LWRD

Model: Soil and water in relation to watershed management in the Philippines

I. Introduction to the model

Soil and Water are the two vital natural resources of the watershed which are to be conserved
effectively for improving productivity in agriculture. Soil and Water Conservation programmes on
watershed basis will not only prevent soil erosion but also conserve soil and soil moisture for sustainable
agriculture. Also, as the rain water is the key input for the dry land agriculture, the maximum retention
of rain water in the soil will have a tremendous influence on agriculture production. Hence, harvesting
rain water in appropriate time and location plays a major role in sustainable agriculture.
An estimated 40 per cent of the world population lives in arid and semi-arid areas. Rainfall is
limited and concentrated in short and often erratic periods, and the areas are subject to dry and
wet cycles. Climate change is expected to increase rainfall irregularity.

Livelihoods are generally secure during good rainfall years, while during prolonged dry spells,
crop failure and reduced vegetation cover for wildlife and livestock are likely, and in some cases
insecure drinking water supplies.

Water retention is the key to livelihood security in such areas.

Periodic rainfall needs to be conserved. This can be done through a range of measures that, in
many instances, are tantamount to large-scale environmental rehabilitation:

Safeguard natural storage capacity

In many areas, the natural capacity to store rainfall in a basin is impaired by uncontrolled
development. The mining of sand and gravel for building materials is a major threat. Their
removal from rivers reduces the capacity to store water and recharge shallow aquifers. Where
the river is depleted of its natural storage material, floods will not be attenuated. They may rush
downstream, creating havoc. The same occurs when wetlands are converted. As long as wetlands
are intact, they store excess water, feed aquifers and serve as flood buffers, in addition to a
variety of other functions. The natural storage capacity in a basin must be managed carefully.
Drastic changes to the natural drainage network – dissecting drains or paving large stretches –
alter the capacity to retain and store water. When drains become deep as a result of gullying,
they will tend to draw down groundwater levels over a large area.

Maximize the potential of large infrastructure to contribute to recharge

Roads, in particular, form the most visible unnatural obstacles to water flow in the landscape.
They have an important effect on surface-water hydrology. Depending on their location across
contour lines, they can be the main feature guiding surface run-off. The location and size of
culverts and other cross-drainage structures will influence where water is impounded and where
it is recharged. Proper planning and design can be one of the most effective means of ensuring
greater groundwater recharge in a basin.

Promote water-harvesting measures

 A large number of techniques can be promoted to harvest water and recharge groundwater –
each suitable for different circumstances.

In surface-water harvesting, water is collected in reservoirs, tanks and cisterns from rooftops
and ground catchments. In managed groundwater recharge, excess water is stored in shallow
aquifers.

Managed groundwater recharge can be accomplished by intercepting run-off (through contour

trenches or bunds), by spreading run-off (through infiltration ponds, percolation tanks,
inundation canals or flood-water spreading), by recharge through river banks, by modification
of river channels (subsurface, sand or recharge dams), and by recharging aquifers through
shallow wells or injection through deep wells.

Main challenges
Institutional challenges
 A lack of connection between water harvesting and people's livelihoods. One of the most telling examples was the forced
implementation of water conservation measures under Ethiopia's Derg regime. Many of the structures were dismantled by
popular protest after the brutal regime ended. Target-driven and mechanistic approaches to water-harvesting measures still
persist in food-for-work and emergency relief programmes.
 Poor local participation in watershed management. Projects tend not to take up local knowledge and experience in the target
area. People's priorities and participation should be central to development.
 A need to develop and promote links with larger movements. The prime example is the water recharge ‘movement' in
Saurastra, Gujarat, India, which was inspired by religious leaders making the point that ‘if the earth was thirsty, people
would be, too'. This triggered many individual investments in recharge measures such as small diversion bunds and recharge
wells, and the impact on rising water tables was quite visible. This success was followed by many others, and water recharge
became a ‘movement'.
Management challenges
 A need to move away from individual water-harvesting measures with only limited impact to larger-scale initiatives. The
challenge is to reach sufficient density to make a substantial impact on local water retention. There are several inspiring
examples of areas that were ‘turned around', such as the Loess Plateau in China or the Kitui area in Kenya. Once sufficient
scale is reached, initiatives become self-sustaining.
 A lack of controls on water demand in areas where there is intensive use of groundwater for agriculture and other purposes.
In several parts of the world, the impact of water harvesting and groundwater recharge are quickly annulled by increased
exploitation of the groundwater. In such cases, local regulation of demand is needed.
Technical challenges
A need for comprehensive planning. This should link water retention measures with planning at
the sub-basin level, taking into account water consumption for all land uses.
Reforestation is a good example. Although it is often promoted as a soil and water conservation
measure, trees consume water as well.
However, there is often an optimal mix. A combination of local management and the use of
largely public domain, remote sensing information – such as rainfall data, digital elevation
models, evaporation models and basic hydrogeological data – can help improve planning. There
is often concern that effective water harvesting may affect downstream water availability.
Yet the limited evidence suggests that such effects are small. The 500 sand dams constructed in
Kitui accounted for only 3 per cent of the total run-off, but had an important impact in the area.
IFAD approaches
 Intersectoral management is a relatively new, holistic approach that offers a promising
framework for better understanding and pro-poor mobilization of potential development
synergies. In IFAD's approach to water, this theme is not central, but is considered a holistic
element in strengthening poor rural people's livelihoods and resilience. IFAD investment
approaches to water-related interface management take into account the country-specific
structures of the rural political economy. In so doing, they support the development of pro-poor,
community-based natural resource management (NRM) institutions, which in turn improve
farmer-led agriculture, natural resource technologies, and the sharing of knowledge of these
achievements.

With regard to improved water retention and water harvesting, a number of approaches are
followed, their specific application determined by the local context.
Institutional approaches
 Put local organizations at the centre of the development of water retention measures by using participatory watershed
management approaches and by promoting techniques and measures that can be adopted and promoted locally.
 Start by regulating land use, which has a bearing on water retention in the area, in particular controlling sand and gravel
mining, wetland conversion and interference with natural drainage patterns.
 Complement areas of intense use of groundwater, water-harvesting and water-retention measures with investment in local
demand management and groundwater regulation. There are several measures that can help restore the balance in a sub-
basin between water availability and water demand.
Technical approaches
 Promote locally appropriate water-harvesting and managed-recharge techniques, and use the investment programme to
build examples and local capacity for developing similar structures.
 Promote comprehensive planning of water retention and water-harvesting measures jointly with all players. Prepare a water
balance, with rainfall surplus and water consumption of different land uses for the most promising shallow aquifers.
 Develop close linkages between road departments and water management departments so as to maximize the positive effect
of road construction on the capacity to improve groundwater recharge.
Investment approaches
 Invest in a wide range of water-harvesting measures, particularly traditional methods. Let local organizations lead the
development of such structures.
 Try to reach scale and coverage to drought-proof the area. Complement investment in water retention and water recharge
with larger-scale measures to stimulate local economic development: improved road access, agricultural support services
and others.
 Invest in the capacity of local organizations to understand local water resource systems, basic hydrogeology and water
retention, and to manage recharge measures.
IFAD case study
The Sudan: Western Sudan Resources Management Programme (2004-2012)

This IFAD programme focuses on extremely poor small-scale farmers and herders. The long-
term objective is to build up traditional rainfed agriculture and improve the economic
conditions of communities in the three Kordofan states. The programme includes appropriate
NRM in resolving land- and water-based conflicts.
Approach
 A ‘community approach' in which the programme management team is accessible to communities and sensitive to issues of
equity.
 Livelihood support to target groups, focusing on improved productive capacity for rural households and an enabling
institutional environment.
 Empowerment of both men and women to participate fully in the development process;
promotion of good local governance.
Water-harvesting activities (direct and indirect)
The programme addresses five components: NRM, rural financial services and marketing,
community development and extension, rural feeder roads, and institutional support. Water-
harvesting is related to the NRM component, and the following activities are being carried out:

o Introduction of small- and large-scale water-harvesting techniques.
o Introduction of a number of technical packages in pasture regeneration.
o Investment in water facilities.
o Construction of quarantine facilities.
Expected results
 Harmonized natural resource legislation voted and implemented, with clear access and use rights and appeal and arbitration
mechanisms for farmland, grazing land, forest land and water.
 Increased biodiversity in the programme area.
 Increased returns from sales of surplus production.
 Improved food security at household and locality levels.

Topic sheet author: Frank van Steenbergen and Olaf Verheijen (MetaMeta)
Peer reviewed by: Karim Nawaz

References
 CSE. 1997. Dying wisdom: Rise, fall and potential of India's traditional water harvesting system. New Delhi: Centre for
Science and Environment.
 CSE. 2000. Making water everybody's business: Practice and policy of water harvesting. New Delhi: Centre for Science
and Environment.
 FAO. 2000. Water Harvesting Training Course: Water harvesting for improved rainfed production and supplementary
irrigation. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
 Hussey, S.W. 2007. Water from sand rivers. Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),
Loughborough University.
 Netherlands Water Partnership. 2007. Smart water harvesting solutions. Delft, the Netherlands.
 Nissen-Pedersen, E. 2006. Water from dry rivers. Nairobi: ASAL Consultants Ltd.
 WOCAT. 2007. Where the land is greener: Case studies and analysis of soil and water conservation initiatives worldwide,
ed. H. Liniger and W. Critchley. Bern: World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies.

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Management practices in agriculture, and opportunities for improving soil water retention capacity

Strategies for Water Conservation in Rainfed Agriculture