2 Digit Type (Black Band)

3 Digit Type
Band

Suffix Letter
(If Used)

Marked

4 Digit Type

Marked

Anodes

Color Spot
Glass

Suffix Letter
(Black if No Letter)
Cathodes

1st

2nd 3rd 4th

Digits

Color Bands
Glass

Marked

Figure 1-16. Semiconductor diode markings.

Digit

Color

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-

Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
Silver
Gold
None

Diode Suffix
Letter
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
-

Figure 1-17. Semiconductor diode color code system.

DIODE BEHAVIOR
Semiconductor diodes have limitations as mentioned.
They are rated for a range of current f low. Above a
certain level, the diode overheats and burns up. The
amount of current that passes through the diode when
forward biased is directly proportional to the amount
of voltage applied. But, as mentioned, it is affected by
temperature.
Fig ure 1-18 ind icates t he ac t ua l behav ior of a
semiconductor diode. In practice, a small amount of
current does flow through a semiconductor diode when
reversed biased. This is known as leakage current and it
is in the micro amperage range. However, at a certain
voltage, the blockage of current flow in a reversed biased
diode breaks down completely. This voltage is known as
1.10

the avalanche voltage because the diode can no longer

hold back the current and the diode fails.

TYPES OF DIODES
ZENER DIODE
Diodes can be designed with a zener voltage. This is
similar to avalanche flow. When reversed biased, only
leakage current flows through the diode. However, as
the voltage is increased, the zener voltage is reached.
The diode lets current flow freely through the diode in
the direction in which it is normally blocked. The diode
is constructed to be able to handle the zener voltage and
the resulting current, whereas avalanche voltage burns
out a diode. A zener diode can be used as means of
Module 04 - Electronic Fundamentals

SEMICONDUCTORS

Burn-Out
Current

Approx. 0.75"

Forward Current (MA)

(+) Anode

Avalanche Voltage

Cathode (-)

Voltage
0.7 Volts

Figure 1-20. General purpose signal diodes.

Reverse Current ( A)

Leakage
Current
Reverse Bias

Forward Bias

Figure 1-18. A semiconductor diode.

dropping voltage or voltage regulation. It can be used to

step down circuit voltage for a particular application but
only when certain input conditions exist. Zener diodes
are constructed to handle a wide range of voltages.
(Figure 1-19)

Figure 1-21 illustrates a photodiode in a coil circuit.

In this case, the light striking the photodiode causes
current to flow in the circuit whereas the diode would
have otherwise blocked it. The result is the coil energizes
and closes another circuit enabling its operation.

Electron Flow

(+) Anode

Cathode (-)

frequency of light of the photon. This energy can be

very useful in the operation of electronic devices since
all semiconductors are affected by light energy. When a
photon strikes a semiconductor atom, it raises the energy
level above what is needed to hold its electrons in orbit.
The extra energy frees an electron enabling it to flow as
current. The vacated position of the electron becomes a
hole. In photodiodes, this occurs in the depletion area of
the reversed biased PN junction turning on the device
and allowing current to flow.

Photodiode Symbol

Simple Coil Circuit

Figure 1-19. A Zener diode, when reversed biased, will break down and allow
a prescribed voltage to flow in the direction normally blocked by the diode.

SIGNAL DIODES
Signal diodes are common semiconductor diodes that
are typically used in radio signal processing. They pass
small current usually up to 100 milliamps. (Figure 1-20)

PHOTODIODES
Light contains electromagnetic energy that is carried
by photons. The amount of energy depends on the
Module 04 - Electronic Fundamentals

Figure 1-21. The symbol for a photodiode and a

photodiode in a simple coil circuit.

Thermal energy produces minority carriers in a diode.

The higher the temperature, the greater the current in
a reverse current diode. Light energy can also produce
minority carriers. By using a small window to expose
the PN junction, a photodiode can be built. When light
fall upon the junction of a reverse-biased photodiode,
electrons-hole pairs are created inside the depletion
layer.
1.11

The stronger the light, the greater the number of

light-produced ca rriers, which in t urn causes a
greater magnitude of reverse-current. Because of this
characteristic, the photodiode can be used in light
detecting circuits.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Light emitting diodes (LEDs) have become so commonly
used in electronics that their importance may tend to be
overlooked. Numerous avionics displays and indicators
use LEDs for indicator lights, digital readouts, and
backlighting of liquid crystal display (LCD) screens.
LEDs are simple and reliable. They are constructed
of semiconductor material. In a forward biased diode,
electrons cross the junction and fall into holes. As the
electrons fall into the valence band, they radiate energy.
This is true in all semiconductor materials. In most
Color

Wavelength (nm)

Infrared

760

Voltage (V)

diodes, this energy is dissipated as heat. However, in

the light-emitting diode (LED), the energy is dissipated
as light. By using elements, such as gallium, arsenic,
and phosphorous, an LED can be designed to radiate
colors, such as red, green, yellow, blue and infrared light.
LEDs that are designed for the visible light portion of
the spectrum are useful for instruments, indicators, and
even cabin lighting. The advantages of the LED over
the incandescent lamps are longer life, lower voltage,
faster on and off operations, and less heat. Figure 1-22
is a table that illustrates common LED colors and the
semiconductor material that is used in the construction
of the diode.
NOTE: When the diode is reversed biased, no light is
given off. When the diode is forward biased, the energy
given off is visible in the color characteristic for the
material being used. Figure 1-23 illustrates the anatomy
Semiconductor Material

V < 1.9

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Red

610

760

1.63 < V < 2.03

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Orange

590

610

2.03 < V < 2.10

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Yellow

570

590

2.10 < V < 2.18

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green

500

570

1.9[32] < V < 4.0

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)

Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Blue

450

500

2.48 < V < 3.7

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development)

Violet

400

450

2.76 < V < 4.0

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

2.48 < V < 3.7

Dual blue/red LEDs,

blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic

3.1 < V < 4.4

diamond (235 nm)[33]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[34][35]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[36]
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) (down to 210 nm)[37]

V = 3.5

Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

Purple

Ultraviolet

White

Multiple Types

400

Broad Spectrum

Figure 1-22. LED colors and the materials used to construct them as well as their wavelength and voltages.

1.12

Module 04 - Electronic Fundamentals

Wire Bond

P-Type

Reflective Cavity

SEMICONDUCTORS

Expoxy Lens/Case

N-Type

Semiconductor Die
Anvil
Post

Leadframe

Electron

Hole

Flat Spot

Conduction Band
Light

Anode

Band Gap

Cathode

Recombination

Valence Band

Figure 1-23. A close up of a single LED (left) and the process of a semi-conductor producing light by electrons dropping into holes and giving
off energy (right). The symbol for a light emitting diode is the diode symbol with two arrows pointing away from the junction.

of a single LED, the symbol of an LED, and a graphic

depiction of the LED process.
LEDs are used widely as "power on" indicators of current
and as displays for pocket calculators, digital voltmeters,
frequency counters, etc. For use in calculators and
similar devices, LEDs are typically placed together in
seven-segment displays, as shown in Figure 1-24 (view
A and view B). This display uses seven LED segments,
or bars (labeled A through G in the figure), which can
be lit in different combinations to form any number
from "0" through "9." The schematic, view A, shows
a common-anode display. All anodes in a display are
internally connected.
When a negative voltage is applied to the proper
cathodes, a number is formed. For example, if negative
voltage is applied to all cathodes except that of LED
"E," the number "9" is produced, as shown in view A
of Figure 1-25. If the negative voltage is changed and
applied to all cathodes except LED "B," the number "9"
changes to "6" as shown in view B.
Seven-segment displays are also available in commoncathode form, in which all cathodes are at the same
potential. When replacing LED displays, you must
ensure the replacement display is the same type as the
faulty display. Since both types look alike, you should
always check the manufacturer's number. LED sevensegment displays range from the very small, often not
much larger than standard typewritten numbers, to
about an inch. Several displays may be combined in a
Module 04 - Electronic Fundamentals

A
F

B
G

B
G

C
D

C
D

(A)

(B)

Figure 1-24. Seven segment LED display.

A
F

A
B

G
E

B
G

(A)

(B)

Figure 1-25. Seven segment LED display examples.

1.13

SCHOTTKY DIODES

Figure 1-26. Stacked seven segment LED display.

package to show a series of numbers, such as the one

shown in Figure 1-26.

POWER RECTIFIER DIODES

The rectifier diode is usually used in applications that
require high current, such as power supplies. The range
in which the diode can handle current can vary anywhere
from one ampere to hundreds of amperes. One common
example of diodes is the series of diodes, part numbers
1N4001 to 1N4007. The 1N indicates that there is
only one PN junction, or that the device is a diode. The
average current carrying range for these rectifier diodes
is about one ampere and have a peak inverse voltage
between 50 volts to 1,000 volts. Larger rectifier diodes
can carry currents up to 300 amperes when forward
biased and have a peak inverse voltage of 600 volts. A
recognizable feature of the larger rectifier diodes is that
they are encased in metal in order to provide a heat sink.
Figure 1-27 illustrates a few types of rectifier diodes.

(+) Anode

A Schottky diode is designed to have a metal, such as

gold, silver, or platinum, on one side of the junction and
doped silicon, usually an N-type, on the other side of the
junction. In this respect, it is not a pure semiconductor
diode. It is a metal - semiconductor diode. A Schottky
diode is considered a unipolar device because free
electrons are the majority carrier on both sides of the
junction. The Schottky diode has no depletion zone
or charge storage, which means that the switching
time can be as high as 300 MHz. The typical PN
semiconductor switches much slower. When an opposite
voltage to the voltage supply that forward biases a PN
junction diode is applied, current in the diode continues
to f low for a brief moment. This time is measurable
and is known as reverse recovery time. Schottky diode
reverse recovery time is much shorter which makes it
suited for use in high frequency rectification. It also has
a very low voltage drop (0.15 volts versus 0.7 volts for a
silicon diode). Figure 1-28 illustrates a Schottky diode
and gives the schematic symbol.

VARISTOR
A varistor is not exactly a semiconductor diode. It is
typically made of a ceramic mass of zinc oxide grains
in a matrix of other metal oxides. This material is
sandwiched between two metal plates which are the
electrodes. (Figure 1-29) The numerous grains form

Cathode (-)
Approx. 0.75"

Schematic Symbol
Approx. 0.75"

(+) Anode

Cathode (-)

General Purpose Signal Diodes

Approx. 1.5"

Approx. 0.2"

(+) Anode

Cathode (-)
35 Ampere Silicon Rectifier
Rectifier Diodes
Figure 1-27. Examples of power rectifier diodes with the one on the right encased in metal to provide a heat shrink.

1.14

Module 04 - Electronic Fundamentals

I/A

SiC

ZnO

SEMICONDUCTORS

Metal

N-Type
Material

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

-800 -600 -400 -200

Figure 1-28. Schottky diode construction and schematic symbol.

200 400 600 800

-0.5

U/V

-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Figure 1-31. Varistor current-voltage characteristics for
zinc oxide (ZnO) and silicon carbide (SiC) devices.

VARACTOR DIODES (VARICAP)

Figure 1-29. A Varistor.

diode relationships with other grains so that current

f lows in one direction only through the device. The
current - voltage relationship is non-linear. A small
or moderate amount of voltage applied to the varistor
causes very little current flow. However, when a large
voltage is applied, the effective junction breaks down
and large current flow follows. Therefore the varistor
has high resistance at low voltage and low resistance
at high voltage. Varistors are often used to protect
circuits against excessive transient voltages. They are
incorporated so that, when triggered, they shunt the
current created by the high voltage away from sensitive
components. Figure 1-30 illustrates the schematic
symbol of a varistor. Figure 1-31 shows the performance
graph of a typical varistor.

Varistor Schematic Symbol

Figure 1-30. Schematic symbol of a varistor.

Module 04 - Electronic Fundamentals

The varactor, or varicap, is a diode that behaves like a

variable capacitor. Its capacitance is dependent on the
applied voltage. The PN junction functions like the
dielectric and the N and P materials like the plates of
a common capacitor. Understanding how the varactor
operates is an important prerequisite to understanding
field-effect transistors (FETs), which are covered later in
this sub-module. The schematic symbol and a varactor
drawing is illustrated in Figure 1-32.

Figure 1-32. Varactor diode.

Figure 1-33 shows a PN junction. Surrounding the

junction of the P and N materials is a narrow zone
void of both positively and negatively charged current
carriers. This area is called the depletion zone.
The size of the depletion zone in a varactor diode is
directly related to the bias. Forward biasing makes the
zone smaller by repelling the current carriers toward the
PN junction. If the applied voltage is large enough (about
1.15