Book 5 - Waste Incinerators
Book 5 - Waste Incinerators
Book 5 - Waste Incinerators
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................5
PROCESS DESCRIPTION......................................................................6
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2.
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.1.6
5.1.7
5.1.8
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
6.1
6.2
20
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5
6.5
6.6
Impact of best available techniques and best environmental practices on other pollutants
................................................................................................................................32
6.7
6.7.1
6.7.2
6.7.3
6.8
REFERENCE..........................................................................................36
(ii)
1
2
2
3
4
5
7
8
7.1.1
Medical waste........................................................................................................37
Introduction............................................................................................................37
Types of health-care waste.....................................................................................38
Best environmental practices for health-care waste management..........................39
New sources............................................................................................................42
Existing sources......................................................................................................42
Alternative techniques............................................................................................42
Best available techniques for the incineration of health-care waste.......................47
Summary of best available techniques and best environmental practices..............52
References..............................................................................................................59
Summary (will
Waste incinerators are identified in the Stockholm Convention as having the potential
for comparatively high formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex C to the
environment.
When considering proposals to construct new waste incinerators, priority consideration
should be given to alternatives such as activities to minimize the generation of waste,
including resource recovery, reuse, recycling, waste separation and promoting
products that generate less waste. Priority consideration should also be given to
approaches that prevent the formation and release of persistent organic pollutants.
The potential purposes of waste incineration include volume reduction, energy
recovery, destruction and minimization of hazardous constituents, disinfection and the
reuse of some residues.
The environmentally sound design and operation of waste incinerators requires the
use of best available techniques and best environmental practices to prevent or
minimize the formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex C. Best available
techniques and best environmental practices for incineration include practising proper
waste handling, ensuring good combustion, avoiding formation conditions, capturing
the chemicals listed in Annex C that are formed and handling residues appropriately.
Performance levels for emissions to air associated with BAT for waste incinerators are
0.010.1 ng TEQ/Nm3 (oxygen content: 11 %).
1INTRODUCTION
Waste incinerators are identified in the Stockholm Convention as having the potential for
comparatively high formation and release to the environment of chemicals listed in Annex C
of the Convention.
When considering proposals to construct new waste disposal facilities, The Stockholm
Convention advises Parties to give priority consideration to:
Approaches that will prevent the formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex
C.
Waste management considerations, which are described in section III.C (ii) of the present
guidelines, and the alternative approaches outlined in subsection 6 below, can be taken into
account as part of overall waste prevention and control strategies.
2PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Incineration is used as a treatment for a very wide range of wastes. Incineration itself is
commonly only one part of a complex waste treatment system that altogether, provides for the
overall management of the broad range of wastes that arise in society (cross reference to cross
cutting and companion document on waste management should be added here).
The objective of waste incineration is to treat wastes so as to reduce their volume and hazard,
whilst capturing (and thus concentrating) or destroying potentially harmful substances that
are, or may be, released during incineration. Incineration processes can also provide a means
to enable recovery of the energy, mineral and/or chemical content from waste.
Incinerators come in a variety of furnace types and sizes as well as combinations of pre- and
post-combustion treatment. There is also considerable overlap among the designs of choice
for municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and sewage sludge incineration.
Incinerators are designed for full oxidative combustion over a general temperature range of
8501,400 C. This may include temperatures at which calcinations and melting may also
occur. Gasification and pyrolysis represent alternative thermal treatments that restrict the
amount of combustion air to convert waste into process gas, increase the amount of recyclable
inorganics, and reduce the amount of flue gas cleaning.
Waste incinerator installations can be characterized into five component areas: waste delivery,
storage, pretreatment, incineration/energy recovery, and flue gas cleaning/residue
management/waste water treatment. The nature of the input waste will have a significant
bearing on how each component is designed and operated.
Waste is generally a highly heterogeneous material, consisting essentially of organic
substances, minerals, metals and water. During incineration, flue-gases are created that will
contain the majority of the available fuel energy as heat.
In fully oxidative incineration the main constituents of the flue-gas are: water vapour,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Depending on the composition of the material
incinerated and on the operating conditions, certain amounts of CO, HCl, HF, HBr, HI, NOX
SO2, VOCs, PCDD/F, PCBs and heavy metal compounds (among others) are formed or
remain. Depending on the combustion temperatures during the main stages of incineration,
volatile heavy metals and inorganic compounds (e.g. salts) are totally or partly evaporated.
These substances are transferred from the input waste to both the flue-gas and the fly ash it
contains. A mineral residue fly ash (dust) and heavier solid ash (bottom ash) are created. The
proportions of solid residue vary greatly according to the waste type and detailed process
design.
Other releases are residues from flue gas treatment and polishing, filter cake from waste water
treatment, salts and releases of substances into waste water.
2.1
Although in many areas landfilling remains the principal means for the disposal of municipal
solid waste, incineration and the subsequent landfilling of residues has become a common
practice in many developed and industrializing countries. In the United States of America, for
example, there are currently 167 municipal waste incinerators at 66 sites, handling
approximately one-sixth of the countrys municipal solid waste. Where landfill space is
scarce, or other factors such as a shallow water table restrict its use, the proportion of
municipal solid waste incinerated may reach 75% or greater.
The European Council Directive on the landfill of waste (1999/31/EC) requires Member
States to set up a national strategy for the implementation of the reduction of biodegradable
waste going to landfills. This strategy should include measures to achieve the targets by
means of in particular, recycling, composting, biogas production or material/energy recovery.
Municipal solid waste incineration is commonly accompanied by the recovery of energy
(waste-to-energy) in the form of steam or the generation of electricity. Incinerators can also be
designed to accommodate processed forms of municipal solid waste known as refuse-derived
fuels, as well as co-firing with fossil fuels. Municipal waste incinerators can range in size
from small package units processing single batches of only a few tons per day to very large
units with continuous daily feed capacities in excess of a thousand tons. The capital
investment costs of such facilities can range from tens of thousands to hundreds of millions of
US$.
The primary benefit of municipal solid waste incineration is the destruction of organic
(including toxic) materials, the reduction in the volume of the waste and the concentration of
pollutants (e.g. heavy metals) into comparable small quantities of ashes thus generating safe
sinks. The generation of energy is an important additional benefit.
Large municipal waste incinerators are major industrial facilities and have the potential to be
significant sources of environmental pollution. In addition to the release of acid gases
(sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride), particulate matter (including particle
bound heavy metals) and volatile heavy metals (mercury), incineration of municipal solid
waste has also been shown to lead to the unintentional formation and release of persistent
organic pollutants: polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDF), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB).
Formation may be substantially increased in units that are poorly designed or operated.
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
The most common combustion technology in hazardous waste incineration is the rotary kiln.
Facilities in the merchant sector range in size from 82 to 270 tons per day waste throughput
(European Commission 2005). Certain hazardous wastes, particularly spent solvents, are also
burnt as fuel in cement kilns. This latter application is covered under section V.B. of the
present guidelines. Dedicated (captive) hazardous waste incinerators use a variety of
incineration, pyrolysis and plasma treatment techniques.
Similar to the incineration of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste incineration offers the
benefits of the destruction of organic (including toxic) materials, of volume reduction and
concentration of pollutants into comparable small quantities of ashes and of energy recovery.
This technology, however, has also been shown to lead to the formation and release of
chemicals listed in Annex C.
Hazardous waste is normally incinerated in two types of facilities: merchant plants, which
provide commercial, off-site, waste treatment services; and dedicated (captive), on-site
incinerators, which handle wastes for a particular facility. An example of the latter is an
incinerator at a chemical manufacturing plant treating chlorinated wastes to recover hydrogen
chloride (HCl).
Solid residues from hazardous waste incinerators are similar to those of municipal solid waste
incinerators with the exemption of slag resulting from rotary kiln incineration.
2.1.1 Design and operation of hazardous waste incinerators
For the incineration of hazardous waste rotary kilns are most commonly used (Figure 2)., but
grate incinerators (including co-firing with other wastes) are also sometimes applied to solid
wastes, and fluidised bed incinerators to some pretreated materials. Static furnaces are also
widely applied at on-site facilities at chemical plants.
Hazardous waste incinerators are of two principal types: merchant, off-site plants that provide
commercial treatment services; and captive, on-site units. Merchant incinerators handle a
variety of waste streams and can compete internationally for business. 1 Dedicated or captive
hazardous waste incinerators are typically located at large industrial facilities and process
waste streams generated at the site.
Merchant hazardous waste incinerators range in size from 82 to 270 tons per day capacity
(European Commission 2005). Due to the hazardous (and often uncertain) composition of the
incoming waste streams, there is a greater emphasis on acceptance criteria, storage, handling
and pretreatment than with municipal solid waste. For low-energy-value wastes, auxiliary
fuels may be required.
Figure 2. Schematic of a rotary kiln incineration system
Please note the requirements of the Basel Convention for the shipment of hazardous waste
Rotary kilns used for hazardous waste incineration are comparable to those used for the
incineration of municipal solid waste. Solid, sludge, containerized or pumpable waste is
introduced at the upper end of the inclined drum. Temperatures in the kiln usually range
between 850 and 1,300 C. The slow rotation of the drum allows a residence time of 30 to 90
minutes. Temperatures in the range of 8501,000 C can be considered adequate for
destruction of non-chlorinated hazardous waste, while 1,0001,200 C is considered adequate
for destruction of chlorinated hazardous waste, i.e. PCCD/PCDF, PCB and HCB. 2
The secondary combustion chamber following the kiln completes the oxidation of the
combustion gases. Liquid wastes or auxiliary fuels may be injected here along with secondary
air to maintain a minimum residence time of 2 seconds and temperatures in the range of 900
1,300 C, effectively destroying any remaining organic compounds.
Hazardous waste is also incinerated in cement kilns. This application is addressed in section
V.B of the present guidelines.
2.1.4
2.1.5
10
Note: Testing in the United States has demonstrated the potential for PCDD/PCDF formation
across waste heat recovery boilers associated with hazardous waste incinerators and HCl
production facilities. A number of United States plants are removing these boilers or adding activated
carbon control devices to deal with the problem.
to the incinerator by pipeline. Some wastes may be fed directly to the incinerator in their
transport containers. Pumps, pipelines and other equipment that may come in contact with the
wastes must be corrosion proof and accessible for cleaning and sampling.
Pretreatment operations may include neutralization, drainage or solidification of the waste.
Shredders and mechanical mixers may also be used to process containers or to blend wastes
for more efficient combustion.
2.2
11
Multiple hearth furnaces were originally developed for ore roasting. The furnace is cylindrical
in shape with multiple levels and a central rotating shaft with attached agitating arms. The
sludge is supplied at the highest level and moves down through the multiple hearths by
rotation and agitation. Combustion air is injected at the bottom of the furnace and moves
countercurrent to the sludge.
Drying takes place in the upper hearths of the furnace as a result of the countercurrent
combustion gases. Most of the incineration takes place in the central hearths at an optimal
temperature of 850950 C. This temperature is maintained by an auxiliary fuel start-up
burner as needed. Counterflowing air from below cools the ash to 150 C on the lower
hearths, where it is removed, and the flue gases are fed into a post-combustion chamber with
adequate residence time (2 seconds) to complete oxidation of remaining organic compounds.
o
Fluidized bed furnaces are suitable for finely divided wastes such as dried and conditioned
sludges. Two types of fluidized bed furnaces are readily applicable to the incineration of
sewage sludge:
In the stationary (or bubbling) fluidized bed furnace, air preheated with oil or gas burners
fluidizes the bed material (for example, sand). Sludge can be added from various points in the
furnace and mixes with the bed material. If the sludge is sufficiently dry, good combustion
can be maintained without auxiliary fuel. Volatiles and the fine-particle fraction are
incinerated in the zone above the fluidized bed. Ash and flue gases are removed at the head of
the furnace.
Circulating fluidized bed furnaces have normally larger capacities than the stationary
fluidized bed counterpart and can treat a wider variety of sludges. Flue gases are removed and
pass through a cyclone that recirculates particles to the furnace.
o
The fluidized bed technology can also be combined with the multiple hearth furnace (Figure
4). In this configuration, the flue gases from the fluidized bed dry the sludge as it moves down
12
through the multiple hearths. The multiple hearth/fluidized bed has the advantage of lowering
NOx emissions by avoiding higher temperature differences between the head and the foot of
the incinerator (European Commission 2005).
Figure 4. Combination multiple hearth/fluidized bed furnace
Cycloid furnace
The cycloid technology was originally developed to treat residues from waste incineration
plants. For sewage sludge incineration the material must be dried and available in granular
form (size 15 mm). The granules are fed into the lower part of the incineration chamber with
primary air provided at various levels. Secondary air is injected tangentially above the fuel
feed and creates a circular flow to complete incineration. Temperatures are maintained
between 900 and 1,000 C to keep the ash below the softening point. Ash is removed from
below with a lock system (European Commission 2005).
o
Sewage sludge is co-incinerated with municipal solid waste in both fluidized bed and mass
burn (grated) incinerators. In the latter case, a ratio of 1:3 (sludge to waste) is typical, with
dried sludge introduced into the incineration chamber as a dust or drained sludge applied to
the grate through sprinklers. In some cases, drained or dried sludge may be mixed with
municipal solid waste in the bunker or hopper before being charged to the incinerator. The
feeding methods represent a significant proportion of the additional capital investment
required for co-incineration.
2.2.2
13
Conditioners (for example, flocking agents) are often added before dewatering to facilitate
drainage. Mechanical dewatering can routinely achieve 2035% dry solids (European
Commission 2005).
Drying introduces heat to further dewater and condition the sludge. Heat for drying at the
incineration facility is often provided by the incineration process itself. Drying processes can
be direct (sludge contacts thermal carrier) or indirect (for example, heat supplied by steam
plant). In direct drying the vapour and gas mixture must be subsequently cleaned.
Several thermal drying processes are used, including: disk, drum, fluidized bed and belt
dryers; cold air, thin film, centrifugal and solar drying. Autothermal (self-sustaining)
incineration of sludge requires 35% dry solids. Although mechanical dewatering can reach
this threshold, additional drying of sludge to as much as 8095% dry solids may be employed
to increase the heat value. Co-incineration with municipal solid waste generally requires
additional sludge drying.
14
Typical concentrations of organic compounds in the various solid residues are compiled in the
next table:
15
Concentration ranges of organic compounds in bottom, boiler and filter ashes from modern
facilities (European Commission, 2005)
Data for PCDD/F for 10 Municipal solid waste incinerator operated in the Netherlands over 5
years are given in the next table:
The table below gives survey data of an overview of the PCDD/F content in residues from
MSWI plants. The data excludes peak high and low results:
16
The next table gives an estimation of PCDD/F (I-TEQ) releases into different media based on
typical parameters of Municipal solid waste incinerators (for parameters see
Umweltbundesamt, 2002 and European Commission, 2005).
Table xxx: Estimation of releases of PCDD/F into different media from Municipal Waste
Incinerators
Accumulation
per t waste
Unit
Average
concentration
Unit
Bottom ash
220
kg
0,046
g/kg
10,12
Fly ash
20
kg
2,95
g/kg
59
Filter cake
kg
g/kg
450
0,3
ng/l
0,135
5,000
Nm3
0,02
ng/Nm3
0,1
Total release
73,355
Medium
Waste water
Air
From the data presented in the table above it becomes clear, that dioxins and furans are
mainly released by solid waste from incineration. Filter cake (e.g. by underground storage),
and fly ash have to be disposed of in dedicated landfills in most countries (sometimes after
pre-treatment) whereas bottom ash is used in some countries (e.g. for road construction)
usually after pre-treatment.
The dedicated landfills should be regarded as final sinks for hazardous substances, so that the
risk of further release and re-exposure to that chemicals is strongly reduced. Provided that
solid waste from incineration is disposed of in an environmental sound manner, emissions
from modern waste incineration plants are very low.
17
Zero waste management strategies, which aim to eliminate the generation of waste
through the application of a variety of measures, including legislative and economic
instruments;
Waste minimization, source separation and recycling to reduce the waste volume
requiring final disposal;
Sanitary landfill, which contains and isolates wastes (including effective capturing
and burning of formed methane with energy recovery or at least flaring if the latter
technique is not applicable);
High-temperature melting, which uses thermal means to reduce waste volume and
encapsulates residues requiring further management.
Waste minimization and source separation with final disposal by other techniques or
to appropriate landfill;
Sodium reduction;
For sewage sludge, possible alternatives to incineration are disposal to landfill or the
landspreading of sewage sludge, which avoid formation of chemicals listed in Annex C,
though it is noted that any persistent organic pollutants and other hazardous substances
present in such sludges may be released to the environment through this latter approach.
Further work is needed by the international community to test and verify technologies such as
those listed above. Work is also needed to promote additional innovation in this important
field.
18
5.1
5.1.1
A thorough knowledge of the characteristics and attributes of the incoming waste is essential.
The characteristics of a particular waste stream may vary significantly from country to
country and region to region. If certain wastes or waste constituents are considered
inappropriate for incineration, procedures should be in place for detecting these materials in
the waste stream or residues. Checking, sampling and analyses should be performed. This is
particularly true for hazardous wastes. Manifests and audit trails are important to maintain and
they should be kept updated. Table 1 illustrates some of the techniques applicable to the
different types of waste.
Table 1. Examples of inspection techniques
Waste type
Mixed municipal wastes
Techniques
Visual inspection in bunker
Spot checking of individual deliveries
by separate offloading
Comments
Industrial and commercial
loads may have elevated
risks
Visual inspection
Hazardous wastes
Visual inspection
19
Sewage sludges
5.1.2
Waste minimization
Reducing the overall magnitude of wastes that have to be disposed of by any means serves to
reduce both the releases and residues from incinerators. Diversion of biodegradables to
composting and initiatives to reduce the amount of packaging materials entering the waste
stream can significantly affect waste volumes.
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
Segregation techniques
Segregation is not routinely applied unless various distinct waste
streams are received, when these can be mixed in the bunker
Bulky items requiring pretreatment can be segregated
Emergency segregation areas for rejected waste
Hazardous wastes
20
5.1.7
5.1.8
Waste loading
For facilities that accept heterogeneous municipal solid waste, proper mixing and loading of
the feed hopper is critical. Loading crane operators must have both the experience and the
appropriate vantage point to be able to select the appropriate mix of waste types to keep the
incinerator performing at peak efficiency.
5.2
5.2.1
21
units, the timing of waste introduction, control of burn conditions and post-burn management
are important considerations (see also section about BAT xxx).
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
Monitoring
High-efficiency combustion is facilitated by establishing a monitoring regime of key
operating parameters, such as carbon monoxide (CO), temperature and oxygen content. Low
CO is associated with higher combustion efficiency in terms of the burnout of the municipal
solid waste. Generally, if the CO concentration is low by volume (for example, < 50 parts per
million or 30 mg/m3) in the stack flue gases, this provides a general indication that high
combustion efficiency is being maintained within the combustion chamber. Good combustion
efficiency is related to the minimization of the formation of PCDD/PCDF within the
incinerator, and combustion temperature in the chamber should therefore be recorded.
Carbon monoxide, oxygen in the flue gas, particulate matter, hydrogen chloride (HCl),
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrogen fluoride (HF), air flows and
temperatures, pressure drops, and pH in the flue gas are all routinely monitored. These
measurements reflect combustion conditions and give a general indication of the potential for
formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex C. Periodic or semi-continuous
measurement of PCDD/PCDF in the flue gas can help ensure that releases are minimized and
the incinerator is operating properly.
5.2.5
Handling of residues
Bottom and fly ash from the incinerator must be handled, transported and disposed of in an
environmental sound manner. This includes the separate management of bottom ash from fly
ash and other FGT residues, so as to avoid contamination of the bottom ash and thereby
improve the potential for bottom ash recovery. Covered hauling and dedicated landfills are a
common practice for managing these residues.
Particularly if reuse of the residues is contemplated, an evaluation of the content and potential
environmental mobility of heavy metals and chemicals listed in Annex C is required, and
guidelines adopted by the Basel Convention and subsequently adopted by the Conference of
the Parties of the Stockholm Convention should be followed. Periodic analysis of the ash can
22
Operator training
Regular training of personnel is essential for good operation of waste incinerators. In the
United States, for example, training and certification of operators is provided by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. (See also section III.C (iv) of the present guidelines)
5.2.7
23
24
local environmental drivers e.g. background environmental quality may influence the
required local performance in respect of releases from the installation, or availability
of certain resources
1 ng (nanogram) = 1 10 -12 kilogram (1 10-9 gram); Nm3 = normal cubic metre, dry gas
volume measured at 0 C and 101.3 kPa. For information on toxicity measurement see section I.C,
subsection 3 of the present guidelines.
the particular nature of the waste(s) that arise locally and the impact of the waste
management infrastructure upon the type and nature of waste arriving at the
installation
the availability, degree of utilisation and price of options for the recovery / disposal of
residues produced at the installation
local economic / market / political factors that may influence the tolerability of the
higher gate fees that may accompany the addition of certain technological options
to establish and maintain quality controls over the waste input, according to the types
of waste that may be received at the installation. This includes:
-
communication with waste suppliers to improve incoming waste quality control, and
Mixing of fuel and air to minimize the existence of long-lived, fuel-rich pockets of
combustion products;
Proper management of time, temperature and turbulence (the 3 Ts), as well as oxygen (air
flow), by means of incinerator design and operation will help to ensure the above conditions.
The recommended residence time of waste in the primary furnace is 2 seconds. Temperatures
at or above 850 C (for waste with a high chlorine content: above 1.100 C) are required for
complete combustion in most technologies. Turbulence, through the mixing of fuel and air,
helps prevent cold spots in the burn chamber and the build-up of carbon, which can reduce
combustion efficiency. Oxygen levels in the final combustion zone must be maintained above
those necessary for complete oxidation.
25
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
26
27
Additional information on the comparison of combustion techniques among furnace types may
be found in Appendix A.
28
6.4.4
6.4.5
29
relevant to preventing releases to the environment of these substances, once present in the
residues.
o
Bottom ash from incinerators designed and operated according to BAT tends to have a very
low content of chemicals listed in Annex C, in the same order of magnitude as background
concentrations in urban soils (i.e., < 0.0010.01 ng PCDD/PCDF/g ash). Boiler ash levels
tend to be higher (0.020.5 ng PCDD/PCDF/g ash) but both well below the average
concentrations found in fly ash (European Commission 2005
Because of the differences in pollutant concentration, the mixing of bottom ash with fly ash
will contaminate the former and is forbidden in many countries to avoid that limit values for
certain types of landfills are only met by dilution. Separate collection and storage of these
residues provides operators with more options for disposal.
Bottom ash (or slag from fluidized bed incinerators) is disposed of in landfills in many
countries but may be reused in construction and road-building material following pretreatment. Prior to such use, however, an assessment of content and leachability should be
conducted and upper levels of persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals and other
parameters have to be defined.
Leachability of chemicals listed in Annex C is known to increase with increasing pH and
humic (presence of organic matter) conditions. This would suggest that disposal in lined and
dedicated landfills is preferable to mixed waste facilities.
Unlike bottom ash, air pollution control device residuals, including fly ash and scrubber
sludges, contain relatively high concentrations of heavy metals, organic pollutants (including
PCDD/PCDF), chlorides and sulphides.
Whenever bottom ash is to be further used (for example, as construction material) mixing
with other flue gas treatment residues is not a best available technique.
Fly ash is disposed of in dedicated landfills in many countries. However, if limit values (e.g.
for the heavy metal content or for the leaching behaviour) for these landfills are not met fly
ash has to be treated before disposal or sent to underground disposal. Treatment techniques
for fly ash and flue gas treatment residues include:
Cement solidification. Residues are mixed with mineral and hydraulic binders and
additives to reduce leaching potential. Solidified ashes and flue gas treatment residues
are landfilled;
Vitrification. Ashes and residues are heated in electrical melting or blast furnaces to
immobilize pollutants of concern. Organics, including PCDD/PCDF, are typically
destroyed in the process;
Catalytic treatment of fabric filter dusts under conditions of low temperatures and
lack of oxygen;
It has to be mentioned that energy demand and costs for these treatment techniques may be
high.
30
6.6
The description of techniques and practices in this provisional guidance is primarily focused
on their demonstrated effectiveness in the prevention, minimization or reduction of the
formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex C. Many of these practices also serve to
reduce releases of other pollutants, and some may be primarily designed for this purpose (for
example, source separation of metals and other non-combustibles from waste streams,
selective catalytic reduction for NO x control, acid gas controls for reducing SO 2, carbon
adsorption for mercury control). Some that may have been designed for the capture of other
pollutants (for example, higher inlet temperature electrostatic precipitators) have had to be
redesigned or replaced to avoid increasing formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex
C.
In the final analysis, what constitutes best available techniques and best environmental
practices for waste incineration is broader than the impact on chemicals listed in Annex C
alone, involving all aspects of the incineration, energy recovery, flue gas treatment, waste
water treatment and residue treatment process. The great majority of these, however, are
complementary with the aims of preventing or reducing releases of the chemicals listed in
Annex C.
6.7
The Stockholm Convention (Annex C, Part V, section B, subparagraph (b)) states that before
Parties proceed with proposals to construct or significantly modify sources that release
31
6.7.2
6.7.3
32
6.8
33
7REFERENCE
European Commission. 2005. Reference Document on the Best Available Techniques for
Waste Incineration. BAT Reference Document (BREF), Final Draft, May 2005. European
IPPC Bureau, Seville, Spain. eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm.
Umweltbundesamt. 2002. State of the Art for Waste Incineration Plants. Vienna. 2002
Other References will be added (esp. comments from Working Group Members)
34
(II)
MEDICAL WASTE
Introduction
This section is mainly concerned with the high-temperature incineration of medical waste
(referred to here as health-care waste), this being only one method of final disposal. Since
the incineration of health-care waste can result in significant emission of chemicals listed in
Annex C of the Stockholm Convention, the main focus of the section is on the best available
techniques for the reduction of emissions of such chemicals due to incineration. Other
possible techniques, for example the sterilization of infectious waste, do not result in
emissions of chemicals listed in Annex C. The advantages, drawbacks and applicability of
these techniques are already described elsewhere and are not repeated in detail here.
1.1
For general information on PCDD/PCDF formation mechanisms see Section III.C (i).
Emissions of organic pollutants and PCDD/PCDF can be reduced by firing and plant-specific
measures (primary measures), and additionally by secondary measures.
1.2
35
Hospitals generate large amounts of waste that fall into different categories. Health-care waste
can also originate from other sources, such as emergency medical care services, transfusion or
dialysis centres, laboratories, animal research and blood banks. Between 75% and 90% of the
waste produced is non-risk or general health-care waste, which is comparable to domestic
waste. It comes mostly from the administrative and housekeeping functions of health-care
establishments and may also include waste generated during maintenance of health-care
premises. The remaining 1025% of health-care waste is regarded as hazardous and may
create a variety of health risks. Less than 10% of this waste is of an infectious nature. Other
types of waste include toxic chemicals, cytotoxic drugs, and flammable and radioactive
wastes. This section is concerned almost exclusively with infectious health-care waste; wastes
comparable to domestic waste should be dealt with by the municipal waste disposal
mechanisms.
1.3
Waste management
Each hospital should develop a waste management plan that provides for thorough
segregation and treatment of waste. This can lower the costs of the ultimate disposal. A waste
management plan of one hospital can also include treatment of certain fractions of waste from
other hospitals to lower costs and to increase the environmental performance of overall waste
management.
The main aims of hospital waste management are:
Minimizing risk for personnel, the general public and the environment;
Under the framework of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements
of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Technical Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound
Management of Biomedical and Health-Care Waste has been published (Basel Convention
Secretariat 2002). Use and application of these guidelines, which provide detailed information
on the hazards of health-care waste, safe management of health-care waste, the proper
segregation and collection of wastes, treatment and disposal methods, and capacity building,
is strongly advised.
2
36
Radioactive waste;
For the purpose of these guidelines, the following definitions are taken from Technical
Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound Management of Biomedical and Health-Care Waste
(Basel Convention Secretariat 2002).
Infectious health-care waste5
2.1
Discarded materials or equipment contaminated with blood and its derivatives, other body
fluids or excreta from infected patients with hazardous communicable diseases. Contaminated
waste from patients known to have blood-borne infections undergoing haemodialysis (e.g.,
dialysis equipment such as tubing and filters, disposable sheets, linen, aprons, gloves or
laboratory coats contaminated with blood);
Laboratory waste (cultures and stocks with any viable biological agents artificially cultivated
to significantly elevated numbers, including dishes and devices used to transfer, inoculate and
mix cultures of infectious agents and infected animals from laboratories).
2.2
All body parts and other anatomical waste including blood and biological fluids and
pathological waste that is recognizable by the public or the health-care staff and that demand,
for ethical reasons, special disposal requirements.
2.3
Sharps
All biomedical and health-care waste with sharps or pointed parts able to cause an injury or an
invasion of the skin barrier in the human body. Sharps from infected patients with hazardous
communicable diseases, isolated wards or other pointed parts contaminated with the abovementioned laboratory waste must be categorized as infectious waste.
2
Prior to efficient and state-of-the-art treatment and disposal a number of practices are
considered necessary. These practices are not directly linked to the reduction and avoidance of
chemicals listed in Annex C but represent general principles that can influence the generation
of waste fractions and contribute to the safety of personnel, the public and the environment.
For more detailed information ample material concerning health-care waste management is
available from different sources (Basel Convention Secretariat 2002; WHO 2000; Health Care
without Harm, 2004).
In the establishment of a proper health-care waste management plan it is necessary to:
37
Identify options to avoid or reduce waste generation (package sizes, stock keeping,
evaluate work processes, reuse of equipment where feasible);
Describe the appropriate treatment options for the different waste fractions;
The interpretation of the definition of infectious health-care waste varies according to national
circumstances, policies and regulations. International organizations (WHO, the United Nations, etc.)
have specific interpretations of the definition. Infectiousness is one of the hazardous characteristics
listed in Annex III to the Basel Convention and defined under class H6.2.
Describe the transport of the waste fraction to the final disposal location and the type
of final treatment;
Source reduction
Source reduction means minimising or eliminating the generation of waste at the source itself.
Source reduction should have a higher priority than recycling or reuse. Medical staff, waste
managers, and product standardisation committees should be aware of what proportions of the
waste stream are generated by the products they buy. Indeed, the close involvement of
purchasing staff is critical to the effectiveness of any source reduction scheme. Steps should
be taken to reduce at source regulated medical waste, hazardous waste, low-level radioactive
waste, as well as regular trash. Some specific source reduction techniques include (having in
mind that alternative products have to meet the relevant requirements in terms of hygiene and
patient safety):
o
Preferential purchasing
3.2
Segregation
Above all, segregation is the key to effective health-care waste management. It ensures that
correct disposal routes are taken. Segregation should be carried out under the supervision of
the waste producer and as close as possible to the point of generation. Segregation must
therefore take place at source, that is, in the ward, at the bedside, in the theatre, in the
laboratory, in the delivery room, etc., and must be carried out by the person generating the
waste, for example the nurse, the doctor or the specialist, in order to secure the waste
immediately and to avoid dangerous secondary sorting.
3.3
Means recovery and reuse of materials from the waste stream. Some specific examples
include:
o
3.4
Training of personnel
38
Classification and codes of the different waste fractions and their classification
criteria;
Responsibilities;
3.5
Provide small bins for the disposal of the different waste fractions at suitable places;
Proper packaging of the waste: Bags/containers for infectious waste and sharps
should be puncture resistant and leak proof. Either solid drums or bags which are
placed within a rigid or semi-rigid container having a capacity of 3060 litres should
be used. The containers may be recyclable (stainless steel) or single use (thick
cardboard or rigid polyethylene). Full containers should have a locking or sealing
device;
No overloading of containers;
3.6
Once the primary containers are full they must be taken to an intermediate storage
area;
Establish a designated storage area (clean conditions, facilities for cleaning, washing
or disinfecting the containers) where access is only allowed for authorized personnel;
Personnel handling the waste must wear protective clothing (gloves, shoes) during
collection, transportation and storage;
When deciding on waste disposal from health-care activities, priority consideration should be
given to alternative processes, techniques or practices that have similar usefulness but which
avoid the formation and release of chemicals listed in Annex C.
Due to the high investment, operational, maintenance and monitoring costs of waste
incinerators using best available techniques, economical and effective plant operation is
seldom achieved, especially for small hospital incinerators. This is also indicated by the fact
that many small plants have been shut down instead of being retrofitted. Therefore,
centralized incineration units are preferred to decentralized on-site treatment of health-care
waste. Incineration of medical waste should then be an integral part of the countries or regions
waste management plan. Health-care waste incineration lines operated on the same site as, for
39
example, municipal waste incineration will result in synergy effects and increased economic
viability.
4
Existing sources
Due to the poor design, operation, equipment and monitoring of many existing small hospital
incinerators these installations cannot be regarded as employing best available techniques. A
medical waste incinerator without sophisticated pollution abatement devices releases a wide
variety of pollutants, including PCDD/PCDF, metals (such as lead, mercury and cadmium),
particulate matter, acid gases (hydrogen chloride (HCl) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2)), carbon
monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These emissions have serious adverse
consequences on workers safety, public health and the environment.
The cost of retrofitting old plants is a key factor in the consideration of medical waste
disposal. In evaluating the costs of a incineration unit employing BAT, decision makers
should take into account several factors, including: capital and operating costs of the
incinerator plus scrubber and other pollution control devices; the cost of secondary chamber
retrofits for old incinerators; the costs of periodic stack testing, continuous monitoring,
operator training and qualification; and the costs of maintenance and repair, especially in
relation to refractory wear or failure.
As a consequence, the shutdown of existing inappropriate plants has to be considered along
with the introduction of alternative techniques for waste disposal or the transfer of waste to
centralized municipal or hazardous waste incineration units.
5
Alternative techniques
The following alternative techniques do not result in the formation and release of chemicals
listed in Annex C and should therefore be given priority consideration for their ultimate
elimination. However, they might have advantages and drawbacks in other respects. For more
information on these techniques see Technical Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound
Management of Biomedical and Health-Care Waste (Basel Convention Secretariat 2002).
The following methods are suitable for infectious and biological waste and sharps and are
widely applied.6 The establishment of an effective waste management programme, as
described in subsection 3 of the present section, is essential for all the techniques described
below. Hazardous chemical waste, chemotherapeutic waste, volatile organic compounds,
mercury and radioactive waste should not be fed into the systems described here, as this
would result in the release of toxic substances into air, condensate or into the treated waste.
Alternative techniques such as sterilisation techniques, microwave treatment, alkaline
hydrolysis and biological treatment still requires final disposal in sanitary landfills.
Workers should be provided with training in such skills as the proper handling of waste and
equipment operation and maintenance.
Health care facilities should consider the following factors when selecting a non-incineration
technology (Health CareWithout Harm Europe, 2004):
40
Regulatory acceptance
Throughput capacity
Cost data on the various techniques can be obtained from Non-Incineration Medical Waste
Treatment Technologies, chapter 11 (Health Care Without Harm 2001).
6.1
Space requirements
Waste reduction
Noise
Odour
Automation
Reliability
Level of commercialisation
Cost
Steam sterilizing or autoclaving is the exposure of waste to saturated steam under pressure in
a pressure vessel or autoclave. The technology does not render waste unrecognizable and does
not reduce the waste volume unless a shredder or grinder is added. If waste streams are not
properly segregated to prevent hazardous chemicals (e.g. antineoplastic drugs or heavy metals
such as mercury) from being fed into the treatment chamber, toxic contaminants will be
released into the air, condensate, or in the treated waste. Offensive odours containing low
levels of alcohol, phenols, aldehydes, and other organic compounds can be generated but can
be minimized by proper air handling equipment (e.g. by particulate and carbon filters). More
independent emission tests of autoclaves operating under typical conditions would be useful.
Autoclaves are available in a wide range of sizes, from units that treat a few kilograms per
cycle to several tons per cycle. Capital costs are relatively low compared to other alternative
techniques. Autoclaves have to be inspected at least annually to determine if there are any
significant changes from the previous temperature-time profiles, vacuum and steam pressure
readings.
The treatment cycle (minimum requirement is 121 C for 30 minutes) is determined by the
ability of the heat to penetrate the waste load. Some types of waste or loading configurations
that create barriers to heat transfer require longer exposure times and/or higher temperatures.
The proper level of disinfection has to be controlled by appropriate means (for example, test
strips, microbiological tests).
6.2
Advanced autoclaves or advanced steam sterilization systems combine steam treatment with
prevacuuming and various kinds of mechanical processing before, during, and after steam
treatment. Many of the advanced systems also include automated waste feed systems; posttreatment vacuum/dehydration; cooling of treated waste; and high-efficiency particulate air
filtration and/or carbon filters to remove odours.
41
Advanced systems with internal shredders or grinders are capable of treating sharps waste as
well as pathological waste, including anatomical parts. Drawbacks include the relatively
higher capital costs, and the noise generation and higher maintenance costs associated with
the shredders and other mechanical devices.
As with steam sterilization advanced steam sterilization requires proper waste segregation to
avoid releases of hazardous substances into different media (see 6.1).
6.3
Microwave treatment
Dry heat sterilization is the exposure of the waste to heat at a temperature and for a time
sufficient to ensure sterilization of the entire waste load. As a general rule, dry heat processes
use higher temperatures and longer exposure times than steam-based processes. Internal
shredding is usually included (reduction of waste volume). The technology is simple,
automated and easy to use.
Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, chemotherapeutic wastes, mercury, other
hazardous chemical wastes, and radiological wastes should not be treated in a dry heat
system. Offensive odours can occur which are removed in some systems with high-efficiency
particulate air and/or carbon filters. The hot air from the chamber is cooled in a venturi
scrubber which also removes particulates. Still there are some odours in the vicinity of the
unit.
6.5
Alkaline hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis (or heated alkali digestion) is another chemical process used for the
breakdown of organic materials. The same process can degrade bulk chemotherapeutic agents,
formaldehyde, fixatives and other toxic chemicals. A typical process uses a sealed stainless
steel tank where waste is mixed with alkali heated to around 110 to 150 C. Depending on
the amount of waste, alkali concentration and temperature, the process of digestion can take 3
to 8 hours. Commercial systems are highly automated. Proper treatment of waste and liquids
from alkaline hydrolysis is necessary. Another issue relates to occupational exposures to the
chemical disinfectant itself through fugitive emissions, accidental leaks or spills from storage
containers, discharges from the treatment unit, volatilised chemicals from treated waste or
liquid effluent, etc. Chemical disinfectants are sometimes stored in concentrated form thus
increasing the hazards.
Since chemical processes usually require shredding, the release of pathogens through aerosol
formation may be a concern. Chemicalbased technologies commonly operate as closed
systems or under negative pressure passing their air exhaust through HEPA and other filters.
6.6
42
Biological treatment
Landfill
Disposing of infectious wastes into a landfill greatly increases the risks to human health and
the environment of exposure to infection from this source. If the waste is disturbed by any
means, or not properly covered, further risks will arise. It is therefore not good practice to
dispose of infectious waste directly into a landfill. To guard against these risks, where landfill
is the only available option, infectious wastes should be treated in order to destroy their
infectivity, preferably at the site of generation of the waste. This can be done by using known
effective techniques such as autoclaving, microwave treatment, dry heat sterilization or
chemical disinfection (not using chlorine-based chemicals). Other factors of environmental
concern (for example, groundwater pollution, dust emissions, odour) must also be considered.
Figure 1 (Basel Convention Secretariat 2002, chapter 2, Figure 2, adapted) shows into which
waste fractions the health-care waste should be segregated and the appropriate treatment
options for these fractions.
43
Alternative
techniques:
sterilization and shredding,
Section V: Guidelines/guidance by source category: Part II of Annex C
microwave
treatment,
alkaline
hydrolysis
Figure 1. Segregation and treatment options(subsequent
for health-care
waste
treatment
of
residues)
Types
waste
of
health-care
Appropriate treatment
options
Hazardous/medical
incineration
Biological waste
(human anatomical
waste), waste with
blood and body
fluids (not
Alternative
techniques:
sterilization,
microwave
treatment,
alkaline
hydrolysis
(subsequent
treatment of residues)
Municipal waste incineration
(specially adapted for this
purpose); Medical waste
incineration
Sharps (not
infectious)
Chemical, toxic or
pharmaceutical
waste including
cytotoxic drugs
Radioactive waste
44
Special
treatment
(e.g.
crematoria for amputated
body parts)
Municipal waste incineration
(specially adapted for this
purpose); medical waste
incineration
Alternative
techniques:
grinding
and
shredding
(subsequent landfill)
Return
of
pharmaceuticals
Healthcare
waste
waste
Other hazardous
waste (not
exclusive to the
health-care sector)
Health-care waste
with the same
composition as
household and
municipal waste
old
waste:
disposal
for
Municipal
waste
disposal
7.1
Process description
Incineration is an important method for the treatment and decontamination of biomedical and
health-care waste. This subsection gives guidance on the incineration of the following
(mostly) hazardous waste fractions: infectious health-care waste, biological health-care waste
and sharps.
Incineration is a high-temperature (850 to 1,100 C) dry oxidation process that reduces
organic and combustible waste to inorganic, incombustible matter and results in a very
significant reduction of waste volume and weight.
Semi-pyrolysis is a process of smouldering whereby thermal conversion occurs in an oxygendeficient atmosphere at a temperature between 500 and 600 C.
Incineration or pyrolysis should only be carried out in well designed plants. The system
should be designed to cope with the specific characteristics of hazardous health-care waste
(high water content, high plastic content). As the following technologies are rather
sophisticated only hazardous waste fractions should be burned in these plants. Other healthcare waste which is similar to municipal waste should be segregated in advance and be
subject to different waste treatment technologies. On-site facilities (i.e. in the hospital) are
usually equipped with incinerators up to a capacity of 1 ton per day.
If infectious waste is not burned immediately (during 48 hours) it must be deposited in a
cooled storage room (10 C max.). Working and storage areas should be designed to facilitate
disinfection.
An incineration plant basically consists of the following units (Figure 2):
45
Furnace or kiln;
Afterburning chamber;
Dry, wet and/or catalytic flue gas cleaning devices (including adsorption techniques);
Waste-water treatment plant (in case wet systems are used for flue gas treatment).
Ashes
Flue gas
cleaning
Waste water
Flue gas
Air
Furnace (plus
afterburning
chamber)
Steam
Heat recovery
Waste
Waste water
Water discharge
Waste-water
treatment
Sludges
treatment)
(require
The following firing technologies are considered best available techniques for the thermal treatment of
health-care waste:
46
Rotary kiln;
Grate incinerator specially adapted for infectious health-care waste (municipal waste
disposal line);
Modular systems.
Single-chamber, drum and brick incinerators are not considered best available techniques.
7.2
Incinerator types
7.2.1
Pyrolytic incinerator
Pyrolysis plants with afterburning chambers are usually small plants operating in a
discontinuous mode. Health-care waste is packed in barrels or bags for charging. Larger
plants should be equipped with automatic loading devices. At plants with degassing or
gasification systems, drying, degassing and gasification take place in a reactor prior to
combustion.
Waste is introduced discontinuously into a distillation chamber, which is heated up to a
sufficient temperature to distil the waste. Gases leaving the distillation chamber are mixed
with a continuous airflow in the afterburning chamber and held at a temperature of about 900
C by co-firing of natural gas. If the quantity of distilled gas is too high the volume of fired
natural gas will be reduced automatically. Combustion gases leaving the afterburning chamber
are cooled in a downstream hot water boiler and routed to a flue gas cleaning system. The
boiler converts water into steam. The steam can be used to produce electricity to run a
hospital, homes or businesses. The smouldering process is carried out periodically. In order to
ensure sufficient burnout of the ash it is fired with gas burners before it is discharged from the
distillation chamber. At small plants fluctuations in throughput and variations in combusted
waste content are compensated by the auxiliary fuels.
In pyrolysis plants the dust content of flue gases is small compared to conventional
combustion systems. However, there is great demand for additional fuels, so that
consequently high volumes of flue gas are formed.
Typical incinerator capacities (on-site treatment): 200 kg to 10 tons per day.
7.2.2
Rotary kiln
Another technology used is the rotary kiln (see also section V.A (i), paragraph 10.2 of the
present guidelines). The combustion of health-care waste can be performed in either small
rotary kilns (for example, in the hospital) or, more commonly, in larger plants used for the
combustion of several hazardous waste fractions.
Wastes are delivered by crane from the bunker into the waste chute, which is located in front
of the firing chamber. In most cases a sluice is integrated into the chute where waste can
directly be fed into the rotary kiln. Highly viscous and liquid wastes can be inserted through
the front wall of the rotary kiln. As a result of the slope and the rotation of the rotary kiln,
wastes are transported and circulated, which leads to intensive contact with primary air that
flows through the rotary kiln. In contrast to grate firings rotary kilns are closed systems.
Therefore liquid and highly viscous materials can also be inserted. Exhaust gases coming out
of the rotary kiln are treated in an afterburning chamber. In order to ensure the high
temperatures necessary for complete destruction of organic compounds (8501,200 C,
depending on the waste) afterburning chambers are equipped with burners that automatically
start when the temperature falls below the given value.
At the end of the rotary kiln slag, either sintered or melted, arises. By dropping this into the
water of the deslagging unit, granulated slag is formed. When the slag is sintered, this part of
47
the plant is similar to that of a grate firing system. Rotary kilns and afterburning chambers are
in most cases constructed as adiabatic, ceramically lined combustion chambers. After the
combustion chamber flue gases pass a void zone until a temperature of about 700 C is
reached. Subsequently heating bundles such as evaporators, superheaters and feed water
preheaters are arranged. The waste heat boiler and energy supply system is comparable to that
of grate firing systems.
Incinerator capacities: 0.5 to 3 tons per hour (for health-care waste incineration).
7.2.3
Grate incinerator
Fluidized bed incinerators are widely applied to the incineration of finely divided wastes such
as refuse-derived fuel and sewage sludge. The method has been used for decades, mainly for
the combustion of homogeneous fuels. The fluidized bed incinerator is a lined combustion
chamber in the form of a vertical cylinder. In the lower section, a bed of inert material (for
example, sand or ash) on a grate or distribution plate is fluidized with air. The waste for
incineration is continuously fed into the fluidized sand bed from the top or side (see also
section V.A (i), subparagraph 11.2.2 of the present guidelines).
Preheated air is introduced into the combustion chamber via openings in the bed plate,
forming a fluidized bed with the sand contained in the combustion chamber. The waste is fed
to the reactor via a pump, a star feeder or a screw-tube conveyor. In the fluidized bed drying,
volatilization, ignition and combustion take place. The temperature in the free space above the
bed (the freeboard) is generally between 850 and 950 C. Above the fluidized bed material,
the free board is designed to allow retention of the gases in a combustion zone. In the bed
itself the temperature is lower, and may be around 650 C. Because of the well-mixed nature
of the reactor, fluidized bed incineration systems generally have a uniform distribution of
temperatures and oxygen, which results in stable operation. For heterogeneous wastes,
fluidized bed combustion requires a preparatory process step for the waste so that it conforms
to size specifications. For some waste this may be achieved by a combination of selective
collection of wastes or pretreatment, such as shredding. Some types of fluidized beds (for
example, the rotating fluidized bed) can receive larger particle size wastes than others. Where
this is the case the waste may only require a rough size reduction, or none at all.
7.2.5
Modular systems
Modular systems are a general type of (municipal solid) waste incinerator used widely in the United
States of America, Europe and Asia (see section V.A (i), paragraph 10.3 of the present guidelines).
Modular incinerators consist of two vertically mounted combustion chambers (a primary and secondary
chamber). In modular configurations combustion capacity typically ranges from 1 to 270 tons per day.
There are two major types of modular systems, excess air and starved air:
48
The modular excess air system consists of a primary and a secondary combustion chamber,
both of which operate with air levels in excess of stoichiometric requirements (i.e., 100250%
excess air);
In the starved (or controlled) air type of modular system, air is supplied to the primary
chamber at substoichiometric levels. The products of incomplete combustion entrain in the
combustion gases that are formed in the primary combustion chamber and then pass into a
secondary combustion chamber. Excess air is added to the secondary chamber, and
combustion is completed by elevated temperatures sustained with auxiliary fuel (usually
natural gas). The high, uniform temperature of the secondary chamber, combined with the
turbulent mixing of the combustion gases, results in low levels of particulate matter and
organic contaminants being formed and emitted. Therefore, many existing modular units are
not accompanied by post-combustion air pollution control devices. On an uncontrolled basis,
modular incinerators generally have lower emissions than other types of municipal solid
waste incinerators.
7.2.6
Flue gases from incinerators contain fly ash (particulates) composed of heavy metals,
PCDD/PCDF, thermally resistant organic compounds, and gases such as nitrogen oxides,
sulphur oxides, carbon oxides and hydrogen halides. Flue gases resulting from uncontrolled
batch mode (no flue gas cleaning) will contain around 2,000 ng TEQ/m (source: UNEP
2003).7
The following flue gas cleaning measures have to be combined in a suitable manner to ensure
the application of best available techniques (cross reference to cross cutting considerations
should be included here):
Removal of hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF), sulphur dioxide (SO 2)
and mercury: The removal of acid components and mercury can be achieved by
different dry or wet adsorption methods (adsorption on activated coke or lime) as well
as by scrubbing (1-stage or 2-stage wet scrubbing);
Removal of nitrogen oxides (NOx): Primary measures consist in the use of low-NO x
burners, staged combustion and recirculation of the flue gas; secondary measures are
selective catalytic reduction and selective non-catalytic reduction;
7.2.7
The main waste fractions are fly ash, slag, filter cake from the waste-water treatment, gypsum
and loaded activated carbon. These wastes are predominantly hazardous wastes and have to
7
49
1 ng (nanogram) = 1 10 -12 kilogram (1 10-9 gram); Nm3 = normal cubic metre, dry gas
volume measured at 0 C and 101.3 kPa. For information on toxicity measurement see section I.C,
paragraph 3 of the present guidelines.
Description
of
Alternative
processes
Considerations
Other comments
Clear
classification,
segregation at source of
health-care waste from
other waste and within the
health-care waste category
to minimize the amount of
waste to be treated
In particular, if performance
requirements cannot be met
by the existing or planned
facility,
priority
consideration should be
given
to
alternative
processes with potentially
less environmental impacts
than waste incineration
steam
Microwave treatment
Dry heat sterilization
Biological treatment
Alkaline hydrolysis
Landfill
Performance
requirements for
incineration
plants
Health-care
waste
incineration plants should
be permitted to achieve
stringent performance and
reporting
requirements
associated
with
best
available techniques
Consideration should be
given to the primary and
secondary measures listed in
Tables 5 and 6 below
Performance
requirements
achievement
include:
for
should
Considerations
Other comments
Pyrolytic incinerator
Rotary kiln
50
Fluidized
incinerator
Modular systems
bed
Ranges from 1 to 270 tons per day
Release characteristics
Other considerations
Be also aware of a possible heavy
metal content in the waste and take
the appropriate secondary measures
51
Considerations
Well-trained personnel
Operation and monitoring of the incinerator by
periodic maintenance (cleaning of combustion
chamber, declogging of air inflows and fuel burners,
personnel should wear protective clothing)
Regular and/or continuous measurement of the
relevant pollutants
Development
of
environmental
monitoring
(establishing standard monitoring protocols)
Development and implementation of audit and
reporting systems
General infrastructure, paving, ventilation
Environmental impact assessment, public hearings
and community input prior to siting of new
incinerators
Release characteristics
Other
considerations
The
primary
measures
described here should be
standard for all activities. By
applying primary measures a
performance around 200 ng
TEQ/m can be achieved
(source: UNEP 2003)
Retrofitting of the
whole process needed
Average
oxygen
content: 6% vol.
Sufficient
residence
time
is
required
especially because of
the plastic and water
content of the waste
52
Release characteristics
Other
considerations
Optimized air inflow
contributes to higher
temperatures
As it is unlikely that a performance level lower than 0.1 ng TEQ/m can be met solely with
primary measures, the secondary measures outlined in Table 6 should be considered. Best
available techniques for flue gas cleaning consist of a suitable combination of the options
listed in Table 6 (efficient dedusting assisted by equipment to reduce PCDD/PCDF
emissions).
Table 6. Secondary measures
Management options
Release
characteristics
Applicability
Other considerations
Dedusting
Avoiding particle deposition
by soot cleaners, mechanical
rappers, sonic or steam soot
blowers, frequent cleaning of
sections which are passed by
flue gas at the critical
temperature range
< 10 % remaining
emission
in
comparison
to
uncontrolled mode
Medium
Removal of PCDD/PCDF
adsorbed onto particles
Fabric filters
10.1% remaining
emission
Higher
Ceramic filters
Low efficiency
Low efficiency
Electrostatic precipitation
Medium
efficiency
53
Only efficient
particles
for
larger
Management options
Release
characteristics
Applicability
Other considerations
emissions, reduction of heat
recovery
High-performance adsorption
unit with added activated
charcoal
particles
(electrodynamic venturi)
High efficiency
3
High
investment,
low operating
costs
Gas quenching
Fabric filter
catalyst
Only
for
gaseous
compounds,
previous
removal of heavy metals and
dust necessary, additional
NOx reduction if NH3 is
added; high space demand,
catalysts can be reprocessed
by manufacturers in most
cases, overheating when too
much CO present, higher
energy consumption due to
reheating of flue gas; no
solid residues
Not common
incinerators
coated
with
High efficiency
in
waste
Different types of wet and dry adsorption methods with mixtures of activated charcoal, open hearth
coke, lime and limestone solutions in fixed bed, moving bed and fluidized bed reactors:
Fixed bed reactor, adsorption
with activated charcoal or open
hearth coke
54
High
investment,
medium
operating costs
Management options
Release
characteristics
Applicability
Other considerations
risk
55
of
plasma
(emerging
Low
investment,
medium
operating costs
7.1.1
References
Basel Convention Secretariat. 2002. Technical Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound
Management of Biomedical and Health-Care Waste. Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, UNEP, Geneva.
CCME (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment). 2001. Canada-Wide Standards
for
Dioxins
and
Furans
for
Incineration.
CCME,
Winnipeg.
www.ccme.ca/initiatives/standards.html?category_id=50#23.
EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 1997. Standards of Performance for
New Stationary Sources and Emission Guidelines for Existing Sources:
Hospital/Medical/Infectious Waste Incinerators: Final Rule. 40 CFR Part 60. EPA,
Washington, D.C. www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-AIR/1997/September/Day-15/a23835.htm.
EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2000. Federal Plan Requirements for
Hospital/Medical/Infectious Waste Incinerators Constructed on or before June 20, 1996:
Final Rule. 40 CFR Part 62. EPA, Washington, D.C. www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPAAIR/2000/August/Day-15/a20341.htm.
EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2004. National Emission Standards
for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Proposed Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for
Hazardous Waste Combustors. Draft. EPA, Washington, D.C. www.epa.gov/fedrgstr.
European Commission. 2000. Directive 2000/76/EC on the Incineration of Waste. Official
Journal of the European Communities L332:91.
European Commission. 2005. Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Waste
Incineration. BAT Reference Document (BREF), Final Draft, May 2005. European IPPC
Bureau, Seville, Spain. eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm.
Health Care Without Harm. 2001. Non-Incineration Medical Waste Treatment Technologies.
Chapter
11.
Health
Care
Without
Harm,
Washington,
D.C.
www.noharm.org/nonincineration.
Health Care Without Harm Europe. 2004. Non-Incineration Medical Waste Treatment
Technologies in Europe. June 2004. www.noharm.org.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2003. Standardized Toolkit for
Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan Releases. UNEP, Geneva.
www.pops.int/documents/guidance/Toolkit_2003.pdf.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2000. Handbook for Safe Management of Wastes from
Health Care Activities. WHO, Geneva.
Other sources
BMLFUW/Umweltbundesamt. 2003. State of the Art for Waste Incineration Plants. Vienna.
Giroletti E. and Lodola L. 1993. Waste Treatment and Management. Medical Waste
Treatment; ISPRA courses. unipv.it/webgiro/ricerch/Public/ISPRA93-medicalWaste.pdf.
Institute for Environmental Medicine and Hospital Hygiene. 2000. Practical Guide for
Optimising the Disposal of Hospital Waste: Reduction and Utilisation of Hospital Waste, with
the Focus on Hazardous, Toxic and Infectious Waste. LIFE96ENV/D/10. University Clinical
Centre, Freiburg.
UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe). 1998. Protocol to the 1979
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
New York and Geneva. www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1998.POPs.e.pdf.
56
57