www.epa.

gov/iaq/moisture
Further, plumbing should be located where: materials that can support mold growth or change
x Leaks will be noticed quickly. dimension.

x Leaking water will not wet easily damaged

materials. Moisture Control Principle #2:
x Water inside the plumbing will not freeze in cold Manage Condensation
weather.
Limit indoor condensation and make sure
Plumbing access panels allow critical maintenance condensation dries out when and where it occurs.
over the life of the building. They should be located
anywhere concealed valves or traps will need to Problem: Condensation Happens
be inspected for leaks or accessed for adjustment, Keep Track of the Dew Point
maintenance or replacement.
Both indoor air and outdoor air contains water vapor.
No matter the climate, avoid placing plumbing lines, Wherever air goes, water vapor goes. When humid
valves and drain lines in exterior walls and ceilings air contacts a surface that is cold enough, the water
that have porous insulation. If the plumbing leaks, vapor in the air will condense onto that cold surface.
insulation in those walls or ceilings will get wet. Once The concept of the air dew-point temperature is very
wet, porous insulation takes a long time to dry (or may useful in understanding when, why and how much
never dry). This situation can lead to mold growth, condensation will occurand how to avoid it.
corrosion of structural fasteners and needless energy
consumption. Also, in climates with cold winters, any The dew point is the temperature of the air at which
plumbing located in exterior walls or above ceiling condensation occurs. The higher the dew point, the
insulation is more prone to freezing and bursting. greater the risk of condensation on cold surfaces.
The dew point depends on how much water vapor the
air contains. If the air is very dry and has few water
Avoid Enclosing Wet Materials in Building molecules, the dew point is low and surfaces must be
Assemblies much cooler than the air for condensation to occur.
Moisture-sensitive materials and equipment should If the air is very humid and contains many water
be kept dry during construction. In particular, gypsum molecules, the dew point is high and condensation
BOARDlNISHEDWOODWORKCABINETSANDVIRTUALLYALL can occur on surfaces that are only a few degrees
mechanical equipment should be stored in a weather- cooler than the air.10
PROTECTEDSHELTERORINSTALLEDINTHEIRlNALWEATHER
protected locations immediately upon delivery to the Consider hot weather condensation inside a building.
site. Condensation can be prevented as long as the indoor
air dew point is below the temperature of surfaces
If moisture-sensitive or porous materials get wet, dry that are likely to be cold. If the dew point rises,
them quickly before mold grows or physical damage moisture will begin to condense on cold surfaces. For
OCCURS-ASONRYWALLSANDCONCRETEmOORSLABSFOR example, humid outdoor air leaking into a building in
example, are very porous and can hold a great deal of Miami will have a dew point above 70F throughout
water. Masonry block and concrete must be thoroughly most of a typical year. During normal operation of
dry before being coated or covered by water-sensitive an air-conditioned building, there are many surfaces
MATERIALSSUCHASmOORTILECARPETINGPAINTORPAPER that have a temperature below 70F. For example, a
faced gypsum board. supply air duct carrying air at 55F will have a surface
TEMPERATURENEAR&)FTHEINlLTRATINGOUTDOORAIR
Water is added to some materials during installation has a dew point of 70F, its moisture will condense
EGCONCRETEWATER BASEDCOATINGSWET SPRAYlRE on the outside of that cold duct, and possibly on the
PROOlNGANDWET SPRAYINSULATION 4HESEMATERIALS supply air diffuser.
must be allowed to dry naturally, or force-dried using
specialized equipment before being enclosed in Dew Point vs. Relative Humidity
building assemblies. These intentionally wet materials
may not suffer from long exposure to moisture, but When most people think of humidity, they think of
as they dry, they will transfer their moisture to nearby relative humidity (RH) rather than dew point. But

10
Dew point can be measured by cooling a mirrored surface until condensation just begins to appear. Monitors that measure dew point directly in this way are called chilled
mirror devices.
14
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
relative humidity is just that, a relative measurement air dew point, you will need a psychrometric chart to
and not one that expresses the absolute amount of lNDTHEDEWPOINTBASEDONTHETEMPERATUREAND2(
water vapor in the air. In simple terms, RH is the of the air. A psychrometric chart graphs the physical
amount of water vapor in the air compared to the and thermal properties of moist air.12 !SIMPLIlED
maximum amount the air can hold at its current psychrometric chart relating the airs temperature and
temperature.11 Change the air temperature and the RH to its dew point at sea level is shown in Figure
relative humidity also changes, even if the absolute 1-18. With this chart and the readings from a low-
amount of water vapor in the air stays the same. So cost monitor to measure air temperature and RH, one
knowing only the RH of the air is not much help in can determine the more useful value of air dew point
predicting condensation. in a few seconds.

Unlike RH, the dew point does not change with For example, assume an instrument shows the
air temperature. In that sense it is an absolute outdoor air is 85F and its RH is 60 percent. Plot
measurement of the amount of water vapor in that point on the chart. Then, beginning at that point
the air. When you know the dew point of the air move horizontally to the left until your line intersects
and the temperature of a surface, you can predict the saturation curve (i.e., the 100 percent RH curve
condensation. If the dew point is above the that forms the left edge of the chart). From that
temperature of the surface, water vapor will condense intersection, read straight down to the bottom of the
onto that cold surface. If the dew point is below the chart to determine the dew point. As shown in Figure
surface temperature, moisture will not condense. So 1-18, the dew point of air at 85F and 60 percent
it is simple to predict condensation, as long as you RH is 70F. In other words, air at those conditions
know the dew point of the air surrounding the surface. will begin to condense moisture when it contacts any
surface that has a temperature of 70F or below.
To be sure, knowing the dew point is not always easy
because many humidity instruments measure and The psychrometric chart reveals an important dynamic
read only air temperature and relative humidity. So between surface temperature, dew point and RH.
if the instrument you are using does not display the Notice that if the RH is 90 percent, a surface only

&IGURE !3IMPLIlED0SYCHROMETRIC#HART2ELATES!IR4EMPERATURE2(AND$EW0OINT

11
4HETECHNICALLYMOREACCURATEDElNITIONOFRELATIVEHUMIDITYISTHERATIOOFVAPORPRESSUREINTHEAIRSAMPLECOMPAREDTOTHEVAPORPRESSUREOFTHATAIRIFITWERECOMPLETELY
SATURATEDATTHESAMETEMPERATUREEXPRESSEDASAPERCENTAGE"UTTHEDElNITIONPROVIDEDABOVEISSUFlCIENTLYACCURATEEASIERTOUNDERSTANDANDUSEFULFORMANAGINGMOISTURE
in buildings.
12
The psychrometric chart is a powerful tool for understanding the water vapor characteristics of air and the effects of heating and cooling moist air. Its history and use are fully
explained in the ASHRAE publication Understanding Psychrometrics by Donald Gatley.

15
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 1-19 The Difference Between Room Air Temperature and the Dew Point as a Function of RH

has to be 3F cooler than the air for condensation to ADEQUATEDEHUMIDIlCATIONCAPACITYTOREMOVEITIN

occur. It is very likely that during normal operation in order to keep the dew point within reasonable limits.
many seasons there will be surfaces in buildings that
are 3F colder than room temperature. Inside residential buildings, people and their
ACTIVITIESESPECIALLYCOOKINGANDWASHINGOFmOORS
At high temperatures, high RH may also mean there is and clothes, are usually the leading sources of
a strong risk of condensation. Figure 1-19 shows the humidity.
relationship between RH and the number of degrees
cooler a surface must be for condensation to appear )NHUMIDIlEDCOMMERCIALANDINSTITUTIONALBUILDINGS
when the RH is between 25 percent and 100 percent. such as hospitals, museums and swimming pool
This graph provides a way to think about dew point enclosures, indoor humidity is very high by design or
in terms of RH. At 50 percent RH, a surface must be necessity.
around 20F cooler than the room air for condensation
to occur. Under ordinary circumstances, few surfaces In low-rise buildings of all types, damp basements or
in a building are 20F cooler than room air. crawlspaces may add as much water vapor to the air
in a day as all the other internal sources combined.
Causes of Condensation in Buildings
During the cooling season, humidity loads from
Condensation may be the result of excessively high outdoor air are far larger than loads generated inside
dew point, unusually cold surfaces, or a combination commercial and institutional buildings. The largest
of the two. sources of humidity are the ventilation air, the
makeup air that compensates for exhaust air, and the
The indoor dew point is a balance between the AIRTHATINlLTRATESINTOTHEBUILDINGTHROUGHAIRLEAKS
addition and subtraction of water vapor from the air. A in the enclosure. If the ventilation and makeup air is
building has both indoor and outdoor sources that add kept dry and the building is tight so that it does not
water vapor, and its mechanical systems must have allow much leakage, the contributions from outdoor
air will be low.

16
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Water vapor may be removed from indoor air Figure 1-20 Condensation on Uninsulated Metal Framing
BYDEHUMIDIlCATIONEGAIRCONDITIONERSOR in a Cold Climate
DEHUMIDIlERS ORBYVENTILATIONAIRWHENTHEOUTDOOR
AIRISDRY6ENTILATINGAIRONLYDEHUMIDIlESTHEINDOORS
when the outdoor air dew point is lower than the
indoor air dew point.

Exhaust air is a special case. When an exhaust fan

rids a building of highly humid air, from showers or
cooking, for example, the indoor humidity loads are
reduced. On the other hand, if the outdoor air that
replaces that exhaust air has a dew point above the
indoor dew point, the incoming outdoor air represents
a humidity load that must be removed by the
mechanical system.

Condensation Problems During Cold Weather

In cold weather, condensation is most likely to occur
on the inside of exterior walls or roof assemblies.
The temperature of sheathing and cladding on the
outside of the insulation and air barrier will be near
the temperature of the outdoor air. Indoor window
surfaces are often cooler than surrounding walls and
ARETYPICALLYTHElRSTSITESOFCONDENSATIONDURING
cold weather. If the surface temperature of an indoor
wall is below the indoor dew point at a void in the Condensation occurs on a C-channel at the top of a parapet
insulation or at an uninsulated framing member, WALLLOCATEDINACOLDCLIMATE4HEBUILDINGISHUMIDIlEDAND
PRESSURIZEDWITHlLTEREDOUTDOORAIRTOMAINTAINSPECIlEDINTERIOR
enough water may accumulate to support mold conditions.
growth. If there is a hole in the air barrier and the
building is under negative pressure at that location,
COLDINlLTRATINGAIRMAYBYPASSTHEINSULATIONLAYER
and chill indoor surfaces to temperatures below the it happens to be raining the day the condensation
dew point. problem is found, it might be mistaken for a rainwater
problem.
Condensation may occur within an assembly. For
example, a steel beam that passes through an exterior Air pressure can be higher inside a building than
wall will be much colder than the adjoining inner OUTSIDEFORTWOREASONS&IRSTTHEUPPERmOORSOFA
surfaces of the wall because the beam conducts building are usually under positive pressure during
heat from inside to outside hundreds of times faster cold weather due to the stack effect. Buoyant warm
than an insulated portion of the wall. If the building AIRRISESFROMTHELOWERTOTHEUPPERmOORSANDTHEN
is under positive pressure, the warmer, more humid mOWSOUTNEARTHETOPOFTHEBUILDING!SARESULT
indoor air will be forced into the enclosure through cold outdoor air is pulled into the building at its
holes in the air barrier and condensation within the base. During cold weather, condensation usually
assembly may result. OCCURSONTHEUPPERmOORS!NYGAPSCRACKSORHOLES
THROUGHTHEUPPERmOORSOFTHEENCLOSURERECEIVEA
Condensation problems within wall or roof assemblies CONSTANTmOWOFWARMHUMIDAIREXITINGTHEBUILDING
are hidden and may be mistaken for rainwater Condensation occurs where the warm humid air leaves
or plumbing leaks. For example, warm air from a the cold enclosure.
HUMIDIlEDSPACESUCHASASWIMMINGPOOLAREA
may leak past the air barrier and insulation layers The second reason air pressure can be higher inside
into an attic during freezing weather. The water vapor is that, to avoid uncomfortable drafts and freezing
in the indoor air may form frost on the bottom of pipes, the mechanical ventilation system generally
the roof deck, accumulating there until a warm day brings in more air from outdoors than is exhausted
when it melts and leaks back through the ceiling. If to the outside. Condensation may occur when warm,
17
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
humid air is forced out of the building through cold A similar dynamic occurs in below-grade walls.
walls. In addition, portions of a building may be Water vapor migrating into a basement from the
pressurized by mechanical system fans if the supply ground beneath may condense when it encounters
air side of the air distribution system has more air AVAPORBARRIERONTHEINSIDEOFAlNISHED
than the return air side. For example, a room that has basement wall.
two supply diffusers but no dedicated return will be
under positive pressure when the windows and doors
Solution: Control Condensation
are closed. If the interior surfaces of the exterior walls
near that room have gaps, cracks or holes, humid Effective condensation control requires keeping the
indoor air under positive pressure will be forced into dew point below the temperature of surfaces indoors
the cold exterior wall. and within building cavities. The dew point can be
lowered by designing, installing and maintaining
Condensation Problems During Hot Weather HVAC systems to control indoor humidity in both
heating and cooling mode. Building enclosures can
Condensation can sometimes be a problem in hot be designed and constructed so surface temperatures
weather. Hot weather condensation is more common within the assemblies are above the dew point
in buildings equipped with air conditioning (AC) regardless of season. Neither of these design elements
SYSTEMSTHATAREVERYLARGEANDDIFlCULTTOCONTROLAND can succeed by itself. They must work together as a
in buildings located in climates that have thousands
system.
of hours of humid weather. Six factors contribute
to problems in buildings that have air conditioning
systems: Use airtight HVAC systems to keep indoor dew points
low. To prevent condensation on indoor surfaces
1. Air conditioning chills all the indoor surfaces during cooling mode, keep the indoor dew point
some surfaces more than others. below 55F (e.g., maximum 50 percent RH when the
2. When air conditioners do not run long enough indoor air temperature is 75F). This can be done by
to dehumidify, they cool the air in the building designing air conditioning systems that dehumidify
without removing moisture from the air, raising the even when there is no need for cooling, or by using
indoor dew point and increasing the chances of DEDICATEDDEHUMIDIlERSTODRYTHEVENTILATIONAIR
condensation on cool surfaces. whenever the outdoor dew point is above 55F. See
3. Supply air ducts, diffusers and refrigerant or references below and in Chapter 2 for more details on
chilled water lines are much colder than the room designing HVAC systems to manage indoor humidity.
air.
The most important job of the air conditioning system
4. When a buildings exhaust air exceeds the amount is to remove the large and nearly continuous humidity
of its makeup air, the building will draw in load from the incoming ventilation and makeup air.
unconditioned, moisture-laden outdoor air through After that load is removed, the much smaller water
gaps, cracks and holes in the building enclosure. vapor loads from indoor sources may be removed by:
That outdoor air will come into contact with
surfaces chilled by the AC systems. x Exhaust systems designed to remove water vapor
from known sources of humidity such as showers,
5. Sun shining on wet masonry, stucco or wood will cooking areas and indoor pools.
raise the temperature of that material, evaporating
some of the stored water and driving a portion x Ventilation with outdoor air in non-air-conditioned
of the evaporated water further into the assembly, buildings.
and sometimes into contact with colder indoor x Air conditioning systems equipped with dedicated
surfaces. DEHUMIDIlCATIONCOMPONENTSANDCONTROLSTHAT
6. Intentional or accidental vapor barriers on the activate them when the dew point rises above 55F.
inside surfaces of exterior walls may cause
condensation during cooling conditions. For Design building enclosures to prevent condensation.
example, water vapor driven in from outdoors may At minimum the exterior enclosure must:
condense when it encounters a vinyl wall covering x Be made airtight by using continuous air barrier
on the cool, inside surface of an exterior wall. systems around the entire enclosure. These

18
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
systems must greatly reduce leakage of inside air hospitals, knitting mills and museums], analyses
into the exterior enclosure assemblies during cold should be performed by a knowledgeable person
weather and leakage of outdoor air into the exterior using one of several computer simulations such as
ENCLOSUREORINTERIORWALLCEILINGANDmOORCAVITIES WUFI or hygIRC. For more information on managing
during warm weather.13 Air sealing an enclosure condensation in the enclosure and hygrothermal
makes it easier to manage indoor-outdoor air modeling, see references in Chapter 2).
PRESSURERELATIONSHIPSWITHPRACTICALAIRmOWRATES
x Meet minimum R-values in accordance with the It is important to note that a layer of porous material
2012 International Energy Code. which can safely store moisture may be used as a
buffer to improve the condensation resistance of
x -ANAGETHEmOWOFHEATANDWATERVAPORTHROUGH ANASSEMBLY&OREXAMPLEAlBROUSCOVERBOARD
all enclosure assemblies to avoid condensation on BENEATHAFULLYADHEREDLOW SLOPEROOlNGMEMBRANE
materials inboard of the drainage plane. reduces the risk of condensation that can damage
the adhesive layer. A concrete masonry backup wall
Insulating materials must be used to manage heat BEHINDAmUID APPLIEDDRAINAGEPLANECANSAFELYSTORE
mOWINORDERTOKEEPTHESURFACETEMPERATUREOFLOW moisture in the event of minor seepage.
permeability materials inside the enclosure above the
expected dew point. A continuous thermal barrier is $ESIGN(6!#SYSTEMSTOMANAGEAIRmOWANDCONTROL
also necessary to prevent condensation on the interior condensation. HVAC system pressurization may be
surfaces of exterior walls and ceilings during heating USEDTOMANAGETHEDIRECTIONINWHICHAIRmOWS
conditions. The insulation layer must be continuous through an enclosure. Controlling pressure in air-
to prevent condensation in low R-value components conditioned buildings in hot, humid climates is
of the enclosure (e.g., metal framing, concrete slab crucial to controlling condensation in the enclosure.
edges and angle iron ledgers). The pen test can be Buildings in those climates must be positively
conducted to trace the thermal barriers continuity. pressurized to prevent warm, humid outdoor air from
entering building cavities and the building itself.
To manage water vapor migration by diffusion, select
materials with appropriate water vapor permeability.
)NCLIMATESWITHASIGNIlCANTCOLDSEASONHUMIDIlED
The materials in the wall or roof assembly must
buildingssuch as swimming pools, hospitals and
be layered to keep low-perm materials above the
museumsmust not be positively pressurized,
dew point during the heating and cooling seasons
otherwise humid air will be forced into cold building
and to allow the assembly to dry out if it gets wet.
cavities. In cold climates, slight depressurization is a
This protection must be provided in all above- and
BETTERSTRATEGYFORHUMIDIlEDBUILDINGS
BELOW GRADEWALLSmOORSCEILINGSPLAZAANDROOF
assemblies, including opaque walls and roofs, glazed
fenestration and skylights, curtain wall systems and Moisture Control Principle #3: Use Moisture-
exterior doors.
Tolerent Materials
Condensation control must be provided for typical 4HElNALMOISTURECONTROLPRINCIPLEISTOUSEBUILDING
sections and at thermal bridges. Many standard materials that can withstand repeated wetting in areas
designs in published work detail assemblies that that are expected to get wet. Adequate control can
provide condensation control for various assemblies be achieved by using moisture-tolerant materials and
in many climates. For example, the International by designing assemblies that dry quickly. Moisture-
Building Code covers condensation control for a tolerant materials should be used in areas that:
variety of wall types and all North American climates.
x Will get wet by design.
Straube (2011) includes systematic guidance for four
fundamental wall and roof assemblies in all North x Are likely to get wet by accident.
American climates, plus a discussion of underlying
moisture dynamics. (See references below and in Areas that Get Wet by Design
Chapter 2. For designs and climates not covered
in published guidance, and for buildings with high Some locations and materials in buildings are
humidity levels indoors [e.g., swimming pools, DESIGNEDSPECIlCALLYTOBEWETFROMTIMETOTIME

13
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), for example, has chosen a maximum allowable air leakage rate of 0.25 cubic feet per minute per square foot of total enclosure
area at a pressure difference of 75 Pascals when tested in accordance with the USACE test protocol. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Air Leakage Test Protocol for Building
Envelopes Version 3 May 11, 2012.

19
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
They include custodial closets, laundry rooms, GYPSUMBOARDMEDIUMDENSITYlBERBOARD-$& 
kitchens, baths, indoor pools, spas, locker rooms, and oriented strand board (OSB). Moisture-sensitive
ENTRYWAYmOORSANDmOORSTHATAREREGULARLYMOPPEDOR materials are vulnerable because they may:
hosed down. x Contain nutrients that are digestible by molds,
bacteria or wood-decaying molds.
Areas Likely to Get Wet by Accident x Quickly and easily absorb liquid water and, once
Some areas are likely to experience water leaks over wet, take longer to dry than materials that are
the course of time. For example, spaces that contain impermeable to liquid water.
plumbing equipment, such as laundry, lavatory, bath x Have no anti-microbial characteristics.
and utility rooms, are prone to water leaks and spills.
"ELOW GRADEWALLANDmOORASSEMBLIESAREATTHE x Delaminate, crumble, dissolve or deform when wet
bottom of the building. Water from leaks below grade, or while drying.
on the surface, or above grade is likely to end up on
THELOWESTmOOR)NTHESEAREASUSEMOISTURETOLERANT Substitutes for vulnerable materials are now
materials and assemblies that dry quickly. commonly available at only a modest increase in cost.
For example, mold- and moisture-resistant gypsum
Many materials can safely get wet as long as they dry BOARDlBERCEMENTBOARDTILEBACKERSANDSUB mOORS
quickly enough. Stainless steel, copper, some stones, are available in home improvement stores in addition
china and porcelain tile contain no nutrients to to builders supply yards.
support the growth of molds or bacteria, do not absorb
water and are stable when wet. These characteristics If in doubt, the moisture-resistant properties of
are why these materials have long been used in a building material can be determined by testing
bathrooms, kitchens and entryways. according to ASTM D3273-00 (2005) Standard
Test Method for Resistance to Growth of Mold on
In areas that may get wet from time to time, it is the Surface of Interior Coatings in an Environmental
best to avoid building materials that have proven Chamber. Designers can ask the manufacturer for the
to be vulnerable to moisture damage. Among these results of these tests.
moisture-sensitive materials are untreated paper-faced

REFERENCES

The following references are included for further American Society for Testing and Materials. E06.41. ASTM
reading and guidance. E1554-03 standard test methods for determining external air
leakage of air distribution systems by fan pressurization.
Advanced Energy. Crawl Spaces. Advanced Energy. http://www.
crawlspaces.org/. Accessed November 6, 2013. American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM D 3273
(This condensed document provides details and technical standard test method for resistance to growth of mold on the
information for designing and constructing closed, insulated surface of interior coatings in an environmental chamber.
residential crawl spaces. The full research reports underlying
American Society for Testing and Materials. E06.41. ASTM E779-
the crawl space recommendations can also be downloaded
03 standard test method for determining air leakage rate by
from the site www.crawlspaces.org. Although the research
fan pressurization.
was conducted in North Carolina, many of the results can be
applied to other climates.) American Society for Testing and Materials. E06.41. ASTM
E1554-03 standard test methods for determining external air
Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Manual D, Residential
leakage of air distribution systems by fan pressurization.
duct systems. Arlington, VA:. (This guidance for duct design
and installation is the basis for building codes in several American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM WK8681 new
states and is an ANSI-approved national standard.) standard test method for resistance to mold growth on interior
coated building products in an environmental chamber.
Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association.
2006. Technical standard 1 measuring air permeability of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning
building envelopes. Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004. Position Document on Limiting
Association Indoor Mold and Dampness in Buildings. http://tinyurl.com/
ASHRAE-Mold-PD

20
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning exposure to known hazards. These practices also frequently
Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004. Ventilation for acceptable indoor YIELDOTHERBENElTSSUCHASIMPROVEDDURABILITYANDREDUCED
air quality, standard 62.1-2004. Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ASHRAE. operating costs.)
(The ASHRAE ventilation standard provides information
needed to determine ventilation rates for differing Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2004. Best
occupancies plus a number of design operating and Practice Guide Building Technology: Glass and Metal Curtain
maintenance requirements to ensure proper performance Walls. C.M.H.C.
OFVENTILATIONEQUIPMENT3ECTIONSPECIlCALLYDEALS
with exhaust ventilation. Standard 62.1 applies to many Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2003. Best
situations.) Practice Guide Building Technology: Fire and Sound Control
in Wood-Frame Multi-Family Buildings. C.M.H.C.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004. Ventilation and acceptable indoor Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2002. Best
air quality in low rise residential buildings, standard 62.2- Practice Guide Building Technology: Architectural Precast
2004. Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ASHRAE. Concrete: Walls and Structure. C.M.H.C.
(This standard applies to low-rise residential buildings. Exhaust
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2006. Best
systems are covered in portions of sections 5, 6 and 7.)
Practice Guide Building Technology: Brick Veneer Steel Stud.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning C.M.H.C.
Engineers (ASHRAE). 2004. Energy standard for buildings
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 1997. Best
except low-rise residential buildings standard 90.1-2004.
Practice Guide Building Technology: Brick Veneer Concrete
Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ASHRAE.
Masonry Unit Backing. C.M.H.C.
(This standard provides minimum requirements for the
ENERGY EFlCIENTDESIGNOFALLBUILDINGSWITHTHEEXCEPTIONOF Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2006. Best
low-rise residential buildings.) Practice Guide Building Technology: Flashings. C.M.H.C.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2006. Best
Engineers (ASHRAE). 2008. Design criteria for moisture Practice Guide Building Technology: Wood Frame Envelopes.
control in buildings, standard 160 P. Atlanta, GA: ANSI/ C.M.H.C.
ASHRAE.
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2006. Best
ANSI/AMCA. 2007. AMCA standard 500-L-07 Laboratory Practice Guide Building Technology: Wood-Frame Envelopes
methods of testing louvers for rating. AMCA. in the Coastal Climate of British Columbia. C.M.H.C.
Atlanta Regional Commission. 2001. Georgia Stormwater Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. 2004
Management Manual, Volume 2: Technical Handbook. Connecticut Stormwater Quality Manual, ed. Jane
(Volume 2 of the Technical Handbook provides guidance on A. Rothchild. Hartford: Connecticut Department of
the techniques and measures that can be implemented to Environmental Protection.
meet a set of storm water management minimum standards (This manual provides guidance on the measures necessary to
for new development and redevelopment. Volume 2 is protect waters from the adverse impacts of post-construction
designed to provide the site designer or engineer with storm water. The guidance is applicable to new development,
information required to effectively address and control both redevelopment, and upgrades to existing development.
water quality and quantity on a development site. This The manual focuses on site planning, source control, and
includes guidance on better site design practices, criteria pollution prevention, and storm water treatment practices.)
for selection and design of structural storm water controls,
drainage system design and construction and maintenance Department of the Army. 1994. Site Planning and Design, TM
information.) 5-803-6.
http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/ARMYCOE/COETM/ARCHIVES/
Baker, M.C. 1972. Drainage From Roofs. Canadian Builders tm_5_803_14.pdf. Accessed November 6, 2013.
Digest. 151. Ottawa. (This technical manual describes the site planning and
(This digest is a general discussion of roofs and roof drainage DESIGNPROCESSUSEDTODEVELOPAPROJECTTOFULlLLFACILITY
and highlights many roof drainage design considerations.) requirements and create the optimal relationship with the
natural site. The manual focuses on the site planning and
Brennan, T., J.B. Cummings, and J. Lstiburek. 2002. Unplanned
design process as it leads from program and site analysis to
!IRmOWSAND-OISTURE0ROBLEMSASHRAE Journal. Nov.
the preparation of a concept site plan.)
2002: 44-49.
(This article reviews the moisture dynamics caused by Ferguson, B.K. 2005. Porous Pavements. Boca Raton: CRC Press
UNPLANNEDAIRmOWSDURINGHEATINGANDCOOLINGMODESAND (This book provides comprehensive guidance and case
discusses interventions that can be made to prevent or solve histories for design, construction and maintenance, based on
the problems.) 25 years of practical experience with porous pavements, their
hydrology and their relationship to storm water drainage and
Building Sciences Corporation. 2005. Read This Before You
surface water management for buildings, roads, parking lots
Design, Build or Renovate.
and landscape vegetation.)
Revised May 2005. http://www.buildingscience.com/
documents/guides-and-manuals/gm-read-this-before-you- 'ATLEY$0$EHUMIDIlCATION%NHANCEMENTSFOR
design-build-renovate. Accessed November 6, 2013. 100-Percent-Outside-Air AHUs: Simplifying the decision-
(This pamphlet offers guidance about remodeling practices making process, Part 1. HPAC Heating/Piping/AirConditioning
that foster healthy homes by reducing occupants risk of Engineering Sept.: 27-32.

21
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
(This three-part series of articles describes the underlying International Code Council (ICC). 2012. 2012 International
psychrometrics in ventilating buildings and provides Energy Conservation Code. ICC.
design guidance for several methods of enhancing the 4HE)%##ADDRESSESENERGYEFlCIENCYINHOMESAND
DEHUMIDIlCATIONPERFORMANCEOFAIRCONDITIONINGAND buildings. IECC is the successor to the council for American
ventilation systems.) "UILDING#ODE/FlCIALS;#!"/=-ODEL%NERGY#ODE;-%#=
The IECC is revised on a 3-year cycle with a supplement
'ATLEY$0$EHUMIDIlCATION%NHANCEMENTSFOR issued half-way through the cycle. Revisions to the code
100-Percent-Outside-Air AHUs: Recuperative heat exchange occur through an open, public hearing process, and each
ISANENERGY EFlCIENTWAYTOACCOMPLISHREHEATWHILEALSO code or supplement is denoted with the year it was adopted
reducing cooling capacity, Part 2. HPAC Heating/Piping/ [e.g., 2006 IECC].)
AirConditioning Engineering Oct.: 51-59.
(This three-part series of articles describes the underlying Kanare, H. 2005. Concrete Floors and Moisture. Skokie, Illinois:
psychrometrics in ventilating buildings and provides Portland Cement Association.
design guidance for several methods of enhancing the
DEHUMIDIlCATIONPERFORMANCEOFAIRCONDITIONINGAND Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Attic Ventilation.
ventilation systems.) ASHRAE Journal 48: 36.

'ATLEY$0$EHUMIDIlCATION%NHANCEMENTSFOR Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Basements. ASHRAE

100-Percent-Outside-Air AHUs: Enthalpy heat exchange, Journal 48: 24
THEUSEOFDESICCANTSANDVAPORCOMPRESSIONDEHUMIDIlERS
are cost effective ways to maintain healthy and comfortable Lstiburek, Joseph 2006. Understanding Drain planes. ASHRAE
buildings, Part 2. HPAC Heating/Piping/AirConditioning Journal 48: 30
Engineering Nov.: 51-59. (This ASHRAE Journal article covers the underlying
(This three-part series of articles describes the underlying principles of rainwater control in buildings, focusing on
psychrometrics in ventilating buildings and provides the use of weather-resistant materials that provide shingled
design guidance for several methods of enhancing the drainage beneath siding materials.)
DEHUMIDIlCATIONPERFORMANCEOFAIRCONDITIONINGAND
Lstiburek, Joseph 2004. Understanding Vapor Barriers. ASHRAE
ventilation systems.)
Journal 46: 40
Harriman, L., Brundrett, G. and Kittler, R. 2001. Humidity (This ASHRAE article describes water vapor dynamics in
Control Design Guide for Commercial and Institutional WALLSECTIONSANDPROVIDESAmOW CHARTMETHODOFSELECTING
Buildings. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. (This manual by ASHRAE materials for the inside and outside of cavity walls that have
is an effort to expand the design of cooling equipment to APPROPRIATEWATERVAPORPERMEABILITYFORSPECIlCCLIMATES
INCLUDEDEHUMIDIlCATIONPERFORMANCE$ESIGNANALYSIS Assemblies can be designed without resorting to computer
includes peak outdoor air dew point performance as well as simulation.)
peak outdoor temperature analysis.)
National Asphalt Pavement Association. Online. Internet.
Henderson, H.I., D.B. Shirey, and R.A. Raustad. 2003. Available at http://www.asphaltpavement.org/.
5NDERSTANDINGTHE$EHUMIDIlCATION0ERFORMANCEOF (The National Asphalt Pavement Association is a trade
Air Conditioning Equipment at Part-Load Conditions. association that provides technical, educational, and
Presentation, CIBSE/ASHRAE Conference, Edinburgh, marketing materials and information to its members, and
Scotland. September 24-26, 2003. supplies technical information concerning paving materials.)
(This technical paper presents analysis and data on
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB).
THEDEGRADATIONOFDEHUMIDIlCATIONPERFORMANCEOFAIR
Odom, J.D. and DuBose, G.H. 2005. Mold and Moisture
conditioning equipment during part-load conditions. Controls
Prevention.Washington, D.C. (This manual is the 17th
and systems that contribute to this problem are discussed.)
monograph in NCARBs Professional Development Program. It
HygIRC (A hygrothermal modeler from the Institute for Research DESCRIBESMOISTUREANDMOLDPROBLEMSINBUILDINGSSPECIlC
in Construction in Canada http://archive.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ design and construction considerations for enclosures, and
eng/projects/irc/hygirc.html. Accessed November 6, 2013. HVAC systems as they relate to moisture and mold problems.)
HygIRC is a sophisticated modeler that is actively supported
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). Building Envelope
by the IRC. Workshops are available. Like WUFI and MOIST,
Design Guide. http://www.wbdg.org/design/envelope.php.
(YG)2#ASSUMESNOAIRmOWTHROUGHTHEASSEMBLY
Accessed November 6, 2013.
International Code Council (ICC). 2012. International Building (The NIBS, under guidance from the Federal Envelope
Code 2012. ICC. Advisory Committee, has developed this comprehensive guide
(Chapter 18 provides code requirements for soils and for exterior envelope design and construction for institutional
foundations including requirements for excavation, grading ANDOFlCEBUILDINGS3AMPLESPECIlCATIONSANDSECTIONSARE
ANDlLLAROUNDFOUNDATIONS3ECTIONCONTAINS included.)
requirements for ventilated crawl spaces.)
Rose, W. B. 2005. Water in Buildings: An Architects Guide to
International Code Council (ICC). 2012. International Plumbing Moisture and Mold. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Code 2012. ICC. (This is not a design guide, but rather a deeper look at water
(Chapter 11 provides code requirements for storm drainage, and its peculiar behavior in regard to building materials,
including roof drainage requirements. Section 312.2 to ASSEMBLIESANDWHOLEBUILDINGS)LLUSTRATEDWITHSPECIlC
Section 312.5 specify a gravity test of the drain and vent examples, it explains the how and why of moisture control.)
side of plumbing systems.)

22
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006
Association. 1985. SMACNA Air Duct Leakage Test Manual. Construction Site Storm Water Runoff Control. Washington,
Virginia. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
National Association. (This resource provides detailed information on construction-
(A companion to HVAC Duct Construction Standards Metal phase storm water management, including best management
and Flexible, this manual contains duct construction leakage practices.)
CLASSIlCATIONEXPECTEDLEAKAGERATESFORSEALEDANDUNSEALED
ductwork, duct leakage test procedures, recommendations on United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. National
use of leakage testing, types of test apparatus and test set-up Menu of Storm Water Best Management Practices.
and sample leakage analysis.) Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection
Agency. (This resource provides detailed information
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National including applicability, design criteria, limitations and
Association. 1993. Architectural Sheet Metal Manual maintenance requirements on these and many other site
Fifth Edition. Virginia. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning drainage methods.)
Contractors National Association.
(The SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual provides United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006.Porous
design criteria and details for roof drainage systems, gravel- Pavement. Post-Construction Storm Water Management in
STOPFASCIACOPINGSmASHINGBUILDINGEXPANSIONMETAL New Development and Redevelopment.
roof and wall systems, louvers and screens and other metal http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.
structures. Chapter 1 contains data, calculations, and charts cfm?action=min_measure&min_measure_id=5. Accessed
for designing roof drainage systems.) November 6, 2013.

Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance. 2003. Spray Polyurethane United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Managing
Foam for Exterior Subgrade Thermal and Moisture Protection. Storm Water to Prevent Contamination of Drinking Water.
Virginia: Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance. Source Water Practices Bulletin. EPA 816-F-01-020.
(A technical guide to specifying closed-cell spray foam Environmental Protection Agency.
polyurethane on the outside of basement walls as thermal http://www.epa.gov/safewater/sourcewater/pubs/fs_swpp_
insulation and moisture protection.) stormwater.pdf. Accessed November 6, 2013.

Straube, John. 2011. High Performance Building Enclosures.

Somerville, MA: Building Science Press (This book includes Water Management Committee of the Irrigation Association. 2010
the fundamentals underpinning the physics of heat, air and Turf and Landscape Irrigation: Best Management Practices.
moisture control in high-performance building enclosures and Irrigation Association.
practical design guidance to achieve them for a wide array of
enclosure assemblies in all North American climate zones.) WUFI: Hygrothermal modeling software to assess the water vapor
dynamics of wall and roof systems in numerous climates.
Texas Water Development Board. 2005. The Texas Manual on WUFI is available from the Fraunhofer Institute of Building
Rainwater Harvesting. Texas: Texas Water Development Physics http://www.hoki.ibp.fraunhofer.de/ in Germany and
Board. http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/innovativewater/rainwater/ Oak Ridge National Laboratory http://www.ornl.gov/sci/
docs.asp. Accessed November 6, 2013. btc/apps/moisture/. Accessed November 6, 2013. ORNL
(This manual presents a discussion on the history of rainwater conducts training for using WUFI.
collection, harvesting system components, water quality and
treatment, system sizing and best management practices.)

United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Alternative

Pavers (Post-Construction Storm Water Management in New
Development and Redevelopment). Washington, D.C.: United
States Environmental Protection Agency. http://cfpub1.epa.
gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm?action=min_
measure&min_measure_id=5. Accessed November 6, 2013.
(This resource is intended to provide guidance on the types of
practices that could be used to develop and implement storm
water management programs.)

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www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture

The Basics of Water Behavior

Water occurs at temperatures often found in buildings Water vapor migrates from one place to another in
as a liquid, a gas (water vapor) and in an in-between several ways:
state (adsorbed on solid surfaces). x Water vapor in the air goes where the air goes.
This is, by far, the fastest and largest mechanism
Liquid water moves from one place to another in of water vapor transport. All air, whether inside or
several ways: outside of buildings, is constantly moving from
x Water runs through pipes and vessels. Water moves areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
from higher pressure to lower pressure in pipes and If dry air is pulled into the building from outdoors,
lXTURES!LEAKINAPRESSURIZEDPIPEORTANKCAN it will dehumidify the indoor air. If humid air is
release much more water than a similar leak on the pulled in, it will add to the humidity load that must
drain side of the plumbing system. be removed by the mechanical system.
x Water runs downhill. Rainwater, surface water, x Water vapor migrates through materials by
spilled water, water on the drain side of plumbing diffusion. Liquid water may not be present and
lXTURESANDWATERINCONDENSATEPANSAREALL nothing may appear to be wet, but water vapor can
affected by gravity. still slowly migrate through what appears to be solid
x Water wicks upwards. Water wicks up through tiny materials. Vapor molecules will slowly bump their
cracks and holes. To see wicking in action, stand way through the spaces between molecules of the
two plates of glass on edge in inch of water. material. The molecules are moving from an area
Push them together and as they get closer the of higher water vapor concentration to lower water
water wicks up between them. The closer together vapor concentration. The more porous a material is,
the plates, the higher water wicks. This happens the easier it is for water vapor to diffuse through it.
because water molecules are attracted to the glass The rate water vapor diffuses through a material is
and to other water molecules. What works for measured in perms. Higher perms mean higher
cracks works for pores in materials. Stand a porous WATERVAPORmOWRATES
material like paper, wood, concrete, a sponge or
gypsum board on edge in inch of water and the Water changes from liquid to gas (evaporation) and
water wicks up into the material. How high it goes from gas to liquid (condensation).
depends on pore size and how quickly the water x Water evaporates from liquid water on surfaces,
can dry out the sides to the air. Water wicks through becoming water vapor. Most of the water vapor
materials in a process called capillary action. that originates inside buildings is the result of
When water is in tiny pores, gravity is not the most evaporation from open containers, sprays or damp
important force acting on it. porous materials. Showers, fountains, pools, sinks,
x Water runs along the bottom or sides of materials. pots on stoves, dishwashers and wash water on
For the same reasons that water wicks up through mOORSAREALLSOURCESOFINDOORHUMIDITYASARE
porous materials, water can cling to the sides the building occupants themselves. People, plants
and bottoms of materials. Water is attracted to ANDANIMALSRELEASEWATERVAPOR)NTYPICALOFlCE
many materials and to itself. Water from rain or spaces, the occupants are probably the main source
a plumbing leak may travel many feet along the of water vapor. Wet materials such as wet concrete
BOTTOMOFAmOORJOISTORROOFTRUSSBEFORECOLLECTING or exposed earth in crawl spaces or basements are
INADROPBIGENOUGHTOFALL7HENWATERlRST also sources of indoor humidity. The evaporation
condenses on a mirror or a cooling coil, it clings to rate depends on many factors including the
the vertical surfaces. Water does not run down until temperature of the water and the relative humidity
the droplets become large enough for gravity to of the air. The warmer the water, the drier the air
overcome the intermolecular forces. next to the wet surface. The faster air blows across
a wet surface, and the larger the exposed surface

24
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
area, the greater the evaporation rate. It takes more x Water vapor is adsorbed onto surfaces. Water as a
energy to evaporate water from porous materials gas moves around very freely. Water adsorbed onto
than from impermeable materials because the water a solid surface is far less free to move around than
molecules are more tightly bound by capillary forces water vapor. In this state, it takes more energy to
ANDITISDIFlCULTTOBLOWDRYVENTILATINGAIRTHROUGH break the water free than if it is a liquid or a gas.
many porous building materials. Water molecules clinging to a solid surface are less
x Water vapor condenses on a surface, becoming available for chemical or biological activity than is
liquid. If surface temperatures are below the dew liquid water.
point of the air next to them, water molecules in the
surrounding air will condense on the cool surfaces.
Cold water pipes, air conditioning ducts and cold
roof decks experience condensation, just like a cold
drink sweats in the humid summer air.

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Chapter 2: Designing for Moisture Control

Introduction Designing Effective Moisture Controls

The most common participants in the process of Providing good moisture control in the design of a
designing a building are architects, engineers, building is largely the responsibility of the design
landscape architects and the clients. The design team team. Third parties that provide construction
can also include: management or commissioning services may play
x The owner of the building, if the building is being critical roles in the design and implementation of
DESIGNEDANDBUILTFORASPECIlCPERSONORENTITY moisture controls. A construction management service
The owner can help identify how and by whom the may participate in the management of the project at
building will be used. varying levels from inception, design and construction
to turnover and occupancy. The goal of construction
x The future occupants of the building, if they are management ordinarily is to manage the schedule,
known at the time the building is designed. They cost and quality to the owners satisfaction, but if a
can help set goals for durability, maintainability and construction manager is part of the design team, it
moisture protection. is crucial that the manager take on responsibility for
x Building and grounds personnel representing the implementing the teams moisture control objectives.
owner, who can provide years of building operation
and maintenance (O&M) experience.
Building Commissioning
x The contractor that will construct the building,
if the contractor has been selected when the HVAC systems have been commissioned for many
design work begins.14 Experienced contractors and years by testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB).
subcontractors can bring the realities of managing However, commissioning entire buildings is a
moisture during construction to the design of the relatively recent innovation in construction. In
building. 1996, ASHRAE published The HVAC Commissioning
Process Guideline 1-1996, which extended the
Where there is a shortage of real estate for sale scope of traditional TAB to include point-to-point
or rent, buildings are often designed and built testing of digital controls and functional performance
on speculation. In such cases, the occupants, testing to assess the performance of electrical and
programs and processes that eventually will reside mechanical systems that work together. Since then
in the building are known only in general terms. For this process has been extended to the electrical
EXAMPLEWHENPLANNINGANOFlCEBUILDINGTHEDESIGN SYSTEMSPOTABLESANITARYDRAINAGEANDIRRIGATION
TEAMCANASSUMETHEOCCUPANTSWILLBEORDINARYOFlCE SYSTEMSPOWERPRODUCTIONANDCOGENERATIONSYSTEMS
workers and the building will have no special sources THEBUILDINGENCLOSURESUSTAINABLEASPECTSOFTHE
of liquid water or humidity. However, the resulting PROJECTANDTHEENTIREBUILDINGDESIGNPROCESSITSELF
DESIGNWILLNOTHAVETHEBENElTOFINPUTFROMTHE In 2005, the U.S. General Services Administration
owner, the actual occupants or the building and (GSA) published The Building Commissioning Guide.
grounds staff that will have to make the building work The guide provides a process for including building
over the years. commissioning in the planning, design, construction
and post-construction phases of a project. A table
in the guide summarizes commissioning activities
and recommends the commissioning agent review
the design for, among other things, the enclosures
thermal and moisture integrity and its moisture vapor
14
Whether or not the contractor is on board during the design process, the contractor will have the important role of clarifying the design teams intentions regarding moisture
control, planning measures to control water during construction, and preparing response plans for accidental water events that occur during construction. This role is explored in
detail in Chapter 3.

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 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
control. If a commissioning agent is involved in the cooperation with the owner, contractor and third
design and construction of a building, many of the parties:
quality assurance procedures related to moisture x Documents overall moisture control goals.
control and associated measures could easily fall
within the agents scope. A general process for x Plans water controls and water event responses to
building commissioning is presented in ASHRAE be implemented during construction.
Guideline 0-2005: The Commissioning Process x )DENTIlESINSPECTIONTESTINGCOMMISSIONINGAND
the industry-accepted commissioning guideline. quality-assurance activities to ensure the intended
The National Institute of Building Science (NIBS) moisture-control measures are implemented as
published Guideline 3-2006: Exterior Enclosure designed.
Technical Requirements for the Commissioning x Establishes requirements of and responsibility for
Process, which presents a process for building providing, reviewing and accepting submittals, shop
enclosure commissioning and contains many annexes drawings, proposed substitutions and scheduled
to illustrate the steps in the process. In 2012, inspections.
ASTM published E2813-12 Standard Practice for
Building Enclosure Commissioning. This standard x Documents the O&M procedures required to keep
practice follows Guideline 3 procedures and includes the intended moisture control measures working
functional testing required for fundamental and throughout the buildings life.
enhanced enclosure commissioning.
This chapter has six subsections:
1. Site Drainage.
Who Should Read this Chapter
2. Foundations.
This chapter is for the design team members who
3. Walls.
produce the design, bid and construction documents.
It includes a list of design elements that will 4. Roof and Ceiling Assemblies
protect a building from moisture-related problems. 5. Plumbing Systems.
The design team must understand the problems
6. HVAC Systems.
that water causes in buildings and the dynamics
of moisture sources, moisture migration and
Each subsection discusses techniques to provide
MOISTURECONTROL4HISKNOWLEDGEMUSTBEREmECTED
PROTECTIONFROMMOISTUREPROBLEMSANDSPECIlES
in the design documents, building drawings and
SPECIlCATIONS x The issue that is being addressed.
x The moisture-control goals for the issue.
Good design is a prerequisite for a building
x Guidance on implementing techniques to achieve
THATRESISTSMOISTUREPROBLEMSHOWEVERGOOD
each moisture-control goal.
design alone is not enough. The design must be
implemented correctly during construction and x Ways to verify that the moisture-control techniques
maintained during the buildings operation by the have been included in the building design and have
owner or manager. To that end, the design team in been properly installed or constructed.

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Site Drainage

Issue x Porous pavement is a permeable surface often built

with an underlying stone reservoir that temporarily
Water from rain, snowmelt and irrigation systems STORESSURFACERUNOFFBEFOREITINlLTRATESINTOTHE
CANINlLTRATEABUILDINGDAMAGINGTHESTRUCTUREAND subsoil. Porous pavements may be made using
its contents. Properly designed site drainage avoids ASPHALTORCONCRETE-EDIUM TRAFlCAREASARETHE
building damage and the need for potentially costly ideal application for porous pavement. Porous
remediation.15 pavement may be inappropriate in areas such as
truck loading docks and areas where there is a great
Goal DEALOFCOMMERCIALTRAFlC
x Modular porous pavers are permeable surfaces
Design the site so that water from rain, snowmelt and
THATCANREPLACEASPHALTANDCONCRETETHEYCAN
landscape irrigation is prevented from entering the
be used for driveways, parking lots and walkways.
building.
Alternative pavers can replace impervious surfaces,
resulting in less storm water runoff.
Guidance x The two broad categories of alternative pavers are
Guidance 1: The site drainage design creates a paving blocks and other surfaces, including gravel,
controlled condition to help move water away from the cobbles, wood, mulch, brick and natural stone.
building. To the extent possible, the design maintains
THERATEOFWATER SOILINlLTRATIONIETHEDOWNWARD Guidance 3: Use grading to slow down runoff and
entry of water into the surface of the soil) at the site ACHIEVEAMOREBALANCEDINlLTRATIONRATE4OPOGRAPHY
before the site was disturbed. Runoff (i.e., water that helps determine the amount, direction and rate
DOESNOTINlLTRATEINTOTHESOIL MUSTBEMANAGEDBY of runoff. To the extent possible, retain existing
other drainage methods. contours so that the existing drainage patterns can
be maintained. Grading also can be used to correct
Guidance 2: Avoid unnecessary impervious surfaces. drainage problems. Where steep slopes contribute to
Avoiding unnecessary or large impermeable surfaces rapid runoff, re-grading to more moderate slopes can
or using alternative, relatively permeable paving reduce runoff velocity.
MATERIALSWILLALLOWMOREWATERTOINlLTRATETHUS
reducing the size and cost of systems managing Guidance 4: Ensure positive site drainage principles
runoff. Placing facilities on a site changes the sites are met, including:
drainage characteristics by increasing the impervious x Making certain water is moved away from the
area, which, in turn, increases the volume of runoff building.
that must be managed. Where large expanses of x Ensuring water is not allowed to accidentally pond
impervious surface are unavoidable, such as parking in low areas.
lots, breaking the expanse into smaller areas or using
alternative permeable pavement techniques can help x -AKINGSURETHElNISHEDmOORISELEVATEDENOUGHSO
reduce runoff. that water will not back up into the building if the
drainage systems are blocked.
Alternative paving materials such as pervious
pavement, modular porous paver systems or other Figure 2-1 illustrates positive drainage principles.
surfaces can be used to reduce runoff.

15
4HISDOCUMENTDOESNOTADDRESSmOODWATERSFROMRIVERSORLAKESTHESEAORFROMOTHEREXTREMEWEATHEREVENTS

28
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 2-1 Positive Drainage Principles

Guidance 5: When runoff must be controlled and x Retention or detention control methods such as wet
redirected away from the building, identify and design or dry ponds.
water runoff management approaches appropriate for y Wet pondsstorm water ponds, wet retention
the sites characteristics. Potential approaches to use ponds and wet extended-detention pondsare
include: constructed basins that contain a permanent
x )NlLTRATIONCONTROLMETHODSSUCHASSWALESOR pool of water throughout the year or at least
INlLTRATIONTRENCHES throughout the wet season. Ponds treat incoming
y A swale (i.e., a grassed channel, dry swale, runoff by allowing particles to settle and algae
WETSWALEBIOlLTERORBIOSWALE ISAVEGETATED to take up nutrients. The primary removal
open-channel management practice designed mechanism is settling, which occurs as runoff
SPECIlCALLYTOTREATANDATTENUATERUNOFFFOR resides in the pond. Pollutant uptake, particularly
SPECIlEDWATERQUALITYANDVOLUME!SWATER of nutrients, occurs through biological activity.
mOWSALONGTHESECHANNELSVEGETATIONSLOWSITTO Wet ponds traditionally have been widely used as
ALLOWSEDIMENTATIONTHEWATERlLTERSTHROUGHA a storm water best management practice.
SUBSOILMATRIXORINlLTRATESTHEUNDERLYINGSOILSOR y Dry detention pondsdry ponds, extended
both. detention basins, detention ponds and extended
y !NINlLTRATIONTRENCHIEINlLTRATIONGALLEY  detention pondshold runoff for some minimum
ISAROCK lLLEDTRENCHWITHNOOUTLETTHAT time to allow particles and associated pollutants
receives runoff. The runoff passes through some to settle. Unlike wet ponds, these facilities do not
combination of pretreatment measures, such as HAVEALARGEPERMANENTPOOLOFWATERHOWEVER
a swale and detention basin, and into the trench. they are often designed with small pools at the
Runoff is stored in the spaces between the stones basins inlet and outlet. Dry detention ponds
INTHETRENCHANDFROMTHEREINlLTRATESTHROUGH ALSOCANCONTRIBUTETOmOODCONTROLBYPROVIDING
the trench bottom and into the soil. The primary ADDITIONALmOODWATERSTORAGE
pollutant removal mechanism of this practice is
lLTERINGTHROUGHTHESOIL

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www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
For detailed information including applicability, x Select trees, shrubs, ground cover and other
design criteria, limitations and maintenance landscaping elements based on their ability to grow
requirements on these and many other site drainage well with little or no additional water. Such plants
methods, visit EPAs storm water management will minimize the use of water for irrigation.
website.16 x Explore the potential for capturing, diverting and
storing rainwater for landscape irrigation, drinking
Guidance 6: Landscape irrigation systems must be and other uses. This approach can be used in all
designed so that they do not spray the building or climates. For more information, see the Texas Water
soak the soil next to the foundation. Consider hiring Development Board reference The Texas Manual on
AQUALIlEDIRRIGATIONDESIGNERORIRRIGATIONCONSULTANT Rainwater Harvesting.
to design the system, keeping in mind these
considerations: Guidance 9: Develop a construction-phase storm-
water-management plan. The plan should address at a
x Spray heads and rotor heads spray water into the minimum:
air. When designing spray systems consider wind x Methods for minimizing the potential for storm
conditions. Wind can carry airborne water beyond water runoff during construction.
the area intended to be covered, and the sprinklers
may spray the building or the soil around the x Methods to drain storm water from the site and
foundation. away from the structure during construction.
x Drip irrigation is a slow, even application of water x Methods for preventing building materials from
through plastic tubing that delivers water directly getting wet.
to plants. Drip irrigation systems use less water x Methods for keeping the building or portions of the
THANSPRAYSYSTEMSHOWEVERTHEYSTILLCANSOAKTHE building dry during construction.17
ground around the foundation and cause moisture x Policies and methods for drying materials and the
problems in a building. building if they become wet.
x All irrigation systems, regardless of type, should be x Construction-phase storm water management
properly controlled and monitored. Timers should be supervisory roles and responsibilities.
INSTALLEDTOENSURETHESYSTEMSHUTSOFF7ATERmOW
meters should be installed to measure the volume For detailed information on construction-phase storm
of water moving through the system. Regularly water management, visit EPAs storm water best
monitored meters can be a source of information management practices website.18
about excessive water use due to timer problems
or system leaks. Consider installing devices such Guidance 10: Develop guides covering the O&M of
as tensiometers or soil blocks to measure soil the storm water management system. The guides
moisture. should include:
Guidance 7: Ensure water draining from one building x The theory of operation of storm-water-management
or site does not violate the good drainage of an systems.
adjacent building or site. This can happen when a x Inspection procedures.
building is constructed close to an existing building x Maintenance procedures and requirements.
and dumps drainage water (e.g., roof, surface, etc.)
onto or at the existing building, overwhelming its For detailed information on post-construction storm
drainage features. water management, visit EPAs storm water best
management practices website.19
Guidance 8: Consider green building practices that
minimize the need for irrigation or that capture
rainwater for use in irrigation.

16
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm. Accessed November 6, 2013.
17
&ORSOMELARGEPROJECTSINTERIORWORKMAYBEGINBEFORETHEUPPERmOORSHAVEBEENCOMPLETED3PECIALRAINWATER CONTROLMEASURESARENEEDEDTOPROTECTTHELOWERmOORS3EE
Chapter 3 on the construction phase for more details.
18
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm. Accessed November 6, 2013.
19
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm. Accessed November 6, 2013.

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 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture

6ERIlCATIONOF3ITE$RAINAGE x Provide the construction manager and the building

owner with a list of post-construction inspection
x If storm water from the site is to be conveyed to and maintenance requirements for the site drainage
a municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4), systems.
get a list of MS4 operators requirements for the
municipality. Give the list to the construction
manager before construction begins.
x Provide the construction manager with a list
of construction-phase critical details and an
inspection schedule of the site drainage system,
identifying the sequence of inspections, parties
responsible for the inspections, and required
documentation of the inspection results.

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www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture

Foundations

Issue CONTROLTHESURFACEmOWOFWATERORMEETAMORE

stringent local building code requirement. Applying
Building foundations are vulnerable to moisture this slope to a distance of 6 to 10 feet from the
problems for a number of reasons, including: foundation generally is acceptable.
x 2EDUCEWATERINlLTRATIONINTOTHESOILSURROUNDING
x Water from rain and from plumbing leaks is drawn the building using a barrier at or slightly beneath
by gravity to foundations, which are exposed to the surface (e.g., a cap of silty-clay soil or
surface water, rain-soaked soil and, possibly, high subsurface drainage landscape membrane). Care
water tables. must be taken to prevent the roots of plants in this
x Water may condense on foundation materials during zone from penetrating the barrier.
warm weather because the materials are cooler than x Design the foundation and surrounding grade
the outdoor air. so there is a minimum of 8 inches of exposed
x Crawl spaces and basements are holes in the FOUNDATIONAFTERTHElNALGRADING
ground and have more extensive contact with soil
than slab-on-grade foundations. Guidance 2: Design below-grade drainage systems
to divert water away from the foundation and specify
x Many moisture problems can be avoided by properly
capillary breaks to keep water from wicking through
designing the foundation. Moisture problems
the foundation to moisture-sensitive materials (e.g.,
associated with improperly designed foundations
wooden framing and paper-covered gypsum board).
CANBEDIFlCULTANDEXPENSIVETOIDENTIFYAND
lXCANCREATETHEPOTENTIALFORHEALTHPROBLEMS
resulting from mold growth, and can be a liability Slab-On-Grade Liquid Water Control (See Figure 2-2)
for building owners.
Below-grade perimeter drainage is not required
for concrete slab-on-grade foundations when the
Goals SURROUNDINGlNISHGRADEISSLOPEDASSPECIlEDIN
Guidance 1, the slab is elevated at least 8 inches
Foundation Design Goal 1: Design the foundation to ABOVElNISHEDGRADEANDTHEDESIGNINCLUDES
prevent rainwater and groundwater incursions. appropriate capillary breaks. Incorporate a capillary
break between:
Foundation Design Goal 2: Avoid condensation on
x The foundation and the above-grade wall (e.g., a
slab-on-grade foundations, in crawl spaces and in
layer of polyethylene foam sill seal, metal or rubber
basement foundations.
mASHINGORADAMP PROOFMASONRYCOURSEBETWEEN
the concrete foundation and the wood or steel
Guidance framed walls or the concrete or masonry walls).
x 4HEEARTHANDTHEmOORSLABEGALAYEROF
Foundation Design Goal 1: Design the foundation to COARSEAGGREGATEWITHNOlNESAPLASTICORRUBBER
prevent rainwater and groundwater incursions. membrane, or a layer of plastic foam insulation
placed beneath the slab). NOTE: While coarse
Guidance 1: Plan the surrounding slope to divert stone will provide a capillary break, a vapor barrier
water away from the building. This guidance applies directly beneath the slab is required to manage
to slab-on-grade foundations, crawl spaces and water vapor migration.
basements.
x The earth and below-grade portion of the perimeter
x Specify a 5 percent6 inches per 10 feetslope stem wall or thickened edge slab (e.g., damp-proof
TOTHElNISHGRADEAWAYFROMTHEFOUNDATIONTO coating or a water-proof membrane placed on the
thickened edge slab or stem wall).
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 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 2-2 Illustration of Ground Water Control for Slab Foundations

If there is a joint between the slabs perimeter edge footing drain pipe surrounded by coarse aggregate
and a stem wall, a capillary break may be needed WITHNOlNESANDlLTERFABRICDRAINEDTOAPREFERRED
between the edge of the slab and the perimeter wall disposal option such as daylight or a sump pump).
to prevent water wicking from the perimeter wall into x Locate the top of the pipe at or below the bottom
the slab. OFTHElNISHEDSLABREGARDLESSOFTHELOCATIONOFTHE
pipe with respect to the footing.
If the roof slopes to eaves without gutters, protect the
bottom of the above-grade portion of the wall against x 3PECIFYlLTERFABRICTOPREVENTlNESOILSFROM
rain splash (e.g., raise the foundation wall and slab clogging the curtain drain and the footing drain
out of the ground 18 inches or more, or construct the system.
wall with robust drainage and drain plane protection). x Incorporate a capillary break between:
y 4HETOPOFTHEFOUNDATIONWALLANDTHElRST mOOR
Crawl Space and Basement Liquid Water Control framing system (e.g., a layer of polystyrene sill
(See Figures 2-3 and 2-4) SEALMETALORRUBBERmASHINGORAMASONRY
damp-proof course between the concrete
x Design the basement or crawlspace so that the FOUNDATIONANDTHEWOODSTEELORCONCRETEmOOR
INTERIORmOORGRADEISABOVETHE YEARmOODLEVEL structure).
and the local water table. y 4HEEARTHANDTHEBASEMENTmOORSLABEGA
x Specify a curtain of free-draining material (e.g., LAYEROFCOARSEAGGREGATEWITHNOlNESAPLASTIC
SANDANDGRAVELCOARSEAGGREGATEWITHNOlNESOR or rubber membrane, or a layer of styrene foam
a synthetic drainage mat) around the outside of the insulation placed beneath the slab).
foundation between the unexcavated earth and the y 4HEFREE DRAININGPERIMETERlLLANDTHEBELOW
basement wall. grade portion of the basement wall (e.g., a damp-
x Specify a drainage collection and disposal system proof coating or a water-proof membrane placed
to be located below the top of the footing or the on the outside of the basement wall).
BOTTOMOFTHESLABmOOREGPERFORATEDEXTERIOR

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NOTE: A plastic or elastomeric membrane can x Provide a vapor retarder sheet directly under the
be used in place of a concrete slab to form a CONCRETEmOORSLABTOPREVENTWATERVAPORINlLTRATION
capillary break and prevent evaporation from THROUGHTHEmOORSYSTEM6APORRETARDERSSHOULD
the soil into the crawl space. A concrete slab MEETREQUIREMENTSOF!34-SPECIlCATION%
has the advantages of being more durable and Class A, B or C.
of blocking the entry of burrowing rodents. x Mechanical equipment can be located in basements
Membranes are less expensive and easier to that have insulated walls. Specify air-sealing details
install. to provide a continuous air barrier from the above-
grade wall down the foundation wall and ending in
x Design a capillary break between the top of the THECENTEROFTHEBASEMENTmOOR5SETHEPENTEST
footings and foundation walls (e.g., painted-on (See Appendix A) to trace the continuity of the air
coating). barrier. NOTE: The air barrier for the foundation is a
x 3PECIFYADRAININTHEFOUNDATIONmOORTHATLEADSTO part of the whole building air barrier system.
an approved disposal site. x Specify a whole building air leakage rate when
x Include in the plan: tested at 75 Pascal pressure difference in
accordance with ASTM E779-10 Standard Test
y Assumptions about maximum rainfall or Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by
snowmelt. Fan Pressurization or ASTM E1827-96(2007)
y Drainage surface areas including shapes, slopes, Standard Test Methods for Determining Airtightness
superstructures or other obstructions. OF"UILDINGS5SINGAN/RIlCE"LOWER$OORFor
y %STIMATEDWATERmOWS example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers now
requires a maximum air leakage rate of 0.25 cubic
y The location and capacities of all sub-grade feet per minute at 75 Pascal pressure difference.
drainage features (e.g., drain lines, discharge
locations, man-holes, access pits). x When insulating on the outside of foundation walls:
y Specify insulating materials that can tolerate
Foundation Design Goal 2: Avoid condensation on exposure to the earth. Extruded styrene and
slab-on-grade foundations, in crawl spaces or in high-density expanded styrene foam boards,
basement foundations. closed-cell spray polyurethane foam insulation,
ANDlBERGLASSORMINERALWOOLINSULATINGDRAINAGE
panels have been successfully used to insulate
Slab-on-Grade Condensation
outside surfaces of foundation walls.
x Insulate slab-on-grade foundations (e.g., install y Extend the insulation from the top of the footing
extruded styrene foam board beneath the slab) to TOTHETOPOFTHESUB mOOR
KEEPTHEmOORFROMSWEATINGDURINGWARMHUMID y Specify protective covering for the above-grade
weather. portions of exterior insulation (e.g., stucco on
x Provide perimeter and sub-slab insulation to meet stainless steel lath).
the International Energy Conservation Code. x When insulating on the inside of foundation walls:
x Provide a vapor retarder sheet directly under the y Specify a layer of foam board or closed-cell spray
CONCRETEmOORSLABTOPREVENTWATERVAPORFROM polyurethane foam insulation against the interior
INlLTRATINGTHEmOORSYSTEM6APORRETARDERSSHOULD side of the basement wall to keep warm humid
MEETTHEREQUIREMENTSOF!34-SPECIlCATION% air away from the cool foundation.
1745 Class A, B or C.
y Specify an insulating value for the foam layer
high enough to meet the ASHRAE Standard 90.1
Basement Condensation Control (See Figure 2-3) requirements, or specify a combination of foam
insulation and, on the foundation wall, moisture-
x Specify insulation for the above- and below-grade tolerant insulation in the wall cavity (e.g.,
basement walls to meet the ASHRAE Standard lBERGLASSORMINERALWOOL 4HECOMBINATIONOF
90.1 requirements. NOTE: Do not insulate FOAMANDlBERGLASSINSULATIONMEETSTHEREQUIRED
basement ceilings. R-value, prevents condensation and allows the
assembly to dry to the interior (See Figure 2-3).

34
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
&IGURE )LLUSTRATIONOF"ASEMENT&OUNDATION3HOWING$RAINAGEAND$AMP0ROOlNG/NLY

y 3PECIFYAPPROPRIATElREPROTECTIONFORTHEINTERIOR y 5SEAIRCONDITIONINGORDEHUMIDIlERSTOREDUCE
INSULATIONSYSTEMEGlRE RATEDGYPSUMBOARD  basement humidity during warm, humid seasons.
y Design the entire system so that wooden and
paper-based materials do not touch concrete Crawl Space Condensation Control
(e.g., isolate them with a spacer, such as closed-
cell foam board, spray polyurethane foam or x Crawl space foundations may be vented to the
polyethylene foam, which provides a capillary outdoors or air sealed.
break).
x 4HESPECIlCATIONSFORNON VENTEDCRAWLSPACESARE
y Do not use any materials inboard of the the same as for basements, with one exception:
insulating layer that have a permeability rating a plastic or elastomeric membrane can be used
of less than two perms. Materials that have a instead of a concrete slab to form a capillary
perm value of one by the dry cup method and break and prevent evaporation from the soil into
a perm value higher than two by the wet cup the crawl space. Concrete slabs are more durable,
method may be used. For example, do not use PROVIDEASOLIDmOORFORTHECONTRACTORTOWORK
vapor-impermeable vinyl wallpaper on insulated FROMANDBLOCKTHEENTRYOFBURROWINGRODENTS
basement walls. however, membranes are less expensive and easier
y Provide details showing how the insulation to install. Sealed crawlspaces must be ventilated
layer on the inside of the foundation provides in accordance with International Building Code
CONTINUITYWITHTHEUPPERmOORWALLINSULATION 1203.3.22012 (See Figure 2-4).

35
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
x For vented crawl spaces: Standard Test Methods for Determining
y Specify one or more layers of insulation in the !IRTIGHTNESSOF"UILDINGS5SINGAN/RIlCE"LOWER
mOORSYSTEMBETWEENTHECRAWLSPACEANDTHE Door. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of
lRSTmOORTOACHIEVETHEINSULATIONLEVELSREQUIRED Engineers requires a maximum air leakage rate of
by ASHRAE Standard 90.1. NOTE: Mechanical 0.25 cubic feet per minute at 75 Pascal pressure
equipment cannot be located in vented difference.
crawlspaces. Specify air-sealing details to provide y A plastic or elastomeric membrane can be used
a continuous air barrier from the above-grade wall instead of a concrete slab to form a capillary
ACROSSTHEmOORBETWEENTHECRAWLSPACEANDTHE break and prevent evaporation from the soil
lRSTmOOR5SETHEPENTEST3EE!PPENDIX! TO into the crawl space. Concrete slabs are more
trace the continuity of the air barrier. NOTE: The DURABLEPROVIDEASOLIDmOORFORTHECONTRACTOR
air barrier for the foundation is part of the whole to work from, and block the entry of burrowing
building air barrier system. RODENTSHOWEVERMEMBRANESARELESSEXPENSIVE
y Specify a whole building air leakage rate when and easier to install.
tested at 75 Pascal pressure difference in y Provide screened vents to meet the International
accordance with ASTM E779-10 Standard Test Building Code requirements for ventilated crawl
Methods for Determining Air Leakage Rate by spaces (Section 1203.3.1).
Fan Pressurization or ASTM E1827-96(2007)

Figure 2-4 Components of an Unvented Crawl Space Foundation

Source: Conditioned Crawlspace Performance, Construction and Codes, Building Science Corporation (http://www.buildingscience.com/
documents/bareports/ba-0401-conditioned-crawlspace-construction-performance-and-codes). Accessed November 6, 2013.

36
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture

6ERIlCATIONOF&OUNDATION$ESIGN dimensional drawings where three or more elements

of the air barrier, insulation layer and water vapor
x Write a description detailing how the foundation control intersect.
system manages rain and surface and sub-surface x Specify a fan pressurization test in design
water. This typically would be located in the basis- SPECIlCATIONDOCUMENTSTOASSESSTHEENTIRE
of-design document. building enclosure using ASTM E779-10 Standard
x Provide details of sub-surface drainage systems in Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by
construction documents. Fan Pressurization. Or ASTM E1827-96(2007)
Standard Test Methods for Determining Airtightness
x Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to verify
OF"UILDINGS5SINGAN/RIlCE"LOWER$OOR
elements of the drainage system and the continuity
of the capillary break from the intersection of y Specify when the test should be conducted in
THEFOUNDATIONWITHTHElRSTmOORWALLSAROUND relation to the completeness of the air barrier
the foundation wall footing, to the center of the system.
foundation. y Identify the appropriate testing party.
x Provide two-dimensional sectional drawings where y Specify how the results should be documented,
two materials that form the rainwater control come judged and accepted or rejected.
together and three-dimensional drawings where
three or more elements of the rain protection y Specify the remedies if the building fails the test.
system come together. x Specify quality assurance programs for the
x Provide a list of critical details and an inspection installation of the hygrothermal control elements of
schedule for the drainage and capillary break the enclosure. Provide a list of critical details and
ELEMENTSOFTHEFOUNDATIONTHATIDENTIlESTHE an inspection schedule for the air barrier, insulation
sequence of inspections, the parties responsible for layer and water-vapor-control elements of the
the inspections, and the required documentation of foundation. Specify the sequence of inspections,
the inspection results. the parties responsible for the inspections and the
required documentation of the inspection results.
x Provide a list of inspection and maintenance
requirements for the foundation drainage system. x Provide a list of inspection and maintenance
REQUIREMENTSFORTHEINTERIORlNISHESIFTHEYARE
x Write a description detailing how the foundation critical to water vapor control. For example, if water
system manages water vapor during cooling and vapor control depends on a vapor-permeable interior
heating modes, as applicable. Prepare drawings lNISHLOW PERMVINYLWALLCOVERINGSANDPAINTS
ANDSPECIlCATIONSTHATDETAILWATERVAPORMIGRATION should be avoided during renovations. Pictures,
control and the permeability and insulating values blackboards and mirrors should be spaced off the
for all materials. wall.
x Provide two-dimensional sections where two x Specify, in the control guide for the building
materials that form the air barrier, insulation layer operators, the maximum dew point levels allowed in
and water vapor control intersect. Provide three- the interior of basements and crawlspaces.

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www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture

Walls

Issue beneath the drain plane material, across the top

of the trim, and out past the siding and trim (See
Moisture control is an important aspect of designing Figures 2-6 and 2-7). The bottom must have a
an integrated building enclosure. Failing to properly PANmASHINGWITHENDDAMSANDABACKDAM3IDE
design walls to manage moisture and failing to mASHINGMUSTCOVERTHEROUGHOPENINGANDEXTEND
integrate moisture management system features BENEATHTHEDRAINPLANEONTHEWALLANDmASHDOWN
with those of other building enclosure components, OVERTHEENDDAMSONTHESILLmASHING
such as the roof and foundation, can lead to serious
moisture-related damage. Correcting problems x Among the most common problem areas for
resulting from poorly designed walls can necessitate mASHINGSINWALLSARE
the replacement of multiple building components y Windows.
leading to high repair costs. y Doors and trim.
y Outdoor air intakes, exhaust outlets and fans.
Goals
y Ducts, pipes and electric conduit entries and
exits.
Wall Design Goal 1: Design exterior walls to manage
rainwater. y 4HROUGH WALLmASHINGSWHEREAHORIZONTAL
element (e.g., roof) intersects the wall of a taller
Wall Design Goal 2: Design exterior walls to prevent portion of the building. Similar locations include
condensation of water vapor on cool surfaces within exterior stairway-wall intersections as well as
the dry portion of the exterior wall assembly, on the relieving angles, awning decks, and balcony
inner surface of the exterior walls or within the interior and plaza intersections with the wall of a taller
WALLmOORORCEILINGCAVITIES section of building (See Figure 2-8.)

Wall Design Goal 2: Design exterior walls to prevent

Guidance condensation of water vapor on cool surfaces within
the dry portion of the exterior wall assembly, on the
Wall Design Goal 1: Design exterior walls to manage inner surface of the exterior walls or within the interior
rainwater. WALLmOORORCEILINGCAVITIES
Guidance 1: Design walls to protect their inner Guidance 1: $ESIGNWALLSTOBESUFlCIENTLYAIRTIGHTTO
portions from direct rain and seepage through the LIMITWATERVAPORMIGRATIONBYAIRmOW
cladding.
x Design walls that have rainwater protection behind Specify air-sealing details to provide a continuous air
the cladding in the form of air gaps and barrier barrier from the roof-wall intersection to the above-
materials (i.e., the drain plane) to keep water from grade wall-foundation intersection. Use the pen test
wicking further into the wall. (See Appendix A) to trace the continuity of the air
x 3PECIFYINTHEDESIGNDRAWINGSANDSPECIlCATIONS barrier. NOTE: The air barrier for the walls is part
THEmASHINGOFPENETRATIONSINCLUDINGWINDOWS of the whole building air barrier system. Specify a
doors and roof-wall intersectionsto a designated whole building air leakage rate when tested at 75
drain plane. Pascal pressure difference in accordance with ASTM
E779-10 Standard Test Methods for Determining Air
x 0ROVIDESECTIONSANDSPECIlCATIONSDETAILING Leakage Rate by Fan Pressurization or ASTM E1827-
mASHINGFORALLWALLPENETRATIONS&LASHINGFORLARGER 96(2007) Standard Test Methods for Determining
penetrations (e.g., windows, doors and exhaust !IRTIGHTNESSOF"UILDINGS5SINGAN/RIlCE"LOWER
and intake grilles) must be carefully designed and Door. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
DETAILED!TTHETOPmASHINGMUSTEXTENDFROM
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 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
requires a maximum air leakage rate of 0.25 cubic continuity of the air barrier and the insulating layers
feet per minute per square foot of air barrier surface at penetrations and intersections.
when measured at a pressure difference of 75 Pascals
between indoors and outdoors. The air barrier surface Option 1: Follow published regulation or guidance on
area includes all six surfaces of the barrier: top, combining insulation, air barriers and the permeability
bottom and all four sides. of materials for walls to control condensation (See
x Select a layer of material in the wall assembly to references Chapter 2). Examples include:
form the basis of the air barrier systems. Interior x The 2012 International Building Code and
gypsum board, foam board or spray foam insulation, International Residential Code.
concrete, and oriented strand board (OSB) or x High Performance Building Enclosures by
plywood deck are good choices for the basis of Straube (2011) provides systematic guidance for
air barrier systems in wall assemblies. Include condensation control in four types of roof and wall
SPECIlCATIONSFORALLACCESSORYMATERIALSREQUIREDTO assemblies for all North American climates.
provide durable continuity of the air barrier.
x Understanding Vapor Barriers by Lstiburek
x 0ROVIDESECTIONSANDSPECIlCATIONSDETAILING (ASHRAE August 2004) applies to all climate zones
methods for providing air barrier continuity, (See Figures 2-9 through 2-12).
especially at penetrations, corners and edges:
x The Building Envelope Design Guide on the Whole
y At penetrations through the air barrier layer (e.g., Building Design Guide website includes brick and
rough openings for windows, doors, pipes, shafts stone veneer and curtain wall systems.
and conduits).
x The Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation
y At transitions between one air barrier material Best Practice Guides apply to climate zones 6 and 7.
and another (e.g., wall-ceiling intersections and
WALL mOORINTERSECTIONS  Option 2: Model the performance of proposed wall
y Where the air barrier must pass around structural assemblies using a hygrothermal software program
elements (e.g., heavy steel construction must (e.g., WUFI or hygIRC). Use design conditions from
be carefully detailed where the exterior walls ASHRAE Standard 160P for modeling. Note, however,
encounter vertical steel posts or horizontal that the results of computer simulations should
beams). be interpreted cautiously and in light of real-world
x Provide sections highlighting the air barrier and construction practices. For example, most computer
connecting materials and methods from the center models assume that walls are airtight and that no
of the roof to the center of the foundation for each WATERVAPORISTRANSPORTEDTHROUGHTHEMBYAIRmOW
section. Therefore, for the model to be valid, the assembly
must be designed, installed and tested to meet air
Guidance 2: Meet or exceed the R-value for walls tightness standards. Also, the performance of any
as described in the 2012 International Energy assembly depends on its orientation in regard to solar
Conservation Code. load and wind direction during heavy rains. Some of
the programs can model the dynamic of rainwater
x Provide two-dimensional sections detailing methods absorbed by porous claddings and vaporized into the
for providing insulation layer continuity: assembly by the sun, but others cannot.
y At windows, doors, columns, conduits and other
penetrations through the air barrier layer. Guidance 4: Design brick and masonry-clad walls to
y At transitions between one insulating material prevent the rain-sun-driven water vapor dynamic.
and another (e.g., where roof insulation meets x If the cladding is brick or concrete masonry units
wall insulation). and the wall is insulated with high-permeability
y At thermal bridges in the insulation layer (e.g., (perm >10) porous insulation and located in
where steel members penetrate the insulation climate zones 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 (See Figure 2-5):
layers). y Back-vent the cladding.
y Use low-permeability (perm <1) insulating
Guidance 3: $ESIGNWALLSTOMANAGEHEATmOWAND SHEATHINGANDINTERIORlNISHESWITHPERM
vapor diffusion to avoid condensation in the wall
assembly and to dry toward the interior, exterior y In climate zones 1, 2 and 3, design the building
or both. Designers may provide details about the to operate at positive pressure.

39
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 2-5 The International Energy Code Climate Zone Map Developed by the U.S. Department of Energy

6ERIlCATIONOF7ALL$ESIGN and tests, the parties responsible for them and

the required documentation of the results. Parties
x Write a description detailing how the wall system involved in QA may include subcontractors, general
manages rain. Include this description in the basis- contractors, commissioning agents and independent
of-design document. third-party inspection or testing providers. Provide a
list of inspection and maintenance requirements for
x Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to verify the
THEEXTERIORCLADDINGmASHINGSANDDRAINPLANE
continuity of the drain plane from the intersection
WITHTHEROOFTHROUGHmASHINGSANDAROUND x Use wall assemblies detailed in guidance or
penetrations to the foundation. journals that have been designed to manage
water vapor and condensation for the climate of
x Provide two-dimensional sections where two
interest. Perform hygrothermal modeling when
materials that form the rainwater control come
no documentation through previous testing or
together and three-dimensional drawings where
modeling of a wall assembly in a particular climate
three or more elements of the rain protection
is available.
come together. Sections must show continuity of
CAPILLARYBREAKSANDmASHINGAROUNDPENETRATIONS x Write a description detailing how the wall system
and interface with air barrier and insulation systems manages water vapor during cooling and heating
(See Figure 2-8). modes, as applicable. Prepare drawings and
SPECIlCATIONSTHATDETAILWATERVAPORMIGRATION
x Specify a quality assurance (QA) program for
control and the permeability and insulating values
installation of the rainwater protection systems.
of all materials.
At a minimum, provide a list of critical details, an
inspection schedule and quality assurance tests of x Use the pen test (See Appendix A) to verify
the drainage and capillary break elements of the the continuity of the insulation layers and air
wall systems. Specify the sequence of inspections barriers from the intersection with the roof,

40
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
THROUGHmASHINGSANDAROUNDPENETRATIONSTOTHE y Specify how the results should be documented,
foundation. judged and accepted or rejected.
x Provide two-dimensional sections where two y Specify the remedies if the building fails the test.
materials that form the insulation layers and air x Provide a list of critical details, an inspection
barrier come together and three-dimensional schedule and QA tests for the air barrier, insulation
drawings where three or more elements of the and vapor control elements of the walls. Specify
insulation and air barrier come together. the sequence of inspections and tests, the parties
x 3PECIFYINTHEDESIGNSPECIlCATIONDOCUMENTSA responsible for them, and required documentation
fan pressurization test to assess the entire building of the results.
enclosure in accordance with ASTM E779-10 x Specify QA programs for the installation of the
Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage hygrothermal control elements of the enclosure.
Rate by Fan Pressurization, ASTM E1827- Provide a list of inspection and maintenance
96(2007)Standard Test Methods for Determining REQUIREMENTSFORTHEINTERIORlNISHESIFTHEYARE
!IRTIGHTNESSOF"UILDINGS5SINGAN/RIlCE"LOWER critical to water vapor control (e.g., if water vapor
Door or the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Air control depends on a vapor-permeable interior
Leakage Test Protocol for Building Envelopes. lNISHTHENLOW PERMVINYLWALL COVERINGSAND
y Specify the target airtightness level. PAINTSSHOULDBEAVOIDEDDURINGRENOVATIONS
y Specify when the test should be conducted in pictures, blackboards and mirrors should be spaced
relation to the completeness of the air barrier off the wall).
system. x Specify maximum dew points to be maintained in
y Identify the appropriate testing party. conditioned spaces during the heating and cooling
seasons.

Figure 2-6 Section Illustrating Window Flashing and Jamb Flashing for Stone Veneer Wall

41
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 2-7 Section Illustrating Pan Sill Flashing and Jamb Flashing For Brick Veneer Wall

Figure 2-8 Detail Illustrating Through Flashing Where a Lower Roof Intersects a Wall

42
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 2-9 Concrete Block with Interior Rigid Insulation and Stucco

Figure 2-10 Concrete Block with Interior Rigid Insulation Frame Wall with Cavity Insulation and Stucco

43
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Figure 2-11 Frame Wall with Exterior Rigid Insulation with Cavity Insulation and Brick or Stone Veneer

Figure 2-12 Precast Concrete with Interior Spray-Applied Foam Insulation

44
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture

Roof and Ceiling Assemblies

Issue
Slopes and Typical Roof Coverings
Improper detailing of the roof and ceiling assemblies
may result in unwanted water intrusions or x Low-slope roof coverings:
condensation problems that can lead to damage to y Built-up roofs.
the building and its contents. Failure to properly y -ODIlEDBITUMEN
design the roof can result in more frequent and costly y Single-ply.
roof maintenance or repairs and a shorter building y Sprayed polyurethane foam.
lifespan. In roof-and-ceiling assemblies, the rain y Metal panels.
WATERCONTROLPORTIONOFTHEROOlNGSYSTEMMAYBE
separated from insulation and air barrier layers by x Steep-slope roof coverings:
a vented attic space. In this case, rainwater control y Metal panels and shingles.
CONTINUITYISTRACEDTHROUGHTHEROOlNGSYSTEM y Asphalt shingles.
while air barrier and insulation continuity may be y Slate.
traced at ceiling level. In this section, the term roof y Tile.
assembly refers to the entire assembly that provides
rain protection, thermal insulation, air barriers and
to be safe. Slightly higher slopes can be tolerated for
condensation control.
limited-access roofs where mechanical equipment
that requires routine inspection and servicing is
Goals located, but the slope of these roofs still must be
low enough to allow safe walking. Higher roof pitch
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 1: The roof may be selected for visual appeal, consistency with
collects and disposes of rainwater. surrounding buildings or for the ability to shed snow
ORRAIN2OOlNGMATERIALSSELECTEDFORAPPEARANCEOR
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 2: Roof performance may have minimum slope requirements.
assemblies are designed to prevent condensation of For example, slate roofs should not be less than or
water vapor on cool surfaces within the dry portion equal to a 3-in-12 pitch (3:12), while some low-slope
of the roof assembly, on the interior surface of the ROOFMEMBRANESHAVEBEENUSEDONESSENTIALLYmAT
EXTERIORROOFASSEMBLYORWITHINTHEINTERIORWALLmOOR roofs. For these materials, this guidance requires at
or ceiling cavities. least a -in-12 pitch (:12) to promote positive
DRAINAGEINTHEFACEOFDEmECTIONANDCONSTRUCTION
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 3: The roof TOLERANCES%VENhmATvROOFSSHOULDBESLOPED
design considers maintenance for moisture control.
x 5SEROOlNGMATERIALSTHATAREAPPROPRIATEFORTHE
Guidance PITCH3ELECTROOlNGMATERIALINACCORDANCEWITH
the requirements of the Whole Building Design
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 1: The roof Guide for low-sloped and steep-sloped roofs.
collects and disposes of rainwater. NOTE: ,OW SLOPEDROOFSAREDElNEDASROOFSWITH
a slope less than or equal to 3:12 (25 percent).
Guidance 1: Slope the roof to drain rainwater toward However, with the exception of metal roofs, most
collection and disposal sites. low-slope roofs must have a minimum slope of
PERCENT 3TEEP SLOPEROOFSAREDElNED
Determine roof slope, or pitch, based on ordinary as roofs whose slope is greater than 25 percent.
use and design requirements. For example, for safety Some materials can be used on both low and steep
purposes a roof that serves as a plaza, garden area, slopes, while others are limited to either low or
or other social space must have a slope low enough steep slopes.
45
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
x Design site water collection and disposal systems to Leaders may be placed either above or below
provide positive roof drainage where: ground.
y !LLLOADINGDEmECTIONSOFTHEROOFDECKARE x For below-ground or above-ground leaders, use
considered. materials conforming to the standards listed in
y Local rainfall rates are considered. the IPC. Ensure that seams and joints in leaders
are watertight to prevent water from escaping next
y 4HEROOlNG manufacturers drain placement to the foundation. In order to prevent root growth
requirements are followed. within below-ground leaders, ensure that the
y Roof drainage within a maximum of 48 hours leaders are not perforated.
after precipitation is ensured. x If above-grade leaders are used, provide protection
from accidental damage or encroachment.
Guidance 2: Design the roof drainage system with
SUFlCIENTRUNOFF HANDLINGCAPACITY x Direct all leaders to code-approved disposal,
typically daylight, drywells, swales or ponds. But in
The amount of water to be handled depends on buildings making efforts to reduce rainwater runoff,
the area and slope of the roof and the intensity of rainwater may be collected for use in building
rainfall at the building site. Chapter 11 of the 2003 operations. Proper disposal prevents potentially
International Plumbing Code (IPC), Storm Drainage, contaminated storm water from adversely affecting
requires that the size of vertical conductors and water quality.
leaders, building storm drains, building storm sewers, x )NCLIMATESWITHSIGNIlCANTSNOWFALLDESIGNTHE
and any horizontal branches of such drains or sewers roof assembly to avoid ice dams on roofs that drain
be based on the 100-year hourly rainfall rate. Use to external gutter systems. See Roof and Ceiling
lGURESPRESENTEDINTHATCHAPTERORRAINFALLRATES Assembly Design Goal 4 guidance.
derived from approved local weather data.
Internal Roof Drainage Systems
The buildings design, appearance and location
INmUENCETHETYPEOFROOFDRAINAGESYSTEM$ESIGNERS Internal roof drainage systems consist of drains on the
may opt to use external drainage systems, internal roof surface connected to down pipes running through
drainage systems or both. the buildings interior and leading to storm sewers or
other discharge points. Internal roof drainage systems
External Gutter and Downspout Drainage Systems are the most practical solution for large, low-slope
roofs. They are resistant to ice dam problems on low-
Design external gutter and downspout roof drainage SLOPEROOFSINAREASOFSIGNIlCANTSNOWFALLBECAUSE
systems in accordance with Chapter 1 (Roof Drainage the drains are warmed by the down pipes passing
Systems) of the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning through the building. Internal drainage systems are
Contractors National Association, Inc. (SMACNA) seldom used on high-slope roofs (greater than 3:12).
Architectural Sheet Metal Manual. The SMACNA Figure 2-13 illustrates interior drain placement for a
manual provides guidance for sizing drainage LOW SLOPEROOlNGSYSTEM
systems for 10-year and 100-year storms. Compare x Size and locate drains to remove maximum
net drainage capacity of design with local code RAINWATERANDSNOWMELTmOWSEFFECTIVELY2EFERTO
requirements. IPC Chapter 11, Storm Drainage.
x Size gutters and downspouts to effectively drain x Ensure that features such as superstructures and
maximum runoff by determining the amount of ROOF MOUNTED(6!#UNITSDONOTOBSTRUCTTHEmOW
water the drainage system must handle given the of water from the roof to the drain.
area of the roof to be drained, its pitch, and the
RAINFALLINTENSITY&ORSPECIlCINFORMATIONSEETHE x Equip roof drains with strainers or other devices to
SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual or the prevent leaves and other debris from clogging the
IPC requirements referenced in this section. drain or the down pipe.
x Connect all downspouts to sloped leaders, with a x Locate drains at the center of bays between
5 percent6 inches per 10 feetminimum slope COLUMNSSOTHATANYSTRUCTURALDEmECTIONWILL
that extends at least 10 feet from the foundation or produce slopes to the drain. Provide allowance in
that meets more stringent local code requirements. the leader connection for any vertical movement
RESULTINGFROMTHESTRUCTURALDEmECTION

46
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
&IGURE 0LAN$RAWING)LLUSTRATING)NTERIOR$RAIN,OCATIONAND2OOlNG3LOPEFORA,OW 3LOPE3YSTEM

x Design all roofs with at least a :12 pitch Guidance 3: Design penetrations parapets and
to overcome low spots caused by expected roof and wall intersections to prevent the entry of
ROOFMEMBERDEmECTIONORCONSTRUCTIONWITHIN rainwater. Figures 2-14, 2-15 and 2-16 illustrate
tolerances. rainwater control details for a gooseneck vent
x Locate down pipes in interior chases. Down pipes in penetrating a low-slope roof and for a low-slope roof
chases along exterior walls are more vulnerable to intersecting a parapet wall.
condensation.
Drainage layers must maintain integrity at joints
x Allow easy access to down pipes for periodic and penetrations, where the enclosure is the most
inspection and repair by providing access panels or susceptible to moisture problems. See Table 2-1 for
utility closets. a list of penetrations commonly found in roofs and
x For parapets or other architectural protrusions for guidance on how to maintain integrity at those
ABOVETHEROOmINEPROVIDEASECONDARYMETHOD penetrations.
for draining rainwater if the primary roof drainage
system does not function. Two methods are often
used:
y The installation of scuppers through the parapet.
y The installation of an additional system of roof
drains and down pipes.

47
www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
&IGURE 4HREE $IMENSIONAL$RAWING$ETAILING2AINWATER#ONTROL#ONTINUITYAT)NTERSECTIONOF'OOSE.ECK6ENT
&LASHINGAND2OOlNG-EMBRANE

Table 2-1 Maintaining the Integrity of Drainage Layers at Joints and Penetrations
NOTE: Continuity of the air barrier and insulation layer must also be maintained at these locations.

Common Roof Penetrations Ways to Maintain Integrity of Rainwater Protection

*OINTSBETWEENROOlNGMATERIALS Provide continuity by shingling or sealing

Roof edges Provide capillary breaks by using overhangs, copings and drip edges

Joints between the intersection 0ROVIDECONTINUITYBYUSINGmASHINGWHEREALOWERSTORYROOFINTERSECTSA

of walls and roofs wall of a higher level and where the roof meets the wall of a dormer

Skylights and roof hatches 0ROVIDECONTINUITYBYUSINGmASHINGCURBSANDCOUNTER mASHING

Chimneys 0ROVIDECONTINUITYBYUSINGmASHINGCRICKETSANDCOUNTER mASHING

Air handlers and exhaust fans 0ROVIDECONTINUITYBYUSINGmASHINGCURBSANDCOUNTER mASHING

Outdoor air intakes and passive

0ROVIDECONTINUITYBYUSINGmASHINGANDCOUNTER mASHING
relief vents

Plumbing vents 0ROVIDECONTINUITYBYUSINGmASHINGANDCOUNTER mASHING

48
 www.epa.gov/iaq/moisture
Roof and Ceiling Assembly Design Goal 2: Design x Provide two-dimensional sections highlighting the
roof assemblies to prevent condensation of water air barrier and connecting materials and methods
vapor on cool surfaces within the dry portion of the for each section.
roof assembly, on the interior surface of the exterior
ROOFASSEMBLYORWITHININTERIORWALLmOORORCEILING Guidance 2: Select the overall insulation R-value to
cavities. meet or exceed ASHRAE 90.1 or International Energy
Conservation Code requirements.
Guidance 1: Design the roof and ceiling assembly to x Provide two-dimensional sections detailing methods
BESUFlCIENTLYAIRTIGHTTOLIMITWATERVAPORMIGRATION for providing insulation layer continuity:
ANDHEATTRANSFERBYAIRmOW
y !TPIPESSHAFTSSKYLIGHTVAULTSLIGHTlXTURES
x Specify air-sealing details to provide a continuous conduits and other penetrations through the air
air barrier from the center of the roof-and-ceiling barrier layer (See Table 2-1).
assembly to the roof-wall intersection. Use the pen
test (See Appendix A) to trace the continuity of the y At transitions between one insulating material
air barrier. NOTE: The air barrier for the roof is part and another (e.g., where roof insulation meets
of the whole building air barrier system. wall insulation).
x Specify a whole building air leakage rate when y At thermal bridges in the insulation layer (e.g.,
tested at 75 Pascal pressure difference in where steel members penetrate the insulation
accordance with ASTM E779-10 Standard Test layers).
Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan
Pressurization or ASTM E1827-96(2007) Standard Guidance 3: Collect the air barrier, the insulation
Test Methods for Determining Airtightness of layer and the materials with the lowest water
"UILDINGS5SINGAN/RIlCE"LOWER$OORor the U.S. vapor permeability (<2 perms) into an assembly of
Army Corps of Engineers Air Leakage Test Protocol consecutive, touching layers. NOTE: This does not
for Building Envelopes. For example, the U.S. Army INCLUDETHEROOlNGORROOFSHEATHING2OOlNGAND
Corps of Engineers requires a maximum air leakage sheathing may be in contact with these layersnon-
rate of 0.25 cubic feet per minute per square vented roof assemblyor separated by a space that
foot of air barrier surface (6 sides) at a pressure vents to the outdoorsvented roof assembly. Figures
difference of 75 Pascals. 2-17 and 2-18 illustrate condensation control in two
non-vented low-slope roof systems.
x Use a layer of material in the roof or ceiling
assembly as the basis of the air barrier systems: Step 1: Determine whether to use a vented or non-
y Interior gypsum board, foam board or spray VENTEDROOlNGSYSTEMBASEDONCLIMATICANDSPACE
foam insulation, concrete, and OSB or plywood use considerations.
deck are good selections to form the basis of x Do not place mechanical equipment in vented attic
air barrier systems in roof assemblies. Include space.
SPECIlCATIONSFORALLACCESSORYMATERIALSREQUIRED
to provide durable continuity of the air barrier. x Condensation on roof bottom sheathings that results
from night sky radiation is most easily avoided by
y &ULLYADHEREDROOlNGMEMBRANESCANBEUSEDTO using unvented roof assemblies.
make the air barrier in non-vented low-slope roof
systems. x .ON VENTEDROOlNGISMORERESISTANTTOlRECAUSED
BYWILDlREEMBERS
y &LUTEDSTEELDECKISDIFlCULTTOUSEASTHEBASIS
OFANAIRBARRIER4HEmUTESAREDIFlCULTTOAIR Step 2: Collect all the materials with low water vapor
seal at the perimeter and joints.) permeability (< 2 perms) together on one side of any
y A suspended T-bar ceilingclipped or not vapor open cavity insulation layer. NOTE: Vented roof
cannot be used as an air barrier system. and ceiling assemblies separate low-permeability
x Provide two-dimensional sections detailing methods MATERIALSINTHEROOlNG SHEATHINGLAYERFROMLOW
for providing air barrier continuity at pipes, shafts, permeability materials in the ceiling, air barrier and
SKYLIGHTVAULTSLIGHTlXTURESCONDUITSANDOTHER insulation layers by a vented space between them.
penetrations through the air barrier layer (See Table Both the roof and ceiling assemblies can dry to this
2-1). space. Apply either Step 3A or Step 3B.

49