Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control

Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

CHAPTER 3: ELEMENTARY PHYSICS OF REACTOR CONTROL

MODULE C: REACTIVITY FEEDBACK DUE TO TEMPERATURE AND VOID EFFECTS

MODULE OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you will be able to describe:
1. reactivity as a function of reactor power
2. the physics basis for the temperature effects of reactivity, including
(1) density effects
(2) neutron energy spectrum effect
(3) doppler broadening effect
3. the temperature coefficients and the six factor formula
4. the fuel, moderator and coolant temperature coefficients
5. the power coefficient of reactivity
6. effects due to void formation

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

1. INTRODUCTION
so far in this chapter we have considered how a
nuclear chain reaction can be maintained and its
level changed, in terms of the creation of neutrons
from fission, and their absorption in the fuel and
other materials, as well as their escape from the
reactor core
reactivity has been defined in terms of the deviation
of the neutron multiplication from critical, and
equations developed that relate the time dependent
change of the neutron population to reactivity
in this course we are concerned about controlling
reactor power, which is done by controlling the
reactivity of the core
before we consider the means of changing the
cores reactivity by external means, we need to look
at reactivity effects internal to the reactor
in the previous module reference was made to
changes in core reactivity as the composition of the
fuel changes with burnup
in this module we look at the effects on reactivity of
changes in the temperatures of the many materials
that are present in the reactor core, and the effects
of any voids that may form in the coolant and the
moderator if these liquids were to boil

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

2. REACTIVITY AS A FUNCTION OF REACTOR POWER

when reactor power changes, the temperatures of the various reactor components and the amount of
void (if any) in the reactor coolant, will change
for example, on a power level increase, the respective temperature of the fuel, coolant, and moderator
will each rise
these temperature changes will alter one or more of the factors in the in the six factor formula, resulting
in reactivity changes
reactivity
since a reactivity change that is due to the change
action of the reactor control system that due to
results in a power level change will cause a reactivity net reactor
temperature (and/or void) change which will
mechanisms reactivity REACTOR power
then alter the reactivity of the core, the CORE
reactivity changes due to temperature (and/or
void) take the form of a reactivity feedback
effect fuel temp fuel
reactivity temperature
the reactor control system must therefore
continually adjust the reactivity control
coolant temp coolant
mechanisms during a demanded power level
reactivity temperature
change to keep the actual power changing at a
rate that corresponds to the setpoint change
moderator temp moderator
positive feedback will tend to cause instability reactivity temperature
large negative feedback would oppose any
power level change coolant void coolant
reactivity voiding
small negative feedback has a self regulating
effect, resulting in an inherently safe reactor

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

3. PHYSICS BASIS FOR THE TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF REACTIVITY

recall that the reaction rate for a given nuclide in the reactor is given by: R = = N
,
where N is the number of a particular nuclei per unit volume, and refers to either the fission or
absorption cross section of the corresponding nuclei
the reaction rate will change as a function of temperature for one of the following reasons:
thermal expansion of the material will reduce its density, and hence N decreases
changes in the energy spectrum of the thermal neutron flux will alter
the nuclei move at higher speeds, increasing the probability of resonance capture of epithermal
neutrons (Doppler effect, Doppler broadening, Resonance broadening)

3.1 Density Effects

as the temperature of the moderator or coolant increases, its density decreases
since the number of atoms per unit volume are fewer, neutrons will travel further between collisions and
f) and the thermal
therefore have an increased chance of leaking out of the core, hence both the fast (
t) non-leakage probabilities will decrease, therefore decreasing reactivity
(
the reduction in atomic density will lower a for the moderator and the coolant, which will therefore
increase the thermal utilization (f) i.e. increasing reactivity
if there is poison in the coolant and/or the moderator, the reactivity effect of a density change is
magnified (for PWR and BWR the poison is in the common coolant/moderator; for CANDU poison is
only added to the moderator)
since the fuel is in the form of a ceramic material with high crystalline stability, there are no significant
density changes due to temperature, as long as the temperature of the fuel is kept below its melting
point

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

3.2 Neutron Energy Spectrum Effect

changes in the temperatures of the various materials in the core with which the neutrons interact, will
alter the energy distribution of the thermal neutrons (also called the neutron temperature)
the thermal spectrum of the neutrons
changes as shown on the diagram: the 20C 300C
peak of the thermal neutron spectrum
decreases, the average and most
probable energies increase,
the change in thermal energy spectrum
with temperature will alter the balance
between the fission and absorption rates
in the core since these are functions of
0.025 eV 0.05 eV
the neutron energy
spectrum hardening refers to hotter neutrons
spectrum softening refers to cooler neutrons
the parameter that is most effected is the reproduction factor .

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

3.3 Doppler Broadening Effect

the Doppler effect arises when the temperature of the fuel changes, because an increase in fuel
temperature will increase neutron capture in U-238 as they pass through the resonance range
absorption at the resonance peaks is a nucleus at rest, only neutrons at
function of the speed of the neutron the resonance energy are
relative to the speed of the U-238 absorbed
nucleus, and since a higher fuel
temperature means result in the U-238
atoms vibrating more vigorously, there
is a wider range of neutron speeds that nucleus moves towards neutron,
can coincide with the absorption peaks neutrons below resonance energy
of U-238 are absorbed
the range of energies at which neutrons
are captured increases neutron catches up to nucleus,
although the capture cross section at neutrons above resonance
the resonance peak is reduced, the energy are absorbed
overall probability of capture is
increased
the overall effect is a reduction in the resonance escape probability (p) and hence a decrease in
reactivity

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

4. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS AND THE SIX FACTOR FORMULA

the temperature coefficient of reactivity is defined as the change in reactivity per unit change in
temperature, with units of mk/C or k/C
mathematically the temperature coefficient is written as
recall that k = fpft
taking logs of both sides ln k = ln + ln f + ln p + ln + ln f + ln t
and differentiating, we get

1 dk 1 d 1 df 1 dp 1 d 1 d f 1 d t
= + + + + +
k dT dT f dT p dT dT f dT t dT

Typical components of the fuel temperature coefficient (

k/C) for a CANDU are:

FACTOR FRESH FUEL EQUILIBRIUM FUEL

(1/) d/dT 0.0 0.0

(1/p) dp/dT -9.3 -9.3

(1/f) df/dT -0.8 +0.3

) d
(1/ /dT -4.0 +5.3

f) d
(1/ f/dT 0.0 0.0

t) d
(1/ t/dT -0.8 -0.4

TOTAL -15 -4
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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

5. FUEL, MODERATOR AND COOLANT TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS

the effects of density, neutron temperature and Doppler broadening alter the components of the six
factor formula in various ways and their values are also a function of the age of the fuel
since the temperature of the fuel, moderator and coolant can be varied independently from one another
(within certain limits), the reactivity coefficient of each of these effects needs to be known

Values for CANDU

Unit of k/ C T from zero power hot to
near full power full power
operating conditions

Fuel temperature - 4.5 530

coefficient

Coolant temperature +30 25

coefficient

Moderator temperature +70 5

coefficient

it was noted in section 2 that a reactor will be potentially unstable if it has a large positive temperature
coefficient of reactivity: is the reactor with the parameters in the above table unstable?
in analyzing the stability of a feedback control system both the gain and the phase of the feedback
signal had to be considered
for a reactor undergoing a power level transient the temperature change for the fuel will be much larger
and occur much more rapidly than for the coolant and the moderator , so as long as the fuel
temperature coefficient is negative, the reactor will be stable
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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

6. POWER COEFFICIENT OF REACTIVITY

the Power Coefficient is defined as the reactivity change due to all the temperature effects as the
reactor power changes from hot shutdown to 100%FP
note that this is not a reactivity change per unit of temperature as the previous temperature coefficients
were defined, but the total reactivity change between the two operating states
it can be assumed that the reactivity effect is a linear function of the power level between 10% and
100%FP
for CANDU reactors the Power Coefficient is between 2 mk and 6 mk, depending on the design of the
fuel bundle and the amount of burn-up

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 Chapter 3: Elementary Physics of Reactor Control
Module C: Reactivity Feedback due to Temperature and Void Effects

7. EFFECTS DUE TO VOID FORMATION

voids will be formed in the core if the temperature of moderator or the heat transport system fluid
reaches the boiling point
note that for BWRs boiling of the common moderator and reactor coolant will take place under normal
operating conditions
for CANDUs the moderator system is not expected to reach boiling, while some boiling in the heat
transport system is expected to take place near full power operations
the two events that could cause voiding are:
TERM FRESH FUEL EQUILIBRIUM FUEL
large Loss Of Coolant Accident (LOCA),
such as a header rupture and / 5.0 5.0
depressurization
fast Loss Of Regulation resulting in p/p 6.0 6.0
excessive power generation
f/f 3.0 2.5
Components of the void reactivity in case of
full core voiding are given in the Table in mk /
2.3 -2.5
Safety Analysis must demonstrate that either
Reactor Shutdown System acting alone f/
f -0.8 -0.8
could limit the power increase to safe levels
in case of such an accident t/
t -0.3 -0.3

TOTAL 15 10

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