HYDRAULIC AND

PNEUMATIC
CONTROL EQUIPMENTS

Levente Tamas, Ionut Muntean, Elod Pall

Department of Automation
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca

Editura UTPRESS
Cluj-Napoca, 2015
ISBN 978-606-737-031-7
 Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the support of all our colleagues who

contributed to the practical experimental setups for the pneumatic
and hydraulic control equipments laboratory during the past years.
The non-exhaustive list of the contributors from the teaching group of
Prof. Gh. Lazea include: Sorin Herle, Cosmin Marcu, Radu Robotin
and Florin Cotofan. Without their work, these laboratory exercises
would not be possible today.
 Abstract

This collection of practical works is part of the course of Hydraulic

and Pneumatic Control Equipments within the Control Engineering
curricula from the Faculty of Automation and Computer Science De-
partment from the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca. As the main
aim within this course is on the practical aspects of these equipments
and concepts, also the focus in this laboratory work is on these details.
The individual works are synchronized with the main course from
this discipline, however each part can be studied individually with
the mentioned bibliographies. These works contain a minimal intro-
duction to the theoretical aspects of the equipments, as well as the
practical parts focusing on the hands-on experimental exercises.
Hopefully these exercises will be useful not only for this specific course,
but also in the generic field of engineering for the future graduates.
Contents

Contents iii

List of Figures iv

Nomenclature iv

1 NONLINEAR PNEUMATIC RESISTANCES

The utilization of diaphragms as a measuring element of fluid
flow 1
1.1 Laboratory objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Theoretical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 System configuration and mounting instruction for measuring the
flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Measurement of the real flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Computed flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 PNEUMATIC AMPLIFIERS 9
2.1 Laboratory Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Theoretical Considerations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Pneumatic amplifier type nozzle-flapper . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Pneumatic Power Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Laboratory work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Static characteristics of nozzle-flapper amplifier . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Static characteristics of power amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . 14

iii
 CONTENTS

3 THE STUDY OF THE ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC CONVERTER 16

3.1 Work Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Laboratory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4 STUDY OF THE PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS WITH MEM-

BRANE 22
4.1 Laboratory Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Laboratory Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 STUDY OF THE DIFFERENTIAL PNEUMATIC PRESSURE

TRANSDUCERS 29
5.1 Laboratory Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.1 AT 30 PLT 370 Pneumatic transducer . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.2 FE-3DM pneumatic converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 Laboratory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 PROGRAMING THE SPC200 CONTROLLER FOR A FESTO

PNEUMATIC POSITIONING SYSTEM 35
6.1 Work Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.2 Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.3 Creating a new project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.4 Commands for the SPC200 controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5 Compiling and executing the programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.6 Proposed exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7 SIMULATION OF HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS USING SIMHY-

DRAULICS TOOL FROM MATLAB 49
7.1 Laboratory objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.2 SimHydraulics introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.2.1 Program presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.2.2 Modeling characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

iv
 CONTENTS

7.2.3 Modeling of physical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

7.3 SimHydraulics - Introduction in modeling hydraulic systems . . . 52
7.3.1 SimHydraulics library blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.3.2 Rules for creating a model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3.3 The usage of special fluids in modeling . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3.4 SimHydraulics - Creating a simple model . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.3.5 Modeling and simulation of a hydro-mechanical system with
SimHydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3.5.1 Creating the hydraulic model . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3.5.2 Simulating the mechanical system in closed circuit 60
7.3.5.3 Connecting the hydraulic actuator to the mechan-
ical one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.4 FluidSIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.4.1 FluidSim interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.4.2 Circuit creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.4.3 Circuit simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.4.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

8 CONTROL OF ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS USING

LLWIN 3.0 67
8.1 Laboratory objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2 Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2.1 LLWIN 3.0 interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2.2 Output block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.2.3 Input block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2.4 Edge block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2.5 Position block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2.6 Start block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.7 Stop block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.8 Reset block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.9 Emergency break block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.10 Terminal block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.2.11 Display block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

v
 CONTENTS

8.2.12 Show values block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

8.2.13 Variable 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2.14 Assignment block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2.15 Compare block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2.16 Beep block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.2.17 Wait block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.2.18 SubIn/SubOut block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.3 Subprogram creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.4 What should be achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.5 Description of the application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

vi
List of Figures

1.1 Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Diagram of the practical flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 The diagram as a flow measuring element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Schematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.1 Pneumatic nozzle-flapper amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 Functional principle of the nozzle-flapper amplifier . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Static characteristic of the nozzle-flapper amplifier . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Constructive principle and functional of the power pneumatic am-
plifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Experimental model for the power pneumatic amplifier . . . . . . 13
2.6 Experimental setup for the combination of the nozzle-flapper am-
plifier with the pneumatic power amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.1 The electro-pneumatic converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.2 Detailed operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Functional block scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Static characteristic of the electro-pneumatic converter . . . . . . 19
3.5 Laboratory scheme connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.6 Connections of the terminal box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 On the right the zero adjustment, on the left the field adjustment. 21

4.1 General control circuit diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.2 The structure of a pneumatic actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Pneumatic actuator without positioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

4.4 Characteristics of a pneumatic actuator without positioner . . . . 27

4.5 Pneumatic actuator with positioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.1 AT 30 detector where the internal part transforms the translation

motion into angular one. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2 The PLT 370 adaptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 The FE-3DM converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.4 Experimental assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6.1 Festo pneumatic stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.2 Creating a new project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.3 The structure of a program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.4 The translation axes characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.5 Demonstration program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.1 The physical systems simulation product family. . . . . . . . . . . 50

7.2 Specific and basic elements from Foundation Library. . . . . . . . 50
7.3 Example for multidomain models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4 Conversion block properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.5 SimHydraulics library structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.6 Fluid parameters of the system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.7 Hydraulic system scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.8 Simple model in simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.9 Input-output for the system and configuration blocks . . . . . . . 57
7.10 Cylinder and valve parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.11 The hydraulic system with ideal actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.12 The connection scheme for the closed loop mechanical system . . 60
7.13 Parameters for cylinder and distributor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.14 Connecting the hydraulic actuator system to the mechanical system 62
7.15 Festo FluidSim main window. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.16 Simple circuit example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.17 configuration window for valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.18 Circuit configuration for Double Acting Cylinder, on the right and
Single Acting Cylinder with reaction spring on the left. . . . . . . 65

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

7.19 Circuit configurations nr. 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7.20 Circuit configurations nr. 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

8.1 Sorting electro-pneumatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8.2 User interface of LLWIN 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.3 The New Project window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.4 Typical logic block in LlWin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.5 The edge block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.6 Counter block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.7 Start and Stop blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.8 Reset and Emergency blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.9 Terminal block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.10 Display, increment and decrement blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.11 Assign and compare blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.12 Alarm and wait blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.13 Subprogram modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.14 Subprograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

ix
Chapter 1

NONLINEAR PNEUMATIC
RESISTANCES
The utilization of diaphragms as
a measuring element of fluid flow

1.1 Laboratory objectives

At the end of the laboratory, the principles of the nonlinear pneumatic resistance
should be understood. Regarding the diaphragms position and operation as fluid
flow measurement elements should be also known.

1.2 Theoretical considerations

According to the electro-pneumatic analogy, a pneumatic resistance is defined by
the following relation:
p = Rp Q (1.1)

where p = p1 p2 is the pressure drop between the input and the output of the
resistance; Rp is the value of the pneumatic resistance, and Q represents the fluid
flow through the resistance. The relation 1.1 is valid only for linear pneumatic
resistances for the electric-pneumatic analogy.

1
 For the nonlinear field:
Q = f (p) (1.2)

Figure 1.1: Diaphragm

Constructively, the pneumatic resistance can be described as a restriction in

the path of the air flux, characterized by a passing diameter D0 and a length L
1.1.
The necessary conditions for a pneumatic linear resistance are:

small length to diameter ratio;

linear pressure drop losses along the resistance are negligible in regard to
local ones (input and output).

In figure 1.1 we have a pipe, (C) a nonlinear resistance of type diaphragm

(D), characterized by the passing section S0 = D02 /4. When the fluid passes
through the resistance a turbulent regime appears, a pressure drop and a decrease
in the section of fluid (contraction) until S2 (smaller than S0 ) whos surface and
position are not well determined and is considered to be a virtual section. The

2
debit flow through the resistance is computed with the following relation:

Qg = S2 2 y2 (1.3)

where

Qg is the gravimetric debit flow;

S2 is the passing surface for the fluid throw the resistance;

W2 is the fluid speed in the section S2 ;

y2 is the specific weight.

The speed of the fluid is given by the Saint-Venant equation:

v
u
u 2
"   1 #
p 1 p 2

2 = t 1 (1.4)
1 1 p1

where is the adiabatic index. Taking into account that the adiabatic transfor-
mation is characterized by:
  x1
2 p2
= (1.5)
1 p1
and the section S2 is expressed as a function of S0 :

S2 = Cd S0 (1.6)

where Cd represents the sub-unit coefficient of the flow, we obtain:

v "  2   +1 #
u
u 2 g p2 p2
QG = Cd S0 p1 t (1.7)
1 R T1 p1 p1

p2
The ratio p1
is replaced with  and it is called relaxation coefficient. The
x
maximum debit flow is obtain from dQ 2

x1
d
G
= 0 for cr = x+1
(critical relaxation
coefficient, which is in case of air has the value 0.528; p1 is the upstream pressure,
p2 is the downstream pressure). Considering the flow through the resistance as a
function of , we can define the following regimes (see figure 1.2):

3
 a)  > cr - subcritical regime, the calculation is done with the equation from
1.7;

b)  = cr - critical regime;

c)  < cr - overcritical regime.

Figure 1.2: Diagram of the practical flow.

In the following cases: b) and c) the debit flow through the resistance is equal
to the maximum debit flow which can be obtained with equation 1.7, in which 
is replaced with cr .

1.3 System configuration and mounting instruc-

tion for measuring the flow.
When we measure p = p1 p2 = p01 p02 (see figure 1.1), using equation 1.7 the
flow trough the diagram can be computed. Applications:

a) flow measurements: air, methane gas, steam (even for liquids, but using
another equations), when no right flow measuring devices are available;

b) connection of pneumatic traducers of type AT 30 PLT 370 or equivalent, in

the case of flow control loops;

4
 b) the connection of flowmeters that use a differential pressure signal at the
input, as those with floaters.

In this laboratory you will have to make air flow measurement using the
scheme in figure 1.3:

Figure 1.3: The diagram as a flow measuring element

Notations:

C is the compressor (ECR) with a filter (F);

Rz is the tank with known value;

M1 , M2 are the pressure gauges (0...10 bar and 0...5 bar);

R1 is a inlet resistance (can be a second filter);

M3 is the liquid column manometer;

D diaphragm.

The diaphragm is mounted on the horizontal plane of a pipe with constant

diameter over 15...20 D upstream and 5 D downstream from the diaphragm.
The points where the pressure is collected are right next to the diaphragm (<
0.3 D). The constructive and mounting details are shown in figure 1.4:

1. diaphragm;

5
 Figure 1.4: Schematics

2. gripping device;

3. pipe;

4. measuring room;

5. fixating bolt.

1.3.1 Measurement of the real flow

By increasing the tank pressure (Rz) to 2 bar in which there are 2V liters of air
(2 V ), opening the valve until the pressure drops to 1 bar and measuring the
elapsed time (t1 [sec]). The volumetric flow is:

V
Qvm = [l/sec]
t1

and this translates in gravimetric flow:

Qgm = air Qvm [kgf /sec]

where air = 1.293 [kgf /m3 ]

6
1.3.2 Computed flow
The measurements are either repeated or done in parallel: at the opening of
the valve p = 2 bar and from the liqued column manometer p{2bar} [mmH2 O]
is read. When the pressure p reaches 1 bar p{1bar} [mmH2 O] is read. The
gravimetric flow is computed using equation 1.7, where:

p{2bar} + p{1bar}
p = [mmH2 O];
2
2+1
p1 = = 1.5 [bar]
2
p2 = p1 p [bar];

Other data:

Cd = 0.632897;

d0 = 11.565 mm;

= 1.4 (air);

R = 2927cm/o K;

g = 9.81 m/s2 ;

T1 = 273 + ta ; ta = ambient temperature

Observation: The gravimetric flows will be computed by using the following

transformations: 1[mmH2 O] = 1kgf /m2 = 1g mN2 = 105 g[bar]; 1[P a] = 1[ mN2 ]
 

Hints:

during the measurements try to avoid high pressures setup (more than 3
bars);

make sure that you use the right volume information for the compressor;

you can even make the two measurements in parallel, if you work in a team;

make sure that you transform each quantity in the IS units;

7
 make sure that you compute the right way the pressure for the diaphragm;

Note: Compare and explain the possible differences between the obtained
two flow values.

8
Chapter 2

PNEUMATIC AMPLIFIERS

2.1 Laboratory Objectives:

In this laboratory we study the constructive and operational principles of the
nozzle-flapper and pneumatic power amplifiers. The static characteristic of these
will be measured during the lab activities.

2.2 Theoretical Considerations:

The pneumatic amplifiers, as active circuit elements, have the role to model an
input signal (mechanical or pneumatic) and to give an output signal (pneumatic)
following a certain input variation law. Pneumatic amplifiers are energy con-
trol elements, in which the input information commands an energy flow of
compressed air, in the form of an auxiliary source (delivers the output power-
pressure and/or flow - generated by the auxiliary source using as control signal
the input signal).

2.2.1 Pneumatic amplifier type nozzle-flapper

The constructive details of the pneumatic nozzle-flapper amplifiers is presented in
figure 2.1. As structural elements are mentioned the fixed pneumatic resistance R1
and the variable pneumatic resistance R2 , linking by chamber (1). The resistance

9
R2 has a fixed part R20 (jet or nozzle) and a variable part R200 (h = corresponding
to the distance between the jet and the pallet).

Figure 2.1: Pneumatic nozzle-flapper amplifier

We can determine a connection between the output signal pe and the input
signal h (or ) by looking at figure 2.2. By modifying the distance h will lead to
a modification of the flow section of resistance R200 (and also R2 ), of type lateral
surface of a cylinder (S200 = d2 h).

Figure 2.2: Functional principle of the nozzle-flapper amplifier

The circuit from figure 2.2 (left) shows a pneumatic first order circuit: if the
gas flow through the resistances is laminar and we work with small signal varia-
tions on the static characteristics (linear zones) around some operating points, we
can apply the electro-pneumatic analogy and build the equivalent electric scheme

10
shown in figure 2.2 (right). The equation which characterizes the delay circuit is:

V 1 dpe 1
+ p2 = pa (2.1)
RT 1 + 2 dt 1 + 2
relation 2.1 is for patm
= 0, as reference pressure.
With the equation:

V 1
= ; k = (2.2)
R T (1 + 2 ) 1 + 2

we obtain:
dpe
+ p2 = k pa (2.3)
dt
where is the time constant of the circuit (V is the volume of the room; R is the
air constant; T is the absolute temperature, 1 and 2 are the flow coefficients for
the R1 and R2 resistances, with 2 variable), k is a division coefficient of pressure
pa with regards to the ratio of the resistances R1 and R2 . Constructively, the
connecting chamber of volume V is very small, therefore is negligible and the
amplifiers equation becomes:
pe = K pa

On the basis of the equivalent scheme from figure 2.2 (right), the operating equa-
tion is simplified, considering that in a stationary operation Qc = 0 (the chamber
works on a closed enclosure):
Qa = Q = 2

It can be written successively:

pa
Qa = R1 +R2 +R2
pa = pa R1 Qa (2.4)
pe = pa R1 R1p+Ra
2

The static characteristic of the amplifier pe = f (h) is strongly nonlinear when

considering negligible capacities and atmospheric pressures as a reference (figure
2.3). The gas supply for the amplifier is done at 1.4 bar. When the pallet is stuck
to the jet (h=0), the flow resistance is very large (R = inf), while the pressure
in the jet room is maximum and approximately equal to the primary pressure

11
source (minus the pressure drop on R1 ).

Figure 2.3: Static characteristic of the nozzle-flapper amplifier

As the pallet moves farther from the jet, the resistance R2 decreases and with
it the pressure pe also decreases. At a distance h d2 /4, the resistance R2
R20 , R200
= 0 and in the jet the residue pressure is greater than the atmospheric
pressure (there exists a pressure drop on R10 ). Practically, a linear zone AB on
the static characteristic of the nozzle-flapper amplifier can be determined, the
optimal operating point will be determined.

2.2.2 Pneumatic Power Amplifier

A pneumatic power amplifier of an electro-pneumatic converter ELA 104 s shown
in figure 2.4.
The build principle is that of a pressure divisor made of a cylinder-ball type
resistances R1 and R2 . The pressure change is obtained by moving the ball (B)
under the mechanical action of the elastic membrane (M) on which the input
pressure (pi ) acts. The schematic of the divisor, in figure 2.4 (right), leads to the

12
Figure 2.4: Constructive principle and functional of the power pneumatic ampli-
fier

following formula:
R2
pe = pa
R1 + R2
which means that pe can take any value between the extreme values: 0 bar
(R2 = 0), or pa (R1 = 0).
From the static characteristic we can find the pressure amplifying coefficient:

pe
kp = (2.5)
pi

Figure 2.5: Experimental model for the power pneumatic amplifier

13
2.3 Laboratory work
2.3.1 Static characteristics of nozzle-flapper amplifier
The static characteristic pe = f (pi ) of the power amplifier ELA 140 is created
from the measurements obtained from the setup in figure 2.5, where:

FR1, FR2 are reductive filters;

M1, M2, M3 are gauges;

A - Power amplifier;

C(EE) is closed chamber (execution element)

For the measurements, we increase pi to 0.3 bar (pe = 0) and then decrease it
in small steps until it has reached 0 bar (we have to take into consideration the
negative slope of the characteristic).
Draw the graphics and calculate the pressure amplification for the linear area
of hte static characteristic (see equation 2.5).

2.3.2 Static characteristics of power amplifier

The static characteristics of the nozzle-flapper amplifier and of the nozzle-flapper
amplifier combined with the power amplifier should be reused.
First, the setup from figure 2.6 should be realized. The reading of the pressure
gauges are done for the feed pressure pa = 1.4 bar.
Graphically pe1 = f (h), pe2 = f (h), and pe2 = f (pe1 ) are represented, com-
ments are specified and finally the results are interpreted.

14
Figure 2.6: Experimental setup for the combination of the nozzle-flapper amplifier
with the pneumatic power amplifier.

15
Chapter 3

THE STUDY OF THE

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
CONVERTER

3.1 Work Subject

We will study the constructive and operational principle of the electro-pneumatic
converter. From the static characteristics: p = f (ic ) both the zero and operational
adjustments will be done.

3.2 Theoretical Considerations

The electro-pneumatic converter is a device that provides the conversion of an
electrical command signal, (4 20 mA d.c. or 2 10 mA d.c.) into a proportional
pneumatic signal (0.2 1 bar). In other words, it is used in automatic control
schemes: between the regulator (electronic) and the actuator (pneumatic). It can
also be inserted in the reaction loop, between the electronic transducer with an
electric output signal and the pneumatic regulator.
The ELA 104 converter is build in two asymmetric architectures:

ELA 104 A, with mount on pneumatic actuators, or on the panel;

16
 ELA 104 AS, with mount on pneumatic actuators made in Romania, after
Gulde license.

The main blocks of the electro-pneumatic converter ELA 104 are presented
in Figure 3.1 .

Figure 3.1: The electro-pneumatic converter

where:

1 Pneumatic relay (amplifier);

2 Polarized electromagnet;

3 Nozzle flapper amplifier;

6 Bellow of the negative reaction;

5 Adjustment system for the flap position.

17
 The converter is supplied by a pressure of 1.4 bar. Through the fixed resistance
R0 (7), the instrumental air gets to the nozzle valve amplifier (3). Depending on
the distance h, we will have a variable pressure in the chamber (b) of the
pneumatic amplifier, and also at the exit toward the servomechanism (actuator).
The reinforcement (4), through which the distance h between nozzle and wall is
modified, is in balance under the action of the magnetic force (constant magnetic
field of the permanent magnet built in the polarized relay) and the reaction force
of the spring (5). When supplying the coil of the polarized electromagnetic relay
with a continuous signal 210 mA (420 mA) we will get an electromagnetic
force which modifies the previous equilibrium and also the distance h.
The equipment works on the principle of time compensation. The functional
block scheme from which we can deduce the transfer function is presented in
Figure 3.2 combined with Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.2: Detailed operating principle

In Figure 3.2 and 3.3 K1 is the amplification factor of the nozzle flapper
amplifier (3); K2 is the amplification factor of the power amplifier (1); Ke is the
equivalent elasticity constant; Sbr is the effective surface of the reaction spring;
Km is the constant of the electromagnet (linearized characteristic). We get the
following transfer function:

1 k k
2
p(s) ae ke
H(s) = = km c (3.1)
ic (s) 1 + k1 k 2 dSb
ae ke

18
 Figure 3.3: Functional block scheme

k1 k2
and considering 1 << a2 ke
, we have:

km c
H(s) = (3.2)
Sb d

while km and Sb are constant (the spring works in the linear zone and Sb is
constant), relation (2) represents a proportionality constant (kp ) and leads to the
static characteristic from figure 3.4 (with tg = kp ).

Figure 3.4: Static characteristic of the electro-pneumatic converter

19
3.3 Laboratory activity
The scheme from figure 3.5 based on the diagram 3.1 will be realized where:

Figure 3.5: Laboratory scheme connections

ELA 104 AS is the electro-pneumatic converter (CB terminal box);

R is the reducing filter FR100;

SI is the instrumental air source;

EE is the actuator (closed chamber);

M1, M2 are the pressure gauges (02 bar).

The connections with the terminal box can be made in series (Figure 3.6.a)
for an input of 210 mA d.c., or parallel (Figure 3.6.b) for an input of 420 mA
d.c..
The table 3.1 will be filled after the following operations are finished:
series input Ic [mA] 2 4 6 8 10
output p [bar]
parallel input Ic [mA] 4 8 12 16 20
output p [bar]

Table 3.1: Tabulation

The zero adjustment (point p=0.2 bar for ic =2(4) mA) will be made from the
spring (5), with the help of which the distance h is modified, without acting
on the input signal. (Figure 3.7)

20
 Figure 3.6: Connections of the terminal box

Figure 3.7: On the right the zero adjustment, on the left the field adjustment.

The field adjustment and also the slope of the static characteristic, is made
based on the relationship: kp = tg (), acting on the distance d (the reaction
spring can be moved left-right), as we see in figure 3.7 left side.

21
Chapter 4

STUDY OF THE PNEUMATIC

ACTUATORS WITH
MEMBRANE

4.1 Laboratory Objectives

In this laboratory, the structure and the operating principles of the pneumatic
actuators with membrane will be studied and their behavior in the static regim
will be measured.

4.2 Theoretical Considerations

The execution element/actuator form an automated control system is marked
with E in Figure 4.1. The input signal for this element is the command signal
Xc while the output is Xm , through which the process operation is influenced.

Figure 4.1: General control circuit diagram.

22
 The pneumatic actuators with membrane transform the potential energy of
the pressurized air into mechanical energy represented by a linear movement of
an execution element. This element further manipulates the process variables,
hence the controlling the process. The supply pressure of the pneumatic actu-
ators coming from pneumatic regulators (0.2 1 bar), or electronic regulators,
case when an electro-pneumatic converter is necessary. Structurally, a pneumatic
actuator is composed of (see Figure 4.2):

1. a pneumatic actuator;

2. pneumatic amplifiers;

3. a position transducer;

4. sensing element;

5. executive element.

Figure 4.2: The structure of a pneumatic actuator

From these elements, the power amplifier, the sensing element and the position
transducer from the positioner. In order to study the behavior of the actuator in
the control system, Xm should be represented as a function of the control signal,
xc (for the pneumatic actuator with membrane, Xc is a pressure).
The schematic representation of a pneumatic actuator with membrane and
spring is represented in Figure 4.3. The most important component is the pneu-
matic actuator (SP) with membrane, composed of: chamber (1), elastic mem-
brane (2), rigidity washer (3), spring (4) and shaft (5). By the way that the
pressurized air acts on one side or on both sides of the elastic membrane, we can
distinguish between proportional or integral execution elements. SP is connected

23
 Figure 4.3: Pneumatic actuator without positioner

to the executive element (OE) through the shaft. The behavior of the actuator in
dynamic operation is described by a nonlinear differential equation, which links
the command signal xc (pressure or flow) to the displacement Xm (linear move-
ment). If the command pressure (pc ) will rise, the pressure in chamber (1) will
also rise, and a volume variation will appear in the chamber as in the following
relation:
V = V0 + k1 p

where:

V0 is the volume at pressure p = p0 ;

k1 is the the membranes rigidity coefficient, which depends on Sef .

On the other hand, the air flow equation from chamber (1) is:

dG
Q= = (pc p)
dt

From the above two expression, based ont he general gas law (pv = GRT ) and
dG V
dp


dt
= RT dt
:
V0 + k1 p dp
+ p = pc (4.1)
RT dt

24
In general, the term k1 p is ignored and the above formula will be the equation
of a first order delay element:

V0 dp
T T
dt
+p = pc ,
Vo
or (with T = RT
) : (4.2)
dp
T dt
+p = pc
We can see from equation 4.2 that in order to decrease the time constant T,
must be increased, or equivalent the section of the air flow nozzles. For this power
amplifiers that deliver high flow quantities are used when the output pressure is
equal to the input one.
Under pressure p, the OE makes a linear motion (Xm ). The equation that de-
scribes the motion of the mobile elements is:

ma = Sef (p p0 ) kXm Ff
, or : (4.3)
d2 XM
m dt2
+ k Xm + F f = Sef (p p0 )

where:

m is the mass of the elements in movement, in regard to shaft (5);

Ff is the friction force;

p0 is the initial pressure (usually, the atmospheric pressure, p0 =0).

From equation 4.3 we can note the natural oscillation frequency fn of the valve:
r
1 k
fn = (4.4)
2 m

This frequency should be a minimum of 15-30 Hz, for the valve to have no
continuous oscillation, which implies a small m and a big k.
The damping factor from equation 4.3 is:
r
b 1
=
2 km
dXm


where b is the friction coefficient in regard to the speed: Ff = b dt
. The

25
damping factor should not be too small, which implies k m should not be too
big. In steady state operation:

k X = Sef p

and it is linear if k and Sef are constant throughout the whole section of the valve
shaft. The errors, due to variations of these characteristics, in elements of high
quality are 12% of the total course of the valve. From equation 4.2 and 4.3 we
get:
 2   3 
1 d Xm V0 d Xm dXm
pc = Sef
m + KXm + Ff + Sef RT m +K
dt2 dt3 dt
| {z } | {z } (4.5)
p dp
dt
mV d3 Xm d2 Xm V0 k dXm
Sef pc = RT
dt3
+m dt2
+ RT
dt
+ kXm + Ff

In this equation we considered that the friction forces dont depend on the pres-
sure (Ff = ct). (This is not valid in the case of a valve with double acting
elements, where the forces that act in opposite senses cancel each other out).
In practice, in equation 4.4, not only Ff but also k varies with the pressure.
This will be graphically determined from the membranes static characteristic.
If we change the variation direction for pc , we can see a hysteresis for the
characteristic Xm = f (pc ) (Figure 4.4).
To reduce the hysteresis effect and the time constant of the actuator we use
positioning devices (Figure 4.5), which are in fact pneumatic power amplifiers
with a feed-back signal coming from the shaft of the executive element.
Figure 4.5 actually consists of a control system, where the command measure
is pressure p from the output of the amplifier A and the execution signal is Sef p
(the membrane). The spring (6) and shaft X, of the valve are, in this system,
the tuned process P. The shaft (1) and the spring (2) represent the measuring
element. The bellow (3), through its free surface, realizes the comparison between
the input signal (Fc = Sb pc ) and the output of the system (Fc = kx, through
the spring), the error is sent as an input signal to amplifier A. The movement of
the flapper/pallet (4) in front of the nozzle (5) is proportional to the error.
In such a control system we will get an output measure x, which tends to be

26
 Figure 4.4: Characteristics of a pneumatic actuator without positioner

equal to pc , a spacial scale and measurement units.

By using the positioner we will have the following advantages:

precision of the actuator is improved;

high amplification factor on the air circuit, therefore we can also work when
static friction forces or higher disturbances are present.

the time constant of the actuator is reduced.

4.3 Laboratory Activity

a) The static characteristics of pneumatic actuators without positioner will
be graphically represented. For this the command pressure will be var-
ied between 0.2 1 bar in both directions, and the position Xm , will be
measured.

b) The static characteristics for ELT-114 actuator with membrane and position
should be plotted

c) Plot and comment the obtained characteristics: x = f (pc ).

27
Figure 4.5: Pneumatic actuator with positioner

28
Chapter 5

STUDY OF THE
DIFFERENTIAL PNEUMATIC
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

5.1 Laboratory Objectives

In this laboratory, the construction and operating principle of pneumatic trans-
ducers will be studied and compared with electronic converters. The focus will
be on assembly operations and start up on the equipment from the laboratory.

5.2 Theoretical Considerations

The converter transforms the measured physical quantity in a pneumatic signal,
ensuring proportionality between the two. The output signal of the converter is
used by other equipments (regulators, integrators, indicators and register equip-
ment).
The pneumatic converter provides an output signal of 0.2 1 bar, regardless
of its measured physical quantity.
The transducers on the other hand provides a transformation between the
same type of physical signal, mainly scaling operations yielding to a unified output
signal.

29
5.2.1 AT 30 PLT 370 Pneumatic transducer
The PLT 30 is composed of two distinct parts: the detector (AT 30) and the
adapter (PLT 370). We can obtain other constructive versions by using another
type of detector.
A detector transforms the measured physical quantity (differential pressure)
into a proportional angular movement which is 8 at the maximum value the
measured quantity.
The AT 30 detector (see figure 5.1) is composed of two pressure chambers,
in which two elastic bellows, (1) and (2) are connected with a rigid rod (3).
Displacing both bellows as a result of applied differential pressure is transmitted
to a lever (10) which transforms the levers linear displacement in an angular
displacement of axis (4) of maximum 8 .

Figure 5.1: AT 30 detector where the internal part transforms the translation
motion into angular one.

The PLT 370 pneumatic transducer transforms an angular movement (0 8 )

received from the detector, into a proportional pneumatic signal in a unified range
(0.2 1 bar).
The PLT 370 adaptor (see figure 5.2) consists of:

nozzle-flapper amplifier which uses as control signal the rotational motion

received from the detector;

a feed-back part composed of a mechanical capsule (elastic) and a mecha-

nism with an elastic joint;

30
 a pneumatic amplifier fed with air at a pressure of 1.4 bar, which is capable
of reacting to the variation of the distance h of the nozzle-flapper and by
sending an output pneumatic signal of range (0.2 1 bar), proportional
with the angular displacement of the detectors axis.

Figure 5.2: The PLT 370 adaptor

The main characteristics of the AT 30 pneumatic transducer are:

measured signal: differential pressure;

static working pressure: 1.4 bar;

fields of measure:

normal: 0-80, 150, 200, 300, 400 mmH2 O ;

31
 special: derive from the normal ones by reducing one or both measur-
ing limits (minimum range = 40% in normal field);

The main characteristics of a PLT 370:

instrumental air supply pressure:1.4 10% bar;

output signal: 0.2 1 bar;

response time the time duration while the output signal to reach 63%, when
a step input signal is applied: around 5 seconds.

5.2.2 FE-3DM pneumatic converter

Even though it is known as an electronic converter of differential pressure, in
reality, only the adaptor is electronic and the detector is composed of mechanic
- pneumatic elements.
This converter is using the power balance principle. It measures the differ-
ential pressure and transmits, as output signal, a continuous current of range
4 20 mA, proportional with the input signal. The functional principle is shown
in figure 5.3.
Both pressures, high and low are applied on the membranes of the measuring
capsule. The resulting differential pressure, creates a force on the lower end of
the power bar, which is balanced with a force excited by the feedback coil.
Any displacement of the power bar is detected and causes current increase
in secondary detector. This current is amplified and simultaneously transmit-
ted to the feedback coil and receiver. The force developed by the feedback coil
equilibrates the displacement of the sensitive element.
The output signal, 4 20 mA, that determines the equilibrium force is pro-
portional to the differential pressure.

32
 Figure 5.3: The FE-3DM converter

5.3 Laboratory activity

The construction of the AT30 PLT 370 respectively the FE-30CM converters are
studied.
Execute the starting and verification for AT30 PLT370 converter according
to the schematic from figure 5.4, where: C - pipeline; D - diaphragm; PAP -
pneumatic actuator with positioner; SPA - station preparing instrumental air;
BV - valves; Reg - regulator and Ref - reference prescription block.
The installation is started from the BV valves. First, the equalization valve
is opened followed by the supply valves for the high pressure, respectively the
low pressure chambers. The equalization valve is than closed. First, open the
equalization valve and then the supply valves from high and low pressure rooms.
Then close the equalization valve.

33
Figure 5.4: Experimental assembly

34
Chapter 6

PROGRAMING THE SPC200

CONTROLLER FOR A FESTO
PNEUMATIC POSITIONING
SYSTEM

6.1 Work Subject

The purpose of this laboratory is to understand the operating mode of the Festo
pneumatic positioning system and to acquire the necessary SPC200 controller
programming skills in order to control the two translation axes and the effector
of the pneumatic system.

6.2 Theoretical Considerations

The Festo pneumatic stand (figure 6.1) contains a process computer (1), two
pneumatic translation axes, a horizontal one (X-3 axis) and a vertical one (Y-2
axis), a pneumatic gripper (5), connected to the inferior part of the Y axis, an
SPC200 controller (4) connected to a DC power supply (7) and an emergency
stop system (6).
The SPC200 controller can be programmed using the WinPISA 4.41 applica-

35
 Figure 6.1: Festo pneumatic stand

tion. This application allows the creation of new projects/programs, the editing
of existing programs, editing of the predefined position list, compiling project-
s/programs, uploading and downloading the programs in/from the controllers
memory. The programs for the SPC200 are realized in G code, a programing
language that is used for programing numeric command tool machines.

6.3 Creating a new project

A new project is created by using the New Project option from the File
menu. The necessary data for the new project are the name of the file (.prj),
the title of the project and the description of the project (optional). The project
window (figure 6.2a) ensures an easy management of the controller programs.
The programs and the list of the predefined positions (figure 6.2b) are found in
the Software folder. The controller allows using up to 100 programs (numbered
from 0 to 99). The list of predefined positions is unique for every project and is
automatically created along with the project so it can be modified but it cannot
be recreated or deleted.

36
 (a) Project window (b) The list of predefined positions

Figure 6.2: Creating a new project

The steps for creating a new program are:

1. Select the Software directory;

2. From the Edit menu select the Insert object option;

3. Fill the Title and Description fields from the newly opened window;

4. Press OK for confirmation.

The structure of the program is shown in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: The structure of a program

For editing a new program you need the hardware characteristics of the axes
and controller. The hardware characteristics are obtained by following the next
steps:

1. Start the controllers power supply (figure 6.1 object (7));

37
 Figure 6.4: The translation axes characteristics

2. Open the Online mode function from the Online menu;

3. Open the Hardware function from the Online > Upload menu.

The characteristics of the translation axes of the stand are presented in figure
6.4.
Note:The lower software end position should be 32 and the upper should be
400 for the X axis.
A program for the SPC200 controller is valid only if every line has a regis-
tration number. The registration number is assigned manually or automatically.
The controller allows the loading of a minimum of 100 programs with a number
of code lines that shouldnt exceed 2000. A program can contain maximum 1000
code lines. Numbering the code lines is made starting from 0 (N000) up to 999
(N999), every code line having a unique registration number. For automatically
numbering the lines, the Start numbering function from the Edit menu will
be called.

38
6.4 Commands for the SPC200 controller
SyntaxG00:
G00 [ G90 | G91 ] [ X|Y]< p o s i t i o n >
where
<p o s i t i o n >: [40 390] f o r X a x i s and [40 190] f o r Y a x i s
or <p o s i t i o n >: X@n Y@n ( where n i s th e p o s i t i o n symbol from
t he p o s i t i o n s l i s t )
Description: positions the final effector in the coordinates defined by < position >,
with maximum speed, absolutely or relatively to the current position (G90 or
G91)
Example:

N000 G00 G91 X100 the gripper is positioned at 100 mm in the positive di-
rection on the X axis with maximum speed

Note: if none of the G90 and G91 options is used, the positioning will be abso-
lute.
Syntax G01:
G01 [ G90 | G911 ] [ X|Y]< p o s i t i o n > F<X| Y><speed>
where
<p o s i t i o n >: [40 390] f o r X a x i s and [40 190] f o r Y a x i s
or <p o s i t i o n >: X@n Y@n ( where n i s th e p o s i t i o n symbol
from th e p o s i t i o n s l i s t )
<speed >: r e p r e s e n t s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t he maximum speed
[ 0 . . 9 9 ] where (0=100% ,.. ,99=99%)
Description: positions the final effector in the coordinates defined by < position >,
with the speed defined by < speed >, absolute or relative to the current position
(G90 or G91)
Example:
Note: if not using one of the G90 and G91 options, the positioning will be ab-
solute.
Syntax G04:

39
 N000 G01 X100 FX20 Y150 FY30 the gripper is moved at position 100
mm on the X axis with 20% of the max-
imum speed and on at 150 mm on the
Y axis with 30% of the maximum speed

G04 <time>
where
<time >: s t a t i o n a r y time ( time 10ms)
Description: stops the running of the system for < time > 10ms;
Example:

N000 G04 250 The system stops in 2.5 seconds

Syntax G08:
G08 [X|Y] <a c c e l e r a t i o n >
where
<a c c e l e r a t i o n >: r e p r e s e n t s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f th e maximum a c c e l e
Description: sets the acceleration on the X and/or the Y axis for approaching
a point;
Example:

N000 G08 X50 The acceleration on the X axis is 50 % of the maximum,

N001 G01 X80 FX50 before the given position 80 mm on the X axis.
N002 G08 X0 The acceleration is set to the maximum after the given
point was reached

Syntax G09:
G09 [X|Y] <a c c e l e r a t i o n >
where
<a c c e l e r a t i o n >: r e p r e s e n t s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f th e maximum a c c e l e
[ 0 . . 9 9 ] where (0=100% ,.. ,99=99%)
Description: sets the breaking acceleration of the X and/or Y axis;
Example:
G90 Syntax:

40
 N000 G09 X50 The throttle brake is set to 50 % of the maximum,
N001 G01 X80 FX50 before reaching the given position 80 mm on the X axis.

G90 [X|Y]< p o s i t i o n >

where
<p o s i t i o n >: [40 390] f o r X a x i s and [40 190] f o r Y a x i s
or <p o s i t i o n >: X@n Y@n ( where n i s th e p o s i t i o n symbol from
t he p o s i t i o n s l i s t )
Description: positions the final effector in the absolute coordinates (relative to
the 0 reference system) defined by the < position >;
Example:

N000 G00 G90 X200 The griper is positioned at 200 mm on the X axis with
respect to the origin of the reference frame

Syntax G91:
G91 [X|Y]< p o s i t i o n >
where
<p o s i t i o n >: [40 390] f o r X a x i s and [40 190] f o r Y a x i s
or <p o s i t i o n >: X@n Y@n ( where n i s th e p o s i t i o n symbol
from th e p o s i t i o n s l i s t )
Description: positions the final effector with relative coordinates from the cur-
rent position defined by < position >, with respect or negative direction;
Example:

N000 G00 G91 X200 The griper is positioned at 200 mm on the X axis with
respect to the current position,
N001 G00 G91 X-100 the gripper is moved with 100 mm backward on the X
axis in regard to the last position.

Syntax M00:
M00
Description: stops the execution of a program.
Example:

41
 N000 G01 X100 FX50 The griper is positioned at 100 mm on the X axis with
respect to the origin
N001 M00 of the reference frame with maximum speed, the pro-
gram stops

Syntax M02:
M02
Description: stops the execution of a sub-program.
Example:

N000 G01 X100 FX50 The griper is positioned at 100 mm on the X axis with
respect to the origin
N001 M02 of the reference frame with maximum speed, the sub-
program stops

Syntax M30:
M30
Description: repeats a program.
Example:

N000 G01 X100 FX50 The griper is positioned at 100 mm on the X axis with
respect to the origin
N001 M03 of the reference frame with maximum speed, repeats the
execution of a program

Syntax L:
L<n>
where
<n>: t he number o f t h e program from th e
c o n t r o l l e r s memory ;
Description: launches a sub-program.
Example:
Syntax #SQ:

42
 N000 G01 X100 FX50 The griper is positioned at 100 mm on the X axis with
respect to the origin
N001 L1 of the reference frame with maximum speed, launches
the sub-program number 1.

#SQ<n . n>
where
<n . n>: e x i t p o r t ( from 0 . 0 0 t o 1 3 . 1 5 ) ;
Description: sets the bit of an exit port.
Example:

N000 #SQ0.0 The port 0.0 is set to true, logical 1.

Syntax #RQ:
#RQ<n . n>
where
<n . n>: e x i t p o r t ( from 0 . 0 0 t o 1 3 . 1 5 ) ;
Description: resets the bit of an exit port.
Example:

N000 #RQ0.0 The port 0.0 is set to false, logical 0.

Syntax E05:
E < r e g i s t r a t i o n number>
Description: executes an unconditioned jump to the < registrationnumber >
line of the program.
Example:

N010 G00 G91 X10 The gripper is moved 10 mm forward with regard the
current position;
N012 E05 030 the program jumps to line 030 without any conditions;
the gripper is positioned at 100 mm with regard the
origin of the reference frame
N030 G00 G90 X100

Syntax #T:

43
#T<I |Q><n . n><r e g i s t r a t i o n number>
where
I : input port ;
Q: output p o r t ;
<n . n>: t h e number o f t h e p o r t ( from 0 . 0 t o 1 3 . 1 5 ) ;
Description: tests the value of a port (input or output). If the value is logical
1 it jumps to < registration number > line. If the value is logical 0 it
executes the next line.
Example:

N010 #TI0.0 12 Verifies the state of the port 0.0 if it is true,

N011 E05 10 1 than jumps to the 012 line, else executes again the
line 010.
N012 G01 Y100 FY50

Syntax #TN:
#TN<I |Q><n . n><r e g i s t r a t i o n number>
where
I : input port ;
Q: output p o r t ;
<n . n>: t he number o f t h e p o r t ( from 0 . 0 t o 1 3 . 1 5 ) ;
Description: tests the value of a port (input or putput). If the value is logical
0, it jumps to < registration number > line. If the value is logical 1 it
executes the next line.
Example:

N010 #TNI0.0 12 Verifies the state of the port 0.0 if it is false,

N011 E05 10 0 than jumps to the 012 line, else executes again the
line 010.
N012 G01 Y100 FY50

Syntax #LR:
#LR<R e g i s t e r >=<value >
where

44
 <R e g i s t e r >: t h e number o f t h e r e g i s t e r ( between 0 and 9 9 ) ;
<value >: an i n t e g e r v a l u e between 32768 and 3 2 7 6 7 .
Description: saves an integer value < value > in the register < Register >.
Example:

N010 #LR0=0 Saves the value 0 to the register at adders 0

Syntax #AR:
#AR<R e g i s t e r >=<value >
where
<R e g i s t e r >: t h e number o f t h e r e g i s t e r ( between 0 and 9 9 ) ;
<value >: an i n t e g e r v a l u e between 32768 and 3 2 7 6 7 .
Description: increments the value saved in the < Register > register with the
integer value < value >.
Example:

N010 #LR0=0 Saves the value 0 to the register at adders 0,

N011 #AR0=1 increments the registers value by 1

Syntax #TR:
#TR<R e g i s t e r >=<value > < r e g i s t r a t i o n number>
where
<R e g i s t e r >: t h e number o f t h e r e g i s t e r ( between 0 and 9 9 ) ;
<value >: an i n t e g e r v a l u e between 32768 and 3 2 7 6 7 .
Description: tests the value saved in the < Register > register. If the value is
equal with < value >,it jumps to the < registration number > line. If not, it
executes the next line.
Example:

6.5 Compiling and executing the programs

The programs from a project are compiled using the Project function from
the Compile menu. After compiling, the WinPISA application will display the

45
 N009 #LR0=0 Saves the value 0 to the register at adders 0,
N010 L1 executes the sub-program 1
N011 #AR0=1 increments the value in the register 0 by 1
N012 #TR0=4 14 if the value is 4 than jumps to line 012
N013 E010 else jumps to line 010
N014 G01 X100 FX20

result of the compilation in a window. In case there are compilation errors, these
will be displayed with the lines of the program in which they appear.
The steps for saving a project in the controllers memory are the following:
Save all the programs within the project;

Turn on the power source of the controller (figure 6.1, (7));

Activate the Online mode option from the Online menu;

Call the Project function from the Online >Download menu;

For launching a program, call the Control axes function from the Online
menu (in online mode). WinPisa will open a window with the projects existing
in the controllers memory. Choose the desired program to be executed.
IMPORTANT!!!

Before launching any program, the station must be powered following the given
steps below:
Generate 6 [bar] pressure in the compressor.

Open very slowly the red safety valve placed on the station, rotating
clockwise till it is in a horizontal position. After the valve is opened, the Y
axis moves in its maximum position.

The program can be launched.

In case of any malfunctioning immediately push the emergency stop button

(red) for safety measurements (see figure 6.1 (6)).

46
6.6 Proposed exercises
1. Create a project that contains the program from figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Demonstration program

Identify the role of every line of the program.

Identify the code sequences used for opening and closing the gripper.

2. Create a program which positions gripper in the following points:

X axis position [mm] Y axis position [mm] X axis speed [m/s] Y axis speed [m/s]
1 120 80 0.30 0.50
2 120 130 0.30 2.0
3 330 130 1.0 2.0
4 330 60 1.0 1.0

3. Create a program for a palleting application knowing that:

the processed parts are of two types and the processing is done alternatively
at every 20 seconds;

the store has the coordinates (x, y) = (360, 50);

47
 the pallets for the two types of parts have the coordinates (x, y) = (70, 60)
and (x, y) = (100, 60);

in the moving zone there is a rectangle shaped obstacle of 150 mm length

(from X = 1500 mm to X = 300 mm) and 50 mm height (from Y = 80 mm
to Y = 130 mm);

the moving speed cannot exceed 1 m/s (for both axes);

the stopping acceleration in the closing and opening points of the gripper
cannot exceed 0.5 m/s2 on the Y axis;

the number of processed parts is 6 (3 of every type);

the project has to contain a main program which counts the processed parts
and two sub-programs called from the main program (one for each pallet);

the points in which the final effector will pass (including the loading/un-
loading points of the parts) have to be defined and taken from the positions
list (figure 6.2b).

48
Chapter 7

SIMULATION OF
HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
USING SIMHYDRAULICS
TOOL FROM MATLAB

7.1 Laboratory objectives

The purpose of this laboratory is to introduce the MatLab SimHydaulics tool as a
modeling and simulation environment for hydraulic circuits. Starting from basic
elements, models for analyzing the features of specific hydraulic equipments will
be constructed

7.2 SimHydraulics introduction

7.2.1 Program presentation
SimHydraulics R
is a modeling environment that offers the possibility of simulat-
ing hydraulic systems through the MatLab Simulink tool.
SimHydraulics is based on the Physical Networks from Simscape toolbox and
contains a set of hydraulic elements next to electrical and mechanical ones which

49
 Figure 7.1: The physical systems simulation product family.

Figure 7.2: Specific and basic elements from Foundation Library.

are to be found in the Foundation Library from Simscape.

7.2.2 Modeling characteristics

SimHydraulics can be used in the analysis of hydro-mechanical systems even in
the transient regime. There is alo the possibility to create specific models apart
from the standard ones from the Foundation library. SimHydraulics is developed
especially for modeling control loops with pistons, as part of complex control
systems.
The system is not intended to be used for:

Fluid transportation

Irrigation systems

50
 Distributed parameter systems

SimHydraulics is based on the isothermal transformation principle: the temper-

ature is considered constant during experiments.

7.2.3 Modeling of physical systems

SimHydraulics is based on Simscape, the Simulink platform for modeling phys-
ical systems. Thus, SimHydraulics integrated into the Simulink / MatLab en-
vironment, the difference between Simulink and SimHydraulics is that Simulink
blocks are mathematical, while SimHydraulics blocks become physical and ones,
with there respective parameters. Therefore, using SimHydraulics requires basic
knowledge of Simulink / MatLab.
SimHydraulics models are based on Simscape models, thus for every model
a Solver Configurator block should be added. Multidomain models can be
constructed by connecting mechanical, electrical and hydraulic elements together.

Figure 7.3: Example for multidomain models.

For interconnecting different elements we will use signal converters such as

Simulink-PS converter and PS-Simulink converter from Simscape library. The
conversion block parameters are in IS (e.g. meter, kilogram and second).

51
 Figure 7.4: Conversion block properties

7.3 SimHydraulics - Introduction in modeling

hydraulic systems
This chapter will present basic elements that are used in modeling hydraulic
systems.

7.3.1 SimHydraulics library blocks

Besides Simscape elements, the SimHydraulics library includes specific elements
for hydraulic systems which can be connected to Simscape elements. The library
structure is as listed below:

Foundation library - consists of basic blocks for hydraulic, mechanical and

physical systems.

SimHydraulics library - consists of advanced hydraulic systems such as

pumps, valves etc.

Utility library consists of basic elements for modeling physical systems.

To open SimHydraulics library we can use sh lib command in MatLab. Beside

combining elements from these libraries, Simulink elements can also be integrated
for modeling and simulating physical systems.

52
 Figure 7.5: SimHydraulics library structure.

7.3.2 Rules for creating a model

The rules for creating SimHydraulics models emerge from the Simscape rules.
These rules are summarized below:

SimHydraulics usually allows the use of Conservation Points and Phys-

ical Signals for input and output.

There are three types of Conservation ports: hydraulic, translation me-

chanics and rotation mechanics. Every port has a variable specification
Through and Across (e.g. pressure and flow).

Only same-type conservation ports can be interconnected.

Conservation ports are bidirectional and cannot be connected to signal lines

from Simulink.

Two interconnected conservation points should have the same physical char-
acteristic.

Physical connections can be spited, but the physical measures that pass
through that certain section will be divided according to that certain sys-
tems structure (e.g. Ohms Law, the sum of currents etc.).

53
 Signals between Simscape and Simulink blocks can be interconnected but
we have to use a conversion block (PS-Simulink or Simulink-PS).

In contrast to Simulink, the signals have measurement units. Conversion

blocks can be used to modify the measurement units.

Generally, it is recommended to start from simple models and further devel-

oped them as modules in this way, a clear vision over the developed model can
be maintained.

7.3.3 The usage of special fluids in modeling

Changing the fluid in the model will affect the global parameters of the system,
parameters that interfere in the models equations. In the program two fluid
categories can be specified:

Predefined Hydraulic Fluid blocks: these contain predefined parameters for

certain standard fluids such as gasoline, petrol and oil.

Custom Hydraulic Fluid blocks: allows specifying the systems fluid param-
eters: viscosity, temperature, density, percentage of air in the fluid etc.

Figure 7.6: Fluid parameters of the system.

54
7.3.4 SimHydraulics - Creating a simple model
Next, the steps required to create a simple model ins SimHydraulics as the one
from figure 7.7 is shown below. The figure illustrates a hydraulic cylinder which
is controlled by a distributor. The cylinder acts on a mass tied to a spring and
considers a viscous friction force.

Figure 7.7: Hydraulic system scheme

The power part of the scheme is composed of an engine, a hydraulic pump and
a blowdown valve. The pump is considered powerful enough to keep a constant
pressure at the valve. Therefore, the diagram will present an idealized pump. In
order to create the Simulink model the next steps are to be followed:

1. Open Simscape and Simulink libraries.

2. Open a new model in Simulink: File > New.

3. From Simscape > Foundation Library > Hydraulic > Hydraulic Sensors
and Sources an Ideal Hydraulic Pressure Source block is chosen and placed
in the new model.

4. Choose from Simscape > SimHydraulics > Hydraulic Cylinders a Single-

Acting Hydraulic Cylinder.

55
5. Choose for the valve from Simscape > SimHydraulics > Valves Library a
3-Way Directional Valve which can be found in the Directional Valves sub
library and a 2-Position Valve Actuator from Valve Actuators.

6. The T output of the valve is connected to a tank at atmospheric pres-

sure. In order to model this, the output will be connected to a hydraulic
reference from Simscape > Foundation Library > Hydraulic > Hydraulic
Elements. The T output will also be connected from the pressure source to
the reference. The connections listed in figure 7.8a have to be added.

(a) The source, valve, actuator and (b) Mechanical elements connected to
cylinder the hydraulic system

Figure 7.8: Simple model in simulink

7. For modeling the mechanical load, the Mass, Translational Spring, Transla-
tional Damper and Mecanical Translational Reference blocs from Simscape
> Foundation Library > Mechanical > Translational Elements library will
be selected. These elements will be connected such as in figure 7.8b.

8. For visualizing the characteristics, sources and scopes will be added from
Simulink. For interconnections, Simulink-PS and PS-Simulink conversion
blocks are needed. Every Simscape model needs a Solver Configuration
block. Beside this block, a Hydraulic Fluid block will be added in order
to specify the fluids parameters. The links will be done according to figure
7.9.

56
 Figure 7.9: Input-output for the system and configuration blocks

In order to modify the initial parameters of the system, follow the next
steps:

1. Change the parameters from Simulation > Configuration Parameters (Ctrl+

E) Solver at ode15s with Max step size 0.2.

2. For selecting the fluid from the system we will use the Hydraulic Fluid block.
Skydrol 5 is chosen with the Relative amount of trapped air parameter at
0.002 and 40 for the temperature.

3. For specifying the ideal pump input value, the value of the constant is
changed to 10e5 and the measurement unit for the constants conversion
block will be set to Pa.

4. Taking into account that for the valve actuator, the Nominal Signal Value
parameter, is preset to 24, the sinus block amplitude is set to a value grater
then 50% of the valves preset value (e.g. 20).

5. The cylinder and valve parameters are set according to figure 7.10.

6. The mass blocks value is set to 4.5 kg, the damping coefficient to 250
N/m and the elasticity coefficient of the spring to 6e3 N/m with the initial

57
 Figure 7.10: Cylinder and valve parameters

deformation of 0.02 m.

7. Save the changes made to the model.

For simulating the obtained system, press Ctrl+T.

Explain the following:

What obstructs the valve?

For the cylinder position: why does the cylinder return to the initial posi-
tion?

Change the sinusoidal input signal amplitude to 50. What happens with
the cylinder and valve signal?

Change the springs elasticity constant to 12e3 N/m. What happens with
the cylinders position compared to the previous case? Explain.

Choose millimeter as measurement unit at the signal convertor from the

cylinder position. What can be seen at the Scope output with positioner
after simulation?

58
7.3.5 Modeling and simulation of a hydro-mechanical sys-
tem with SimHydraulics
The purpose of this chapter is to give an example of a more complex system such
as a forklift. The problem of modeling the hydraulic system will be treated while
the mechanical model is supposed to be already built.

7.3.5.1 Creating the hydraulic model

The system configuration shown in figure 7.11 is capable of driving the mechanical
system of an excavator.

Figure 7.11: The hydraulic system with ideal actuator

The parameters for the elements of the system are:

Sinus input: 0.005 amplitude, 1 frequency;

Pump nominal pressure: 1e+07;

Pressure relief valve: pressure value: 1e5, regulation value: 1e4;

Cylinder: default;

59
 Distributor: default;

Mass: 1 kg;

Elastic coefficient: 1000 KN/m;

Damping coefficient: 100 [-];

Fluid: Skydrol DL4;

Simulate the system and interpret the result.

7.3.5.2 Simulating the mechanical system in closed circuit

For this, open the Wheel Loader Closed Loop model and simulate the system.

Figure 7.12: The connection scheme for the closed loop mechanical system

Question: Why does the excavator move downwards for the first time? Study
the mechanical part of the system. Observe the inputs-outputs of the system.

7.3.5.3 Connecting the hydraulic actuator to the mechanical one

In this part, the systems are interconnected. Copy the hydraulic system and the
already build mechanical system in a new model. The parameters of the hydraulic
system are changed according to figure 7.13:

Pressure relief valve: pressure value = 19.7, regulation value = 197;

60
 Figure 7.13: Parameters for cylinder and distributor

Saturation: [0.015, +0.015];

Sinus input: amplitude = 1, frequency = 1.4 ;

Solver: relative tolerance = 1e-8;

After setting the parameters, the 2 systems will be connected such as in

figure 7.14. Observe the systems behavior. Visualize the oscilloscopes from
the mechanical model.

7.4 FluidSIM
In the last part of the laboratory, the most important functions of FluidSim from
FESTO will be presented. The presented hydraulic circuits should be build and
simulated.

7.4.1 FluidSim interface

To open the application run Festo Didactic from the Start menu and the main
window will appear shortly as shown in figure 7.15.

61
Figure 7.14: Connecting the hydraulic actuator system to the mechanical system

On the left side of the main window can be found the the components
bibliography, which has hydraulic and electric components, in order to create
complete circuits. On the upper menu can be found the options for circuit creation
and simulation.

7.4.2 Circuit creation

First create a new and empty sheet by selecting from the main menu: File >New.
From the Components Library drag an item and drop on the sheet. In the same
manner (drag and drop) all the components on the sheet can be moved.
Build the circuit shown in figure 7.16 with the following components:

Air Service Unit;

3/n Way valve;

62
Figure 7.15: Festo FluidSim main window.

Figure 7.16: Simple circuit example.

63
 One way Flow Control valve;

Compressed Air Supply.

In order to chose the type of the valve (3/n Way valve) double click on the
item to open the configuration window (see figure 7.17).

Figure 7.17: configuration window for valves.

Set the opening level to 50% for the One way Flow Control valve.

7.4.3 Circuit simulation

The circuit shown on figure 7.16 should be simulated. The simulation can be
started with the play button or from the main menu: Execute >Start (F9).
Meanwhile the simulation is running, all the pressures in circuit are calculated
and the cylinder changes its position.
in order to visualize the states of the circuits elements the State Diagram
should be placed on the sheet, to add components, drag it and drop on the State
Diagram. If the circuit is re-simulate, the diagram will show the states of the
chosen components.

7.4.4 Exercise
1. Build the hydraulic circuits on the same sheet as show on figure 7.18, where
the cylinder on the right side is a Double Acting Cylinder. The circuit on the
left side is the same as built in the previous sections.
Simulate the new model and discuss the behavior of the two configurations.
2. Build the hydraulic circuits on the same sheet as show on figure 7.19.
Simulate the new model and discuss the behavior of the two configurations.

64
Figure 7.18: Circuit configuration for Double Acting Cylinder, on the right and
Single Acting Cylinder with reaction spring on the left.

Figure 7.19: Circuit configurations nr. 2.

3. Build the hydraulic circuit where the vales opening level is set to 50%,
as show on figure 7.19.
Simulate the new model and discuss the behavior of the two configurations.
3.1 The one way flow control valves opening level should be set to 70%.
Simulate and discuss the behavior of the circuit.
3.2 A return spring should be placed on the right of the 3/n Way valve.
Simulate and discuss the behavior of the circuit.
3.3 In this case, on the left side of the 3/n Way valve should be only the

65
 Figure 7.20: Circuit configurations nr. 3.

return spring and on the right side should be only the manual actuation. Simulate
and discuss the behavior of the circuit.

66
Chapter 8

CONTROL OF
ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
SYSTEMS USING LLWIN 3.0

8.1 Laboratory objectives

The laboratory presents an electro-pneumatic sorting system and its correspond-
ing LLWIN 3.0.control software. An applicationof separating white tokens from
black ones is proposed.

8.2 Theoretical Considerations

The electro-pneumatic system used in this laboratory is presented in figure 8.1.
The microcontroller from figure 8.1 provides power/commands to the feeding
motor and to the electro-valves that command the positioning arm. Moreover,
the sensors (color and switch) are attached to this unit.
The microcontroller communicates through RS232 with LLWIN which runs
on the PC.
There is the possibility to download the application from the PC to the mi-
crocontroller, after the transfer there is no need of a communication with the
PC or, when the program is run from the computer, then the communication is

67
 Figure 8.1: Sorting electro-pneumatic systems

maintained.

8.2.1 LLWIN 3.0 interface

To launch LLWIN 3.0: Start>All programs>LLWIN 3.06>LLWIN 3.06. The
user interface is presented in figure 8.2.
In order to develop a control application a project needs to be created. For
creating a project these steps should be followed:

1. From the main window choose Project and then New.

2. Open the New project window (see figure 8.3) from which the Empty
Project template will be chosen.

3. Assign a name to your project.

4. Define the location where the project will be saved on hard drive.

The program can be written as functional blocks and subprograms (see figure
8.2) with, the subprograms being also functional blocks.

68
 Figure 8.2: User interface of LLWIN 3.0

As mentioned earlier, each control program can include several functional

blocks as described bellow:

8.2.2 Output block

1. From Toolbox (see figure 8.2), drag the output block symbol and drop it in
the logic diagram area;

2. Open the Output window from figure 8.4a;

3. In the Output box choose the output from controller to which the block
will be linked;

69
 Figure 8.3: The New Project window

4. In the Type box choose the type of the output block: engine, electromagnet,
or lamp;

5. In the right-side of the Output window we can find the buttons correspond-
ing to the actions that can be linked to the respective output block.

8.2.3 Input block

1. From Toolbox (see figure 8.1), drag the input block symbol to drop it in
the logic diagram area;

2. Open the Input window from figure 8.4b;

3. In the Input box choose the input of the controller to which the block will
be linked;

4. In the Type box choose the type of the output block: pushbutton, reed
contact, or photo-transistor.

5. In the right-side of the Input window there are buttons corresponding to

the associated to the respective blocks.

6. E17E26 outputs can be used for buttons on the terminal (described later);

70
 7. Outputs E31E38 and E41E48 are used to memorize the engine rotation:
counterclockwise, clockwise (see figure 8.4c).

(a) Output box (b) Input box (c) Other types of in-
put blocks

Figure 8.4: Typical logic block in LlWin

8.2.4 Edge block

1. Wait for a transition from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0;

2. From Toolbox (see figure 8.2), drag the edge symbol, drop it in the logic
diagram area;

3. In the Edge window, Input box (see figure 8.5a) choose the input, to which
this block should be associated and on the right-side choose if the block
should be active at a transition from 0 >1 or from 1 >0. Corresponding
to the selected type a block will appear like the ones in figure 8.5b

8.2.5 Position block

1. Counts impulses given at digital input until reaching a desired value, for
example if a button is pushed and it pops back, the block will count 2
impulses;

2. From Toolbox window (see figure 8.2) drag the position symbol, drop it
in the logic diagram area;

71
 (a) The edge window (b) Edge blocks active at
a transition 0 >1 and
1 >0

Figure 8.5: The edge block

3. In the Position window, in the Input box (see figure 8.6a) choose the cor-
responding input. In the Result box insert values from/to which it should
count the impulses, depending on the chosen counting direction;

4. If option Use standard counter is selected then automatically the

program will attach a counter to each E1-E16 input; if not, in the Counter
box there will be a defined counter variable memorizing the state of the
block;

5. In figure 8.6b, the fields represents (from left to right): input, counter
variable, value from/to which it will count ascending/descending.

(a) Position window used to (b) Position window used as

define the counter block of ascending and descending im-
some impulses pulse counter

Figure 8.6: Counter block

72
8.2.6 Start block
Every logic diagram that describes a control program begins with this block (see
figure 8.7a). If an application needs other diagrams, then each will start with
this block.

(a) Start block (b) Stop block

Figure 8.7: Start and Stop blocks

8.2.7 Stop block

Used as a terminator for a program sequence (see figure 8.7b). More program
sequences can be linked to the same block. If the program works in a loop then
this block is not needed.

8.2.8 Reset block

The block resets all the sequences when the reset condition is fulfilled meaning
that all blocks are brought to the start blocks. The reset block cannot be con-
nected to other functional blocks. Only one use of this block is allowed in a single
project.In figure 8.8a the Reset block is presented and the Reset window used
for block configuration. The reset condition can be a simple input or a mathe-
matical expression. The formula used as a condition cannot have more than 40
characters.

8.2.9 Emergency break block

Deactivates all output blocks when active, while the program continues to run.
It cannot be physically connected to other functional blocks. Only a single use
of this block is allowed in a single project. In figure 8.8b the block is presented
together with Stop window used for block configuration. The reset condition can

73
 (a) Reset block and con- (b) Emergency break
figuration window block and configuration
window

Figure 8.8: Reset and Emergency blocks

be a simple input or a mathematical expression. The formula used as a condition

cannot have more than 40 characters.

8.2.10 Terminal block

The terminal block is used to display certain data from the process and to insert
input measures (see figure 8.9). It cannot be connected to other blocks and
includes several fields:

1. Shows when a motor is active and the direction of the rotation;

2. Used to display the values of some variables;

3. Displays a message of maximum 17 characters;

4. Sets the EA-ED parameters;

5. Digital input, activated from the interface (contacts without return);

6. Digital input, activated from the interface (contacts with return);

7. Used to stop a program when in online mode;

8. Used to reset a program when in online mode.

Parameters and switches can be activated, or changed in edit state using the
right click.

74
 Figure 8.9: Terminal block

8.2.11 Display block

Used to display a value, a variable or EX-EY or EA-ED inputs on one of the
displays included in the terminal block. In the configuration window (see figure
8.10a) we can specify the display number and the name of the variable whose
values will be displayed, the name of the input or a number.

(a) Display mod- (b) Values display (c) Variable incre-

ule block ments/decrements block.

Figure 8.10: Display, increment and decrement blocks

8.2.12 Show values block

Displays the current value of a variable when the program is in online state (see
figure 8.10b). The block cannot be connected to other blocks. In the configuration

75
window define the name of the variable or of the input that will be displayed. It
si also possible to display another variable while the program runs by selecting
the block and insert its name.

8.2.13 Variable 1
Can increment/decrements a value of a variable. In the configuration window (see
figure 8.10c)one can insert the variable name and select the desired operation: +1
for incrementing and -1 for decrementing.

8.2.14 Assignment block

It assigns a value or a mathematical expression to a variable. The length of the
expression can have maximum 34 characters. Configuration of the block is made
from the configuration window as in figure 8.11a.

(a) Assign block (b) Compare block

Figure 8.11: Assign and compare blocks

8.2.15 Compare block

It allows the evaluation of a condition introduced as formula in the configuration
window.The maximum number of characters for a formula is 40. If the condition is
true, follows the 1 branch otherwise the 0 branch. Both branches can be reversed
between them in the same window (see figure 8.11b).

76
8.2.16 Beep block
Sends a sound through the speaker. The duration and frequency of the emitted
sound can be changed from the configuration window (see figure 8.12a);
Sounds cannot generated in the download mode.

(a) Alarm block (b) Wait block

Figure 8.12: Alarm and wait blocks

8.2.17 Wait block

The block can include a delay between two consecutive instructions. Time delay
is defined in the configuration window (see figure 8.12b) up to maximum of 999,99
sec. Selecting the type define the specified value will be used. Selecting type
random t a random time delay will be generated but not longer than the one
specified. The random option can be useful when programming reaction tests.

8.2.18 SubIn/SubOut block

The blocks are visible only when a subprogram is edited. They connect the main
program and the beginning of the subprogram (SubIn) or the ending of the main
program and the main program (SubOut) (see figure 8.13a); A name cannot be
associated to more than one block.

77
 (a) Sub in and out block (b) Subprogram creation (c) Subprogram design
block

Figure 8.13: Subprogram modules

8.3 Subprogram creation

A subprogram is represented as a block. It is the equivalent of a procedure
from high level languages.In order to define and insert a subprogram in the main
program we must follow these steps from the Edit menu select Subprogram (see
figure 8.13b) and in the window specify a name for it. After introducing a name
and validating with OK, a new window will appear with the defined name: Add
SubIn and SubOut (see figure 8.13a), then introduce instructions that define the
subprogram: From the Subprogram menu choose Design and then select the
previous defined subprogram (see figure 8.13c).
The SubIn and SubOut blocks added in the diagram contain the circles Out1 and
In1 from figure 8.14a. These have to be added into the subprogram block as in
figure 8.14b so that the associated subprogram block can be used in the main
program (they have to be inserted in main program). (The adding is made by
drag and drop). Close the window from figure 8.14b and then the corresponding
subprogram block can be added to the main program in a same manner as adding
other blocks from Toolbox.
To start the program press the start button. While the program runs, in order
to see the instructions from a block left click on it. Getting back to the main
program is made by right clicking.

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 (a) Subprogram block (b) Subprogram block
with assigned input and connected to input and to
output ports. output ports

Figure 8.14: Subprograms

8.4 What should be achieved

Based on the above presentation, a program has to be designed and implemented
that assures the color sorting of tokens. One can choose between a modular
program (by procedures) or writing the entire application in the same window.

8.5 Description of the application

Using the device presented in figure 8.1 a program should be written that ensures
the sorting of cylindrical tokens by color. Pieces of white and black color are
found in a cylindrical storage from where they are pushed outside with the help
of a crank and connecting rod system driven by an electric motor. After being
identified by a color sensor, depending on their color the tokens are moved in one
of two containers.
Requirements
The program needs to ensure that pieces are pushed out of the storage, trans-
ported to the color sensor and then, after identification, placed under the arm
that will transfer them in one of those the containers.
It is recommended to add comments at every instruction to make a program
easier to be understood.
Conclusions
In this laboratory, an electro-pneumatic sorting system controlled with a micro-

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controller. was presented
All the instructions from the software LLWin for a pneumatic sorting machine
programming were described and the developed program offered a general view
on the control of an electro-pneumatic process with a microcontroller.

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References

URL www.mathworks.com. [Online; accessed 6-January-2015].

URL http://www.fischertechnik.de. [Online; accessed 6-January-2015].

L. Bivolaru. Assembling automated installations, volume vol. 3, 4. 1978.

Gh. Lazea. Hydraulic and pneumatic control equipments. 1982. laboratory tutor.

User Manual. Software LLWin 3.06, art. no. 30407, printed in germany edition.

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