If

LECER B!
AND THE
CUBIST SPIRIT
1919-1939 I

I
Published in conjunction with the exhibition "Picasso, Braque, Leger and the Cubist
Spirit, 1919-1939" at the Portland MiiseiimofArt, Maine, June 29 -October 20, 1996.

The Portland Museum of Art gratefully acknowledges Scott M. Black

whose leadership and generosity made this exhibition possible.

KeyBank
This exhibition is also funded by a major grant from Key Bank
with additional support from the
Portland Press Herald/Maine Sunday Telegram
and the French Embassy to the United States.

Edited by Susan L. Ransom, Portland, Maine

Designed by Michael Mahan Graphics, Bath, Maine

Printed by J.S. McCarthy Company, Augusta, Maine

Published by the Portland Museum of Art

Seven Congress Square, Portland, Maine 04101

Copyright 1996 by the Trustees of the Portland Museum of Art, Maine.

All rights reserved.

Distributed by the University of Washington Press,

P.O. Box 50096, Seattle, WA 98145-5096.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-068506

ISBN: 0-916857-08-5

See inside back cover for additional notices.

mns i i o\ i k

. Woman

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5/8 x 15 in.,
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PICASSO
BRAQUE
LE6ER
AND THE
CUBIST SPIRIT
1919-1939

Kenneth Wayne

with an essay by
Christopher Green

Portland Museum of Art

Portland, Maine
1996
 Preface

PICASSO, BRAQUE, i.iU.ir AND THE CUBIST si'iRii, 1919-1939 is devoted to art and design in France
between the wars, in an effort to dispel the perception that Cubism was only a pie-World War 1

phenomenon. After the war, cubist painting became more varied, colorful, and accessible, and
began to affect other media such as furniture, fashion, cinema and architecture. What had begun as a rar-

efied pictorial style became a popular language. The first essay addresses Picasso's abundant and .

cubist painting. The second essay treats the art of three major Cubists-Picasso, Braque, and Leger-in the

context of the various cubist idioms that developed. The third essay, also broad in scope, examines the sig-

nificant relationship between Cubism and the decorative arts in France.

The Portland Museum of Art is deeply grateful to the lenders of the exhibition, whose names are i

in the checklist and on page 64, and most especially to Marina Picasso, the artist's granddaughter. V.

would like to thank the following individuals for their assistance: Brigitte Adams, Neal Benezra,
Emmanuel Benador, Robert J. Boardingham, Peter Boris, Sophie Bowness, William Camfield, Elaine
Lustig Cohen, James Cuno, Christian Delacampagne, Carol Eliel, Hilarie Faberman, Cail Feingarten,
Evelyne Ferlay, Judith Fox, Judi Freeman, Audrey Friedman, Barry Friedman, Denis Gallion, Ivan Gaskell.
Deanna M. Griffin, Jonathan Hallam, Anne Coffin Hanson, Anne d'Harnoncourt, Melissa Ho, Laura

Ingrassia, Joseph Ketner, Sarah Kianovsky, Billy Kluver, Jan Krugier, Marina Mangubi, Haim Manishevitz,
Julie Martin, John McDonald, Charles Moffett, Jack Mognaz, Steven Nash, Kelly Pask, Christopher
Pearson, Earl Powell III, Maria Prather, Richard Rand, Daniel Rosenfeld, Eliza Rathbone, Mark Rosenthal.
Malcolm Rogers, Rona Roob, Cora Rosavear, David Ryan, Joellen Secondo, W. Michael Sheehe. Gary
Snyder, Ann Temkin, Pamela Trimpe, Nancy J. Troy, Elizabeth Hutton Turner, Kirk varnedoe, Susan Vbgd,
Eva White, Jake Wien, and Judith Zilczer.

I am particularly grateful to our distinguished guest contributor, Professor Christopher Green o\ the

Courtauld Institute of Art in London, for his participation. My wife, Olivia Mattis, provided invaluable
assistance with the catalogue.

Here at the Portland Museum of Art, I would like to extend my warm thanks to the following

leagues for their considerable support with the exhibition organization and installation, as well as the cat-

alogue preparation: Michele Butterfield, Lorena Coffin, Aprile Gallant, Stuart Hunter, fesska Nicoll.
Beverly Parsons, Barbara Sherburne, and Gregory Welch. I am especially grateful to Daniel 0*1

Director, and the Board of Trustees, whose complete commitment assured the success ot this pro.

Finally, I would like to express my profound gratitude to the exhibition's sponsors: Key Bank, the
Portland Press Herald/Maine Sunday Telegram, and the French Embassy to the United

Black, ever loyal to our institution, provided a major grant, and shared his extensive know led;.:,
art and artists.

Kenneth Wayne, Joan Whitney Payson Curator

1 1

l
:
ig. I Fernand 1 gei
;(> Women, 1922
oil on canvas
35 3/4x23 in.

National Gallery ol Art, Washington, D.C

ciiii (partial) ol Richard S. Zeisla
 Sponsor's Statement

EARLIEST exposure to FRENCH paintings occurred during my childhood. My mother

My
Rouen Cathedral.
accompanied

I remember
me at
recollect that the upstairs
the age of five to the

rotunda was
the bright colors and
Museum
filled
of Fine Arts in Boston where

with Monet's paintings of haystacks and the

playful light of Monsieur Monet. In
I distinctly

our home, my
mother had hung notable reproductions ranging from Renoir's Madame Charpentier and her Children to

Picasso's Lovers. Given my economic background, I never expected to own paintings by these French

masters.

In 1984, I attended my first evening auction and surprisingly discovered that good quality
Impressionist works were affordable. Naturally, as an admirer of Monet, I vigorously pursued the pur-

chase of a dazzling landscape. In 1986, my dream was fulfilled with the acquisition of the Vue de Cap
Martin of 1884, a resplendent image at the Cote d'Azur. As the Japanese bid the Impressionists to dizzy-

ing heights, my focus shifted toward affordable works of the twentieth century. Having visited the Musee
Leger in Biot frequently, I was particularly fond of Leger's bold colors and compositions. My Still Life of
1929 incorporates elements of tubular Cubism and Leger's fascination with the movie projector. While
Leger's paintings of 1913 celebrate the contrast of forms, my painting highlights the contrast of colors.
Only in the past three years has my eye gravitated toward the work of Georges Braque. Throughout his
life, from the Fauve period to the late Atelier series, Braque was a true genius. With the advent of Cubism
in 1908, Braque radically altered the manner in which we view the world. The application to painting of

such everyday activities as stenciling and papier colli were the inventions of his fertile mind.
My acquisition of the 1934 Portrait of Marie-The'rese Walter by Pablo Picasso was a monumental coup.
Quite simply, I consider Picasso the greatest master of this century. This double portrait synthesizes ele-

ments of Cubism and Surrealism with the colorful palette of his 1930s tableaux. While small in size, my
Portrait of Marie-Therese Walter exudes a strong presence in a museum gallery.

As a native son of Portland, I am extremely pleased to help sponsor this wonderful cubist exhibition,
for great art should be exhibited in Maine. Cubism represents a major breakthrough in the evolution of
art. Like Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo, who have came before them, Picasso, Braque, and Leger
will stand the test of time.

Scott M. Black
 Table of Contents

Picasso'sGuiding Spirit
Kenneth Wayne

Late Cubism(s) >>

Christopher Green

Cubism and Modern French Design

Kenneth Wayne

Exhibition Checklist 54

Chronology 62

Lenders to the Exhibition

 Kenneth Wayne

Picasso's Guiding Spirit

WORKED IN THREE MARKEDLY DIFFERENT STYLES between the wars:

PICASSO Cubism, Neo-Classicism, and Surrealism. He did so not consecutively, but often at

the same time, and even in the same work. The Cubism of Picasso's interwar art

has received relatively little attention compared to the other two "new" styles, even

though it played a major role in at least a third of the artist's enormous interwar

production, including his most famous works of the period.' As the critic E. Teriade wrote in 1929,

"Cubism is [Picasso's] guiding spirit.... Picasso never lets go of an idea. He pursues it on several levels

at once, he experiments with it in different 'contexts' and devotes his full creative energy to it." Between

1919 and 1939, Picasso combined Cubism by turns with high-pitched emotion, dramatic variations of

scale, a broad range of subject matter, and dazzling colors. In 1936, Alfred Barr, director of the Museum

of Modern Art, described Picasso's recent use of Cubism as being of "extreme variety." More than any

other artist, Picasso took Cubism to new expressive heights between the wars.

LEFT
Fig. 2 Pablo Picasso
Harlequin Musician, 1924
oil on canvas
51 1/2x38 1/4 in.
National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Given in

loving memory other

husband. Tali Schreiber,

by Rita Schreiber, 1989.31.:.

KlC.il I

Fig. 3 Pablo Picasso

Composition with Glass, 1923
oilon plywood
8.V8 x 13 1/8 in,
Marina Picasso Collection
(Inv. 12320). Courtesy ol fan

Krugier Gallery, New York

AH<>\ 1

Pablo Picasso
This period of Picasso's art falls into three distinct segments. From 1919 to
Fig. 4

Still lite with il (imliir

1925, synthetic Cubism, which renders subjects through overlapping planes that
and a Compote
(The Mandolin), 1923 reaffirm the flatness of the picture surface, dominated his art. Still lifes and enter-
oil on canvas
31 3/4 x 39 7/16 in. tainers were his primary subjects, culminating in the Three Dancers of 1925.
Philadelphia Museum <>l

Art A.E. Gallatin From 1925 to 1932, Picasso focused his energies on exploring Surrealism,
<. .Ilea ion, 52-61-98.
concerning himself with the subconcious and the dream state. From 1932 to the

Second World War, he reintegrated synthetic Cubism into his ceuvre, as well as

analytic Cubism, with its fractured planes and depiction of the subject from
many viewpoints at once. The artist even added new cubist devices to his reper-
toire, namely the use of profiles and silhouettes. Portraits of women,
weeping or unemotional, dominated the 1930s. The climactic work of this peri-

od was Guernica of 1937 (fig. 9), a complex painting filled with emotion.
Picasso's move toward several styles, as well as great variety within the cubist

idiom, could be related to his increased isolation from his peers. As his dealer


Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler recalled, "Picasso [told] me that everything that was

done in the years from 1907 to 1917 could only have been done through team-
work."
4
He noted that it was when Picasso was no longer part of a group that his

art started to move in several directions at once: "Being isolated, being alone,
must have upset him enormously, and it was then that there was this change."

Between the wars, Picasso was alone as an artist. In 1918, he married Olga

Koklova, a ballet dancer, and moved to the Right Bank far from his old friends in

Montparnasse." Moreover, a new dimension and direction to his life were occa-
sioned by the birth of a son, Paulo, in 1921. No longer part of a cohesive group,
Picasso pursued individualistic expressions, cubist and otherwise.
Cubism is often considered an anti-naturalistic phenomenon. On that subject,

Picasso remarked, "[People] speak of naturalism in opposition to modern paint-

ing. I would like to know if anyone has ever seen a natural work of art. Nature and
art, being two different things, cannot be the same thing. Through art we express
7
our conception of what nature is not." Picasso credited photography with
freeing the artist from his obligation to produce naturalistic scenes:

Why should the artist persist in treating subjects that can be established so
clearly with the lens of a camera? It would be absurd, wouldn't it?

Photography has arrived at a point where it is capable of liberating painting

from all literature, from the anecdote, and even from the subject.... So
shouldn't painters profit from their newly acquired liberty, and make use of
it to do other things? 8
Picasso was promoting the idea of using one's imagination, rather than nature, as
the starting point for art.

Still life is the sole subject that Picasso consistently rendered in a cubist man-
9
ner. In 1919, he painted an interesting group of cubist still lifes before an open
window, with the ocean and sky as backdrops. In a self-conscious cubist manner,
the artist draws attention to the existence of two worlds: the man-made and the
natural. This juxtaposition of subjects presages his mixture of styles. Picasso's

game-playing, an ever-present aspect of his work, is in full evidence. In his essay

in the present catalogue, Christopher Green discusses the importance of the the-
ater and theatricality to Picasso who was involved in making set designs
around this time and the fact that the open-window paintings have an artificial

stage-like setting. For Picasso, and his fellow Cubists, the still life was an "unnat-
ural" man-made construction.
Picasso's still lifes of the early 1920s share a pronounced decorative quality
bright colors and patterns, simple pleasing shapes and were created in two
sizes. There are large, monumental compositions with several elements, which
exude luxury and abundance, and usually feature a musical instrument on a

fancy tablecloth, e.g. Still Life with a Guitar and a Compote (The Mandolin) o(
1923 (fig. 4). Within this group is an even more abstract and decorative type,
 such as Still Life of 1922 (fig. 5). Beautiful planes of color dominate, with rows of

stripes adding an attractive flourish. The second category is comprised of very

small paintings that usually feature only one or two objects, as in Composition

with Glass of 1923 (fig. 3). The glass, weightless and massless, is depicted by

merely an outline and a few internal lines. The overlapping planes make these

works prime examples of synthetic Cubism.

The two sizes of still lifes are a reflection of Picasso's private and public lives.

Several observers have commented on the autobiographical nature of Picasso's

RIGH1
hi;. 5 I'abln Picasso art. Picasso himself encouraged such a reading by declaring,"I put all the things
Still Life, I**::

oil on v. .im.iv I like into my pictures."

1

The grand still life reflects his new luxurious domestic

M 1/4x39 in.
Marina PkaSSO ( oUection
situation: he was financially secure (even rich), and upon his marriage to Olga,
(lnv. 1231

Courtesy ofGaleric
he began to frequent the aristocracy. His new residence on the Right Bank was on
Ian Knigier, Geneva,
the fashionable rue de la Boetie, where he eventually acquired a fancy Hispano-
Switzerland
Suiza car and a driver. The small works, usually featuring a single drinking glass,

reflect cafe culture. Indeed, the shape of these smaller pieces is often round or

oval, like a cafe table, as seen in Composition with Glass.

Synthetic Cubism also dominates his famous Three Musicians of 1921. There
are two versions of this enormous painting, one in the collection of the

Philadelphia Museum of Art (fig. 6), and the other at the Museum of Modern
Art. Theodore Reff postulates that the masked figures represent Picasso,

Guillaume Apollinaire, and Max Jacob, and that the paintings are symbolic and
12
nostalgic elegies to Picasso's friends and his bohemian youth. In these paint-

ings, the figures have no sense of dimensionality, but are composed instead of flat
overlapping planes and patterns. The figures resemble paper cutouts that have
been pasted down in collage fashion.

Picasso uses synthetic Cubism in other depictions of entertainers, specifically

the harlequin, of which Harlequin Musician of 1924 (fig. 2) is an example. It too
is composed of flat overlapping planes. The bright colors, presented in the
checkerboard pattern, add to the visual discontinuity. Many writers have sug-

gested that Picasso identified with the harlequin, which was a steady theme in his

art from the Blue Period onward." Picasso may have considered himself to be,

like the harlequin, an entertainer or trickster, from the margins of society.

Perhaps the National Gallery's Harlequin Musician is in fact a self-portrait.

Picasso's abiding interest in Cubism is all the more impressive given the great

financial disincentive: the price of cubist paintings had dropped dramatically.

During the First World War, the property of all Germans in France was confis-
cated, including the stock of the dealer/collector Wilhelm Uhde and of the lead-

ing dealer of cubist art, Daniel I lenry Kahnweiler. This property was sold by the
French government in a series of auction sales between 1921 and 1923, Hooding

K)
the market with cubist art." There were 381 cubist paintings as well as many
drawings and collages by Picasso, Braque, Gris, and Leger, of which 132 were

later explained, "No

15
by Picasso. As Kahnweiler market in the world is capable of
withstanding such an avalanche. What happened, of course, is that after the first

16
sale the prices steadily dropped."

Picasso demonstrated his continued commitment to the cubist idiom by

participating in the third Section d'Or exhibition in January 1925, his sole
17
appearance in the series. The original exhibition took place in October of
1912, and has been called "the most important of all cubist manifestations in Fig. 6 Pablo Picasso
18
Three Musicians, 1921
France.... It marked the public consecration of the movement." The second oil on canvas
80 1/2x74 1/8 in
exhibition, which took place in March 1920, and the third one in 1925, were Philadelphia Museum
19 latin
meant to show the continued vitality of Cubism after the war. Reviewers of the n. 52-61 -96.

1925 exhibition remarked that each participant contributed at least one new
20
work to show alongside older ones. The Section d'Or, or Golden Section, an
ancient Greek ratio used in the design of the Parthenon among other buildings,
was applied by cubist artists in their paintings and sculptures.

Picasso's steadfast commitment to Cubism expressed itself most grandly not

through exhibiting but in his art: in the complex painting Three Dancers of 925 1

(Tate Gallery), which was considered by Alfred Barr to be "a turning point in

Picasso's art almost as radical as was the proto-cubist 'Demoiselles

2
d'Avignon.'" '
Overlapping planes are joined by a host of other synthetic cubist
elements: the play of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines in it combined with
a great variety of colors and textures, and the wallpaper pattern, contribute to
22
that painting's collage-like feel. The work presents an early example of the
profile silhouette which will be discussed later in this essay. The presence of
three figures adds a neo-classical element, while the fanciful tone of the paint-

ing introduces Surrealism, further enriching the meanings of this painting.

After a seven-year foray into Surrealism, Picasso then painted a series of
seatedwomen deep in reverie holding a book or musical instrument, typified
by Young Woman with Mandolin of 1932 (fig. 7). With its organic, undulating
forms and evocation of the subconscious dream state, it too is quite surrealist
in character. Indeed, the woman's head appears to be in a cloud. Nonetheless,

Young Woman with Mandolin is dependent on cubist elements for its expres-
siveness, as are other works in the series. A strong emphasis on flat planes of
color and patterns dominate the composition. The chairwoman, and mandolin
are all completely two-dimensional. Planes and forms interpenetrate. In addi-
tion, the back of the seat does not extend straight across, as the left part tilts

down in an unnatural and curious manner. In related works, a minor is used to

give a different perspective, thereby introducing the cubist notion o\ simul-

taneity. A salient example of Picasso's playful use of the minor is Girl Bef

Mirror of 1932 (Museum of Modern Art).

13
 At about the same time, Picasso painted a series of reclining cubist women, as A ROM

seen in Reclining Figure of 1934 (fig. 8). The artist has flattened and twisted the
woman's body, showing us a frontal view of the breasts, a profile of the head, and I in.

The Phillips Collection.

even a look at her derriere. The composition contains numerous bright colors, Washing!

which are pleasant individually, yet cacophonous when juxtaposed in such num- Foundation. I

bers and restricted space. The myriad cubist characteristics introduce an element LEF1

of intensity, indeed aggression, rarely found in Picasso's work. The same contort-

ed figure reappears in scenes of rape in the famous Vollard Suite of etchings.

From January to November 1937, Picasso executed a fascinating series

of nearly 60 cubist paintings depicting weeping women. 23 Along with Guernica
(fig. 9), also painted in 1937, these works represent an intense and rare foray by

Picasso into the world of emotion. Part of their appeal lies in the fact that they

can be read on two levels: as both political commentary on the atrocities o\ the
Spanish Civil War, and as a reflection o\ Picasso's own complicated and often
24
tormented love life. Picasso had separated from Olga. His longtime mistress,
Marie-Therese Walter, gave birth to their child, Maya, in 1935. The photographer
Dora Maar became an important part of his life in l
c>3(->.

15
 Head of a Woman (Portrait of Maric-Thcrese Walter) of 1934 (fig. 11) and
Head of a Woman with Hat of 1938 (fig. 10), also of Marie-Therese, are examples
o\
two of the many unemotional and decidedly cubist portraits Picasso
made as staid counterparts to the series of weeping women. Each work can be
read as both a frontal view and side view: in the earlier painting, one can discern
the outline of a figure, with a full head of hair, wearing a v-neck sweater, onto
which a profile view is superimposed. In Head of a Woman with Hat one finds

both a frontal and side view of the eyes and nose thereby introducing cubist
simultaneity, which can be found throughout the series.

Although certain physical characteristics of Marie-Therese are present in

these paintings her strong prominent chin, soft smooth skin, and enchanting
eyes Picasso was not trying to paint naturalistic portraits. In 1932, he gave his
views on portraiture:

It's not important to me to know whether a certain portrait is a good likeness

or not. Years, centuries pass, and it is not important if the physiognomical
traits are exactly those of the person portrayed. The artist loses himself in a
futile effort if he wants to be realistic. The work can be beautiful even if it

doesn't have a conventional likeness.''

He was using a natural form, not to record it, but rather as an inspiration to make
something new. Moreover, Picasso did not want a form to be so natural that the

viewer did not notice it. As he once explained to a friend, "I had to make the nose
"
crooked so they would see it was a nose."
1

Portrait of Marie-Therese Walter and Head of a Woman with Hat provide two
examples of Picasso's abundant use of profiles in the interwar period. Many por-
traits of Dora Maar and Marie-Therese Walter employ the profile, as does Young
Woman with Mandolin (fig. 7). The appeal is clear enough: the profile emphasizes
the two-dimensionality of the picture surface/" Picasso used a related category,

the silhouette profile, in Portrait of Marie-Therese Walter and The Three Dancers.
It reaffirms the flatness of the picture plane and moves away from naturalism. It

is, in a sense, a symbol of a person, not a description. With the use of both pro-
files and silhouettes, Picasso had extended his range of cubist devices.

Picasso's bright colors distinguish his interwar cubist paintings from the earlier

ones. Indeed, the dazzling colors in Portrait of Marie-Therese Walter demonstrate

Picasso's considerable abilities as a colorist. The pink, blue, and golden yellow
stripes of this work add a degree of richness that evokes the work of Henri Matisse.
Having firmly established his reputation, Picasso could allow himself to revel in

color without appearing to be one of Matisse's many followers. Nor would he be

seen as a direct descendant of Impressionism, a movement against which Cubism
initially rebelled. Picasso uses color in a lyrical, erotic, and aggressive manner.

Picasso's major statement of the 1930s, however, is a monochromatic work,

Guernica o\ 1937 (fig. 9), which is wholly indebted to both analytic and synthetic

16
Cubism. In analytic cubist fashion, there are splintered planes, reinforced by a ABOvt
Fig. 9 Pablo IV
play of light and shadows, that make it difficult to distinguish individual forms. Guernica, Mav/June 1937
oilon canvas
The monochromatic palette of the painting, characteristic of analytic Cubism, 137 3/8x305 7/8 in.

helps imbue the scene with pathos. The use of simultaneity in Guernica the Muscn National
Arte Reina Sofia. Madrid
On permanent loan from
eyes of the animal and human forms are presented from both the side and the Prado Museum.

front adds to the drama. From synthetic Cubism comes the flatness of the

heads, which appear to be pasted as in a collage. The horse's body hair is com-
posed of rows of vertical lines, similar to the newsprint so favored in synthetic
cubist collages. The very shallow sense of space is likewise indebted to both types

of Cubism. Guernica can be read as a giant cubist still life: the electric light near

the center of the composition tells us that this drama is taking place inside, not
out-of-doors as one would expect. The political commentary implicit in this
painting Picasso painted it as a protest to the bombing of a small Basque town,
Guernica, by Nazi planes supporting the Fascist pro-Franco forces in the Spanish
Civil War is new within Picasso's oeuvre. The shrill emotion created by the
screaming upturned heads is unprecedented in his large works. Although recent
commentators have been reluctant to declare this a cubist painting, critics closer
28
to the time had no problem in doing so.

Picasso worked in different styles and with great variety because he did not

favor one linear path or stylistic "evolution." In a 1923 statement, Picasso asserted,

"Different motives inevitably require different methods of expression. This docs

not imply either evolution or progress, but an adaptation of the idea one wants to
:,)
express and the means to express that idea." Picasso demonstrated that painting

was for him a self-conscious activity rather than an intuitive one. Among his dif-

ferent methods of expression, Picasso chose Cubism as his "guiding spirit."

17
 uic ii I

Fig. 1 1 Pablo Picasso

Woman with Hut. Headoj .1 Woman (Portrait o)

nil on Canvas
15 in
Scoti M Black* ollection
,
Notes

1 Historians prefer to focus on dramatic 7 Pablo Picasso, "Picasso Speaks," The Arts,
changes, and the neo-classical and surrealist New York, May 1923 in Dore Ashton, ed.
works may have seemed more newsworthy in Picasso on Art: A Selection of Views, New York:
that respect. On Picasso and Surrealism, see Da Capo Press, 1972, pp. 3-6.

|ohn Golding, "Picasso and Surrealism" in

Roland Penrose and John Golding, Picasso in 8 Picasso quoted in Brassai, Picasso
Retrospect, New York: Harper and Row and Company, New York: Doubleday, 1966,

Publishers, 1980, pp.49-77; Lydia Gasman, pp.46-7.

"Mystery, Magic, and Love in Picasso 1925-

1938: Picasso and the Surrealist Poets," Ph.D. 9 Picasso's portraits of friends, family mem-
dissertation, Columbia University, 1981; and bers, and lovers exist in neo-classical, surreal-

Elizabeth Cowling, '"Proudly we claim him as ist, and cubist styles.

one of us': Breton, Picasso and the Surrealist

Movement," Art History, 8,no.l,(March 1985): 10 According to one such observer,

82-104. On Picasso and Neo-Classicism, see Kahnweiler: "Picasso's sujets are his loves. He's
Kenneth E. Silver, Esprit de Corps: The Art of never painted an object with which he didn't
the Parisian Avant-Garde and the First World have an affectionate relationship and cer-

War, 1 914-1 925, Princeton: Princeton Univer- tainly not only on aesthetic grounds. Didn't
sity Press, 1989; and Elizabeth Cowling and he tell me many years ago, 'I find it monstrous
Jennifer Mundy, eds., On Classic Ground: that a woman should paint a pipe because she
Picasso, Leger, de Chirico and the New doesn't smoke it.'" Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler,
Classicism 1910-1930, London: Tate Gallery, "Le Sujet chez Picasso," Verve, (Paris), nos.25-6,
1990, pp.200-23. For a discussion of Picasso's (1951): 1-21, in Ashton, p.35. See also Mary
cubist work until 1928 see Christopher Green, Mathews Gedo, Picasso: Art as Autobiography,

Cubism and Its Enemies: Modern Movements Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
and Reaction in French Art, 1916-1928, New 1980.
Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1987.

11 Pablo Picasso with Christian Zervos,

2 "Pour lui le cubisme est une 'constance' "Conversations avec Picasso," Cahiers d'Art,
spirituelle... Picasso n'abandonne jamais une 1935 in Ashton, pp.7- 13.
idee. II la poursuit sur plusieurs plans, il l'ex-

perimente sur plusieurs 'situations.'" E. 12 Theodore Reff, "Picasso's Three Musicians:

Teriade, "Documents sur la Jeune Peinture, II. Maskers, Artists and Friends," Art in America,
L'avenement classique du Cubisme," Cahiers (December 1980): 124-42.

d'Art, no. 10, 4th year, (1929): 447-55.

13 See, ibid., p. 1 3 1 . Reff argues that in the

3 Alfred H. Barr, Cubism and Abstract Art, 1921 pictures, Three Musicians, the harlequin
New York: Museum of Art, 1974 (1936), p.96. figure represents Picasso. He cites many
examples of Picasso's early identification with

t Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler with Francis the harlequin, noting that Picasso's physical
Cremieux, My Galleries and Painters, New characteristics appear in the early portrayals.
York: Viking Press, 1971, p.54.

14 For a full account of these sales see

5 Ibid. Malcolm Gee, Dealers, Critics, and Collectors of
Modern Painting: Aspects of the Parisian Art
6 Brassal, The Artists o) My Life, translated by Market between 1910 and 1930, New York:
Richard Miller, London: Thames and Hudson, Garland Publishing, 1981. For contemporary
1982, pp. 158-64, Brassal suggests that Picasso's documents concerning the sales see Isabelle
l.issuism was a concession to high socierj Monod-Fontaine, et. al., Daniel-Henry Kahn-
tastes The best comprehensive, one volume weiler, marchand, iditeur, icrivain, Paris:

biography ol Picasso is Pierre I >.u\, Picasso, I ife Centre Georges Pompidou, 1984, pp. 130-38.
ami An. London: Thames and Hudson, 1994. See also Pierre Assouline, A Biography ofD.H.

20
 1

Kahnweiler, 1884-1979, translated by Charles 23 See Judi Freeman, Picasso and the Weeping
Ruas, New York: Grove Wiedenfeld, 1990, Women: The Years of Manc-Therese Walter
especially the section "Forgetting Drouot," and Dora Maar, New York and Los Angeles:
pp. 155- 189. For Picasso and the general art Rizzoli International, Los Angeles County
market see Michael C. FitzGerald, Making Museum of Art, 1994.
Modernism: Picasso and the Creation of the

Market for Twentieth-Century Art, New York: 24 Ibid.

Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995.
25 Felipe Cossio Del Pomar, Con las

15 Roland Penrose, Picasso: His Life and Buscadores del Camino, Madrid: Ediciones
Work, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Ulises, 1932 in Ashton.p.110.

California Press, 1981, 3rd edition, p.242.

26 Picasso quoted in Kahnweiler with

16 Kahnweiler with Cremieux, pp.67-70. Cremieux, p.59.

17 I am very grateful to Professor William 27 Picasso was not the only Cubist to paint in

Camfield for providing me with information profile in this period: Leger did so as well. The
on this exhibition. For more details about profile could be related to a specific form of
the exhibition see the Chronology in this Cubism, known as Purism (191 8- 1925), which
catalogue, p.62. stressed crisp, clear outlines. The Rayographs
that photographer Man Ray produced in the

18 Edward Fry, Cubism, London: Thames and early 1 920s also display an interest in bold out-
Hudson, 1978, p. 100; see Maurice Raynal's lines. Many of Man Ray's interwar photo-

review of the exhibition reproduced in Fry, graphic portraits like glamorous Hollywood
pp.97- 100. For Guillaume Apollinaire's text in publicity photographs employed a similar

the exhibition catalogue and his review of the profile.

exhibition, see Guillaume Apollinaire,

Apollinaire on Art: Essays and Reviews, 1902- 28 See, for example, Herschel B. Chipp,
1918, Leroy C. Breunig, ed., New York: Da Picasso's Guernica: History, Transformations,
Capo Press, 1987, pp.252-55. Meanings, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London:
University of California Press, 1988. For an
19 For more on the second exhibition, see early account, see Vernon Clark, "The
Green, Cubism and Its Enemies. Guernica Mural Picasso and Social Protest,"

Science and Society, 5, no. 1 , ( Winter 941

20 Louis-Leon Martin, "Les Expositions," reprinted in Gert Schiff, Picasso in Perspective,

Journal Litteraire, Paris, no.40, (January 24, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
1925): 11. I am indebted to William Camfield 1976,pp.97-103.
for this information.

29 Picasso 1923 in Ashton, pp.4-5.

21 Alfred H. Barr, Picasso: Fifty Years of His
Art, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1946,
p. 143. On the Three Dancers, see Ronald
Alley, Picasso: The Three Dancers, London:
Tate Gallery, 1986.

22 In the same year that Picasso made the

Three Musicians, he painted Three Women at
the Spring (1921), a counterpart, in a bold,

readable neo-classical style. Picasso main-

tained similar large canvas dimensions and a
neo-classical composition of three figures of

the same gender, as in the Three Graces.

21
 Christopher Green

Late Cubism (s)

the summer of 1918, just before the Armistice ended World War I, the influential critic

Louis Vauxcelles confidently predicted the end of Cubism as well.' Despite his prediction,

In throughout the early 1920s he was repeatedly to confirm Cubism's survival by writing against

it and by inviting others to do so. In 1921, as editor of the glossy art magazine VAmour de I'art,

he published an article with the title "Reagir" by one Jacques Blot. It was against Cubism that

Blot "reacted." For Blot, Cubism involved exclusively the "organization of colored elements in

geometric or arbitrary forms, paying no attention to the objects that appear to our senses." As such.

Cubism replaced the appearances of nature with the inventions of the artist, and, most serious of all.

replaced the fully "human" with the merely intellectual. "It offers the painter," he wrote, ". . . an

ingenious exercise rather than the plastic expression of a truly human sensation."

Fig. 12 Fernand Leger

Still Life, 1929
oil on canvas
36 x 25 3/4 in.

Scott M. Black Collection.

RIGHT
Fig. 13 Fernand Leger
The Bunch of Grapes, 1928
oil on canvas
317/8x51 1/8 in.
Scott M. Black Collection.

23
ABOVE
I start with Jacques Blot's idea of Cubism in 1921 because the "humanity" or
hj; 14 LeCorbusier
( Charles- Cctouafd "inhumanity" of Cubism was to be a key problem for most who took Cubism
leanne ret )
Still I ile. 1920 seriously during the 1920s and the early 1930s, at least in France; and, as Blot
ml cm CUVM
I in argued, its relationship with "nature" or "the world" was central to that problem.
ITk Museum t Modern
Art. New York ran Gogh By 1930, it had become possible to approach the problem from two absolutely
I'urihjst- Fund, 1937.
distinct directions.

On the negative side was Waldemar George, who took over from Vauxcelles as

editor of L' Amour de Fart in 1922, and in 1930 founded his own art periodical,
Formes. In the early 1920s, George had been the friend of many Cubists, espe-
cially Juan Gris; by 1930 he had become critical of Cubism as he developed a

deeply conservative eurocentric polemic in favor of a new "Humanism."

On the positive side was Carl Einstein, German revolutionary Communist
and friend of the Cubists' dealer D-H. Kahnweiler. In 1929-30, Einstein was a reg-

ular contributor to the periodical Documents, which developed a deeply subver-

sive polemic againsl the order of European society and culture, against, that is to

say, all the certainties lor which George stood.

24
 Waldemar George's treatment of Cubism in Formes cannot be disentangled
from his treatment of Picasso: in 1931, George sees Picasso as the most extreme
artistic product of a materialist, individualist world, which has lost faith in the

wholeness of experience, and which has put "optimism" in technological progress

above all else. Picasso and Cubism have turned the world into a "still life," the
object of nothing more than "progressive" games with formal relationships.

Cubism has made, George writes in 1932, "a tabula rasa of visual experience

It is a victory of the creator conscious of his ... all powerful [will]." Indeed, "with-
in the limits of Occidental [Western] order which represents a state of harmony
and of profound accord between man and the universe (between our interior and
exterior life) Cubism constitutes a crisis in man and a crisis in culture. That
experiment . . . has therefore the negative character of a suicide, which is to say of

a divorce between man and the world."

5

There is a surprising amount of common ground between Waldemar George

and Carl Einstein. When, in 1929, Einstein published his "Notes sur le cubisme"
in Documents, he concentrated on earlier Cubism ("analytic Cubism"), but still

what he "noted" above all was that, in Cubism, the artist's "vision" had taken con-
4
trol of the world. Writing in 1 930 on Picasso, he, like George, can characterize art

as the outcome of a dialectical conflict between the internal the human and
the external appearance: the living and the dead. Specifically, he sees Picasso's
work as "at the heart of a violent conflict" between the "structure" of the human,
3
which is living, and "external appearance," which is "dead."

Yet, the way Einstein understands "man" and the world internal and exter-
nal is very different from the way George understands it. In his "Notes" on
Cubism, he introduces Cubism by remarking on the loss of faith in the human
body as the sole measure for art. By placing the emphasis on the fragmentary
nature of individual experience, the Cubists shattered, he says, any sense of the
human body as a whole. Where for George, Cubism had failed by losing any sense
of the wholeness of the relationship between man and the world, for Einstein the

positive significance of Cubism lay in its representation of the very fragmentari-

ness of man's experience of the world, including the human body itself. For
George, Cubism had destroyed the world, including the human body, and at the
same time failed to retain any sense of the essential completeness of human expe-
rience; for Einstein, Cubism had destroyed the human body and by doing so

promised a new immediacy in the representation of each individual artist's

human experience of the world.
Recent responses to "late Cubism" have tended to agree with Waldemar
George, dismissing it as no more that a formalists' game detached from any direct
experience of the world." It is easy to take, say, Picasso's Still Life with a M
Pipe, and a Package of Tobacco (no. 53), Braque's Pipe and Basket (fig. 15), ^\nc\

Lipchitz's Pierrot with Clarinet (fig. 17), all oi 1919, or (iris's Painters Window o\

25
1925 (no. 22), and Leger's Still Life of 1929 (fig. 12) and analyze them in simple

formal terms, before dismissing them as more or less complex formal exercises.

Where In such obvious demonstrations of the capacity of artists to transform

and manipulate their subject matter is the intensity of experience of which

Einstein writes? It is there, I believe, in that very play of form. And it is there in

the surfaces, the materials, and the spaces of such works as we experience them,
and in the shifting relationships that (always provisionally) give their forms the

(unction of signs from which we can build things we know or can imagine. My
argument here will be on the side of Einstein; my aim ultimately is to open "late

Cubism" up to responses that accept its engagement with a world directly and
compulsively experienced.
It is necessary, however, to close things down first of all by asking the simple
questions, what was "late Cubism" and when exactly were its beginning and its

end? In France, it is possible to say that Cubism as something perceived to be "liv-

ing" and "advanced" a real stimulus for debate remained significant until at

least 1925.
7
And yet it has to be acknowledged that several of those who had
made their names as Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, and Leger, continued to

produce strong, recognizably cubist work well beyond 1925 or even 1930, and
that artists outside France took up cubist theories and practices in significant

new ways beyond those dates as well, most impressively Ben Nicholson in
England and Stuart Davis in America (fig. 16).

The questions of what "late Cubism" was, and when it began, are less straight-

forward. A starting point for an answer is offered by the influential painter-critic

26
 ,

of the post- 19 18 decade, Andre Lhote, who pinpointed what he saw as a major 4BOVI
Fig. 15 ( norix-. Braque

change during the First World War. Interviewed in 1926, Lhote spoke of a frpt -andBmktt, 1919
ml and sand on I

"second" Cubism, a "Cubism born between 1914 and 1917, invented by Picasso. . .

Volt M .Black Collection.

a Spanish Cubism reduced to formulas by Juan Gris and Diego Rivera.'"
1

And
l in
there can be no doubt that, especially from 1916-17, significant new develop- Ftp. \ty Stuart I

ments can be observed in Cubism, although they were not exclusively driven February 19.M

by the Spaniards Picasso and Gris, and the Mexican Rivera's contribution was . in

Portland '

short-lived.
Maine Hanukon
First, between 1916 and 1918 many of the Cubists signed contracts with
4 Barn
Leonce Rosenberg, the dealer who had replaced Kahnweiler. (As a German, Gallery V
C>j;unquit. Maine.
Kahnweiler was kept out of France during the war.) Second, apparently indepen-
dently of one another, the leading Cubists who were not in uniform moved
towards more structured and more lucid versions of "synthetic Cubism," while

Picasso and Gris both dropped the use of "collage" to concentrate on an increas-
ingly solid and homogeneous use of oil paint to build surfaces. Third, between

1917 and 1919 with Rivera now in opposition a concerted attempt was made
to arrive at a coherent theory of Cubism, an attempt that involved the poets

Pierre Reverdy and Paul Dermee, the artists Juan Gris, Gino Severini, lean
Metzinger, and Georges Braque, and Rosenberg himself. Where the "synthetic

Cubism"of 1912-14 had been disparate, sometimes ad hoc, and always uncoordi-
nated, that of 1916-19 was increasingly controlled and promoted in a highly coor-

dinated way by Rosenberg as a unified movement. 1 )ecember 1918 mic\ the first sue

months of 1919 saw Rosenberg re-launch Cubism for the post-war era with a care-

fully planned sequence of seven solo exhibitions featuring in succession Laurens,

27
 Metringer, Leger, Braque, Gris, Severini, and Picasso."' I would place the beginning
of "late Cubism" here, between 1916 and 1919, with what was inevitably perhaps a

failed attempt to unify and codify Cubism, the first and the last."

This attempt to codify Cubism is the reason for the seemingly straightforward

image of "late Cubism" that was constructed both in the period and more recent-
ly, the highly abstract, formalist image attacked in 1921 by Jacques Blot. It was, in

fact, Andre Lhote who first gave that image a clear shape. He did so as art critic

of the widely read literary review, the Nouvelle Revue Francaise, in his response
to the coordinated showing of the Cubists at the Salon des Independants of 1920.

Here Lhote distinguished between two kinds of Cubism. One he called a posteri-
ori] it was a continuing version of the "analytic Cubism" of 1912 and earlier, and
it was based on the direct observation and analysis of things. He called himself

an a posteriori Cubist, and might perhaps have called a work like the 1920 Still

Life (fig. 14) by Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) an a posteriori cubist

RIGHT 2
work, if it had been shown at the Independants .'

Fig. 17 |j>.qu^ 1 ipcfaitz

Pierrot with Clarinet, 1919 The other kind of Cubism he called a priori; it was the "second Cubism" devel-
slone
28 3/4x9 3/4x9 1/2 in. oped and codified after 1914. A priori Cubism was based, he argued, on the
Private Collection.
manipulation of abstract shapes, which only late in the process of composing
BELOW
Fig. 18 Henri Laurens were inflected to signify things. 13 By 1920, he could have found it in the work of
Woman with a Fan, 1919
bronze Picasso, Braque, Leger, Metzinger, Gleizes, Lipchitz, and Laurens, but most defin-
23 1/2 in. (length)
Robert and Maurine
itively in that of Juan Gris, who a year later was to single out the a priori method
Rothschild Collection 14
as the key to the "purity" of cubist painting. Lhote's distinction, of course, is the

conventional one between "analytic" and "synthetic" Cubism, but it is expressed

in the unqualified language of the early post-war years, and typically for the time
highlights the distance between the "second Cubism," a priori Cubism, and the
world presented to the senses. "Pure Cubism" became Lhote's term for a priori
Cubism. This was a new, formulaic Cubism, and it had shut out the world once
and for all. Many agreed.
When one actually looks at the cubist work produced by Lhote's "pure

Cubists" after 1920, the simplicity of this picture of "late Cubism" becomes

unacceptable. To begin with, it was immensely diverse, as this

exhibition demonstrates; so diverse that it cannot be called

formulaic. If Leger is set aside, one can certainly estab-
lish in the period 1916-20 a stylistic cohesion that

could place the Cubism of Gris, Metzinger,

Severini, Laurens, Lipchitz, and even
Picasso and Braque within the same
stylistic category. The term "crystal

Cubism" has often been applied to

their work of this period, and it has

proved easy to identify its well-

28
ordered lucidity with the "Call to Order" that pervaded French society and
culture as a complement to the union sacree of the First World War and to the
1,
years of reconstruction that followed the Armistice.

But what are we to make of Gris's Seated Harlequin of 1923, or Picasso's

Harlequin Musician of 1924 (fig. 2) in relation to each other, and in relation to

"crystal Cubism"; and what are we to make of them in relation to Gleizes's near-

abstract paintings of the early-to-mid- 1920s or Leger's The Bunch of Grapes of

1928 (fig. 13) and SHU Life of 1929 (fig. 12)? Lhote would have called all these

works "pure cubist." If they can be so termed, they reveal an immense capacity for
change and for range of individual expression under that heading. Writing of
post- 19 12 Cubism, Carl Einstein referred to many different cubist "syntheses,"
and indeed that is what we find. It can be said that we have as many late Cubisms

as there were late Cubists. Cubism was a way of making art that opened
things up for Stuart Davis when he made his Parisian visit in 1928; it did
not close things down. With works like New York Paris, No. 2 of 1931
(fig. 16), he added another "late Cubism" to the many he found.
The one Cubist whose work unequivocally substantiated the image

of late Cubism as a denial of nature was Albert Gleizes (fig. 19)."

Gleizes was, however, the exception, and even hostile critics had 1

acknowledge an apparently decisive move back to nature in the work c

Braque and Gris. In 1922 Braque was given the accolade of a special
exhibition at the Salon d'Automne. Among the eighteen canvases he

showed were two pictures of a new kind: classically draped nudes

whose massive torsos and limbs were spread out flat across dark
grounds in irregular but still naturally shaped patches of earth

brown and ochre (Musee national d'Art moderne, Centre Georges

Pompidou). A tempering of his Cubism was widely remarked on,

and one critic hostile to Cubism's post-war "purity," Roger Allard,

even claimed that he had left Cubism behind, and with it what he
17
called "the abstractors of the quintessence."

The following year, in 1923, D-H. Kahnweiler's Galerie Simon orga-

nized a solo exhibition of Gris. It included such recent works as Seated
Harlequin of 1923 (University of Michigan Museum of Art) and Open
Window with Hills of 1923 (Telefonica de Espana), works in which

everything depicted is instantly recognizable, and in which the angular

does not necessarily take over from the organic curve in the repre-

sentation of the human and the natural. As in the case of Braque, a

tempering of cubist anti-naturalism was widely remarked on, and

the most energetic of Cubism's enemies, Louis Vauxcelles, claimed

that whatever Gris said, his painting now was plainly rooted in the

experience of nature, not in the manipulation of form.

29
 In Gris's case, this development of a Cubism more open to the "natural" was at
AMU t

least partly a response to a campaign mounted during the early 1920s by I

oil on canvo_s

Waldemar George for a more chromatically rich and "human" Cubism. In the
Tht Vtwn
context of George's later "Humanist" rejection of the fragmentation of experience Museum

in Cubism, it can seem that Gris and Braque, in works like these, have indeed
replaced cubist abstraction and fragmentation with an acceptance of wholeness LEF1

as an aspiration in their representation of the world. In fact, both continue to dis-

member and reinvent the elements of the things they paint in terms oi formal

and chromatic vocabularies distinctly personal to them, an effect heightened in

Gris's Seated Harlequin by the patched contrasts of grey, white, and a distinctly
artificial purple that break apart the figure. And by 1925, in a painting like The

Black Guitar (fig. 20), Gris would be stressing once again the arbitrariness and

artificiality of his pictorial sign-making. Braque's and Gris's flirtation with the
look of naturalism was no more than a provisional aspect o( their work, but it

does bring out the openness of late Cubism to what even Waldemar George
would have recognized as"humanization."
There were others, too, once identified with l.eonce Rosenberg's campaign for a

post-war cubist revival, who were attracted to "humanized" styles in the early 1920s,

notably Auguste Herbin and Jean Metzinger, and they more uncompromisingly

31
m

rejected the flatness and abstractness of cubist idiom. At the same time, they
widened the range of their subject matter, in Herbin's case taking on rural land-

scape motifs and portraiture; the portrait in particular had actually been prohib-

ited as a proper cubist subject by Pierre Reverdy in 1917/Braque found room for
the nude, generally avoided in cubist painting (though not in sculpture), but Gris

continued throughout the mid- 1920s to keep almost exclusively to a restricted

range of still life and figure subjects. Of the Cubists whom Lhote would have called
"pure," Lipchitz and Laurens as sculptors kept to a restricted range of subjects
BLOW
1
:
ij;- 21 lacquea I ip. lilt/ comparable to Gris's. It was only Leger who widened the range of cubist subject
Bather, 1924
l
OO sety Crystalline matter and made a point of it.

banded limestone
27 in (height)
In 1919, Leger's exhibition at Leonce Rosenberg's Galerie de 1'EfYort Moderne
Fogg Art Museum,
stood out as an exception; its use of gun-metal grey "machine elements," of frag-
Harvard University Ait
Museums, (iitt of
mentary poster lettering, and of brightly colored disks was a throwback to the pre-
1 ois Orswefl.

war celebration of modernity in Futurism, in his own painting, and in that of Sonia
and Robert Delaunay. In 1919-20, his determination to engage with the intensity of
urban experience led to the showing of an enormous canvas called The City at the

1920 Independants. He too painted nudes (from 1920), but, like Picasso, he

detached the painting of the nude from his cubist practice, developing alongside it

a mechanized variant on Picasso's Neo-Classicism. As a Cubist, he painted the

modern mass-produced object, the machine, as in Mechanical Element I of 1924
(fig. 22), the city, and the semi-urbanized fringes of the city. Leger, above all, was the
artist whose "late Cubism" Stuart Davis responded to in 1928, and Davis's New
York Paris, No. 2 (fig. 16) can be taken as a late, individual extrapolation from

the flat planimetric style Leger used to such effect in Mechanical Element I.

The individuality of Leger's idiom and his commitment to the urban and the
industrialized as subject matter would have set him clearly apart from anything
Waldemar George might have described as "human." But there is, nonetheless, in

the explicitness and directness of Leger's and Davis's encounter with their

urban subject matter, something that could be called a return to the "real."
:i
Leger's rhetoric certainly claimed as much. At the same time, however,
Davis's New York Paris, No. 2 makes an unmistakable allusion to the flats of
a stage set. And Leger often used items in his still lifes of the later 1920s that

underlined their distance from the "natural": cheap images from labels recur, and
in The Bunch of Grapes of 1928 (fig. 13) there is a mask, while the bunch of grapes
itself can easily be read as a wig.
Manifest artificiality and above all theatricality are major features of much "late

cubist" painting and sculpture. The theatrical is found especially in the work of
Picasso, Gris, and Lipchitz. Picasso and Gris were both active as stage and costume
designers for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, Picasso from 1917, Gris in 1922-24. The
work of these artists is, of course, at its most obviously theatrical when its subject
matter is from the commedia dell' arte; the portrait is replaced by the masked and

M
costumed performer, almost always Pierrot or Harlequin. The artifice of disguise

replaces recognizable identities; it is significant that Picasso reserved his own vari-

ant on Ingress portrait style for portraiture as such. Still life, however, is also given

a plainly theatrical look in both Picasso's and Gris's work of the 1920s. The fram-
ing of the table-top, and especially the use of window architraves in the open-win-

dow still lifes introduce obvious allusions to the stage and proscenium, so that the
objects become performers too. In this exhibition, the most telling case is Gris's

The Painter's Window of 1925 (no. 22).

Semioticians of the theatre have noted how the stage de-naturalizes everything

placed upon it." A table laden with food becomes, on stage, no longer a laden table,

but a sign that represents something in the drama: the social status and tastes, per-

haps, of the "characters" who will use it. There are no "characters" in The Painters
Window, but the palette and brushes patently have become signs for the painter in

what can be read as a displaced self-portrait. Both Picasso's and Gris's signs for

things are manifestly arbitrary: they can be changed in fundamental ways without

losing their power to refer to, say, a fruit bowl. A fruit bowl can be angular or
curved or both; and the configuration of shapes that denote it can be almost iden-
tical to one that denotes a head, say, in another pictorial context. The heteroge-
neous idioms of their pre-war work had exposed this arbitrariness of the pictorial
sign for all to see; the more cohesive idioms of their late cubist work do not. Its the-

atricality very often does the job instead; no one can miss the artifice involved, nor
the point that painting works like language and can have many idioms.
If late cubist work could be so evidently committed to revealing the arbitrari-

ness of its signs in relation to the things they denoted so patently artificial how
can I now argue (alongside Carl Einstein) that it represents the world in all its

physical immediacy as it is experienced through the senses? Let us return to

Leger's claim that his pictures are about the "real," and constitute, indeed, a return

to subject matter. Certainly after 1918, he returns to a more straightforward depic-

tion of things, but what he claims for his work is not identity; it is, rather, equiva-

lence. In 1923, he rejects the idea of imitating the perfection of the manufactured
object, but advocates instead the making of paintings whose formal and chromat-
ic strength and whose precision of finish can "rival" it/' Also in 1923, he accepts the
fact that painting does not represent the world out there, an object, but brings
M
together subject and object. He anticipates Carl Einstein's notion of cubist paint-

ing as the representation of each artists personal, subjective experience ot

things the fusion of subject and object. Parallels with this way o( thinking are to

be found especially in Juan Gris's theoretical writing o( the early-to-mid- N20s.

With the exception perhaps of Gleizes's near-abstract painting of the 1920s, all late

cubist art, sculpture as well as painting, can be approached in these terms. It may
reduce things to signs, but at the same time it presents as directly as possible each

artist's personal experience o\ things and o\ the spaces that contain them.

33
 The shuttling of colored planes and the confrontation of the planimetric and
the perspectivaJ gave space an immediately apprehended mobility in most late

cubist work, a mobility that is strikingly different in, say, the contrasting cases of

1 gger, Braque, And Gris. Leger's representation of space as an experience of sud-

den, staccato shifts and interruptions is distinct from the slow, measured move-
ments encountered in Braque or Gris.
As to "things," in Leger's case, a willingness to engage with the weight and
solidity of figures and objects, and to do so using conventional techniques of
KH.H1
1 11; JJ Remand Legex tonal modelling, goes with the brushing of smooth, even sometimes slick sur-
Mt-Jnimcil Element 1, 19J4
ml on canvas faces, conveying a desire to grasp things as physical wholes and at the same time
i 20 in.

Smith College Museum ol

to polish and perfect them. In Gris's, Braque's, and Picasso's cases, a willingness
Art. Northampton,
to rob objects of palpable weight and solidity, to render them as insubstantial
Massachusetts.
Purchased with loseph
signs, goes with the increasing activation of the surface to the touch, enhancing
Brummer Hund, 1934.

the work's own substantiality as a surrogate of figure or object. Thus, Braque was
led sometimes to treat the picture surface as if it were a malleable clay earth
so that the entire work can be experienced as solid and weighty, restoring, as it

were, the mass evacuated from his flattened figures or kitchen objects. And in

1926 Picasso brought back a particularly rough kind of collage, using coarse shirt
and dish-cloth material with pinning and nailing, to reassert in his own aggres-

sive way the objectness of the work itself. Similarly, both Lipchitz and Laurens
combined a willingness to use the most insubstantial of figurative and still life

signs with a pursuit of space in sculpture as the counterpart to palpable weight

and density, using the tactile materials of terracotta and stone, as well as the

rough and smooth of bronze (figs. 17, 18,21).

Late cubist art is subjective in the sensational as well as the conceptual sense;

it reinvents the world intellectually, but does so in such a way that it can be expe-
rienced with real physical immediacy. Perhaps the most obvious demonstration
of its engagement with the senses is to be found in the sheer appetizing lushness

of the fruit in the still lifes of Braque and Gris. By sight, the senses of touch and
taste are aroused too; these paintings could even be called "aromatic."
Moreover, the interchangeable nature of cubist configurations as signs now
meaning one thing, now another opened late Cubism to metamorphosis, the
impact ol which was often much more than simply "intellectual." Laurens's terra-

cotta Guitar of 1 920 ( Museum of Modern Art) has the swelling mass of a pregnant
belly; it is easily compared with the belly of the reclining female of Woman with a
Fan (fig. 17). While, much more disturbingly, the right eye of Picasso's Harlequin

Musician (fig. 2) is aligned vertically as if it can double as the sign for the female

sex. It could be said that the metamorphic in late Cubism underlines the artist's

intellectual control over the motif, the artist's capacity for linguistic as well as for-

mal "play"; but the way it is actually used by Picasso often asks for the most direct

of emotional responses, and the way it is actually used by Gris as well as Laurens

34
invariably heightens (he physical impact of the work. In Laurens, the swelling belly

of the guitar makes an obviously gendered invitation to touch; in C iris, the use of

rhyming forms to connect objects that arouse different senses musical instru-
ments, fruit, the lips of bowls or glasses accentuates their physicality.

Cubism between 1911 and 1914, and after 1920, was plural. It was not a style;

it was many styles. If it did not constitute a style, it amounted instead to a general

approach that embraced the relationship of the artist to the art object and to

subject matter, one that emphasized the inventive and transformative powers of
the artist, but which never set aside the authenticity o\ each individual artist's

35
experience of the world. Certainly "late Cubism" destroyed the "wholeness" of
human experience as Waldemar Ceorge understood it in 1930; but it did so
because it was based on a rejection of the very idea of the separation of subject

and object, and the need for their reconciliation. It was based on a belief in the

absorption of everything into the experience of the subject the artist.

Late Cubism has been dismissed with faint praise not only, mistakenly, as
merely "formalist," but also as lacking in radical force and as weakened by its

associations with the politically conservative values of the "Call to Order" in

post- 19 18 France. It cannot be denied that Picasso's, Braque's, Gris's, Lipchitz's,

and Laurens's stable and orderly renditions of "traditional" themes the musical
still life, the commedia dell'arte underlined traditionalist associations. But nei-
ther can it be denied that late Cubism was open enough to leave room for Leger's

progressive rendering of modernity, the product of an artist whose antagonism

to the values of the traditionalist Right was vigorous and sustained, and yet who
also was drawn to Neo-Classicism. And neither can it be denied that Carl

Einstein gave Cubism ("late Cubism" included) a place in the dissident campaign
mounted at the end of the 1920s by the periodical Documents against all that the

"Call to Order" had represented.

Ultimately, I do not believe that late cubist art is to be accepted or rejected for

its "radicalism" or its "conservatism," in cultural or political terms. I believe that

its value lies, as it did for Einstein around 1930, in the intensity of the visual expe-
riences it offers, and in the imprint those experiences leave of diverse sensibili-
ties, each one distinctive, each one still alive to the extent that we, as spectators,
can still respond from our own late twentieth-century worlds.

Notes

1 See Pinturrichio (Louis Vauxcelles), "Les 4 Carl Einstein, "Notes sur le cubisme,"
Carnets des ateliers," Le Camel de la semaine Documents, 1st Year, no. 3 (Paris, 1929): 146-59.

(Paris, 9 June 1918); Pinturrichio, "De

Profundis," Le Carnet de la semaine (Paris, 28 5 Carl Einstein, "Picasso," Documents, 2nd
July 1918). I discuss this more fully in: Year, no. 3 (Paris, 1930): 155-7.

Christopher Green, Cubism and Its Enemies:

Modern Movements and Reaction in French 6 See, for example, Eunice Lipton, Picasso
Art, 1916-1928, New Haven & London: Yale Criticism, 1901-1939: The Making of an Artist
University Press, 1987,pp.7-9. Hero, New York & London: Garland
Publishing, 1979, pp. 77-8; and Patricia
2 Jacques Blot, "Reagir," L'AmouT de Vart Leighten, "Editor's Statement," Art Journal
(Paris, December 1921 ): 399-101. (Winter 1988): 270.

3 Waldemar George, "Cinquante ans de 7 1 would still argue, as I did in 1 987, that the
Picasso el la mort de la nature-morte," Formes two exhibitions of late 1925, L'Art d'aujour-
11 (Pans, April 1931): 56; Waldemar George, d'hui and La I'einture Surrealiste, mark the
'Aul Cesar aut nihil, En marge de I' exposition moment when the perception of avant-garde
Picasso aux galeries Georges Petit," Formes 25 leadership shifted significantly away from the
(Paris, May 1932): 268-71. Cubists to the Surrealists and, to a lesser

3d
extent, non-objective artists. See Green 1987, 1925, Princeton & London: Princeton
chapter 5 & p. 106. University Press, 1989.

8 Andre Lhote; in Jacques Guenne, "Andre 16 For a fuller treatment of Gk-izes's work in
Lhote," L'Arf vivant (Paris, 1 March 1926). this period, see Green 1987, pp.84 -9.

9 Especially important were the following 17 Roger Allard, "Le Salon d'Automiu
articles and statements: Pierre Reverdy,"Sur le Revue Universelle (Paris, October 1922): 486.
cubisme," Nord-Sud 1 (Paris, 15 March 1917);
Paul Dermee, "Un prochain age classique," 18 Pinturrichio (Louis Vauxcelles), "Mort de
Nord-Sud (Paris, January 1918); Gino Quelqu'un," Le Carnet de la semaine (Paris, 1

Severini,"La Peinture d'avant-garde," Mercure April 1923): 8.

de France (Paris, 1 June 1917); Georges

Braque, "Pensees et reflexions," Nord-Sud 10 19 For a fuller discussion, see Christopher
(Paris, December 1917). Metzinger and Gris Green, Juan Gris, London: Whitechapel Art
are repeatedly referred to as influential Gallery, 1992, chapter 5.

thinkers.

20 Pierre Reverdy,"Sur le Cubisme," Nord-Sud

10 The dates of the shows were as follows: 1 (Paris, 15 March 1917).

Laurens, December 1918; Metzinger, January

1919; Leger, February 1919; Braque, March 21 See, for example, Fernand Leger,

1919; Gris, April 1919; Severini, May 1919; and "Correspondance," Bulletin de VEffori
Picasso, June 1919. Moderne 4 (Paris, April 1924), dated 1922.

11 Green 1987, chapter 1. 22 See Green 1992, pp. 157-8. Here I discuss
the theories of the four Prague School semi-

12 Jeanneret (Le Corbusier), together with oticians of the theatre Otaka Zich, Jan
Amedee Ozenfant, produced what they called Mukarovsky, Petr Bogatyrev, and Jiri

Purist painting. It is indeed based on the Veltrusky, as outlined by Keir Elam in The
analysis of objects, but so freely are these Semiotics of Theatre and Drama, London &
objects used as formal elements in the paint- New York, 1980.

ings, especially after 1922, that it is possible to

associate them with Lhote's category a priori 23 Florent Fels, "Propos d'artistes, Fernand
Cubism. For a fuller discussion, see Green Leger," Les Nouvelles litteraircs (Paris,

1987,pp.89-91. Saturday, 30 June 1923): 4.

13 Andre Lhote, "Le Cubisme au Grand 24 "The objective and the subjective are in

Palais," Nouvelle Revue Francaise (Paris, 1 constant collision, and thus creation, the issue
March 1920): 467. of their interpenetration, will ever remain a

partial enigma to the artist." Fernand 1 eger,

14 Juan Gris, "Statement" in "Vauvrecy" "LEsthetique de la machine," lecture delivered

(Amedee Ozenfant), untitled, L'Esprit in June 1923, Bulletin de VEflbrt Moderne 1 & 2

Nouveau 5 (Paris, February 1921): 533-4. (Paris, January 1924).

15 I myself have consistently applied this term 25 For a full discussion o\ the question oi the

to the Cubism of the "Call to Order." See Subjective in Gris, see Green 1992, chapter 4.

Christopher Green, Liger and the Avant-

Garde, New Haven & London: Yale University

Press, 1976, 131, and Green 1987, chapter 2.

For the "Call to Order," see also Kenneth 1 .

Silver, Esprit de Corps: The Art of the Parisian

Avant-Garde and the First World War, 19N-

37
 I

iiiisis:S:;

i
Hi
 Kenneth Wayne

Cubism and Modern French Design

THE
decorative AND applied arts were revolut ionized in I railce

during the first quarter ot this century. By 1925, the swirling, curvilinear

patterns of Art Nouveau which dominated design at the turn of the

century had been replaced with bold geometric forms, sharp angles, and

faceted planes. This new aesthetic pervaded design in all of its manifesta-

tions: architecture, furniture, objects, textiles, graphics, jewelry, and even movie sets and costumes.

In the abundant writings of commentators between the wars, there is repeated reference to one

decisive catalyst in this development: Cubism. As the editor of the French Encyclopedia of Modern

Decorative and Industrial Arts wrote in 1925:

No matter what one thinks of the results obtained in painting and sculpture by Picasso, Braque and

their followers, it is a fact that their method contributed to the development in designers for a taste

in broken lines and abstract patterns, far from living nature. Tired o\ curves, having used up the
joys of a timid naturalism and stylized flora and fauna which their predecessors had abused, the
designers of 1925 have developed a capricious geometry.'

This dramatic change from naturalistic to geometric forms was not merely an issue oi style, but also

involved social, political, and economic factors. This essay traces the history of design in France in

the first part of the century to demonstrate how and why Cubism emerged between the wars as both

an aesthetic and conceptual force in designs transformation.

LEFT
Fig. 23 Jean Dunand
Screen with Geometric
l
Design, circa l )27
silver lacquer, colored
lacquer, scored
brown lacquer and wood
67 x 79 in.

Anthony DeLorenzo,
New York.

39

I
 France's decorative arts industry was in crisis in the period just prior to the
First World War. Foreign imports were increasing at home, and the country's
1

dominance of foreign markets had slipped dramatically/ To stimulate the deco-

rative arts industry in France, critics such as Roger Marx started proposing to the
government as early as 1909 an international exhibition of decorative and
applied arts.' The original date for the exhibition was 191 3, 4 but it was delayed
and was eventually staged in 1925. The issues surrounding the proposed exhibi-
tion came to dominate the design industry in France for decades.
Industry reformers felt that French designers were too limited in producing
cheap imitations of historical styles (usually from the eighteenth century). They
called for the creation of a modern, up-to-date style:

For centuries, since the Middle Ages, with the exception of the Italian
Renaissance, France has imposed her taste on the world. Today, we know
only how to boast of the talent of our ancestors. Will we sink to being noth-
ing but imitators and copyists? We must react courageously, we must get on
our feet. We owe it to ourselves to renew our relationship to our tradition and
remain creators. It is a primary duty of the Republic to help in the realization

of modern styles/

Something fresh and exciting was sought to attract market share." The First rule

for the proposed international exhibition was that it feature exclusively "works of

a new inspiration, and exclude all pastiches or copies of the past."

7
The Societe
des Artistes Decorateurs, founded in 1901 with the aim of establishing a firm
direction for the decorative arts in France, had set as its first priority the encour-
agement of new styles."

40
 The aim was not to create just a modern style, but one that was distinctly
French, as the catalogue to the 1911 Salon de la Societe des Artistes 1 )(a irateurs
makes clear:

The goal towards which our Society is striving is nothing less than the creation
of the French styles of the twentieth century. An endeavor which, alas, has
received too little encouragement! Not everyone has yet understood the obvi-
ous necessity of having styles that harmonize with our habits and tastes.

Art Nouveau, the most recent decorative art style in the country, qualified as

new as its very name suggests but was very much an international style and
was vehemently criticized as such by the nationalistic French press. Known as

Jugendstil in Germany, Jeune Belgique in Belgium, Modernista in Spain and Ver

Sacrum in Austria, Art Nouveau was cosmopolitan. Moreover, Art Nouvcau's
design was heavily dependent on Japonisme, or the influence of Japanese art, in its

flatness and emphasis on nature. In addition, the leader of the Art Nouveau move-
ment in France, Siegfried Bing, was a German by birth. He initially sought to
emphasize the internationalism of the movement, but was compelled to soften his

approach upon criticism from the French press."

Industry reformers also observed that French designers were too eclectic or
individualistic, that they did not collaborate enough with painters, sculptors, and
architects to form a common aesthetic.'
2
Compounding this problem was the
LET!
method of presentation of objects in salons, isolated in display cases as if each were Fig :4 Pierre (

a masterpiece." As one French commentator later wrote, "More than one example
d veneer on
has come to us from abroad of the superiority of cohesive groupings over individ- mahogany and oak.
polished steel handles
14
ualism and the vain desire to stand out." Presenting an ensemble encourages the
Primavera Gallerv.
client to buy a whole display rather than only one or two objects. The client buys
an aesthetic with pieces that go together. One of the principal stipulations for the
proposed international exhibition of decorative art was that "the works be exhibit-
15 metal and riari
ed in harmonious ensembles."
I'rimji.
Germany, France's main competitor, was France's model for the presentation of
16
unified ensembles. German designers exhibited at the Exposition Universelle of

1900 and were invited back by the French to exhibit at the Salon d'Automne o\
7
1910.' Critic Louis Vauxcelles commented in 1912 on the important
lessons that were learned from the 1910 exhibition:
The exhibition of the Munich group at the Salon d'Automne two
years ago served as a powerful and effective stimulus to our French
furniture- makers and ornamentalists The ensembles were heavy
and featured discordant tonalities that shocked the eye. But what
powerful discipline, and what homogeneity in their work, what a

perfect subordination of the artisan to the "artistic director." ,\nd I

also, what concern for technical achievement, what finish in the e\e

cution! This lesson was not lost. At the Salon d'Automne ,\n<\ in

the Pavilion de Marsan, we felt the need to unite, to work

together, to fight against the foreign competitor.

41
 At the Salon d'Automne of 1912, a group of French artists led by Andre Mare,
submitted an entry that quickly acquired the name"Maison Cubiste."This project,
consisting of three interiors and part of a full-scale facade, was an attempt at pre-

senting a modern French ensemble." In addition to Andre Mare, the project's artists

included: Marcel Duchamp, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Roger de la Fresnaye,

Albert Gleizes, Marie Laurencin, Fernand Leger, Jean Metzinger, Paul Vera, and

Jacques Villon. While all the participants were associated with the cubist move-
ment, their contributions were not altogether cubist, as photographs of the installa-
:
tion reveal. The facade is essentially an eighteenth-century building to which a few

RIl.HT
geometric flourishes have been applied. The furniture seems quite traditional, as
oil IVlaunav

well. The presence of cubist paintings on the wall does not alone make the installa-
Images from Ses tannines,
tion cubist. Indeed, this project was criticized at the time for being too eclectic.
"iiiiiihiiin'i. Ses Modes,

area 19:5 Nevertheless, it is significant that the first serious attempt to produce a unified
pochoir (portfolio of 20
images modern French design, one that would break away from Art Nouveau, already
j s in,

Robcri and Murine looked to Cubism as a guiding spirit.

Roihschiki Collection.
The imperative to achieve a unified modern French design gained momentum
and urgency after the First World War. The war fostered a climate of collaborative

enterprise called union sacree, which emphasized the importance of banding

together to achieve a common goal." The war intensified feelings of patriotism, and
1,
hence the need for an aesthetic that was particularly French. Writing in 1918,

Andre Vera declared that designers "should work as though they were part of a con-
fraternity. They will express accord by the development, not of individual themes,
but of a common theme, an ensemble of forms and colours whose goal will be to

awaken and channel the energies of the nation in a particular and French way." 24
Cubism was considered a constructive art of synthesis, or building up, and it there-
:
fore resonated strongly with a France in the throes of post-war reconstruction.
-

A unified and modern French style of design was achieved by 1925 when the

Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes took place in

Paris. The style that became fixed in history at this landmark exhibition has since
become known as "Art Deco," which can be considered the quintessential expres-
sion of Cubism in modern design. The importance of this exhibition was summed
up by a visitor:

When rzanne C uttered his historic dictum that all form could be reduced to

the cone, the cylinder and the cube, the cornerstone was laid for a movement
which has its fullest expression in the international Exposition des Arts
1 Vcoratits in Paris The Exposition marks the coming of age of a new decor.
It differs from any expositions o\ the past. . . in that it is a setting up of new
standards, not a perfecting or adapting of the old. It is a definite break with the
past. . . . With the Exposition des Arts Decoratifs a new style is established to
take its place with the historic periods. To the Renaissance, the Jacobean, the

( teorgian, the Rococo ,uk\ the Colonial is added the Modern. It can no longer
be said to he in a state ot experimentation representing isolated examples by
the more venturesome o\ the designers.

42
I
 The highlight of this exhibition was the contribution by the Societe des Artistes

Decorateurs: "Reception Rooms and Private Apartments of a French Embassy," a

collaborative effort to which over thirty important French artists and designers
r
contributed, including Pierre Chareau and Robert Mallet-Stevens. Designer
Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann submitted a project called "Townhouse for a Collector."

There is little doubt that Cubism was the unifying aesthetic at the Exposition,

as critic Waldemar George commented in an article on the interiors presented

there:

Architects, furniture designers, decorators are uniformly applying the prin-

ciples of composition that Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris
haw brought in. ... In a word, progress in the current production of the
:>

RIl.HI
decorative arts as a whole is being made under the auspices of Cubism.
Fig, 27 Eileen tirav
Folding Block >.
Critic Leon Deshairs offered a similar assessment:
aru 1922-1925
The individualism for which the designers of 1900 were reproached has
black lacquer and wood
7 It (height) abated. In architecture as in furniture, silverwork, jewelry, even trinkets, one
Anthony DeLorenzo.
New York. taste seems to dominate: that of simple volumes, smooth surfaces, sharp

edges and, when ornamentation appears, abstract designs. To define this

BELOW
Fig ;.* Pierre Chareau trend, one word has come to the lips a thousand times: Cubism. 29
Reclining Armchair.
circa 1925 Cubist painter and theorist Andre Lhote called the 1925 Exposition "the world's
walnut with leather
cushions
homage to Cubism." 30
34x31 x27in
After the Exposition, Cubism's influence continued to be far-reaching, as critic
Anthony DeLorenzo.
New York.
Leon Werth noted in 1927:

Whoever visits the Salon des Artistes Decorateurs will be struck by its unity.

... [T]he flower has been replaced by the triangle. . . . [I]t is a fact that the
influence of Cubism can be found throughout ornamentation, not only in
furnishings. Itinspires posters in the street and one can see women's shoes

embroidered with cubist motifs.

These "cubist motifs" included an abundance of geometric forms and sharp angles
(and a concomitant absence of human, animal, or floral forms); flatness of designs
(especially in wallpaper and textiles); the predominance of browns, tans, beiges,

and black, and monochromatic tonalities as in analytic cubist paintings. In the

press, "Cubism" sometimes came to represent anything anti-naturalistic,

abstract, or geometric.

Pierre Chareau, a regular salon con-

tributor who was one of the leading forces

in furniture design between the wars, was a
great proponent of Cubism. Many cubist

artists, especially Jacques Lipchitz, were his

friends.'
2
He collected paintings and sculp-
tures by Braque, Gris, Lipchitz, and
Picasso " and regularly featured their works

with his furniture in his salon installations.

44
 Chareau's chairs and desks show the direct influence of Cubism in their faceting

of planes, which create a play of light and shadow. Such is the case with the desk

(fig. 24) featured in the "Study-library" that Chareau contributed to the French
Embassy installation at the 1925 Exposition. His chairs and lighting fixtures can

be seen as dynamic interplays of planes (fig. 28). According to his wife, it was the
Cubists's "architectural sense of structure" that appealed to him. 1 lis dedication
to Cubism led him to be called 3
a "cubist designer.''

45

I
 1 niii

Sonia Delaunay, bringing geometry and contrasting colors to women's fash-

ion, was most responsible for taking Cubism into fashion and textile design.

Along with her husband, Robert, she had developed a type of cubist painting

before the First World War that was dubbed "Orphism" by Guillaume Apollinaire.
At the heart of this art form was the idea of "simultaneity," in which the contrast
of colors was more important than a painting's subject. Sonia Delaunay started
designing clothing before the First World War and continued to make "simulta-
neous clothing and fabrics" between the wars (fig. 26), exhibiting a selection at

the 1925 Exposition in her "Boutique Simultanee." Andre Lhote considered the

use of a variety of textures in her fashion designs to be wholly indebted to

Cubism:
We know that to stimulate the expressiveness of their surfaces, the Cubists

often resorted to contrasts of materials. A smooth part of the canvas con-

trasts with a rough surface. They even went so far as to introduce sand in the
mixture that covers certain parts of the canvas. I know such combinations of
different materials: fur, wool, silk, used ingeniously by Mrs. Delaunay, who
brought to the eye a pleasure of the same order, that is to say, tactile."'

Furniture designer Eileen Gray, an Irish woman who worked in Paris most of
her lite, began to employ the Oriental lacquer technique early in her career. 1 ler

most spectacular use of this technique came in her famous rectangular screen,
which is informed by a cubist aesthetic (fig. 27). The black rectangles can be
turned sideways to create a play of planes. Gray also created beautiful rugs and
carpets with geometric designs, as well as wall hangings, lamps, and mirrors.

46
 Pierre Legrain, a distinguished designer of stylish book bindings and furni-

ture, worked for such famous patrons as the Vicomte de Noailles and couturier
Jacques Doucet/" Doucet hired Legrain to bind some of his rare books before
commissioning him, in 1926, to design furniture and frames for a new studio in

Neuilly."' Made of expensive materials such as exotic woods, lacquer, and

leather Legrain's works display a concern with Cubism in their predominant
use of geometric elements and faceted planes. Such is the case, for example, with

his sharkskin-covered clock (c.1926) in which two sloping planes meet in the

front and back (fig. 25).

Architect Robert Mallet-Stevens contributed five pieces to the 1925

Exposition: a studio for the Societe des Auteurs du Film; a garden of cubist trees

made of reinforced concrete (in collaboration with Jan and Joel Martel); the
Pavilion du Syndicat d'Initiative de Paris; the Pavilion du Tourisme; and a hall in

the French Embassy installation."' Among his major architectural achievements

was a villa for the Vicomte and Vicomtesse de Noailles, in Hyeres in the south of

France, that looks like a mass of white cubes on the side of a hill (1923-25). It i in

featured cubist sculptures by Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens, as well as a Robert Mallei -Strvnu
Si. Allatim'i Home. Rue
"cubist garden" designed by Gabriel Guevrekian. 4
-
Man Ray called the villa the

"Dice Castle" and made it the subject of one of his films/

3
The interior includes
4 niton
cubic furniture by Djo Bourgeois, '
Pierre Chareau, and Eileen Gray. Mallet-
Stevens also created six cubistic villas on a street in Auteuil named rue Mallet- Mallei Steven*

Stevens (1926-27) (fig. 29). He also had a building design executed in the form of
nickel -plated metal
4S
an object by a firm called Desny (fig. 30). with matte finish

Indeed, Cubism left its mark on the whole field of modernist architecture. In Prinuv

the preface to a portfolio on contemporary architecture which included build-

ings by Bourgeois, Guevrekian, Pierre Jeanneret, Le Corbusier, Andre Lurcat, and
Mallet-Stevens architect Alphonse Barrez noted:
By some singular good fortune, Cubism, which was so ardently
and dearly defended, is finally imposing itself on a public

that used to greet it with scorn, and is doing so at the

very moment when those who could draw a

lasting and new lesson were starting to turn

away from it. What is happening?

What has happened is not very clear
except that tireless, patient, repeated
efforts triumphed over a common
taste that was too much a slave to
4"
the past.

Cubism's influence is most apparent in

the cubic forms of the buildings

constructed by these architects.
The ensemble idea extended to architecture.

4~
Writing in 1925 critic Gaston Varenne declared, "The link between architecture
and furniture is the most important issue today."' Indeed, the architect was often
the interior designer, as well. Mallet-Stevens, Chareau, and Le Corbusier were all

architects who also exercised significant control over their interior environ-

ments/" Critic Guillaume Janneau explained further:

Fifteen years ago, an ensemble consisted of a group of objects all contribut-

ing to one single effect. The evolution then underway has now reached its

logical conclusion: architecture itself is being subordinated to the general

effect. It has ceased to rule over the "minor arts." It has only its own part to
play in the orchestra/''
50
Cubism also pervaded movie and theater sets. Picasso's creation of the cos-

tumes for Parade (1917), sometimes referred to as a "cubist ballet," is generally

considered to be the first major attempt to integrate avant-garde art in ballet

decor." Sonia Delaunay made set and costume designs for two films, Le Vertige
(1926) and Le Pet't Parigot (1926), and for Tristan Tzara's play Le Cceur a Gaz
5:
(1923). Mallet- Stevens designed the set for Le Vertige, and Pierre Chareau con-
tributed furniture. Mallet-Stevens, Chareau, and Leger all worked on the sets of

the film L'Inhumaine (1923-1924). Leger created ballet costumes and sets for

Darius Milhaud's La Creation du Monde (1923) and other productions of the

55
Ballets Suedois.

Several other figures made objects between the wars that are cubist in inspira-

tion. Jean Dunand was a prolific designer of cubist lacquered screens (fig. 23).

Robert Lallemant, who made a series of cubist ceramics c. 1 930 (fig. 3 1 ) , was praised
54
by one writer for work that was "of completely French inspiration." Marcel
Guillemard also designed ceramics in geometric shapes (no. 26).
Jean Goulden, a doctor by training, is best known for making
small metal household objects such as clocks and
lamps in a powerfully cubist manner. 55 A. M.
Cassandre, graphic artist and jewelry designer, used
the system of measurement known as the Section

d'Or, or Golden Section, so loved by the cubists, in his

5
designs. "
Jean Luce was a ceramicist who both
applied cubist designs to his wares and made works
inherently cubist in shape, such as his tea service of
57
1933 (no. 49). Raymond Templier was one of several
designers of cubist jewelry.

The furniture and objects described thus far

were handcrafted in precious materials such as

imported woods and were time-consuming to pro-

duce. As a result, they were expensive pieces created

tor an elite clientele. A new, more "democratic"

aesthetic developed in the late 1920s, though, and

48
gained many supporters, leading to a schism in

the decorative arts field in France. Glass and

'"
metal began to rival fine woods and textiles.

These modern materials, drawn from machines

and factory culture, allowed for mass production
and wide distribution. The new environments
were not meant for a collector or an ambassador,
but rather for the businessman and the general
public.

The Union des Artistes Modernes, formed in

1929, promoted the machine aesthetic.

5
"
The
stated goals of the UAM were virtually identical
to those of the Societe des Artistes Decorateurs

artists, artisans, and architects were to work together to

create a homogenous, modern aesthetic but the times had changed,

i Corbusier (wilt
and they required a new approach. Francis Jourdain, a founding member of the Charlotte Pernand and
Pierre leanneret)
UAM, described their aims as h ptvotmg batk.

the production of pieces ever more bare and naked, owing their inspiration
chrome -plated tubular
not to fantasy but to logic. It was no longer a question of decorating forms,

of hiding utility, with a so-called "pleasantness," of disguising a mundane Barrv K-riediru:

object as a work of art, but of creating forms well adapted to their function,

and harmoniously expressive of it ... . Even if the newcomers have divested

Fig 31 Robert Lallemant
the artist of his role as entertainer, they have given him a far higher mission, j 1930
a striving for precision of statement, singularly akin to that of the engineer. glazed arimk

Thus by 1929, the emphasis had changed from luxuriousness to spareness, from ration,
Minnrapoliv Minnesota.
decoration to utility. Many of the designers associated with the Societe des
Artistes Decorateurs became members of the UAM including Chareau, Eileen
Gray, Lallemant, Pierre Legrain (who died just two months after the group was
founded), and Mallet-Stevens in an effort to remain on designs cutting edge.
The roots of this new movement can be found in the work and theories artic-

ulated in the preceding decade by Le Corbusier. Fascinated with machines and

factories, he sought to incorporate their influence into his designs. Le Corbusier

was famous for saying that the house is "a machine tor living in" and for calling

furniture "equipment." His ideas about design were first explained in numerous
articles in his journal, VEsprit Nouveau (1920-25). His essays on
decorative art were brought together and published as a book in 1^)2?. le

Corbusier had presented his Pavilion de VEsprit Nouveau at the \^2? Exposition,

which celebrated standardized, mass-produced furnishings. The Bad that 1 e

Corbusiers very advanced ideas about machines and design were at odds with
the luxury products of other designers represented at the 1925 Exposition may
account for the placement of his pavilion in the shadow o\ the Grand Palais, tar

from the center of the fair.

w
 The commitment by the UAM to mass-produced objects over handcrafted
luxury goods revived a debate about quality that began in the nineteenth centu-
ry, when mass-produced objects were usually cheap, inferior products. In 1860s

Britain, William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement rejected technology
and looked back to the medieval guild tradition for inspiration in creating high-
quality handcrafted objects. Early in this century, the Wiener Werkstatte
in Vienna, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, also put a premium on
finely-crafted high-quality works. In 1920s Germany, the Bauhaus, a socially-
BLOW
Pig. 33 conscious institution, sought to resolve the "quantity versus quality" issue by
lacques I e Chevallier

Desk Lamp, making well-designed, mass-produced objects of high quality. Le Corbusier and
circa 1930
aluminum with bakelite the UAM in France were taking an approach similar to that of the German
top and bottom
64
161/2x71/2 K 11 in. Bauhaus. Their kinship to Bauhaus ideals and practices raised once again the
Norwest Corporation. 65
Minneapolis, Minnesota. issue of an international versus a national style. Indeed, the architects associat-

ed with the UAM Bourgeois, Chareau, Guevrekian, Le Corbusier, and Mallet-

Stevens are recognized today as individuals whose work characterize the

"International Style."

Even with the arrival of the new machine aesthetic, Cubism continued to be a
guiding spirit. We see its influence in the work of UAM member Jacques Le
Chevallier, for example, such as his aluminum lamp (c.1930) whose
flat, geometric planes flange out in different directions (fig. 33). We
also see it in Le Corbusier's design for an armchair with pivoting
back, the"fauteuil a dossier basculant" (1928) (fig. 32) made with
the collaboration of Charlotte Perriand and Pierre Jeanneret

which contains chrome metal tubing. With its play of planes

and geometric elements, this chair is like a synthetic cubist

painting carried into the third dimension. In architecture,

the cubistic machine aesthetic reached its fullest expression
in Pierre Chareau's metal and glass masterpiece, the Maison de Verre
(1928-32), whose facade is made of cubes of glass. In 1930, designer
Paul Iribe, still partial to naturalistic forms, exclaimed: "Are we going
to sacrifice the flower on the altar of the cube and the machine? The
moment of truth has arrived." 66
The cube and the machine, not nature, were indeed the primary
sources of inspiration well into the 1930s, until they in turn were chal-
lenged by Surrealism on the eve of the Second World War. With the
spread of Cubism to all facets of design, what had begun as a rarefied

pictorial style before the First World War became a popular language in

the 1920s and '30s. This was possible because Cubism embodied three
criteria that met the needs of the French design field: it was modern; it

was French; and it could lend itself to a unified aesthetic program.

( lubism acted as a conceptual and aesthetic catalyst that
allowed French designers to forge a new style.

50
 1

Notes

1 Encyclopedic des Arts Decoratifs et 9 Le Comite, "Appel adresse par la Si

Industriels Modernes au XXeme Steele, vol. 2, des artistes deooratetin," Catalogue du S;

Paris, 1925, p.26. This twelve-volume series Salon des artistes decorateurs (1911), pp.6
was produced in conjunction with the land- cited in Brunhammer and Tise, p.33.

mark Exposition des Arts De'coratifs et

Industriels Modernes of the same year. 10 See Debora Silverman, Art Nouveau in Fm
de Siecle France: Politics, Psychology uiut
2 Yvonne Brunhammer and Suzanne Tise Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of
The Decorative Arts in France, 1900-1942: La California Press, [989, pp.2H()ft. She quotes.
Societe des Artistes Decorateurs, New York: for example, Charles Genuys's 1897 article

Rizzoli, 1990, p.27; Nancy J. Troy, Modernism called "A Propos de l'art nouveau, soyons
and the Decorative Arts in France: Art Nouveau francais!" in which he states "Let us not allow

to Le Corbusier, New Haven & London: Yale this invasion of English and Belgian art!"
University Press, 1991, pp.52-59; Kenneth E.
Silver, Esprit de Corps: The Art of the Parisian 1 Ibid, and Troy, chapter 1 , "Art Nouveau in

Avant-Garde and the First World War, 1914- Paris: From an Eclectic Movement to a
1925, Princeton: Princeton University Press, National Style," pp.7-51.
1989, p. 174.

12 Brunhammer and Tise, pp. 18-19, 33.

3 Roger Marx, "L' Art Decoratif s'atrophie en

France, pour le vivifier, il faut faire une 13 Troy, p.67.
Exposition internationale en France," Le
Matin (27 February 1909), reproduced in G. 14 Rene Chavance, "Une selection d'artistes
Roger Sandoz and Jean Guiffrey, Arts decorateurs," Art et Decoration, tome 54 ( July-

Appliques et Industries d'Art aux Expositions, December 1928): 129-40.

Paris: Comite Francais des Expositions a

l'Etranger et Societe d'Encouragement a l'Art 15 Sandoz and Guiffrey, p. 127.

et a l'lndustrie, 1912, pp.160-62. This book

reproduces many important articles on the 16 Troy, pp.57-67.
decorative arts from the period, making it an
invaluable source for understanding the devel- 17 Ibid., p.63.
opment of design in France.

18 Louis Vauxcelles, "Le septieme salon des

4 Emile Berr, "Une Exposition en 1913," Le Artistes decorateurs," A rt et Industrie (April
Figaro (29 March 1911) reproduced in Sandoz 1912): 123-24, as cited in Brunhammer and
and Guiffrey, pp. 1 72-73. Tise, p.35.

5 Rapport sur une exposition internationale 19 For the most complete discussion of the
des arts de'coratifs modernes, Paris 1915 (Paris, Maison Cubiste see Troy, pp. 79-97. M\
dated 1 June 1911), as cited in Silver, p. 367. description of the project derives from Troy's
work.
6 A 1911 report by various groups in the
decorative arts industry presented to the 20 lroy,pp.79-97.
French Parliament to establish an internation-
al exhibition of decorative arts says: "Having 21 Ibid. p.85.

established that the current economic condi-

tions make it necessary for our art industries, 22 Silver, p.25.

sources of important national wealth, to estab-

lish and diffuse new models, . . . we ask for the 23 Ibid.
."
Parliament and the Government's support. . .

in Sandoz and Guiffrey, pp. 125-26. 24 Andre Vera, "La Doctrine decorative de
demain," Le Matin (21 November 191J
7 Sandoz and Guiffrey, pp. 26 and 1 1 27. cited in Brunhammer and Tise. p

8 The society's aims are noted in Sandoz and 25 Silver, pp.346ff.

Guiffrey, p. 101.

51
26 Helen Appleton Read, "The Exposition in le neo-rationalisme des annees trente en
Pans," part 1, International Studio (September France" in Pierre Chareau, architecte, un art
1925): 93-7. lor an excellent research guide to intcrieur, Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou,
this Exposition see Cinquantenaire de 1994.
I'Fxposition de 1925: Bibliographic 1925, Paris:

Societc des Amis de la Bibliotheque Forney, 1976. 36 Andre Lhote, n.p.

27 Gaston Yarenne, "[.'Exposition des Arts 37 Philippe Garner, Eileen Gray: Designer
Decoratifs: Le Mobilier Francais," Arf et and Architect, 1878-1976, Cologne: Benedikt
Decoration 48 ( July 1925):1-15. Varenne con- Taschen, 1993.
sidered this to be the first successful example
of collaborative work. 38 On Legrain, see Philippe Garner, "Pierre
Legrain Decorateur," Connoisseur (June
28 Waldemar George. "L'Exposition des arts 1975): 130-37; Pierre Lievre's obituary "Pierre
decoratifs et industriels de 1925: les tendances Legrain" dated 17 July 1929, reproduced in
generates," L'Amour de VArt, no.8, (August Arlette Barre- Despond, Union des Artistes
1925): 283-291 as cited in Kenneth Frampton Modernes, Paris: Editions du Regard, 1986,
and Marc Vellay, Pierre Chareau, Architect and p.564; and Leon Rosenthal, "Pierre Legrain,
Craftsman, 1883-1950, New York: Rizzoli relieur," Art et Decoration 43 (1923): 65-70.
International Publications, 1985, p.46.
39 For more on Doucet, see Andre Joubin,
29 Leon Deshairs, "L'Exposition des Arts "Jacques Doucet, 1853-1929," Gazette des Beaux-
Decoratifs, la Section Francaise: conclusion," Arts (March 1930): 69-72, and Francois Chapon,
Art et Decoration 48 (July 1925): 205-217. Mystere et Splendeurs de Jacques Doucet, 1853-
1929, Paris: Jean-Claude Lattes, 1984.
30 Andre Lhote, preface to Sonia Delaunay,
Ses Peintures, Ses Objets, Ses Tissus Simultanes, 40 Alastair Duncan, Art Deco Furniture: The
Ses Modes, Paris: Librairie des Arts Decoratifs, Furniture Designers New York: Holt, Rinehart
1925, n.p. English translation in Arthur and Winston, 1 984, pp. 1 20-2 1
Cohen, ed., The New Art of Color: The Writings
of Robert and Soma Delaunay, New York: The 41 See Leon Deshairs, "Une Villa a Hyeres,"
Viking Press, 1978, pp. 176-78. Art et Decoration (July 1928): 1-24. Also, C.
Briolle, A. Fuzibet, G. Monnier, Robert Mallet-
31 Leon Werth, "Le XVIIe Salon des artistes Stevens: la villa Noailles, Marseille: Editions
decorateurs,"Arrt>f Decoration (1927): 161-200. Parentheses, 1990.

32 Dollie Chareau to Rene Herbst, letter, 42 For an interesting discussion of this gar-

October 25, 1952 or 1953, in Frampton and den and others inspired by Cubism see
Vellay, p.24. Both artists fled to the United Dorothee Imbert, The Modernist Garden in

States. Chareau, who came in 1939 with his France, New Haven and London: Yale
wife Dollie, lived in the United States until his University Press, 1993.
death. His principal achievement in this coun-
try was the design and construction of a week- 43 On this film, see Kenneth Wayne, "Man
end home and artist's studio for Robert Ray and Film" in Man Ray Cinema, Paris:

Motherwell in Fast Hampton, Long Island. Association internationale pour Man Ray,
1993,pp.9-20.
33 Frampton and Vellay, pp.24-6.
44 For more on this figure, see A. H. Martinie,
34 Ibid. "Djo Bourgeois, architecte et decorateur," Art
et Decoration 53 ( 1928): 64-80.
-ton Varenne, TEsprit Moderne de
Pierre Chareau," Art et Decoration A3 45 See Alastair Duncan and Audrey
(January-June l
l
>2M: 129-38. more on
lor Friedman, "La Maison Desny," journal of
( hareau and < !ubism, see loseph Abram.'Aux Decorative and Propaganda Arts (Summer
conftiu de la culture cubiste: Pierre Chareau el 1988): 86-93.

52
46 Alphonse Barrez, preface, Maisons d'Habita- 56 Arlette Barre-Despond, Union dtt Artiste
tions, Paris: 1'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui, 1925. Modernes, Paris: Editions du Regard, 1986.
p.374.
47 Gaston Varenne, "L'Exposition des Arts
Decoratifs: Le Mobilier Francais," Art et 57 Barre-Despond, p.456. See also Jean Clair,

Decoration 48 (July 1925): 1-15. ed., The 1920s: Age of Metropolis, Montreal:
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, 1991, p.568.
48 On this phenomenon in Le Corbusier s work
see Christopher Pearson, "Integrations of Art 58 For a fascinating article on this debate see
and Architecture in the work of Le Corbusier: Charlotte Perriand," Wood or Metal?," Creative
Theory and Practice from Ornamentalism to ArM.no. 4 (April 1929): 278-79. 1928 seems to
the 'Synthesis of the Major Arts,'" Ph.D. disserta- have been a key year in this development: "The
tion, Stanford University, 1995. outstanding feature this year is the definite
entry of metal into the domain of furnishing."
49 Guillaume Janneau, "La decoration Marcel Valotaire, "The Paris Salons," Creative
intereure. le mobilier," Beaux Arts 12 (June 1925): Art 3, no. 3 (September 1928): 200-03.
181-96, as cited in Frampton and Vellay, p.61.

59 The most complete study of this organiza-

50 For films that were cubist in conception, tion is Arlette Barre-Despond's previously-
see Standish D. Lawder, The Cubist Cinema, cited, Union des Artistes Modernes.
New York: New York University Press, 1975.
60 Francis Jourdain, "Origin and raison d'etre
51 There is extensive literature on this topic. of the new society: the first salon of the Union
See Jeffrey Weiss, The Popular Culture of des Artistes Modernes at the Pavilion
Modern Art: Picasso, Duchamp, and Avant- Marsan," Creative Art, vol.7, no. 5, (November
Gardism, New Haven & London: Yale 1930): 368-371.
University Press, 1994, chapter 4,"'Le Spectacle
Interieur': Parade, popular cubism, and the law 61 Le Corbusier, L'Art decoratif d'aujourd'hui,
of systematic confusions," pp. 165-253; Paris: G. Cres, 1925. It appeared in English
Deborah Menaker Rothschild, Picasso's translation as Le Corbusier, The Decorative Art
"Parade," London: Sotheby's Publications, of Today, translated and introduced by James
1991. Richard Axsom, "Parade": Cubism as Dunnett, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT
Theater, New York: Garland Publishing, 1979. Press, 1987. As Dunnett points out, the title oi
See also, Douglas Cooper, Picasso Theatre, New the book is peculiar given that Le Corbusier
York: Abrams, 1987; originally published 1968. did not believe in decoration, but rather a pris-

tine white, "purist" aesthetic.

52 Leon Moussinac,"Le Decor et le Costume

au Cinema," Art et Decoration, tome 50 (July- 62 Troy, p. 193.

December 1926): 129-39. See also R. Mallet-

Stevens, Le Decor au Cinema, Paris, 1928. 63 Ibid.

53 See, for example, Judi Freeman, "Fernand 64 On the Bauhaus see Herbert Bayer. Walter
Leger and the Ballets Suedois" in Nancy Van Gropius, lse Gropius, eds., Bauhaus: 1919-192$.
Norman Baer, ed., Paris Modern, The Swedish New York: Museum o\ Modern Art. 1 986
Ballet 1920-1925, San Francisco: Fine Arts
Museums of San Francisco, 1996. For more on 65 The German example encouraged the dif-

Cubism and spectacles see Silver, pp.299-303. fusion of the machine aesthetic m Frano
Andre Salmon, "Exposition du Werkbund au
54 Georges Pillement, "Chez Robert XXe Salon des Artistes Dccoi ateurs."
Lallemant," Art et Decoration 61 (March 1932): Decoration 58 (July 1930): 13-17.
65-74.
66 Paul lube. Choix, Pans: Editions Praeger.
55 Alastair Duncan, Art Deco Furniture: The 1930. For a fascinating comment on this book,
Furniture Designers, New York: Holt, Rinehart see R. C, "Chronique: Standardisation ou
and Winston, 1984, pp.87, 97. individuality," Art et Dtcoration 60 (July
L931):n.p.

53
 Exhibition Checklist

All artists worked in France for varying lengths of time.

Artists are identified by their country of birth.

ABlU
Rg. M
Y

Femand Leger
George C. Ault Georges Braque
Untitled, 1937 United States, 1891-1948 3. Still Life with Fruit and Bowl
oil on t jm*
8 in. 1. House in Brittany, 1925 and Pitcher, 1920
Portland Muuum o!
oil on canvas oil on canvas
Alt, Maine
Bequest of Ellen Hum 21 3/4 x 18 1/4 in. 15 3/4x24 3/8 in.
Harrison. 996.8.14.
1

Portland Museum of Art, Maine. Hamilton Mr. & Mrs. Daniel Copp, Sr. Collection,
Easter Field Art Foundation Collection, Gift Portland Museum of Art, L32.1987.
of Barn Gallery Associates, Inc., Ogunquit,
Maine, 1979.13.1.
Georges Braque
4. Still Life with Fruit,
Georges Braque circa 1920-22
France, 1882-1963 oil and sand on canvas
2. Pipe and Basket, 1919 13 3/4x25 1/2 in.

oil and sand on canvas The University of Iowa Museum of Art. Gift
14x25 1/2 in. of Owen and Leone Elliott, 1968.2.

Scott M. Black Collection.

Illustrated on p. 27.
 .

Georges Braque Pierre Chareau

5. Still Life on a Mantelpiece, 1 1 Pair of small side tables,
circa 1923 circa 1927
oil and sand on canvas palisandre or acajou and iron
25 1/2x30 in. 18 1/2 x 19 1/2 x 19 1/2 in.

Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New Primavera Gallery, New York.

York. Room of Contemporary Art Fund,
1941.
Stuart Davis
United States, 1894-1964
Georges Braque 12. Study for New York - Paris No. 2,
6. Still Life with Grapes
circa 1928-1931
and Clarinet, 1927 graphite on wove paper
oil on canvas 15x 19 15/16in.
21 1/4x28 3/4 in. Portland Museum of Art, Maine.
The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C. Museum purchase with a gift from
Illustrated on back cover. Mary- Leigh Smart, 1982.183.

Georges Braque Stuart Davis

7. Still Life with Pears, Lemons,
13. New York - Paris No. 2,
and Almonds, 927 1
February 1931
oil on canvas
oil on canvas
19 7/8x24 in.
30 1/4x40 1/4 in.
Scott M. Black Collection.
Portland Museum of Art, Maine.
Illustrated on p. 59.
Hamilton Easter Field Art Foundation
Collection, Gift of Barn Gallery Associates.

Georges Braque Inc., Ogunquit, Maine, 1979.13.10.

8. Beach at Varangeville, 1932 (On view in exhibition from

oil on canvas August 31 - October 20, 1996).

9 1/8 x 15 3/4 in. Illustrated on p. 26.

Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Art

Museums. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Harold Robert Delaunay
Gershinowitz.
France, 1885-1941
14. Eiffel Tower,
Pierre Chareau circa 1925
France, 1883-1950 oil on burlap
9. Desk, 1925 51 1/2 x 12 1/2 in.

rosewood veneer on mahogany and oak, Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Louise
polished steel handles and Walter Arensberg Collection,
30 1/2x55x30 1/4 in. 50-134- AI-43.
Primavcra Gallery, New York.

Illustrated on p. 40.

Pierre Chareau
10. Reclining Armchair, circa 1925
walnut with leather cushions
! i : . ...
34x31 x27in.
Anthony Del.orenzo, New York.
Illustrated on p. 44.

55
 Sonia Delaunay Juan Gris
Ukraine, Spain, 1887-1927
1886-1979 20. Guitar and Compote, 1921
oil on canvas
15. Ses Peintures, Ses
15x24 1/8 in.
Objets, Ses Tissus
The Art Institute of Chicago. Mildred Sexton
Simultanes, Ses
Trust gift, 1976.427.
Modes, circa 1925
pochoir (portfolio of 20
Juan Gris
images)
22 3/8 x 15 3/8x5/8 in.
2 1 Mandolin and Pipe, 1 925
Robert and Maurine
oil on canvas

Rothschild Collection.
24x29 in.
Stuart Davis, on Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College,
Illustrated p. 43.
Hanover, New Hampshire. Gift of Ruth and
Charles Lachman.
Jean Dunand
Switzerland, 1877-1942
Juan Gris
16. Screen with Geometric Design,
22. The Painters Window, 1925
circa 1927
oil on canvas
silver lacquer, colored lacquer, scored brown
39 1/4x31 3/4 in.
lacquer and wood
The Baltimore Museum of Art. Bequest of
67x79 in.
Sadie A. May (BMA 1951.306).
Anthony DeLorenzo, New York.
Illustrated on p. 38.
Juan Gris
23. SHU Life with a Guitar, 1925
Albert Gleizes
oil on canvas
France, 1881-1953 28 3/4x36 1/4 in.
17. Abstract Composition, 1921 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Gift of
oil on canvas Joseph Pulitzer, Jr., 67. 1161.
32x26 1/4 in.

Private Collection. Juan Gris

Illustrated on p. 30.
24. The Black Guitar, 1926
oil on canvas
Julio Gonzalez 19 3/4x28 5/8 in.

Spain, 1876-1942 The University of Iowa Museum of Art.

Gift of Owen and Leone Elliott, 1968.20.
18. Harlequin, circa 1930
Illustrated on p. 31.
iron, ed. 2/4

16 15/16 x 11 13/16 x 11 13/16 in.

Robert and Maurine Rothschild Collection. Juan Gris

25. Still Life: Table with Red Cloth,
Eileen Gray 1926
[REl AND, 1878-1976 oil on canvas
36 1/4x23 5/8 in.
19. holding Block Screen,
Washington University Gallery of Art,
circa 1922-1925
St. Louis, Missouri. Gift of
Mack lacquer and wood
Mr. Charles H.Yalem, 1963.
: (height)

Anthony Del orenzo, New York.

Illustrated on p I

56
Marcel Guillemard Ill Laurens
\ri
France, 1886-1932 32. Head of a

26. Vessel with Lid, circa 1930 Woman, circa 1925

glazed stoneware stone
8x7 1/8x7 1/8 in. 17 1/8x7 7/8x7 7/8 in.

Norwest Corporation, Minneapolis. Hirshhorn Museum and

Sculpture Garden,
Smithsonian Institution.
Jean HElion
Joseph H. Hirshhorn
France, 1904-1987
Bequest, 1981.
27. Standing Figure, 1935
oil on canvas
Jacques Le
51 1/4x35 in. )acqu<

Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo,

Chevallier Instrument* ( no

New York. Room of Contemporary France, 1896-1981

Art Fund, 1944. 33. Desk Lamp, circa 1930
aluminum with bakelite top and bottom
16 1/2x7 1/2x11 in.
auguste herbin
Norwest Corporation, Minneapolis.
France, 1882-1960
Illustrated on p. 50.
28. Composition (The Bull), 1930
oil on canvas
28 1/2x36 in.
Le Corbusilr
Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, (Charles- douard
Hanover, New Hampshire. Gift of Evelyn A. Jeanneret)
and William B. Jaffee, Class of 1964H, Switzerland, 1887-1965
through the Friends of Dartmouth Library.
34. Still Life, 1920
oil on canvas
Robert Lallemant 31 7/8x39 1/4 in.

France, 1902-1954 The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Van Gogh Purchase Fund, 1937.

29. Vase, circa 1930
Illustrated on p. 24.
glazed ceramic
8 1/2x9x3 3/4 in.

Norwest Corporation, Minneapolis. Fernand LEGER

Illustrated on p. 48. France, 1881-1935
35. Two Women, 1922
Henri Laurens oil on canvas

France, 1885-1954 35 3/4 x 2i in.

National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C

30. Basket of Grapes, 1919
Gifl (partial) of Richard S. Xeisler.
polychromed terracotta
Illustrated on p. 1.
14 1/4x7 1/4x5 1/4 in.

Indiana University Art Museum. Jane and

Roger Wolcott Memorial. Fernand LfiGi R
36. Animated Landscape, 924 1

Henri Laurens oil on canvas

19 1/2x23 5/8 in.
3 1 . Woman with a Fan, 1919
Philadelphia Museum ot Ait Gift o\
bronze
Bernard Davis. 1950 63-1.
23 1/4 in. (length)

Robert and Maurine Rothschild Collection.

Illustrated on p. 28.

57
 Fernand Lger
41.Sf;7/L//<?, 1929
oil on canvas
36x25 3/4 in.

Scott M. Black Collection.

Illustrated on p. 22.

Fernand LEger
42. Untitled, circa 1935
gouache on paper
8 7/8x13 5/8 in.

Museum of Art,
Portland Maine.
Anonymous gift, 1986.4.

Fernand LEger
43. Untitled, 1937
oil on canvas
25 5/8 x 36 7/8 in.

Portland Museum of Art, Maine.

Bequest of Ellen Hunt Harrison, 1996.8.14.

Fernand LEger Illustrated on p. 54.

37. Mechanical Element I, 1924

oil on canvas Pierre Legrain
25 1/2 x 20 in. France, 1887-1929
Smith College Museum of Art,
44. Clock, circa 1925
Northampton, Massachusetts. Purchased metal and sharkskin
with Joseph Brummer Fund, 1954.
10x10 3/4x6 1/2 in.
Illustrated on p. 35.
Primavera Gallery, New York.
Illustrated on p. 41.

Fernand LEger
38. Mural Painting, 1924 Jacques Lipchitz
oil on canvas Lithuania, 1891-1973
71 x31 1/4 in.
45. Pierrot with Clarinet, 1919
The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
stone
Given anonymously, 1965.
28 3/4x9 3/4x9 1/2 in.

Private Collection.
Fernand LEger Illustrated on p. 29.

39. Flowers, 1926

oil on canvas
Jacques Lipchitz
36 5/16x25 3/4 in.
46. Musical Instruments, 1923
Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of
stone (unique)
Design, Providence, Rhode Island.
19x35x6 1/2 in.
Anonymous gift.
The Estate of Jacques Lipchitz. Courtesy of

Marlborough Gallery, New York.

Fernand LEger
Illustrated on p. 57.
40. The Bunch of drapes, 1928
oil on canvas
31 7/8x51 1/8 in.

Si on M. Black Collection.
Illustrated on p

58
 >A LI) I

'in

rorgm Braqur

jnva

Jacques Lipchitz Robert Mallet-Stevens

47. Bather, 1924 France, 1886-1945
coarsely crystalline banded limestone 50. Box, circa 1928
26 1/2 x 12x8 1/2 in.
(executed by Desny)
Fogg Art Museum. Harvard University Art
nickel-plated metal with matte finish
Museums. Gift of Lois Orswell.
3 1/2x9x8 in.
Illustrated on p. 32.
Primavera Gallery, New York.
Illustrated on p. 47.

Jacques Lipchitz
Nude with
48. Reclining Guitar, AmEdEe Ozenfam
circa 1928 France, 1886-1966
bronze
51. Purist Still Life, 1926
16 1/8x29 5/8x12 3/4 in.
oil on canvas
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden,
5/8x28 11/16
23 in.
Smithsonian Institution Gift of
Rachel Adler Gallery, New York.
Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1966.
Illustrated on p. 58.

Jean Luce Alfred Pellan

France, 1895-1964 Canada, 1906-1988
49. Deco Tea Service, circa 1933 Musical Instruments A, 1933
52.
porcelain
oil on canvas
Gloria and Laurence Lieberman, Boston.
52 \ 77 in.

Davis Museum and Cultural (enter.

Wellesley College. Gift of Mr. and Mrs

Henry Clifford, 1954.32.

59
 Pabi Pl< ASSO Pablo Picasso
Spain, 1881-1973 57. Harlequin Musician, 1924

53. Still Life with a Vase, a Pipe, and oil on canvas

51 1/2x38 1/4 in.
a Package of Tobacco, Spring, 1919
National Gallery of Art, Washington.
oil on cam. is
Given in loving memory of her husband, Taft
25 5/8x21 1/4 in.
Schreiber.by Rita Schreiber, 1989.31.2.
Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Samuel S.
Illustrated on p. 6.
White, 3rd, and Vera White Collection,
67-30-71.

Henri Laurens, 1935

Pablo Picasso
Pablo Picasso 58. Young Woman with

54. Still Life, 1922 Mandolin, 1932

oil on canvas oil on board
51 1/4x39 in.
25 l/16x 18 5/16 in.

Marina Picasso Collection (Inv. 12307). University of Michigan Museum of Art.

Courtesy of Galerie Jan Krugier, Gift of The Carey Walker Foundation.

Geneva, Switzerland. Illustrated on p. 14.

Illustrated on p. 1 1.

Pablo Picasso
Pablo Picasso 59. Head of a Woman (Portrait of
55. Composition with Glass, 1923 Marie-Therese Walter), 1934
oil on plywood oil on canvas
8 5/8x 13 1/8 in. 21 5/8x15 in.

Marina Picasso collection (Inv. 12320). Scott M. Black Collection.

Courtesy of Jan Krugier Gallery, New York. Illustrated on p. 19.

Illustrated on p. 7.

Pablo Picasso
Pablo Picasso 60. Reclining Figure, 1934
and a
56. Still Life with a Guitar oil on canvas
Compote (The Mandolin), 1923 18 1/4x25 3/4 in.

oil on canvas The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.

31 3/4x39 7/16 in. Gift of The Carey Walker Foundation, 1994.

Philadelphia Museum of Art. A.E. Gallatin Illustrated on p. 15.

Robert Mallei -Stevens, circa 1925 Collection, 52-61-98.

Illustrated on p. 8. Pablo Picasso
61.Head of a Woman with Hat,
September 1938
pencil and oil wash on canvas
18 1/4 x 15 in.

Courtesy of PaceWildenstein, New York

Illustrated on p. 18.

Eileen

60
John Storrs Jacques Villon
United States, 1885-1956 France, 1875-1963
62. The Abbott (Gendarme Seated), 66. Color Perspective, 1922
1920 oil on canvas
bronze 36 5/16x28 13/16 in.

17 1/8x8 1/8x12 1/8 in. Yale University Art Gallery. Gift of

Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Collection Societe Anonyme.

Smithsonian Institution. Gift of Joseph H.
Hirshhorn, 1966. Jacques Villon
Illustrated below.
67. Color Perspective, 1922
lohn Slorrv
oil on canvas The Abbott

John Storrs 23 11/16x36 1/4 in.

63. Study for Abstract Sculpture, Yale University Art Gallery. Gift of 17 1/8 x -

Hirshhorn Musrum and

Collection Societe Anonyme.
January 13,1931 Sculpture Garden.
Smithsonian Institution
crayon on paper
Gift of |o*eph H
14 11/16x11 1/2 in. 68. Maisons d'Habitations, Hinhhorn. 196*
Portland Museum of Art, Maine. Paris: LArchitecture
Museum purchase with a gift from William
d'Aujourd'hui,
D.Hamill, 1985.191.
circa. 1925
Portfolio of 53 images
Leopold Survage 13 1/4 x 10x1 in.

Russia, 1879-1968 Ex Libris, New York.

64. Landscape, 1921
oil on canvas
15x21 1 1/16 in.

Yale University Art Gallery. Gift of

Collection Societe Anonyme.

Georges Valmier
France, 1885-1937
65. The Fish, 1929
oil on canvas
16 x 61 in.

Primavera Gallery, New York.

i
 Chronology

I /I / Picasso paints a series of cubist still lifes before an open window. I s^.\*-S March

3-16: Second exhibition of the Section if Or, or Cubist Salon, occurs. This show presents Cubism as

a coherent movement that has survived the war. Like the first one in 1912, this exhibition takes place

at the Galerie de la Boetie. Participants include: Alexander Archipenko, Georges Braque, Albert

Gleizes, Fernand Leger, Serge Ferat, Leopold Survage, Louis Marcoussis, Michel Larionov, Natalia

(iontcharova, Irene Lagut, and Marie Vassilief. The Dadaists are excluded. October 7-November: the

same show apparently travels to the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam. Le Corbusier's journal, L'Esprit

S'ouveau, appears and lasts until 1925. I S ^L I Olga Koklova's and Picasso's son, Paulo, is born.

The French government begins to auction the stock of German art dealers Wilhelm Uhde and

Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler confiscated during the First World War as enemy property. The auctions

continue until 1923. I s ^ J> Robert Mallet-Stevens starts construction of a cubist villa for the

Vicomte and Vicomtesse de Noailles in Hyeres, in the south of France. Picasso's first major statement

is published in The Arts, an American journal, translated by the Mexican-American artist and art

dealer, Marius de Zayas. Sonia Delaunay creates costumes for Tristan Tzara's play, Le Coeur a Gaz.

Solo exhibition of Juan Gris at Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler's Galerie Simon. I s jL^\- Leger makes

his cubist film Ballet Mecanique. Marcel L'Herbier's cubist film LTnhumaine. Robert Mallet-Stevens

creates the interior architecture, Pierre Chareau the furniture, and Fernand Leger the laboratory of

the engineer Noorsen. \ s ^.^ January 12-31: Third exhibition of the Section d'Or. Titled

"Exposition de la Section d'Or, 1912-1 925," it is the debut exhibition at the Galerie Vavin-Raspail, 28

rue Vavin, 138 blvd. Raspail. Catalogue with preface by Guillaume Dalbert. Works by: Archipenko,

Braque, Robert Delaunay, Duchamp-Villon, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Roger de la Fresnaye, Marie

Laurencin, Leger, Andre Lhote, Marcoussis, Jean Metzinger, Picasso, and Jacques Villon. This is the

first Section d'Or exhibition in which Picasso contributes (3 paintings). April 29-October:

Exposition International des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, an event organized by the

Ministry oi Commerce to help re-establish the pre-eminence of French design. This event is consid-

ered to be the pinnacle of what is later called the Art Deco movement. Sonia Delaunay has her

Boutique Simultanee which also offers Jacques Heim's furs, and paintings by Robert Delaunay Over

thirty artists and designers contribute to the famous French Embassy installation. Le Corbusier's

62
Pavilion de VEsprit Nouveau features cubist works by Henri Laurens, Leger, and Jacques l.ipchitz.

Picasso paints The Three Dancers. I ^O Construction begins of six cubist villas by Robert

Mallet-Stevens in Auteuil. Sonia Delaunay creates set and costume designs for Marcel LHerbier's film

Vertige, while Robert Mallet-Stevens creates the decor, Pierre Chareau the furniture, and Jean Lurcal

the tapestry. 1 7 ^. / Picasso meets Marie-Therese Walter. Death of Juan Gris. I ^O

Pierre Chareau begins construction of the Maison de Verre for Doctor Dalsace, rue St. Guillaume,

Paris. Le Corbusier designs his chair with pivoting back (fauteuil a dossier basculant ), with assistance

of Charlotte Perriand and Pierre Jeanneret. I 7 ^- 7 May 15: Founding of the Union des

Artistes Modernes (UAM), an organization devoted to use of new materials (e.g. chromed tubing)

and techniques to reflect the modern spirit. UAM statutes declare that "the impartial observer will get
a taste of the future." Robert Mallet-Stevens, founding member, presides over the first meeting.

Original list of members includes Joseph Csaky, Sonia Delaunay, Eileen Gray, Robert Lallemant,

Jacques Le Chevallier, Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Pierre Legrain, Gustave Miklos, Charlotte

Perriand. This organization represents a complete break with the Societe des Artistes Decorateurs.

The Vicomte de Noailles is one of its supporters. Publication of Guillaume Janneau's VArt Cubiste:

Theories et Realisations, etude critique. I 7 5 x^ June 1 1 -July 14: First exhibition of the Union

des Artistes Modernes at the Pavilion de Marsan. Waldemar George founds the periodical Formes.

I 7 5 ^- Picasso returns to the cubist idiom in earnest after a seven-year foray into Surrealism.

I 7 55 Leger continues to mix biomorphic and geometric elements, displaying an interest in

both Cubism and Surrealism. I 7 J>^ Picasso's second major statement appears in Colliers

d'Art" Conversations avec Picasso," transcribed by Christian Zervos. Picasso's and Marie- Th(

daughter, Maya, is born. I 7 ^O Photographer Dora Maar becomes an important part of

Picasso's life. Alfred Barr mounts a major exhibition at MOMA called Cubism and Abstract Art.

I 7 3 / January-November: Picasso paints a series of weeping women. May-June: Pia

paints Guernica for the Spanish Pavilion of the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques

Vie Moderne. I 7 5 7 Braque paints large cubist still lifes. Major Picasso retrospective at the

Museum of Modern Art entitled Picasso: Forty Years of His Art.

63
 Lenders to the Exhibition

R.ACHI 1 Am 1 R CiAl I 1 R\ Hood Museum of Art The Phillips Collection

New York, New York Dartmouth College Washington, D.C.
Hanover, New Hampshire
Albright-Knox Marina Picasso, courtesy of
Art Gali iky Indiana University Jan Krugier Gallery
Buffalo, New York Art Museum New York, New York and
Bloomington, Indiana Geneva, Switzerland
The Art Institui e

HICAGO University of Iowa Primavera Gallery

Chicago, Illinois Museum of Art New York, New York
Iowa City, Iowa
Tin Baltimore Museum of Art, Rhode
Museum of Art Gloria and Laurence Island School of Design
Baltimore, Maryland Lieberman Providence, Rhode Island
Boston, Massachusetts
Scott M. Black Robert and Maurine
Jacques Lipchitz Rothschild
Mr. & Mrs. Daniel Copp, Sr.
Estate, courtesy of
Smith College
Davis Museum and Marlborough Gallery
Museum of Art
Cultural Center New York, New York
Northampton, Massachusetts
Wellesley College
The University of
Wellesley, Massachusetts Washington University
Michigan Museum of Art
Gallery of Art
Anthony DeLorenzo Ann Arbor, Michigan
St. Louis, Missouri
New York, New York
Museum of Fine Arts,
Yale University
Ex Libris Boston
Art Gallery
New York, New York Boston, Massachusetts
New Haven, Connecticut
Fogg Ari Museum The Museum of
Richard S. Zeisler
Harvard University Modern Art
New York, New York
Art Museums New York, New York
(Cambridge, Massachusetts and several private collectors who
National Gallery of Art
wish to remain anonymous.
Hirshhorn Museum and Washington, D.C.
pture Garden
s< ui
Norwest Corporation
Smithsonian Institution,
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Washington, D.C.
PaceWildenstein
New York, New York

Pull ADELPHIA
Museum of Art
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

64
The Portland Museum of Art wishes to thank the galleries, libraries, museums, private collectors, and
rights administrators for permitting reproduction of works in this catalogue.

Copyright Acknowledgments
Berenice Abbott/Commerce Graphics Ltd., Inc.: p. 60 (bottom); 1 996 Artists Rights Society A RS),
(

New York, NY/ADAGP, Paris: p. 27, p. 28, p. 30, p. 50, p. 59; 1996 Artists Rights Society ARS), New (

York,NY/SPADEM, Paris: p. 24, p. 49, p. 58; 1996 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
NY/SPADEM/ADAGP, Paris: p. 2, p. 22, p. 23, p. 35, p. 54; 1996 Estate of Stuart Davis, Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY: p. 26; 1996 Estate of Jacques Lipchitz, Licensed by VAGA, New York.
NY/Marlborough Gallery, NY: p. 29, p. 32; 1996 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York, NY: p. 6, p. 7, p. 8, p. 11, p. 12, p. 14, p. 15, p. 17, p. 18, p. 19.

Sources of Photographs* and Names of Photographers

Portraits of Georges Braque, Pierre Chareau, Jean Dunand, Fernand Leger, Jacques Lipchitz, Pablo
Picasso, and Robert Mallet- Stevens are by Therese Bonney, Courtesy of The Bancroft Library.

University of California, Berkeley: p. 55 (top and center), p. 56 (bottom), p. 57 (top and bottom),

p. 60 (top and middle); Photograph by Ricardo Blanc: p. 61; Photograph by Barney Burstein: p. 2^;

Photograph courtesy of Girandon/Art Resource, New York, p. 17. Photograph courtesy of the Fine
Arts Library of Harvard College Library: p. 46; Photograph President 8c Fellows. Harvard College,
Harvard University Art Museums: p. 32; Portrait of Stuart Davis by Therese Bonney, Court.

Billy Kliiver and Julie Martin: p. 56; Photograph by Melville D. McLean: p. 26, p. 27, p. 30, p. 38. p. 40,

p. 43, p. 44, p. 45, p. 54; Photograph courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: p. 19, p. 22, p. 23;

Photograph 1996 The Museum of Modern Art, New York: p. 24; Photograph 1996 Board oi

Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington: p. 6; Portrait of Henri Laurens by Robert Doisneau.

Collection of the Portland Museum of Art, Gift of James E. Pearl (copyprint bv Gregory Welch):

p. 55 (bottom); Photograph by Patrick Young: p. 14.

* Unless otherwise indicated, all photographs are provided courtesy of the lend<