Casting (metalworking)

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Casting iron in a sand mold

In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make
by other methods.[1]

Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture,
especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Traditional techniques
include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.

The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-
expendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and
pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.[2]

Contents
1 Expendable mold casting

o 1.1 Sand casting

 o 1.2 Plaster mold casting

o 1.3 Shell molding

o 1.4 Investment casting

o 1.5 Waste molding of plaster

o 1.6 Evaporative-pattern casting

1.6.1 Lost-foam casting

1.6.2 Full-mold casting

2 Non-expendable mold casting

o 2.1 Permanent mold casting

o 2.2 Die casting

o 2.3 Semi-solid metal casting

o 2.4 Centrifugal casting

o 2.5 Continuous casting

3 Terminology

4 Theory

o 4.1 Cooling curves

o 4.2 Chvorinov's rule

o 4.3 The gating system

o 4.4 Shrinkage

4.4.1 Solidification shrinkage

4.4.2 Risers and riser aids

 4.4.3 Patternmaker's shrink

o 4.5 Mold cavity

o 4.6 Filling

4.6.1 Tilt filling

o 4.7 Macrostructure

o 4.8 Inspection

4.8.1 Defects

5 Casting Process Simulation

6 See also

7 References

o 7.1 Notes

o 7.2 Bibliography

8 External links

Expendable mold casting

Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster, and
investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the use of
temporary, non-reusable molds.
Sand casting

Main article: Sand casting

Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting that has been used for
centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches to be made compared to permanent mold
casting and at a very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create
products at a low cost, but there are other benefits to sand casting, such as very small size
operations. From castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create
the entire bed for one rail car), it can all be done with sand casting. Sand casting also allows most
metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds.[3]

Sand casting requires a lead time of days for production at high output rates (120 pieces/hr-
mold) and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand has almost no part weight
limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of 2,3002,700 kg (5,1006,000 lb).
Minimum part weight ranges from 0.0750.1 kg (0.170.22 lb). The sand is bonded together
using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized oils (such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled
many times in most operations and requires little maintenance.

Plaster mold casting

Main article: Plaster mold casting

Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that plaster of paris is substituted for sand as a
mold material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production
rate of 110 units/hrmold is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb) and as small as
30 g (1 oz) with very good surface finish and close tolerances.[4] Plaster casting is an inexpensive
alternative to other molding processes for complex parts due to the low cost of the plaster and its
ability to produce near net shape castings. The biggest disadvantage is that it can only be used
with low melting point non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc.
[5]

Shell molding

Main article: Shell molding

Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell"
of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is
mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the
pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is
easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast
iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are
small to medium sized.

Investment casting

An investment-cast valve cover

Main article: Investment casting
See also: Lost-wax casting

Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practised for
thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming
techniques. From 5000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to todays high technology
waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are
produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity.

Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with
a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to
withstand forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of investment casting is
that the wax can be reused.[4]

The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of
different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this
process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of up to
300 kg and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as die
casting or sand casting, it can be an expensive process, however the components that can be
produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the
components are cast near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast.

Waste molding of plaster

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (February 2009)

A durable plaster intermediate is often used as a stage toward the production of a bronze
sculpture or as a pointing guide for the creation of a carved stone. With the completion of a
plaster, the work is more durable (if stored indoors) than a clay original which must be kept
moist to avoid cracking. With the low cost plaster at hand, the expensive work of bronze casting
or stone carving may be deferred until a patron is found, and as such work is considered to be a
technical, rather than artistic process, it may even be deferred beyond the lifetime of the artist.

In waste molding a simple and thin plaster mold, reinforced by sisal or burlap, is cast over the
original clay mixture. When cured, it is then removed from the damp clay, incidentally
destroying the fine details in undercuts present in the clay, but which are now captured in the
mold. The mold may then at any later time (but only once) be used to cast a plaster positive
image, identical to the original clay. The surface of this plaster may be further refined and may
be painted and waxed to resemble a finished bronze casting.

Evaporative-pattern casting

Main article: Evaporative-pattern casting

This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour,
which means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mold before casting. The
two main processes are lost-foam casting and full-mold casting.

Lost-foam casting

Main article: Lost-foam casting

Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment

casting except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the
low boiling point of foam to simplify the investment casting process by removing the need to
melt the wax out of the mold.

Full-mold casting

Main article: Full-mold casting

Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand

casting and lost-foam casting. It uses a expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then
surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold,
which vaporizes the foam upon contact.

Non-expendable mold casting

The permanent molding process

Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not be
reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods:
permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting also results in improved
repeatability in parts produced and delivers Near Net Shape results.

Permanent mold casting

Main articles: Permanent mold casting, low-pressure permanent mold casting, and vacuum
permanent mold casting

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent
molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold,
however gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting
process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminum,
magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and
steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still
have a limited life before wearing out.

Die casting

Main article: Die casting

The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are
machined into dies). Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals, specifically zinc,
copper, and aluminium based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are possible. The die casting
method is especially suited for applications where many small to medium sized parts are needed
with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.

Semi-solid metal casting

Main article: Semi-solid metal casting

Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates the
residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed material,
SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially liquid. A
modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into re-usable hardened steel
dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use of controlled die filling
conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a non-turbulent manner so that
harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated.

Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat
treated to the T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates (from
using un-coated steel dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of strength and
ductility. Other advantages of SSM casting include the ability to produce complex shaped parts
net shape, pressure tightness, tight dimensional tolerances and the ability to cast thin walls.[6]
Centrifugal casting

Main article: Centrifugal casting

In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is
rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to centrifugal
force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the periphery.

Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force feed
using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to 900 N. Lead time varies with
the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30-50 pieces/hr-mold to be
produced, with a practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a
typical per-item limit of 2.3-4.5 kg.

Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method
developed by the German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the rapid growth
of the enterprise.

Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as the
forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and into fine
details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum casting, also
applied to jewelry casting.

Continuous casting

Main article: Continuous casting

Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume
production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an open-
ended, water-cooled copper mold, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-
liquid centre. The strand, as it is now called, is withdrawn from the mold and passed into a
chamber of rollers and water sprays; the rollers support the thin skin of the strand while the
sprays remove heat from the strand, gradually solidifying the strand from the outside in. After
solidification, predetermined lengths of the strand are cut off by either mechanical shears or
traveling oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile.
Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90
to 160 mm square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo
an initial hot rolling process before being cut.

Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a
standard product, and also increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper and
aluminum are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using
this method.

Terminology
Metal casting processes uses the following terminology:[7]

Pattern: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the mold cavity.

Molding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the pattern is
removed to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.

Flask: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the molding material.

o Cope: The top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.

o Drag: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.

Core: An insert in the mold that produces internal features in the casting, such as holes.

o Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mold used to locate and
support the core.

Mold cavity: The combined open area of the molding material and core, there the metal is
poured to produce the casting.

Riser: An extra void in the mold that fills with molten material to compensate for
shrinkage during solidification.

Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material to the
mold cavities.

o Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the
molten material from the pouring vessel.

o Sprue: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the
gating system. The other end of the sprue attaches to the runners.

o Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to
the gates.

o Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mold cavities.

Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the pour.

Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of the
mold, flask, or pattern.

Draft: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the mold
 Core box: The mold or die used to produce the cores.

Some specialized processes, such as die casting, use additional terminology.

Theory
Casting is a solidification process, which means the solidification phenomenon controls most of
the properties of the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during solidification,
such as gas porosity and solidification shrinkage.[8]

Solidification occurs in two steps: nucleation and crystal growth. In the nucleation stage solid
particles form within the liquid. When these particles form their internal energy is lower than the
surrounded liquid, which creates an energy interface between the two. The formation of the
surface at this interface requires energy, so as nucleation occurs the material actually undercools,
that is it cools below its freezing temperature, because of the extra energy required to form the
interface surfaces. It then recalescences, or heats back up to its freezing temperature, for the
crystal growth stage. Note that nucleation occurs on a pre-existing solid surface, because not as
much energy is required for a partial interface surface, as is for a complete spherical interface
surface. This can be advantageous because fine-grained castings possess better properties than
coarse-grained castings. A fine grain structure can be induced by grain refinement or inoculation,
which is the process of adding impurities to induce nucleation.[9]

All of the nucleations represent a crystal, which grows as the heat of fusion is extracted from the
liquid until there is no liquid left. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled to
maximize the properties of the casting. Directional solidification is when the material solidifies
at one end and proceeds to solidify to the other end; this is the most ideal type of grain growth
because it allows liquid material to compensate for shrinkage.[9]

Cooling curves

Intermediate cooling rates from melt result in a dendritic microstructure. Primary and secondary
dendrites can be seen in this image.
See also: Cooling curves

Cooling curves are important in controlling the quality of a casting. The most important part of
the cooling curve is the cooling rate which affects the microstructure and properties. Generally
speaking, an area of the casting which is cooled quickly will have a fine grain structure and an
area which cools slowly will have a coarse grain structure. Below is an example cooling curve of
a pure metal or eutectic alloy, with defining terminology.[10]
Note that before the thermal arrest the material is a liquid and after it the material is a solid;
during the thermal arrest the material is converting from a liquid to a solid. Also, note that the
greater the superheat the more time there is for the liquid material to flow into intricate details.[11]

The above cooling curve depicts a basic situation with a pure alloy, however, most castings are of
alloys, which have a cooling curve shaped as shown below.
Note that there is no longer a thermal arrest, instead there is a freezing range. The freezing range
corresponds directly to the liquidus and solidus found on the phase diagram for the specific alloy.

Chvorinov's rule

Main article: Chvorinov's rule

The local solidification time can be calculated using Chvorinov's rule, which is:

Where t is the solidification time, V is the volume of the casting, A is the surface area of the
casting that contacts the mold, n is a constant, and B is the mold constant. It is most useful in
determining if a riser will solidify before the casting, because if the riser does solidify first then it
is worthless.[12]

The gating system

A simple gating system for a horizontal parting mold.

See also: Sprue (manufacturing)

The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being conveying the liquid material
to the mold, but also controlling shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and trapping
dross. The gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to assist in controlling
shrinkage. In especially large castings multiple gates or runners may be required to introduce
metal to more than one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is important because if
the material is traveling too slowly it can cool before completely filling, leading to misruns and
cold shuts. If the material is moving too fast then the liquid material can erode the mold and
contaminate the final casting. The shape and length of the gating system can also control how
quickly the material cools; short round or square channels minimize heat loss.[13]

The gating system may be designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material being
cast. For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are turbulent insensitive, but
aluminium and magnesium alloys are turbulent sensitive. The turbulent insensitive materials
usually have a short and open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as possible. However, for
turbulent sensitive materials short sprues are used to minimize the distance the material must fall
when entering the mold. Rectangular pouring cups and tapered sprues are used to prevent the
formation of a vortex as the material flows into the mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and
oxides into the mold. A large sprue well is used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid
material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing turbulence. The choke, which is the smallest cross-
sectional area in the gating system used to control flow, can be placed near the sprue well to slow
down and smooth out the flow. Note that on some molds the choke is still placed on the gates to
make separation of the part easier, but induces extreme turbulence.[14] The gates are usually
attached to the bottom of the casting to minimize turbulence and splashing.[13]

The gating system may also be designed to trap dross. One method is to take advantage of the
fact that some dross has a lower density than the base material so it floats to the top of the gating
system. Therefore long flat runners with gates that exit from the bottom of the runners can trap
dross in the runners; note that long flat runners will cool the material more rapidly than round or
square runners. For materials where the dross is a similar density to the base material, such as
aluminium, runner extensions and runner wells can be advantageous. These take advantage of
the fact that the dross is usually located at the beginning of the pour, therefore the runner is
extended past the last gate(s) and the contaminates are contained in the wells. Screens or filters
may also be used to trap contaminates.[14]

It is important to keep the size of the gating system small, because it all must be cut from the
casting and remelted to be reused. The efficiency, or yield, of a casting system can be calculated
by dividing the weight of the casting by the weight of the metal poured. Therefore, the higher the
number the more efficient the gating system/risers.[15]

Shrinkage

There are three types of shrinkage: shrinkage of the liquid, solidification shrinkage and
patternmaker's shrinkage. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more material
is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense
as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases.
Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the
solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to thermal contraction.[16]

Solidification shrinkage
 Solidification shrinkage of various metals[17][18]
Metal Percentage
Aluminium 6.6
Copper 4.9
Magnesium 4.0 or 4.2
Zinc 3.7 or 6.5
Low carbon steel 2.53.0
High carbon steel 4.0
White cast iron 4.05.5
Gray cast iron 2.51.6
Ductile cast iron 4.52.7
Most materials shrink as they solidify, but, as the table to the right shows, a few materials do not,
such as gray cast iron. For the materials that do shrink upon solidification the type of shrinkage
depends on how wide the freezing range is for the material. For materials with a narrow freezing
range, less than 50 C (122 F),[19] a cavity, known as a pipe, forms in the center of the casting,
because the outer shell freezes first and progressively solidifies to the center. Pure and eutectic
metals usually have narrow solidification ranges. These materials tend to form a skin in open air
molds, therefore they are known as skin forming alloys.[19] For materials with a wide freezing
range, greater than 110 C (230 F),[19] much more of the casting occupies the mushy or slushy
zone (the temperature range between the solidus and the liquidus), which leads to small pockets
of liquid trapped throughout and ultimately porosity. These castings tend to have poor ductility,
toughness, and fatigue resistance. Moreover, for these types of materials to be fluid-tight a
secondary operation is required to impregnate the casting with a lower melting point metal or
resin.[17][20]

For the materials that have narrow solidification ranges pipes can be overcome by designing the
casting to promote directional solidification, which means the casting freezes first at the point
farthest from the gate, then progressively solidifies towards the gate. This allows a continuous
feed of liquid material to be present at the point of solidification to compensate for the shrinkage.
Note that there is still a shrinkage void where the final material solidifies, but if designed
properly this will be in the gating system or riser.[17]

Risers and riser aids

Different types of risers
Main articles: Riser (casting) and chill (casting)

Risers, also known as feeders, are the most common way of providing directional solidification.
It supplies liquid metal to the solidifying casting to compensate for solidification shrinkage. For
a riser to work properly the riser must solidify after the casting, otherwise it cannot supply liquid
metal to shrinkage within the casting. Risers add cost to the casting because it lowers the yield of
each casting; i.e. more metal is lost as scrap for each casting. Another way to promote directional
solidification is by adding chills to the mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat
away from the casting more rapidly that the material used for molding.[21]

Risers are classified by three criteria. The first is if the riser is open to the atmosphere, if it is
then its called an open riser, otherwise its known as a blind type. The second criterion is where
the riser is located; if it is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser and if it is located
next to the casting it is known as a side riser. Finally, if riser is located on the gating system so
that it fills after the molding cavity, it is known as a live riser or hot riser, but if the riser fills
with materials that's already flowed through the molding cavity it is known as a dead riser or
cold riser.[15]

Riser aids are items used to assist risers in creating directional solidification or reducing the
number of risers required. One of these items are chills which accelerate cooling in a certain part
of the mold. There are two types: external and internal chills. External chills are masses of high-
heat-capacity and high-thermal-conductivity material that are placed on an edge of the molding
cavity. Internal chills are pieces of the same metal that is being poured, which are placed inside
the mold cavity and become part of the casting. Insulating sleeves and toppings may also be
installed around the riser cavity to slow the solidification of the riser. Heater coils may also be
installed around or above the riser cavity to slow solidification.[22]

Patternmaker's shrink
 Typical patternmaker's shrinkage of various metals[23]
Metal Percentage in/ft
1 5
Aluminium 1.01.3 8 32
3
Brass 1.5 16
1
Magnesium 1.01.3 8532
1
Cast iron 0.81.0 1018
3
Steel 1.52.0 1614
Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed
specifically for the alloy used. Contraction rules, or shrink rules, are used to make the patterns
oversized to compensate for this type of shrinkage.[23] These rulers are up to 2.5% oversize,
depending on the material being cast.[22] These rulers are mainly referred to by their percentage
change. A pattern made to match an existing part would be made as follows: First, the existing
part would be measured using a standard ruler, then when constructing the pattern, the pattern
maker would use a contraction rule, ensuring that the casting would contract to the correct size.

Note that patternmaker's shrinkage does not take phase change transformations into account. For
example, eutectic reactions, martensitic reactions, and graphitization can cause expansions or
contractions.[23]

Mold cavity

The mold cavity of a casting does not reflect the exact dimensions of the finished part due to a
number of reasons. These modifications to the mold cavity are known as allowances and account
for patternmaker's shrinkage, draft, machining, and distortion. In non-expendable processes,
these allowances are imparted directly into the permanent mold, but in expendable mold
processes they are imparted into the patterns, which later form the mold cavity.[23] Note that for
non-expendable molds an allowance is required for the dimensional change of the mold due to
heating to operating temperatures.[24]

For surfaces of the casting that are perpendicular to the parting line of the mold a draft must be
included. This is so that the casting can be released in non-expendable processes or the pattern
can be released from the mold without destroying the mold in expendable processes. The
required draft angle depends on the size and shape of the feature, the depth of the mold cavity,
how the part or pattern is being removed from the mold, the pattern or part material, the mold
material, and the process type. Usually the draft is not less than 1%.[23]

The machining allowance varies drastically from one process to another. Sand castings generally
have a rough surface finish, therefore need a greater machining allowance, whereas die casting
has a very fine surface finish, which may not need any machining tolerance. Also, the draft may
provide enough of a machining allowance to begin with.[24]

The distortion allowance is only necessary for certain geometries. For instance, U-shaped
castings will tend to distort with the legs splaying outward, because the base of the shape can
contract while the legs are constrained by the mold. This can be overcome by designing the mold
cavity to slope the leg inward to begin with. Also, long horizontal sections tend to sag in the
middle if ribs are not incorporated, so a distortion allowance may be required.[24]
Cores may be used in expendable mold processes to produce internal features. The core can be of
metal but it is usually done in sand.

Filling

Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process

This section requires expansion. (February 2010)

There are a few common methods for filling the mold cavity: gravity, low-pressure, high-
pressure, and vacuum.[25]

Vacuum filling, also known as counter-gravity filling, is more metal efficient than gravity
pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to
50% metal yield as compared to 60 to 95% for vacuum pouring. There is also less turbulence, so
the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to control turbulence. Plus, because the
metal is drawn from below the top of the pool the metal is free from dross and slag, as these are
lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool. The pressure differential helps the metal
flow into every intricacy of the mold. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves
the grain structure.[25] The first patented vacuum casting machine and process dates to 1879.[26]

Low-pressure filling uses 5 to 15 psig (35 to 100 kPag) of air pressure to force liquid metal up a
feed tube into the mold cavity. This eliminates turbulence found in gravity casting and increases
density, repeatability, tolerances, and grain uniformity. After the casting has solidified the
pressure is released and any remaining liquid returns to the crucible, which increases yield.[27]
Tilt filling

Tilt filling, also known as tilt casting, is an uncommon filling technique where the crucible is
attached to the gating system and both are slowly rotated so that the metal enters the mold cavity
with little turbulence. The goal is to reduce porosity and inclusions by limiting turbulence. For
most uses tilt filling is not feasible because the following inherent problem: if the system is
rotated slow enough to not induce turbulence, the front of the metal stream begins to solidify,
which results in mis-runs. If the system is rotated faster then it induces turbulence, which defeats
the purpose. Durville of France was the first to try tilt casting, in the 1800s. He tried to use it to
reduce surface defects when casting coinage from aluminum bronze.[28]

Macrostructure

The grain macrostructure in ingots and most castings have three distinct regions or zones: the
chill zone, columnar zone, and equiaxed zone. The image below depicts these zones.

The chill zone is named so because it occurs at the walls of the mold where the wall chills the
material. Here is where the nucleation phase of the solidification process takes place. As more
heat is removed the grains grow towards the center of the casting. These are thin, long columns
that are perpendicular to the casting surface, which are undesirable because they have anisotropic
properties. Finally, in the center the equiaxed zone contains spherical, randomly oriented
crystals. These are desirable because they have isotropic properties. The creation of this zone can
be promoted by using a low pouring temperature, alloy inclusions, or inoculants.[12]

Inspection

Common inspection methods for steel castings are magnetic particle testing and liquid penetrant
testing.[29] Common inspection methods for aluminum castings are radiography, ultrasonic
testing, and liquid penetrant testing.[30]

Defects
Main article: Casting defects

There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main
types are: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and
metallurgical defects.

Casting Process Simulation

A high-performance software for the simulation of casting processes provides opportunities for
an interactive or automated evaluation of results (here, for example, of mold filling and
solidification, porosity and flow characteristics). Picture: Componenta B.V., The Netherlands)

Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality
considering mold filling, solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of
casting mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a
cast components quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed
with respect to the required component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-
production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy,
material, and tooling savings.

The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and
casting methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing. This saves
costs along the entire casting manufacturing route.

Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early '70s,
mainly in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting
technology over the last 50 years. Since the late '80s, commercial programs are available which
make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening inside the mold or die
during the casting process.

See also
Engineering portal
 Bronze sculpture

Flexible mold

Porosity sealing

Spin casting

Spray forming

References
Notes

1. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 277

2. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 278

3. ^ Schleg et al. 2003, chapters 24.

4. ^ a b Kalpakjian & Schmid 2006.

5. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 315

6. ^ 10th International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and

Composites, Eds. G. Hirt, A. Rassili & A. Buhrig-Polaczek, Aachen Germany & Liege,
Belgium, 2008

7. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 278279

8. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 279280

9. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 280

10. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 280281

11. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 281

12. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 282

13. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 284

14. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 285

15. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 287

 16. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 285286

17. ^ a b c Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 286

18. ^ Stefanescu 2008, p. 66.

19. ^ a b c Stefanescu 2008, p. 67.

20. ^ Porter, David A.; Easterling, K. E. (2000), Phase transformations in metals and
alloys (2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 236, ISBN 978-0-7487-5741-1.

21. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 286288.

22. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 288

23. ^ a b c d e Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 289

24. ^ a b c Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 290

25. ^ a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 319320.

26. ^ Iron and Steel Institute (1912), Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 86, Iron
and Steel Institute, p. 547.

27. ^ Lesko, Jim (2007), Industrial design (2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, p. 39,
ISBN 978-0-470-05538-0.

28. ^ Campbell, John (2004), Castings practice: the 10 rules of castings,

Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 6971, ISBN 978-0-7506-4791-5.

29. ^ Blair & Stevens 1995, p. 46.

30. ^ Kissell & Ferry 2002, p. 73.

Bibliography

Blair, Malcolm; Stevens, Thomas L. (1995), Steel castings handbook (6th ed.), ASM
International, ISBN 978-0-87170-556-3.

Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.

Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven (2006), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

(5th ed.), Pearson, ISBN 0-13-148965-8.
 Kissell, J. Randolph; Ferry, Robert L. (2002), Aluminum structures: a guide to their
specifications and design (2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-01965-7.

Schleg, Frederick P.; Kohloff, Frederick H.; Sylvia, J. Gerin; American Foundry Society
(2003), Technology of Metalcasting, American Foundry Society, ISBN 978-0-87433-257-
5.

Stefanescu, Doru Michael (2008), Science and Engineering of Casting Solidification (2nd
ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-74609-8.

Ravi, B (2010), Metal Casting: Computer-aided Design and Analysis (1st ed.), PHI,
ISBN 81-203-2726-8.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Casting

Interactive casting design/manufacturing examples

Castings or Forgings? A look at the advantages of each manufacturing process

Umha Aois - Bronze Age casting videoclip

Viking Bronze - Early Medieval metal casting

Video clip of a 50 gram arc cast alloy solidifying

Glossary of Metalcasting Terms

DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Casting"

Global Metal Casting Statistics

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