Group 3 Date: 09th September 2017

Course: CE5337
Non-destructive Evaluation of Structures
Introduction

Concrete is one of the commonly used materials worldwide in the construction industry due
to its durability. It is continuously being used in the construction of deep foundations, high
rise buildings, earthquake-proof bridges, dams, among others. It is composed of aggregate,
sand, cement, water, mineral admixtures and chemical admixtures.

It is essential to have a regular schedule for testing concrete structures, to have a safe and
efficient operation of these structures. These assessments are meant to give data on the
integrity of the structure, and hence its performance over the time. Primarily, these
assessments ought to be carried out devoid of any damages to the concrete structure.

The available tests for concrete testing can either be destructive, semi-destructive or non-
destructive. The non-destructive test allows inspection of the concrete component or structure
without interfering with its service properties or final use (IAEA, 2001). As a result, they can
be used to carry out test and examination over the same components and structures numerous
times and at different times without any worry of change in their properties (Hola and
Schabowicz, 2010). The most common methods were used to carry out investigations into
concrete members, and the results are presented here.

1. Schmidt Hammer Testing

Objective: The purpose of this laboratory was to carry out rebound hammer test on concrete
columns in an existing building, concrete slab and concrete steps.

Introduction
The Schmidt Hammer is a surface hardness tester which provides a suitable tool for estimation
and prediction of concrete strength. This is because a satisfactory degree of accuracy can be
attained for strength approximation of concrete using a suitable regression model. As a result,
it can be employed safely for estimation of concrete strength in reinforced concrete structure
examination (Shang et al., 2012).
The Schmidt Hammer test can be applied to:
evaluate the in-place uniformity of concrete,
delineate areas in a structure which are of low quality
to estimate in-place strength in case a correlation is established.
Procedure
1. The area of the column to be inspected was subdivided into a grid of 150 mm by 150
mm (Figure 1.1)
2. The hammer was pressed hard towards the concrete column, and its body let to move
far from the concrete surface till the latch connects the hammer mass to the plunger
3. Then, the body was pressed towards the concrete, while holding the plunger in a
perpendicular position to the surface. This kind of movement stretches the spring
holding the mass to the body.
4. Upon reaching the maximum extension of the spring, the latch lets out, and then the
mass is drawn to the surface by the spring
5. The mass strikes the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds since the rod is pressed
hard against the concrete (Figure 1.2)
6. As it rebounds an LCD on the Schmidt hammer indicated the Q value which was
recorded and converted to compressive strength using conversion curve in Figure 1.3.
7. Measurements were carried out in the middle of each grid.
 Figure 1.1: Grid markings and Schmidt measurements on the column

Figure 1.2: Schematic cross section of Schmidt hammer with illustration of how
measurements are carried out
Figure 1.3: Conversion curves from Rebound Coefficients to Compressive Strength
Results and Discussions

A. Concrete Column

The table below presents results obtained in selected grids on four the column inspected by the
four groups.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

73 61 65.9 62.5 62 60.5

68.5 57 68 57.5 65 55.5

66.5 56 60.5 56 49.5 54

64.5 55.5 66 57 62 54

63.5 55 64 68.5 59.5 49.5

59.5 60.5 66 56 65.5 58

61.5 59.5 71 52 68 63.5

61.5 55.5 66 60.5 62 67

61 58 63.5 64 56 50

60.5 59 63 59.5 64.5 57.5

Average Q value 64 57.7 65.39 59.35 61.4 56.95

Strength(N/mm) 65 58 66 60 62 58

The average compressive strength of the four columns was between 56 to 65 N/mm thus from
it was estimated that the columns had been caste using M40 concrete.
B. Concrete Slab

Schmidt hammer measurement results for the slab pictured below are tabulated and discussed
here.

Group 1 Measurements Results

Points A B C D E F G H

1 56 57 53.5 64.8 57.5 56 51.5 61.5

2 56 55.5 53 59.5 62 52 61.5 61.5

3 53.5 58.5 62.5 60 63.5 54.5 61.5 57.5

4 54.5 62 54.5 59.5 59 62 54.5 58.5

5 59.5 60 54 55.5 59 64 57 67.5

6 52 62.4 57.5 59 51 54.5 61.5 59

7 56 62.5 52.5 58.5 58.5 51.5 56 53.5

8 53 59 58.5 58.5 52 52.5 63 59

AVERAGE 55.06 59.61 55.75 59.41 57.81 55.88 58.31 59.75

Strength(N/mm) 56 60 56 60 58 56 59 60
Group 2 Measurements Results

Points A B C D E F G H
1 53.5 56 51 50.5 46 50 52.5 51
2 45 54 50 61.5 51 49 56.5 52.5
3 51.5 54 55 60.5 46.5 58 59 65.5
4 49.5 56 56.5 53 58.5 57 50 59.5
5 52.5 47.5 53 60.5 50 59 64.5 56
6 56.5 45.5 53 57.5 51.5 53 52.5 51.9
7 50.5 59 62.5 63 44 54 49 57
8 47 54 53 61.5 61.5 61 67.5 54.5
AVERAGE 50.75 53.25 54.25 58.50 51.13 55.13 56.44 55.99
Strength(N/mm) 51 54 55 59 52 56 57 56

Group 3 Measurements Results

Points A B C D E F G H
1 58 59.5 52 54 57.5 51.5 58.5 57.5
2 60 63.5 58 60 62 60.5 64.5 54.5
3 58 60.5 54.5 59 59 57.5 57.5 56.5
4 50.5 52 58.5 57.5 60.5 60.5 59.5 50.5
5 58.5 61.5 63 61.5 58 56.5 57.5 52.5
6 54 56 55 62 60 56 59 51
7 54.5 63 55.5 63 63.5 66.5 55.5 60
8 56 55 55.5 56.5 64.5 61.5 58 59
AVERAGE 56.19 58.88 56.50 59.19 60.63 58.81 58.75 55.19
Strength(N/mm) 57 59 57 60 61 59 59 56
Group 4 Measurements Results

Points A B C D E F G H

1 64 44 61 48.5 58.5 60.5 53.5 58.5

2 64 55.5 51.5 55 56.5 56 58 53

3 54.5 52 58.5 54 61 60.5 61 56.5

4 60.5 49.5 53.5 55.5 47.5 59.5 54 58

5 65.5 46.5 53 58 60.5 54 58 49

6 54 54.5 49.5 50 47.5 57.5 55 60

7 60.5 56.5 46.5 56 61.5 53 55.5 54.5

8 52 56 48.5 55 50.5 52.5 50 56.5

AVERAGE 59.38 51.81 52.75 54.00 55.44 56.69 55.63 55.75

Strength(N/mm) 60 52 53 55 56 57 56 56

Discussion

From the measurements, the average compressive strength was between 51to 62 N/mm. From
these measurements, we concluded that the concrete slab was casted using M40 concrete
 2. Ultrasonic Pulse testing.

In Ultrasonic Pulse testing, a wave pulse is introduced into the material by a pulse generator
and transmitter and the arrival of the pulse recorded using a receiver. The time it takes the
pulse to travel through the concrete from the transmitter to the receiver is recorded and the
received pulse displayed on the oscilloscope (Malhotra, 2004). The velocity of sound through
a concrete will depends upon its elastic properties and density. The frequency of the
transducers for concrete testing is between 25 to 100 kHz.

=

Where f is a function,
E is the ratio of Modulus of Elasticity,
is the Density,
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
If the distance the pulse travels is known, the velocity through the concrete can be calculated
using the relation
= /

= ; /

Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of pulse velocity test circuit (Source: V. M. Malhotra, 2004)
 The transmitting and receiving transducer can be arranged in either direct, semidirect or
indirect/surface transmission as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.2: Transmitting and receiving transducer measurement configurations.

Procedure

1. The ultrasonic testing equipment was calibrated using Perspex blocks

2. The column to be inspected was subdivided into grids of 150 mm by 150 mm (Figure
1.1)
3. Grease was applied to each intersection point and the measurements taken using direct
transmission configuration and the time taken recorded.
4. This repeated for several points using the semidirect method and the measurements
recorded.
5. The condition of the concrete was evaluated based on the velocity in accordance with
IS 13311(Part 1): 1992)
 Figure 2.3: Velocity criterion for Concrete Quality Grading

Results and Discussions

A. UPV direct measurements results on column

Column dimensions: 0.38 x 0.6 m

Column 1 (Group 1 Measurements Results)

Path Length L,
Reading Time (s) Velocity (km/s) Average
(km)

1 3.8 x 10-4 8.29 x10-5 4.384

2 3.8 x 10-4 9.58 x10-5 3.767

3 3.8 x 10-4 8.51 x10-5 4.465

4 3.8 x 10-4 8.44 x10-5 4.502

5 3.8 x 10-4 8.74 x10-5 4.348

6 3.8 x 10-4 8.63 x10-5 4.403 4.31

7 3.8 x 10-4 8.47 x10-5 4.486

8 3.8 x 10-4 8.30 x10-5 4.578

9 3.8 x 10-4 8.71 x10-5 4.508

10 3.8 x 10-4 1.07 x10-4 4.363

11 3.8 x 10-4 8.66 x10-5 3.558

12 3.8 x 10-4 8.66 x10-5 4.388

Column 2 (Group 2 Measurements Results)

Path Length L,
Reading Time (s) Velocity (km/s) Average
(km)

1 3.8 x 10-4 9.58 x10-5 3.97

2 3.8 x 10-4 8.58 x10-5 4.43

3 3.8 x 10-4 8.76 x10-5 4.34

4 3.8 x 10-4 9.21 x10-5 4.13

5 3.8 x 10-4 9.08 x10-5 4.19

6 3.8 x 10-4 9.03 x10-5 4.21

7 3.8 x 10-4 8.97 x10-5 4.24

8 3.8 x 10-4 8.79 x10-5 4.32

9 3.8 x 10-4 8.72 x10-5 4.36

4.16
-4 -5
10 3.8 x 10 8.76 x10 4.34

11 3.8 x 10-4 8.89 x10-5 4.27

12 3.8 x 10-4 8.76 x10-5 4.34

13 3.8 x 10-4 1.33 x10-5 2.87

14 3.8 x 10-4 9.23 x10-5 4.12

15 3.8 x 10-4 9.67 x10-5 3.94

16 3.8 x 10-4 8.99 x10-5 4.23

17 3.8 x 10-4 8.89 x10-5 4.27

18 3.8 x 10-4 8.74 x10-5 4.35

Column 3 (Group 3 Measurements Results)

Path Length L,
Reading Time (s) Velocity (km/s) Average
(km)

1 3.8 x 10-4 9.26 x10-5 4.104

2 3.8 x 10-4 9.12 x10-5 4.167

3 3.8 x 10-4 9.27 x10-5 4.099

4 3.8 x 10-4 9.27 x10-5 4.099

5 3.8 x 10-4 8.91 x10-5 4.236

6 3.8 x 10-4 9.1 x10-5 4.136

7 3.8 x 10-4 8.78 x10-5 4.232

8 3.8 x 10-4 9.0 x10-5 4.222

9 3.8 x 10-4 9.18 x10-5 4.139

4.18
-4 -5
10 3.8 x 10 8.82 x10 4.284

11 3.8 x 10-4 8.55 x10-5 4.444

12 3.8 x 10-4 8.64 x10-5 4.398

13 3.8 x 10-4 9.06 x10-5 4.194

14 3.8 x 10-4 8.87 x10-5 4.284

15 3.8 x 10-4 9.18 x10-5 4.139

16 3.8 x 10-4 9.14 x10-5 4.188

17 3.8 x 10-4 9.42 x 10-5 4.034

18 3.8 x 10-4 9.84 x10-5 3.862

Column 4 (Group 4 Measurements Results)

Reading Path Length L, (km) Time (s) Velocity (km/s) Average

1 3.8 x 10-4 8.72 x -05 4.36

2 3.810-4 9.73 x -05 3.91

3 3.8 x 10-4 9.40 x -05 4.05

4 3.8 x 10-4 1.01 x -04 4.04

5 3.8 x 10-4 1.06 x -04 3.75

6 3.8 x 10-4 1.31 x -04 3.58

7 3.8 x 10-4 1.02 x -04 2.91

8 3.8 x 10-4 1.26 x -04 3.71

9 3.8 x 10-4 9.52 x -05 3.01

3.87
10 3.8 x 10-4 1.01 x -04 3.99

11 3.8 x 10-4 9.85 x -05 3.78

12 3.8 x 10-4 9.14 x -05 3.86

13 3.8 x 10-4 9.01 x -05 4.16

14 3.8 x 10-4 9.67 x -05 4.22

15 3.8 x 10-4 9.01 x -05 3.93

16 3.8 x 10-4 9.19E-05 4.22

17 3.8 x 10-4 9.45E-05 4.14

18 3.8 x 10-4 9.45 x -05 4.03

B. UPV semidirect measurements results on column

Column 1 (Group 1) Column 1 (Group 2)

Distance (m) Time (s) Velocity (km/s) Distance (m) Time(s) Velocity (km/s)
3.55 x 10-4 8.26 x 10-5 4.30 3.55 x 10-4 8.59 x 10-5 4.13
3.55 x 10-4 8.36 x 10-5 4.25 3.55 x 10-4 8.71 x 10-5 4.08
3.55 x 10-4 8.48 x 10-5 4.19 3.55 x 10-4 8.19 x 10-5 4.33
3.55 x 10-4 8.98 x 10-5 3.95 3.55 x 10-4 8.47 x 10-5 4.19
3.55 x 10-4 8.04 x 10-5 4.42 3.55 x 10-4 8.23 x 10-5 4.31
3.55 x 10-4 8.63 x 10-5 4.11 3.55 x 10-4 8.39 x 10-5 4.23
Average 4.20 4.21

Column 3 (Group 3) Column 4 (Group 4)

Velocity Distance
Distance (m) Time (s) (km/s) (m) Time(s) Velocity (km/s)

3.55 x 10-4 8.15 x 10-5 4.36 3.55 x 10-4 8.39 x -05 4.23

3.55 x 10-4 8.04 x 10-5 4.42 3.55 x 10-4 8.38 x -05 4.24

3.55 x 10-4 8.00 x 10-5 4.44 3.55 x 10-4 8.36 x -05 4.25

3.55 x 10-4 8.07 x 10-5 4.40 3.55 x 10-4 8.91 x -05 3.98

3.55 x 10-4 7.93 x 10-5 4.48 3.55 x 10-4 8.22 x -05 4.32

3.55 x 10-4 8.44 x 10-5 4.21 3.55 x 10-4 8.95 x -05 3.97

Average 4.38 4.16

The average velocity for the columns was found to be 4.31, 4.16, 4.18 and 3.87 km/s using
direct measurements and 4.2,4.21, 4.28 and 4.16 km/s using indirect measurements. Based on
these the measurements, the conditions of the concrete were identified as being good in
accordance with IS 13311 standards.
C. UPV semidirect and indirect Measurements on Concrete Block

UPV measurement results for the concrete blocks pictured below are tabulated. Results from
the other blocks as obtained by other groups are also presented and discussed.

Group 1: The dimension of the block was 0.76 x 0.26 x 0.08 m.

Path Length L, Velocity

Reading Time (s) Average
(km) (km/s)

Indirect Measurements

1 2.19 x 10 -4 3.13 x 10-5 6.70

2 3.4 x 10 -4 6.23 x 10-5 5.46

6.32
-4 -5
3 2.19 x 10 2.92 x 10 7.50

4 3.4 x 10 -4 6.05 x 10-5 5.62

Semi Direct Measurements

1 1.36 x 10 -4 2.39 x 10-5 5.69

5.77
-4 -5
2 1.36 x 10 2.33 x 10 5.84
Group 2: The dimension of the block was 0.76 x 0.26 x 0.08 m.

Path Length L, Velocity

Reading Time (s) Average
(km) (km/s)

Indirect Measurements

1 2.19 x 10 -4 2.88 x 10-5 7.60

2 3.4 x 10 -4 6.17 x 10-5 5.5

6.69
-4 -5
3 2.19 x 10 2.73 x 10 8.02

4 3.4 x 10 -4 6.03 x 10-5 5.64

Semi Direct Measurements

1 1.36 x 10 -4 2.37 x 10-5 5.74

6.24
-4 -5
2 1.36 x 10 2.02 x 10 6.73

Group 3: The dimension of the block was 0.76 x 0.21 x 0.20 m.

Path Length L, Velocity

Reading Time (s) Average
(km) (km/s)

Indirect Measurements (Group 3)

1 4.18 x 10 -4 3.45 x 10-5 12.116

2 4.18 x 10 -4 2.71 x 10-5 15.42

10.27
3 5.00 x 10 -4 6.17 x 10-5 8.257

4 5.00 x 10 -4 10.17 x 10-5 4.916

Semi Direct Measurements

1 1.4 x 10 -4 2.15 x 10-5 6.512

6.54
-4 -5
2 1.4 x 10 2.13 x 10 6.573
Group 4: The dimension of the block was 0.76 x --x ---.

Path Length L, Velocity

Reading Time (s) Average
(km) (km/s)

Indirect Measurements

Semi Direct Measurements

The average velocity for the three concrete step blocks found to be 6.32, 6.69 and 10.27 km/s
using indirect measurements and 5.77, 6.24 and 6,54 km/s using indirect measurements. Based
on these the measurements, the conditions of the concrete were identified as being excellent
in accordance with IS 13311 standards.
3. Rebar Locator Test (Covermeter Survey)

Objectives: Determine the location of reinforcement bars and cover thickness on a concrete
slab
Introduction
It may be necessary to locate the exact position of reinforcement in concrete members such as
beams, columns, and slabs during the course of detailed investigation, especially when core
sample is to be extracted from members. Rebar locator or covermeter can be used to detect the
presence of steel in concrete. This test is non-destructive in nature as it relies on the magnetic
field for detecting embedded steel. The covermeter can also be used to measure the thickness
of concrete cover to the reinforcing bars as well as rebar diameters.
A rebar locater is a device used in locating the rebars and also to determine the depth of the
concrete cover (Figure 3.1). It has two key components; a meter and a locating probe. The
meter has a display that gives the size of concrete cover over the reinforcement bars, or a signal
strength reading (Figure 3.2). The locating probe of the covermeter is a rectangular
encapsulated unit that contains a directional search coil. An audible indicator is also given by
the meter that guides someone on signal strength and in locating the embedded steel.

Figure 3.1: A diagram displaying the concrete cover and reinforcement position in concrete
 Figure 3.2: Picture of a Profometer 5+ covermeter
There are two possible physical principle involved; either by using magnetic induction effects
or eddy current effects. For the covermeter utilizing the effect of eddy current, the current
passing through a coil generates eddy currents around the steel reinforcement which causes a
difference in the impedance measurement of the search coil. These covermeters are operated
at frequencies more than 1 kHz. They are therefore very sensitive to the existence of any kind
of conducting material which is near the search coil. On the other hand, for covermeters
utilizing magnetic induction employs multiple coil search head operating at a lower working
frequency compared to the one utilizing eddy current (normally less than 90 Hz). As such they
are less sensitive to components which are not magnetic when compared to those utilizing the
eddy current principle. A change in the quantity of ferromagnetic material underneath the
search coil, for example, by the existence of reinforcement bar or any other metallic object,
results in a rise in the strength of the field. Consequently, this leads to an increment in the
voltage observed from the secondary coil, which can be displayed by a meter after
amplification.
The direction of orientation relative to the search head and the distance of the reinforcement
from the search head influence the meter reading regardless of whether the instrument utilizes
eddy current or magnetic induction effects. Therefore, it is possible to locate reinforcement
bars and other metallic object inside the concrete and establish their orientation as well. The
concrete cover can also be established by use of appropriate calibration. Most covermeter come
with a process on how estimates can be made for both the size and cover to the bar when neither
is known.
The search head has a primary coil that carries time-varying electric current which in turn
produces a time-varying magnetic field. The generated field advances towards the metallic
target besides other directions, as it reacts with the magnetic and/ or electrical properties of the
metal target. Then, the target responds through generation of a secondary magnetic field which
links back to the coils in the search head inducing an electrical voltage in the receiver coil.

Procedure

The measuring head was connected to covermeter. The search head was placed in direct contact
with concrete surface and move over surface until a beep sound was heard from the equipment.
The position on the concrete surface was marked (Figure3.3) and the cover reading displayed
on the equipment recorded.

Figure 3.3: A picture of cover measurement on concrete slab

Results

The table below is the reading of the cover obtained during the measurements.
63 56 55 53 51 50
50 50 50 50 51 53

The average reinforcement cover was measured to be 52.7 mm.

Discussion

The covermeter provides a quick and accurate way to locate and determine concrete cover.
However, the results obtained can be affected by presence of any metallic material near the
location of measurement.
4. Resistivity Measurements

Objective: To carry out Resistivity measurements on M30 and M60 cubes

Introduction

Resistivity is an intrinsic property of the material that quantifies how strongly a material
opposes flow of current. Concrete consists of conductive pore solutions including Na, Ca, OH
etc. so it allows current to flow through it, therefore it offers resistance too. The value of the
resistance associated with it is given by ohms law i.e. R = pL/A where R is the resistance, p is
the resistivity, L is the length, A is the area of the cross-section. Moreover, as per ohms law R
= E/I where E is the voltage across the conductor, I is the current flowing through the conductor.

In this technique of 4-point method, the surface electrical resistivity of concrete is measured
using four electrodes. One widely accepted setup is the Wenner probe, where the four
electrodes are located in a straight line and equally spaced. The two inner electrodes measure
the electrical potential V created when the exterior electrodes apply an AC current I to the
concrete. For a semi-infinite homogenous material, the geometrical factor is defined by

where a is the distance between the electrodes (equally spaced); and is the dimensionless
geometry correction factor. For semi-infinite concrete elements (for example, concrete slabs),
is equal to 2.

Procedure
References

1. V. M Malhotra and N. J. Carino, Handbook of Nondestructive Testing of Concrete,

Second edition, CRC Press, 2004.
2. IAEA (2001). Guidebook for the Fabrication of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Test
Specimens, (Training Course Series No. 13)
3. Hola J. and Schabowicz K. (2010). State-of-the-art non-destructive methods for
diagnostics testing of building structures anticipated development trends, Archives
of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, 10 (3): pp. 5-18
4. Shang H., Yi T and Yang L. (2012). Experimental Study on the Compressive Strength
of Big Mobility Concrete with Nondestructive Testing Method
5. Malhotra, V.M. (1976). Testing hardened concrete: non-destructive methods, ACI,
Monograph no. 9, Detroit, USA.
6. IS 13311 (1992) Rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity
7. http://www.timeinstrument.com/PDF/ConcreteTestingGauge
8. http://www.paintteststore.com/pages/Concrete-inspection-Covermeter,-Rebar-
locator-Pachometer.html