water storage
capacity thru the construction of
2 new dams and increase in
storage capacity of existing ones
2. Expand the rainwater harvesting
3. Desalination to be considered as a
means of increasing freshwater
availability (This should be as a
last resort because of negative
environmental impacts and high
energy cost. Furthermore, it
goes against MID principle)
4. Encourage the adoption of local
ordinances that protect the natural
functioning
of
groundwater
recharge areas
1. Improve the measurement of water use
to facilitate better water planning and
management

(o) Is there any study/research undertaken to predict impact of climate change

of the water resources of Mauritius? Should not there be one?
The Climate Change Unit under aegis of Ministry of Environment and SD is active in
researching and publishing results as part of international collaboration under the
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (You may browse the website
or contact the Ministry for up-to date precise reports and results)
Furthermore, the Mauritius Meteorological Services has over the past few years
increased its ability to systematically monitor climate change parameters and has
brought to light various trends of importance in assessing future impacts on water
resource availability. (Meteorological services in better position to provide info)

(p) Should we not urgently plan for adaptation with regard to Climate Change?
See (n) above
Regular meetings are chaired by the Minister during dry season to monitor the water
supply situation and urgent actions are taken to palliate the water deficiencies. A list
of longer term measures are also agreed upon and projects that aim at building
resilience to climate change are implemented. Government in the past provided
funding for these projects (part loan/part grant to whom and what projects?
What were the feedbacks and benefits?)

(q) Policies on water harvesting at household level

Governments decision on above is required. Necessary incentive scheme needs to be
devised along the lines of the Water Tank Grant scheme. On its part, the MID
Commission, which is coming up with the Green Economy Action Plan, is proposing to
facilitate the implementation of rainwater harvesting systems for 10,000 families on a
yearly basis and it is ready to provide the funds.
What are the strategies put in place for its implementation and for the monitoring
the benefits and impacts on the water sector?
(r) How about sinking rainwater run-offs into sub-surface reservoirs/aquifers?
Construction of structures and infrastructures in water catchment areas are depriving the
aquifers much needed water for the recharging purposes. At the same time, the
increased surface run-offs are causing over flowing of drains and flooding to properties
and homes. Provision of sink holes to divert this excess surface water in certain areas
could help recharge the ever depleting and over pumped aquifers. It is a fact that when
aquifers are over pumped, the water tables are lowered and consequently, there is a
negative cascading effects such as deprivation of water in the root zones for the
cultivation of sugar cane with the inevitable consequences of lower productivity.
(s) How about quality of water supplied at tap?
The water supplied by CWA is 100% compliant to WHO norms for safe drinking water
and standards set by M/Environment. Independent tests are also conducted by M/Health
and Quality of Life. It is a known fact that water that test positive for bacteriological
contaminations pertain to household water tanks which are not maintained properly.
(t) Should we challenge ourselves on the way we use treated and piped water?
Should treated water be used for industrial and irrigation purposes?
Probably. It is however to be noted that raw water for some dedicated water system
such as the Mare longue reservoir, Tamarin reservoir are channeled for irrigation through

the Magenta canal. Likewise in the north irrigation water coming from the Midlands
catchment area is release through the La Nicoliere reservoir for irrigation in the northern
plains.
However, vegetable growers and livestock farmers do use piped water.
Industries involved in food processing may need to have access to treated water. It is
reckoned that manufacturing industries put undue pressure on supply of treated water. A
mechanism needs to be developed for them to be able to have access to raw water
supplies.
(u) Is desalination of sea water an option? What is the cost per metre cube? What is
the resulting impact of the concentrates from desalination plant returning to sea?
Has any study been done to assess this?
Desalination of water would not be a viable option for CWA. In spite of recent advances
in membrane technology, the desalination process is still very expensive and impractical
on a large scale. The cost per cubic metre of desalinated water is Rs 30/ approx. Apart
from high cost of desalination, keeping in mind the topography of Mauritius, it would be
too costly to pump the desalinated water from the coastal regions to the users on the
higher plains. New hotels that are being set up are being encouraged by the authorities to
equip themselves with desalination plants. Around ten of them do operate such plants.
Where desalination is practiced on a large scale elsewhere in the world, it is usually
because there is a cheap source of energy available. This option will become more
attractive to Mauritius once our country becomes more self sufficient in renewable
energy. With regard to return of concentrates from desalination plant, some research have
shown that the resulting higher salinity in the water body has negative impacts on the
marine resources such as the sea grass, corals and sea species.
This is an area where Mauritius through MRC and the UoM should undertake
research before the Authorities deciding on a policy to go for desalination plant.
(v) What is the water pricing present policy?
Pricing policy in Mauritius is based on cost recovery principle. It is however
predominantly guided by social considerations, ensuring that tariffs are kept at reasonable
levels so as not to hamper social and economic growth.
(vi) Should we not cost and sell water at real production and distribution price?
Mauritius being a welfare state and the authorities stand is that it would not be socially
just to have a single tariff applied across the board. The pricing mechanism includes an
element of cross subsidization in the sense that households and farmers pay a price which
is below the real production and distribution price, whilst the commercial consumers,
industries and hotels pay water rates which are above this average production and
distribution cost.

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Conclusions
It is seen that Mauritius receives enough rainfall (over 2000 mm/year) to cater for the
national demand. On the other hand, demand for potable and industrial use has gone up
by an average of 2% a year while the trend in rainfall is down by approximately the same
percentage. Therefore the need to plan for capturing more rainfall through strategically
placed surface reservoirs, as advocated by the numerous master plans MUST be
implemented in the short to medium terms. Innovative technologies for recharging the
aquifers must be developed, as a matter of urgency
.
In view of the predicted exacerbated Climate Change driven uncertainties, the authorities
should give the highest of priorities to securing water availability for its sustained
development in the key sectors such as the social, economic, for ensuring agricultural
productivities and food security.
There should be no Water Crisis in Mauritius if the Authorities implement the
recommendations of the various master plans. The technical / engineering solutions are
available and there are enough Mauritian Engineers with experience in this sector to
make water shortage a thing of the past.

P.S This paper was written with inputs from engineers / experts (some who wish to
remain anonymous and others who will recognise their inputs). IEM is grateful to
all.

rhpdrenv@intnet.mu

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