DIGITAL

ELECTRONICS
PROJECTS
BY HARRY M. HAWKINS
FIRST EDITION

FIRST PRINTING

Copyright 1983 Harry M. Hawkins

Printed in the United States of America

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, without express

permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability is assumed with respect to
the use of the information herein .

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Hawkins, Harry M.
Digital electronics projects.

Includes index.
1. Digital electronics-Amateurs' manuals.
I. Title.
TK9965.H3 1983 621.381 82-19398
ISBN 0-8306-0431-6
ISBN 0-8306-1431-1 (pbk.)
 Contents
Acknowledgments v

Introduction vii

Schematics and Sources of Ideas

Project Need-Components

2 Breadboarding 3
Mounting Methods-Red-Lining-Troubleshooting the Bread-
board-The Successful Breadboard

3 Building Printed Circuits 9

Circuit Layout-Things to Remember-Resist Application-
Photographic Process-lmage-N-Transfer-Etching-Drilling the
Board-Production Drilling-Board Loading and Soldering-
Testing-Dip Soldering-Tin Plating-Repairing PC Boards

4 Construction Procedures and Enclosures 54

Construction Procedures-Enclosures-Front Panel

5 Working with Integrated Circuits 60

IC and Transistor Leads-IC Power and Ground-Insertion and
Removal of !Cs-Removing Soldered !Cs-Troubleshooting ICs

6 A Deluxe Code Oscillator 70

Operation-Construction

7 A Digital Logic Probe 76

Operation-Construction-How to Use the Probe
 8 An Audible Ohmmeter 81
Operation-Construction Procedure

9 A Digital Counter Demonstrator 88

Operation-PC Board Construction-Front Panel and Case-Use

10 A Modular Decade Counter 102

Binary and Decimal Numbers-Decade Counter-Master
Clock- Read-Out Circuits-Construction-Assembly-Uses-
Calibration

11 A Breadboard with Power Supply 120

Power Supply-Case Construction

12 A Large Digital Display with Breadboard 125

Construction-Operation

13 Audio-Frequency Generator with Digital Readout 132

Operation-Construction-Calibration

14 A Semiautomatic Code Keyer 144

The Circuit-Construction

15 A Digital IC Tester 149

Construction-Operation

16 A Mini-Breadboard with Shift Register 158

Objectives-Background-Construction-Experiment

17 Darkroom Timer with Beep Alarm 170

Operating Theory-Construction-Procedure

18 Digital Alarm Clock 188

Clock Module-Alarm-Construction-Operation-MA 1010
Functional Description-Procedure

19 A Metric Measuring Wheel 205

Operation-Construction-Procedure

Appendix A IC Specifications and Diagrams 217

555 Timer-7400 Quad 2-lnput Positive NANO Gates-7402
Quad 2-lnput Positive NOR Gates-7404 Hex lnverter-7432
Quad 2-lnput OR Gates-7447 BCD-to-Seven-Segment
Decoder /Driver-74 76 Dual J-K Flip-Flops with Clear and
Preset-7486 Quad 2-lnput Exclusive-OR Gates-7490 Decade
Counter-74192 Synchronous BCD Up / Down Dual Clock
Counters with Clear

Appendix B Parts Suppliers 226

Index 229
 Acknowledgments
A special acknowledgment is given the administration of the State Univer-
sity College at Oswego, New York, for granting me a sabbatical leave . This
leave provided the time required to complete this work.
Dr. I. David Glick, Acting Vice President and Dean of Students at the
State University College at Oswego, deserves special thanks for his confi-
dence in me.
My wife, Gerry, and children, must be recognized for their patience
and understanding during the days and nights when all of my attention was
focused on writing .
Last, I want to thank my brothers Edward and Herman. The crucial
help they gave during my early college years has made a great difference in
my own professional development.
This book is dedicated to the memory of my father,
Edward D. Hawkins (1891-1956).
 Introduction
Students of electronics must eventually put theory into practice by building
a working device . The development of a better theoretical understanding,
as well as practical construction and fabrication skills, is helped by project
building. Most technical classes, from industrial arts through engineering,
use the project method to reinforce learning and to build "hands-on" skills.
Although there are available many sources that provide excellent
project ideas and plans, few include both the theory of circuit operation and
the plans suitable for a beginner to construct a successful digital project.
This book gives you the theory and "how-to" information needed to
build successfully various practical electronic projects.
The first five chapters present the fundamentals of project building.
Generation and sources of project ideas are followed by details of bread-
boarding and construction procedures. Extensive coverage of how to de-
sign and produce acceptable printed circuits is included. A brief introduc-
tion to the practical aspects of working with integrated circuits is also
given.
The remaining chapters present complete plans for fourteen
integrated-circuit projects. I have built and tested each project, and the plans
are complete. Each project includes printed-circuit layouts, procedures for
construction, a description of how it is used, photographs, a parts list, and
theory of operation. Although some of the projects are simple in design,
most are complex enough to challenge even the experienced builder. It has
been my experience that challenging projects tend to bring out the best
performance of the builder.
The breadboard projects, the experiment projects, and the digital-
counter demonstrator are clearly designed to illustrate theory and to

vii
provide practice. The other projects yield devices that perform a definite
function ; these will be useful to the builder in the future .
The appendix included at the end of this book contains technical
information about a number of common integrated circuits. This informa-
tion is useful to verify the use and hook-up of the !Cs presented in this book.
It also provides data that can be used for other projects and experiments .
This book may be used as a project reference book. It may also be used
as a guide for printed-circuit construction, or as a practical guide for
digital-electronics construction . This book is intended to be a useful tool for
the experimenter who wishes to learn at his own pace .
The projects developed and presented in this book are complete, but
you can easily make modifications and design changes. An experienced
electronics technician could rework the printed circuit designs .

viii
 Chapter 1

Schematics and Sources of Ideas

There are many sources of ideas for digital projects. This chapter gives a
number of sources and tells how to proceed after an idea or project design
has been accepted.
One of the best sources of ideas for projects is magazine articles.
Computers & Electronics, Electronics Illustrated, Elementary Electronics,
Radio Electronics, and Electronics are examples of electronic magazines
that can be found on many bookstands and in many libraries. A second type
of electronic magazine, which usually must be obtained by subscription, is
the Amateur radio and CB publications. Ham Radio, QST, and 73, all contain
a variety of electronic construction projects: 73 magazine, for example,
publishes a number of electronic project plans each month.

PROJECT NEED
A project may be selected to meet a specific need. An example is a
code oscillator needed to practice code for a ham license . By searching
through various magazine articles and books, you may find five or six
different code-oscillator schematics that are suitable. A schematic diagram
is a symbolic drawing of an electrical circuit. Symbols are used to represent
components. Lines are used to represent the wires and printed circuits that
electrically connect together the components.
The next step is to select the one schematic which is to be used. Place
the diagrams in order of preference. If for some reason the first choice is not
acceptable, go to the second or third choice. Frequently cost, difficulty in
obtaining parts, or simply the complexity of the circuit, may be reasons to
make another choice.

1
COMPONENTS
Once the final choice is made, the parts must be obtained. Component
parts may be obtained from several sources.

Stores
A local electronics store such as Radio Shack is always a good source.
Usually there are several listed in the classified telephone directory.

Mail Order
Mail-order suppliers such as Digi-Key or Poly Paks are good sources
of components . Most mail-order suppliers advertise in the electronics
magazines. Order catalogs from as many of these companies as possible.
These catalogs are useful for determining prices, for finding unusual parts
or odd values. See Appendix B for a list of companies that sell electronics
parts by mail . The information cited is subject to change. Be sure to consult
an industrial register for up-to-date information.

Junk Box
As more projects are built and the builder gets into electronics, a "junk
box" of parts will develop. Preferably, these parts should be organized in
drawers . Parts may be new or used.
Surplus parts, old projects, old television and radio receivers, etc., are
all sources of components. Most parts taken from junk devices are perfectly
good if one takes care when removing them . Keep the leads as long as
possible so that splicing will be avoided. Use a heat sink (Chapter 3) when
desoldering transistors, diodes, and IC's . Parts should be tested if there is
any doubt about their quality.

Testing
After all the parts for the project have been collected, they should be
tested in the circuit. This process is known as "breadboarding."

2
 Chapter 2

Breadboarding
The chief reason for "breadboarding", or the process of testing a circuit, is
to make sure that all the components work and that the circuit does what it
is supposed to do. It is frustrating to spend a large amount of time designing
a PC (printed circuit) board, only to discover that the original circuit was
wrong. Sometimes schematic diagrams have errors in them when they are
printed. Sometimes a mistake is made when a diagram is copied from a book
or other source. Omitting a connection or making a wrong connection can be
a serious problem if it is not caught in time. If the circuit does not work on
the breadboard it will not work on the PC board .

MOUNTING METHODS
The early experimenters in electronics used a board with nails driven
in it to wire a circuit. Wires were run from nail to nail and components were
strapped down with wire. Sometimes the board Mom used to knead bread
dough was used for this purpose. That is probably how the term "bread-
boarding" came to describe the first step in building a circuit.

Clip leads
A board with nails driven in it still can be used for wiring a circuit,
although newer devices make the job easier. The circuit components may
simply be mounted on the nails and connected together with clip leads.
These leads consist of insulated wires several inches long with alligator
clips attached to both ends. Packages of clip leads can be purchased, or they
may be assembled by the builder. The parts are wired according to the
schematic diagram.

3
Perforated Circuit Boards
Perforated circuit boards are much more convenient than the nail-in-
a-board method of mounting components. These boards are phenolic sheets
with holes drilled in them in various patterns . Push-in terminals replace the
nails. Solderless terminals hold the component leads and interconnecting
wires by spring tension. This permits parts to be changed very easily.
Solder terminals are preferred if a more permanent set-up is desired.

Breadboard Sockets
Large sockets which make breadboarding very easy are now available .
Several companies supply these sockets in various sizes for all kinds of
applications. These sockets allow components to be mounted and jumpers
to be installed by simply pushing the bare wire ends into the proper holes . A
jumper is a wire used to connect two points on a breadboard socket or
circuit board. Complete units are also available which contain sockets,
power supplies, and other functional units.
Sockets are very good for breadboarding integrated circuits, since the
spacing is designed for this purpose. Figure 2-1 shows a large breadboard
with a circuit installed . Notice that the integrated circuits, transistors,
resistors, capacitors, and other components are plugged in. Wires, or
jumpers , are connected between the components in order to complete the
circuit. Power can be applied at the terminals above the breadboard.
Figure 2-2 shows three modern breadboards which include power
supplies, switches, meters , etc . These various devices are useful in testing
and operating digital circuits . Elaborate breadboards such as these may be
too expensive for the beginner, but they are usually a must for the serious
experimenter .

RED-LINING
Before any power is applied to the breadboarded circuit, all the
connections should be checked to be sure that they agree with the sche-
matic diagram. One method used to verify the wiring of a breadboarded
circuit is known as red-lining . This method is excellent because it ensures
that the breadboarded circuit is wired exactly according to the schematic
diagram .
Red-lining requires the use of a copy of the schematic and a red pencil .
Each time a wire or component is connected, the line representing this wire
or connection on the schematic is over-drawn with the red pencil. When the
entire schematic has been red-lined, the breadboard is complete and ready
for testing.
Complicated circuits must be red-lined , since it is almost impossible
to remember which wires have been hooked up and which ones have not. It
is wise to adopt this process even for simple circuits. It will save many of
the headaches that are due to errors in wiring.

4
TROUBLESHOOTING THE BREADBOARD
A breadboarded circuit which does not function properly must be fixed
before it is transferred to a PC board . First, red-line the wiring another
time, using a fresh schematic. Often mistakes are overlooked several
times. If possible , have another person trace the circuit . A frequent error is
wiring to the wrong point-usually a nearby point. This error is made more
often when wiring integrated circuits because they have many pin connec-
tions close together.

Bad Connections
When sockets such as those shown in Fig . 2- 1 are used, bad connec-
tions are rare. It is still possible that the lead of an old or used part is so
oxidized that it does not make a good e lectrical connection with the socket.

Fig. 2-1. Large breadboard socket with many parts installed. Notice the bus
socket across the top and on each side of the main in-line sockets . Wires
complete the hook-up of the circuit. (Courtesy AP Products Inc.)

5
A transistor may have leads so small that they are loose in the socket. If the
hook-up wire is too small, it can cause the same problem. If the socket has
been used before, perhaps it was damaged by forcing something too large
into a hole. Check that all leads are clean and that they fit tightly in their
sockets.
If the breadboard has soldered connections, be sure all connections are
properly soldered. When several leads are connected to the same point,
solder may not flow around all of them. Inspect all solder connections
carefully and resolder any that need it. Chapter 3 shows how to solder
components to a PC board . The same general rules apply to breadboard
work.

Polarized Components
A component is said to be polarized if it must be connected in the
circuit in a certain direction. The leads of non-polarized components, such
as most resistors, may be reversed at will. Diodes and electrolytic
capacitors are polarized and they must be connected in the circuit in the
direction shown on the schematic diagram. It is very easy to make a
mistake, especially with small diodes. In every instance, when a diode or
electrolytic capacitor is connected backward, the circuit will not func-
tion-in most cases, the diode or capacitor will be destroyed in the process.
Be sure to observe the polarity markings of components.

Parts Substitution
A frequent cause of trouble in breadboard circuits is parts substitution.
If a circuit design calls for a specific part, it may not work well, or at all, with
a substitute. If parts have been substituted, these parts should be suspected
as the cause of the problem ifthe circuit does not work. It may be necessary
to get the exact part, or even abandon the project, if a substitution is the
cause of the problem.
In some cases, substituted parts will work well. A capacitor with
higher voltage rating or "tighter" tolerance may be used in place of one with
lower voltage rating or "looser" tolerance. For example, a .01 F, 10%,
100-volt ceramic capacitor nearly always works in place of a .01 F, 20%,
50-volt ceramic capacitor. Likewise, a resistor with greater power rating or
tighter tolerance may usually be substituted for one with a lesser power
rating or looser tolerance.
Many times the desired amount of resistance or capacitance may be
obtained by connecting units in series or parallel . Resistors in series and
capacitors in parallel add. For example, 330 ohms may be obtained by
connecting a 150-ohm resistor in series with a 180-ohm resistor. To get .01
F of capacitance, one might connect a .0068-F capacitor in parallel with a
.0033-F capacitor. The error of one percent is not important.
A diode having a higher current rating or a higher inverse-voltage
rating (PIV) will usually replace one with lower ratings. Exceptions are

6
diodes used to detect rf signals, and temperature-compensating, forward-
reference diodes.
Always consult a substitution reference when you are in doubt about
substituting a transistor or other semiconductor. TAB Books Inc. publishes
The Master Semiconductor Replacement Handbook and Radio Shack pub-
lishes Semiconductor Reference Handbook. Both of these are available
nationwide.
When you make a substitution in a circuit, make a note of this on the
schematic or in your notebook . If the circuit works well with the substitu-
tion, you have learned something. If a problem develops after a few hours,
or perhaps days, suspect the substitution. The note that was made earlier
may help you find the trouble .

THE SUCCESSFUL BREADBOARD

When the breadboarded circuit operates properly, a major step in
construction of the project has been completed. This could be the last step.
If it has served its purpose, the circuit may be tom apart to salvage the
pieces. The circuit could be left on the breadboard if it is to be used for only
a short time. If a permanent project is wanted, the next step is to transfer
the breadboarded circuit to a PC board.

Fig. 2-2. Modern breadboards or circuit designers with built-in power supplies
and other functions. Notice that the model at lower left has many functions, such
as bounceless switches and various clock frequencies useful in digital applica-
tions. (Courtesy AP Products Inc.)

7
 Since the breadboarded circuit operates correctly, all the parts can be
considered good . (Be careful not to damage any of them when removing
them from the breadboard.) This is important because it means that, if the
final PC-board circuit does not operate correctly, it is unlikely that parts are
at fault. More likely, the PC board has not been designed correctly .
The next step in building the permanent project is to design and
fabricate a printed-circuit (PC) board . The next chapter will provide the
necessary information about this process. By using that information care-
fully, a good PC board can be constructed with a minimum of effort and
expense.

8
 Chapter 3

:0

Building Printed Circuits

The printed-circuit (PC) board is the usual device used to support and
interconnect electronic parts into a circuit. The PC board is made of
phenolic plastic or fiberglass-filled epoxy. Both types are excellent electri-
cal insulators. The copper foil is bonded to one or both sides. The PC
boards that will be used for projects in this book have copper on only one
side. These are called single-clad boards. If a board has foil on both sides, it
is called a double-clad board.
The PC board is so popular because the finished board provides a base
to support the components. After the board is processed, the copper paths
that remain on the foil side become the actual "wiring" between the parts.
PC boards can be mass-produced very easily, thus reducing the cost when
many units are required. In mass production, PC boards are frequently
"loaded" (components inserted) by machines, and automatic soldering
machines are used.
The copper circuit pattern for the PC board must first be designed on
paper. The layout of this design is then transferred to the copper foil on the
board. The unwanted copper is removed by using a chemical etchant, a
solution that dissolves copper. Then holes are drilled through the board
according to the layout. Parts are installed on the unclad side of the board
with their leads passing through the holes. Finally, the leads are soldered to
the copper "pads" on the clad side of the board. This chapter wi ll describe
the processes used to fabricate a PC board.

CIRCUIT LAYOUT
In the design of a PC board, the first step is to select the circuit. The
circuit design may be original, or it may be taken from a book or magazine.

9
 R2

T1 C2
--.,..,~~~~..--~--l(t--~---<O

Output
Input
R1 R4 R3

+
Fig. 3-1. Schematic diagram of a single-transistor amplifier.

It is important that the circuit be breadboarded to verify that it works

correctly. Chapter 2 tells how this is done. After the circuit has been
breadboarded successfull y, the PC board can be designed .
Figure 3-1 is the schematic diagram of a one-transistor amplifier. The
values of the components are not important for this example. The sizes of
the components are important and must be known, because their sizes
determine the distances between holes in the PC board.

Parts Layout
In Fig. 3-2, each component of the amplifier is outlined full size and the
proper connections between them are indicated by lines. Circles indicate
where holes will be drilled through the board for the component leads to
pass through. One color should be used to outline the components and a
different color shou ld be used to indicate the holes and connections. This
procedure will make the drawing much less confusing.
Remember, thi s layout is the view of the unclad side of the board
where the parts are located. The copper pattern, shown by the dashed lines
in Fig. 3-2, is on the opposite side of the PC board and cannot be seen from
this view . Since these dashed lines are normally drawn in a second color,
there should be no confu sion.
A good way to begin the parts layout is to arrange the parts on a piece of
paper with each part in the position it has on the schematic diagram. Then
move the parts about as necessary to reduce the amount of board area
required and to eliminate jumpers. When the arrangment of parts is satis-
factory, mark the location of all the holes and then sketch in the parts. Be

10
sure the holes for each component are far enough apart so that the compo-
nents can lie flat on the board.
Notice in Fig. 3-2 that a "wire," or conductor path, may pass under a
component as one does under Cl. This is the way to avoid installing jumper
wires on the finished PC board. One mark of a good layout is the minimum
number of jumpers. Sometimes a jumper cannot be avoided, but many of
them can be eliminated by changing the positions of components. There are
no set rules for avoiding jumpers. Experience is the teacher, and a lot of
patience is required.

Copper Layout
The copper side of the layout is shown in Fig. 3-3. Notice that Fig.
3-3A is a mirror image of the "wiring" that was laid out in Fig. 3-2. The
mirror image is necessary because the copper pattern is on the opposite side
of the board from the components. After a little experience is gained, this
"reversed" pattern will no longer be confusing .
Photographic method. There are several ways to transfer the in-
verted copper layout from the component layout of Fig . 3-2. One method is
to photograph the layout, using a filter to "drop out" the color of the
components. Remember, different colors were used for the components
and the wiring. The negative that results will show only the copper paths.
Turn the negative upside down to print it, and the required mirror image
will be obtained. Be careful to make the print exactly the same size as the
original ; otherwise, the components will not fit the copper pattern.

, - - - - - - - - - - - --------,
I
+
9, o--- I
I '-.....
i ' ~'--...._T1E R3

0-~ OB c P
I I I
I ~.....- /Output

Input
R1
I
I
1
I
a \
~c2
i~
__ L _ _ _ _ _ i _ _ _ _ -o
0--
L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J

Fig. 3-2. Component and foil layouts of the circuit in Fig. 3-1. Foil path is shown by
dashed lines.

11
 The photographic method is superior when the PC board is large and
has many components, perhaps hundreds, on it . With photography, there is
no chance to omit a connection, and this method may be faster than others.
For simple circu its the photographic method may still appeal to camera
fans, but the fo llowing methods are faster and easier.
Tracing method. The copper pattern can be transferred easil y from
the component layout by tracing on a tracing table. Place the drawing, Fig.
3-2, on the tracing table, face down, and trace only the wiring. Be careful to
get all the holes (circles on the drawing) in exactly the right places. If you do
not, the components will not fit the finished PC board.
Carbon-paper method. Making a "tracing" with carbon paper is the
easiest method , but some smudges on the layout should be expected. Lay
the carbon paper on a smooth, hard surface with the carbon side up . Place a
sheet of paper over the carbon, and then put the component layout on top,
face up. Trace over all the wiring with a stylus and make circles to indicate
the holes. If a stylus is not at hand, an old ball-point pen that does not write
will do. A pencil can be used, but it will tend to dig into the paper.

Pads
After the basic layout of Fig. 3-3A is finished, it is time to "dress it up."
First , each of the holes through the foil must be surrounded by a "pad ." It is
important to make these pad s large e nough that soldering wi ll be easy. If
they are too small, the pads will tend to lift off the board during soldering.
Also, any stress app lied to the component on the other side of the board may
lift off a too-small pad.
Figure 3-4 illus trates adequate pad size. In general the size of the pad
shou ld be greater for larger holes. There is really no upper limit for pad size
so long as one pad does not contact another one.

Stick-Ons
Figure 3-38 illustrates the foil layout after the pads have bee n added.
The pads can be hand-drawn, but stick-ons are easier to use and they
produce a more attractive layout. The use of stick-ons is practically a
"must" if the layout includes integrated circuits (!C's) that have rigid leads.
Without stick-ons it is extremely difficult to align the holes and pads with
the IC leads.
Figure 3-5 shows some of the variety of stick-ons that are available.
Pads are ava ilable for just about every type of IC and transistor. Pads for
s ingle holes are avai lable in several sizes. Tape is available in several
widths for the layout of conductors.

Wiring
After all the pads have been put in place , just one more step is needed
to finish the layout. In Figs. 3-3A and 3-38 the approximate position of the

12
 +

Input

Location of wires and holes

+
0--0

g-o e
Input

Pads positioned around the holes

Input
e

Finished layout

Fig. 3-3. Evolution of the foil Iayout for the circuit in F.igs. 3-1 and 3-2 .

13
 Too little copper

Copper may separate

when soldering Good
Proper hole-to-pad
Poor
relationship

Fig. 3-4. Proper pad-to-hole relationship is shown in the example at the right. The
example at the left shows that the hole is either too large or the pad too small.

conductors is shown. Figure 3-3C illustrates these schematic lines "fleshed

out." Now they have the shapes that the copper will have on the PC board.
Sometimes the original position of a conductor must be changed to avoid a
pad. Whenever possible, keep the distance between pads and, conductors
at least .05 inch.
Notice that the conductors are much wider than the original lines . If
the copper paths are too narrow, the resistance from one point to another
may cause problems. This problem is more likely to occur in a power supply

Fig. 3-5. A variety of stick-on layout items. Several sizes of integrated-circuit

pads are shown as well as several sizes of connector pads. Two examples of
resist pens are also shown.

14
that conducts an ampere or more of current. Also, if the conductors are too
narrow, the etching solution may "undercut" and "eat" completely through
a conductor .
The type of tape illustrated in Fig. 3-5 is useful for making the straight
runs of the foi l layout. Curved conductors must be drawn . An assortment of
French curves is useful for making very professional-looking layouts.

THINGS TO REMEMBER
Before actually making the PC board, a number of "do's" need to be
mentioned. The fo llowing points should be kept in mind when designing a
PC board layout.

Pad Size
Make pads, or points where holes will be drilled, large enough. If
these areas are too small, not enough copper will be left after the hole is
drilled. It is better to have unneeded copper left than too little. Figure 3-4
illustrates this point.

Use Full Scale

Lay out drawings full scale, or actual size of the completed board . Be
aware of the actual sizes of parts and, if necessary, place the parts on the
paper to get the correct size and shape.

Avoid Sharp Angles

Run wiring from pad to pad so as to avoid sharp angles. Figure 3-6
shows examples of good and poor wiring. If sharp angles are used, the
etching solution tends to enter and undercut the copper . This may cause an
open circui t.

~ ) Angle I) Angles
too sharp not sharp

/\
Poor
~ Good

Fig. 3-6. Examples of how sharp angles can be avoided .

15
 Sharp bend

Not in contact with board

POOR

Vertical mounting saves space

Fig. 3-7. Examples of poor and good mounting practice. Body of resistor should
be in contact with the PC board . Be careful to make bends rounded .

Jumpers
Avoid jumpers whenever possible. Try rotating parts or shifting their
positions. This will often provide a way to eliminate the jumper.

Component Mounting
Bend component leads properly. Very sharp bends can cause leads to
break . Leave a little distance between the component and the bend. Bends
too close to the component may cause internal damage. Mount parts such as
resistors, capacitors, and other small, lightweight items directly on the PC
board . Figure 3-7 shows examples of good and poor resistor mounting .
Some components may be mounted on end , such as the one example in Fig .
3-7 . Vertical mounting will save some space.

Outside-World Hook-up
Arrange "outside-world" connections along the edge of the PC board.
The outside world refers to any parts of the circuit which are not on the PC
board. Power connections, controls, switches, etc., are normally located
off the PC board and are considered outside-world connections . Locating
these connections along the edges of the PC board makes for a neater job
and provides for easier troubleshooting. Figure 3-8 illustrates this princi-
ple .

RESIST APPLICATION
Once the foil layout has been completed on paper, it can be transferred
to the PC board . First secure a suitable size piece of copper-clad board or
cut one to size. The copper foil should be cleaned since any foreign material
on the copper wi ll tend to act as a resist. Depending on how dirty the copper
is , fine steel wool, cleansing powder, or a typewriter eraser may be

16
 +

Poor

Good

Fig. 3-8. Example showing poor and good connections to outside world from PC
board.

17
 Awl

-- -- ...._

-
Fig. 3-9. Transferring hole centers from layout to foil.

preferred. After it is cleaned, be careful not to touch the copper unneces-

sarily or leave finger prints . Just before etching, remove any stains or
tarnish with an eraser.
Place the full-scale layout of the conductors on the copper foil. Each
place where a hole will be drilled must be accurately located on the copper .
This is done by using an awl or sharp scribe to press a mark through the
paper into the copper. Figure 3-9 shows the detail of this process. A simple
pressure with the hand is enough. All that is required is a slight mark on the
copper . After the centers for the holes have been transferred, apply the
resist.

Types of Resist
A resist is any material which will not allow the etchant to contact the
copper. It will prevent any copper which is so protected from being etched
away.
A number of materials may be used as a resist . The most useful is a
resist pen. Its ink is made to flow well and adhere to copper, and it provides
a good resist. Fingernail polish, paint, tape, etc., also may be used as a
resist. Experiment with any material desired to see if it works well as a
resist. Tape and stick-ons will work but they must be pressed down tightly.
If they are not tight, the etchant will creep under them and cause undercut-
ting.

18
Direct Method of Masking
The pads are put on first. Be sure they are centered over the small
marks left by the awl. Simply make a circle of resist ink around this mark
and fill it in solid. Do not apply too much ink where pads or conductors are
close together. If stick-on pads are used instead of ink, be careful to get
them centered exactly over the centering marks made with the awl. If the
pads have center holes this is simple. If they do not, push a pin through the
pad . Then touch the pin point to the awl mark and slide the pad down onto
the copper. Be sure to press the pad down firmly.
Once the pads are done, connect them with lines of resist according to
the layout drawing. The resist dries quickly and should be ready for
inspection and etching immediately.
Lines can be erased with a typewriter eraser or steel wool. Then they
can be re-drawn using the resist pen . Check each line and pad to make sure
each is in its proper place. Be certain that the resist pattern is exactly the
same as the paper layout. If too much resist has been applied to an area, the
excess can be removed by scraping it off with a razor blade or sharp-pointed
knife blade.

Silk Screening
The direct method of masking the copper foil is simple and easy. When
a number of boards are needed, this method is too time consuming. When
large numbers of boards are needed, a more efficient method is preferred.
Silk screening is usually used when from about one hundred up to several
thousand boards are required. To produce ten or so boards up to about one
hundred, the photographic method is often chosen. Total cost of masking
the boards determines which method should be used.
The Silk Screen. Silk screening is a very old printing technique. It
has been used by the Japanese and Chinese for thousands of years . It uses a
fabric, silk at one time, as a form of a stencil. When silk is laid on top of the
material to be printed and ink is applied, the ink passes through the silk and
covers the material below. To paint a picture on the material, parts of the
silk cloth are blocked off so that paint or ink cannot pass through .
After all desired areas of the screen are blocked, the fabric is stretched
over the work and ink is poured on top. Then the ink is spread with a
squeegee . It passes through the open areas of the screen to print an image
on the material beneath. Nearly any type of material that will not pass
through the printing press may be silk screened.
Preparing the Silk Screen. A photographic method is the one used
to prepare silk screens used to print circuit boards. First the layout, Fig .
3-3C, is photographed. A special film is used to produce a "film positive."
Photographic slides are a type of film positive .
The fabric is prepared beforehand by coating it with a chemical known
as an "emulsion." When this emulsion is exposed to light, it will harden and
clog the holes in the screen . After exposure, the fabric is developed like a

19
 Deposited Copper-clad
resist PC board

Fig. 3-10. Silk-screen printing process used to apply resist to copper foil. Practice
is necessary, but good results are not hard to obtain .

photograph. This washes away the emulsion that was not exposed to light
and hardens the rest of it.
To make the silk screen, the film positive is placed over the silk and
light is passed through the positive onto the screen. Then the silk is
developed . After it has dried, it is stretched over a wooden frame, ready for
use.
Printing the Boards. Figure 3-10 shows how resist is deposited on
the copper. The screen and the board are held by clamps so they cannot
move during the process. The ink is poured on the silk screen and then
spread over it with a rubber squeegee. This process is not very difficult,
and after some practice even a novice can produce good boards. Solvents
are available to clean boards that were not properly screened. It is easy to
clean the practice boards and try again. Figure 3-11 shows a silk-screened
board of exce llent quality.
Precautions. Some of the solvents used for cleaning are extremely
inflammable. They must be used only outdoors or in very well ventilated
places. Do not use them near any open flame. Do not smoke while using
them, and do not allow anyone else to smoke nearby. Never put cleaning
cloths or towels soaked in solvent in a container or in a pile. They may catch
fire by themselves, by spontaneous combustion. Fumes from some solvents
are toxic, so avoid breathing them.

The Mask
The first step is to make a mask. A photo negative of Fig. 3-3C, for
examp le, can be used as a mask, High contrast film must be used. The black
areas of the layout must be completely transparent on the mask. The white
areas must be completely opaque.
The mask can also be made by cutting out the outlines of the pads and

20
cond uctors from a sheet of masking fil m. Mask ing film is avai lab le as part of
photographic PC-board process ing kits. These kits are avai lable from Radio
Shack and other suppliers.

Cleaning the Board

The copper foi l of the board must be free of all grease and dirt. It can be
cleaned by rubbing the foi l with very fine stee l woo l (000) under running
water. After it is clean, air-dry the board overnight, or dry it in an oven
(125F or 50C) for about fifteen minutes. Do not touch the copper foi l after
it has been cleaned.

Sensitizing the Board

Photo-sensitizing resist usually comes in a spray can. Spray the board
with this resist just as if you were paint ing it with spray paint. Be sure all

Fig . 3-11. PC board with resist applied by silk-screen method .

21
parts of the board are covered evenly and that there are no runs. Allow the
board to dry overnight. Follow the directions on the can.
Once the board has been sprayed, it must be shielded from light.
Spraying and drying in a darkroom, using a yellow safety light , is preferred.
A closet having a yellow "bug light" may be used. To store a sensitized
board, wrap in black paper. Fold the edges carefully so that no light can
enter. Be sure the board is dry before it is wrapped for storage.
Boards that are already sensitized can be purchased from several
suppliers. Follow the instructions on the package for storage and use.

Exposing the Board

Place the mask over the sensitized board and lay a sheet of glass on
top. It is very important that there are no spaces between the mask and the
copper foil. Expose the board , through the mask, using a "black light"
fluorescent lamp (type BL) or a photo-flood lamp. Exposure by direct
sunlight also is possible.
The time needed to expose the board will vary from about two to five
minutes . It depends on how clearthe mask is and how bright a light is used .
If the board is underexposed, some of the desired copper may be
etched away in the etching process. If it is overexposed, some unwanted
copper may remain after etching. Experiment to find the best exposure
time.

Developing
Develop the board by bathing it in the developer solution for about one
minute . This must be done in the dark-room or in subdued light. After it is
developed, rinse the board thoroughly in running water and dry it. Follow
the instructions furnished by the supplier. The board is no longer sensitive
to light after it has been developed.
Inspection
A board that has been poorly silk screened can be wiped clean and
screened again. After it has been poorly etched it can seldom be salvaged.
Inspect each board to see that there are no smudges or "drop-outs."
Drop-outs are areas that did not receive enough ink to make a good resist.

Testing
Selech one board from the first few for a "proof board." Etch and drill
this board . Load it with all the parts and test it to make certain that the
circuit works as it should. When it is certain that there are no mistakes,
proceed to silk screen the rest of the boards.

Cleaning
If the silk screen is not kept clean it will become clogged with ink. If ink
is allowed to dry on the screen it is very difficult to remove it. The screen
may be permanently damaged by trying to clean it of dried ink.

22
Size
Always be sure the pattern on the silk screen is the same size as the
original layout. Lay the components over the ink pattern on a board to see if
the leads will match the holes.

Screen Mesh
Silk screen is available in various sizes of mesh, from coarse to fine.
Finer mesh allows finer detail in the printed work. Coarser mesh is a little
easier to use. Consult your supplier, or the person who is to make the
screen, to get a mesh that suits your purpose .

Ink
Ink is like paint in appearance. A fine-mesh screen requires thinner ink
than a coarser screen. If the ink is too thin for the screen, it may blot or run.
It it is too thick it will not pass properly. This leads to drop-outs. If ink must
be thinned, thin only a small amount. Do not get all of the ink too thin.

Touch-Up
After the board has been developed, the resist pattern will be clearl y
visible. Any breaks in the pattern may be filled in with a resist pen.
Unwanted resist may be removed with a sharp knife or a typewriter eraser .
Now the board is ready for etching.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS
Making one small PC board by the photographic process takes longer
than making it by the direct process. The time required to make four or five
boards will be less with the photo process . The cost of mate rials per board
is higher for the photo process . Therefore, the choice of which method to
use involves a "trade-off' between time and cost.

IMAGE-N-TRANSFER
A recent development by the 3M Company has made available a
process which produces very professional-looking PC boards with a
minimum amount of equipment. This is known as the I-N-T or Image-N-
Transfer process. The process uses a light-sensitive film which, after
simple daylight processing, produces a transfer image. This image is then
rubbed onto the copper foil and becomes the resist.

Art Work
The art work or layout of the foil pattern must be done on a transparent
film. Figure 3-12 shows a layout on film which uses stick-ans for both pads
and lines . It is wise to design the circuit using a pencil before making the
transparency . The clear film is then laid over the pencil copy and the pads
and tape are applied. Once the art work is completed, the chemical process
begins . Figure 3-13 shows a typical setup for making 1-N-T transfers .

23
Fig. 3-12. Example of layout made with stick-ons, tape, and transparent film .

Fig. 3-13. Work station for 1-N-T transfer production . The exposure unit is at the
right. The plastic tray in the center is used to develop the exposed film . Newsprint
is at the left.

24
Negative
A negative is required in this process. Regular photographic processes
may be used to produce a negative. The short I-N-T method, which is
described here, may also be used.
A negative of the original art is made by exposing the black I-N-T
material through the transparent circuit layout. The 3M ultra-violet expo-
sure unit does this quite well. Forty seconds of exposure seems to give
good results. It is a good idea to experiment with several test strips to make
sure the correct exposure time is used .
The following procedure should be observed. Refer to Fig. 3-14 .
1. Place the I-N-T film on the cushion with clear carrier side down or
facing away from the light source .
2. Place transparent artwork on top of the I-N-T film in the position
labelled "right reading negative" in Fig. 3-14. Be sure the artwork
is right reading from the top view.
3. Close the glass top to hold the film and artwork. Close the top of
the exposure unit.

am 'fu:TI1'lli
Tntage'It t(a.11sje( n@teriaJ

Fig. 3-14. lmage-N-Transfer sandwich ready for exposure. Be careful to arrange

negative (or artwork) correctly in relation to 1-N-T film. (Courtesy 3M Company.)

25
Fig. 3-15. Negative of artwork made with 1-N-T material.

4. Set the timer and expose the film for the correct time (40 seconds
with a 3M exposure unit.)
5. Remove the 1-N-T film and strip off the clear carrier. Keep the
clear carrier since it will be used later.
6. Place the 1-N-T film with the carrier side up (carrier has been
removed) on a plastic work surface.
7. Pour a small amount of developer on the film. A puddle about 1V2
inch in diameter will do.
8. Use a soft cotton pad (Webril Proof Pad) to gently rub the de-
ve loper over the entire surface of the film. As the image develops,
add more developer. Tum the pad for a clean area as needed.
9. After the image is completely deve loped, rinse both sides of the
film with water and pat it dry with newsprint or lint-free material.
10. Dry the film completely over heat or in the air for several minutes.
Be careful with the tacky side since it can be easily damaged at this
time.
11. Place the carrier (clear film which was saved in Step 5) over the
tacky side of the film and press it down. This is now a reusable
negative. Figure 3-15 shows a completed negative made with this
process.

26
Transfer
Repeat the steps for making a negative with a new piece of I- N-T film .
This time use the negative just made instead of the original artwork. The
result will be a positive rub-on transfer of the PC foil pattern. Throw away
the clear carrier film this time, since it will no longer be used.
After the film image is completely dry , place it on the copper foil of the
PC board. Be sure the dull side is against the copper. Tape the PC board and
film together so that no movement can occur between them . Use a soft
pencil or a burnishing tool to rub the transfer film . The image should
transfer easily to the copper. Touch up mistakes with a resist pen . Figure
3-16 shows a copper board with the image transferred to it.
The board may be etched just as if the resist were applied by some
other method. The result wi ll be a professional looking job. Figure 3-17
shows such a board after etching. The resist has been removed from part of
the board to show the copper pattern underneath .

ETCHING
Etching a single board can be a simple process. All that is required are
etching solution and a plastic pan. On the other hand, machines for mass

Fig. 3-16. Rub-on resist applied to copper-clad board prior to etching .

27
Fig. 3-17. Completed board after etching. Resist has been removed at right to
show detail of finished etching .

production of etched circuit boards are quite large and complex. The basic
process is the same for one board or one thousand.

Etchant
The most common chemical used for hobby etching of PC boards is
ferric ch loride. Thi s chemical can be obtained in Iiquid form, re ady to use,
or in crystal form. The crystal form must be mixed with water to make a
sol ution. Caution: Heat is produced when dry ferric chloride is mixed with
water. Ferric chloride is relati vely safe and it is ve ry good for hobby uses.
When the ferric chloride solution contacts copper th at is not protected
by res ist, the copper is dissol ved away. The time re quired to do thi s varies
from several minutes to an hour. The temperature of the solution, the
stre ngth of the solution, and the thickness of the copper vary the e tching
time.

Spray Etching Machine

Figure 3-1 8 shows a spray e tcher unit which is used for small produc-
tion runs. Thi s unit has a heater which heats the ferric chloride to increase
the etching speed. Pumps spray the solution aga inst the copper fo il to
re move the un wa nted copper quickly. It is common to etch boards in about

28
three minutes with this type of unit. The unit holds four gallons of ferric-
chloride solution . This should last an active hobbyist at least a year.

Home-Made Etcher
If cost is important, an etching machine can be constructed. Parts can
be obtained in hardware and department stores.
A fish-tank bubbler is used to agitate the etching solution in this
device. Figure 3- 19 shows the approximate layout of the machine. The
container should be plastic and it shou ld have a cover to prevent spattering.
Stains from the solution are very hard to remove. A plastic bread container
works well. The heat lamp is used to keep the etchant temperature at about
110F (43C). This wi ll speed the process. This etcher will etch a 3" x 5"
PC board in about three minutes if the etchant is fresh.
If the time required to etch a board exceeds five or six minutes, the
ferric-chloride solution should be replaced. Ferric-chloride solution can be
purchased by mail from several suppliers such as Kepro or Kelvin Elec-
tronics. It can also be obtained at local Radio Shack stores.
When the pump is turned on, bubbles rising to the surface of the
ferric-chloride solution will cause a layer of foam to form. The PC board
should be suspended in this foam with the fo il side down. The foam has a
washing action similar to spraying the board or moving it through the
etchant. Since the bubbling action causes the etchant to spatter , place the
cover over the tank during operation.
If Fig. 3- 19, the board is suspended using iron wire. Do not use copper
wire because the e tchant will dissolve it. Plastic salad tongs have been used
with good results. Most other parts of this unit are wood or plastic. The

Fig. 3-18. The etching unit at the left will handle double-sided boards up to
approximately 8" x 12". The unit at the right is a water-spray rinser which re-
moves etching solution from the finished board .

29
 Wire hanger
4Y'"mo
~~~j Foam

................
'~:\<'~/.
Fish tank
Diffuser stone pump

Fig. 3-19. Home-made etching tank.

heat lamp should be turned on about ten minutes before etching to warm the
solution.
Inspection
When etching is completed, the only remaining copper will be under
the resist. Inspect the board frequently during etching and stop as soon as
all the unwanted copper has been removed. Etching the board too long will
cause undercutting. Under-etching wi ll leave "bridges" between closely
spaced pads or conductors. Bridges can be cut away with a sharp knife or
razor blade. It is very hard to repa ir an over-etched board. Throw it away
and make a new one.

Cleaning
After etching, the board should be rinsed in running water for at least
one minute. This will remove all traces of the ferric-chloride solution. Dry
the board with paper towels or a heat gun. The resist that covers the copper
can be removed with resist solvent or lacquer thinner. Some of these are
highly inflammable. If fire precautions cannot be observed, use very fine
stee l wool.

DRILLING THE BOARD

Now is the time to drill the mounting holes in the board. These holes
should have been marked with an aw l before the board was etched. If a great
number of boards are to be drilled, it is too time-consuming to mark each
board, so another method is described later.

Equipment
If at all possible, use a dri ll press to do the dri lling. Hand-held drills

30
tend to skate across the work and may cut the copper pattern. Hobby-type
tools such as the Dremel drill will do the job well . Figure 3-20 shows a
Dremel tool mounted in its drill press. The table of this drill press rises,
bringing the work into the drill . In standard drill presses the table stands
still and the rotating part moves up and down.
Figure 3-21 shows a board before and after a hole has been drilled.
Notice that a block of wood has been placed between the table of the press
and the PC board. This prevents the drill from marring the table. Be careful
not to drill completely through the block. It is wise to use goggles for
protection against flying chips.
High-speed (HS) drills are the type normally used for drilling steel.
They work very well for drilling phenolic-plastic PC boards. If fiberglass-
filled epoxy boards are to be drilled, carbide-tipped drills are preferred.
High-speed drills can be used, but they become dull very quickly. They can
be sharpened, but this takes time and considerable skill. Carbide drills are
several times more expensive than high-speed drills, but they last several
times longer.
The drill size used frequently for PC boards is #55 , but sizes from #10
to #60 may be required. A beginner's assortment of drills might be every
fifth size from #10 to #60 . To get a "feel" for the metric system, drill PC
boards with metric sizes. A good "starter set" of metric drills has sizes from
1 mm to 6 mm in steps of one-half mm.
Before spending a great deal of money for carbide-tipped drills , find
out which sizes are used frequently. This is easy to do. Simply buy a set of
high-speed drills, and replace them with carbide-tipped drills as they wear
out.

Fig. 3-20. A Dremel Tool and drill press used to drill PC boards at high speed.

31
 e
Fig. 3-21. Unetched circuit board in position for drilling (A), and after hole has
been drilled (B) . In B, notice that the drill bit is still spinning. Because of the
danger of flying chips, it is wise to use eye protection when drilling PC boards (or
any other material).

Drilling Techniques
Always drill from the foil side of the board . Drilling from the reverse
side of the board tends to separate the foil from the board and makes
"burrs." A burr is a jagged edge produced by improper cutting or drilling.
Be sure the drill is sharp. A dull drill may cause burrs. It may heat the

32
copper so much that it will separate from the board. It may break out a
"dimple" on the component side of the board. Do not try to drill too fast.
Pressing too hard on the drill will cause dimples.
Use the fastest drilling speed available. Speeds up to 20,000 rpm are
used in production drilling of PC boards. High drilling speed helps to
prevent burrs and dimples. Of course, it is faster.

PRODUCTION DRILLING
For production work, it is usual to drill five or more boards at a time.
Instead of marking every board with an awl as described before, templates,
or drilling guides, are used . The process is described below . For very large
runs, thousands or tens of thousands, computer-controlled drilling
machines are used. The process described here works well for runs from
five to one thousand.
The Templates
The template is really just another PC board , except that it is drilled
very carefully. To make templates, start by marking a few more than one
percent of the boards with the awl, as described before. Drill these boards
as usual , but be very careful to position the holes accurate ly. These will be
the first-generation templates. Load and operate one of these boards to be
certain that there are no mistakes .

Guide Holes
Mark the same two holes on each of the remaining PC boards. Choose
holes at opposite corners of the PC board . Drill all these hole s accurate ly.
Stack five of these boards and place one of the first-generation temp lates on
top. Then pass a wire through all the holes to hold the boards in alignment.
The wire should fit snugly. A nail or worn-out drill of the right size works
nicely .

Drilling
Drill through the stack of boards, using the techniques described
before. Be very careful not to apply too much pressure, or the drill will not
run straight. If this happens, the holes may miss their pads on the bottom
boards.
Use each first-generation template only twice . If it is used more often,
the holes will become enlarged and the board may be worthless, both as a
template and as a PC board.
The boards drilled using the first-generation templates are called
second-generation templates. Each of these is used to drill two more stacks
of five boards . The templates can be used as PC boards. Thus the yield is
111 PC boards for each first -generation template.
Plan to make about five percent of extra boards for scrap allowance.
Scrap allowance is the term used to describe the extra boards that are made
to replace those that will be ruined in production.

33
BOARD LOADING AND SOLDERING
Component parts are mounted and soldered in the final step of building
up a PC board . For hand soldering, it is best to load and solder the
components a few at a time. Start with the IC and transistor sockets. It is
usually easier to load and solder these one by one .
Next load and solder the parts that lie flat on the board. These are the
diodes and small resistors (one-fourth and one-half watt). One-watt and
larger resistors should be mounted at least one-fourth inch above the board
to prevent heat damage. Insert the part with one hand. With the other hand
reach beneath the board and bend the leads together just enough to hold the
part in place until it is soldered. You may insert four or five parts, then
solder all of them.
Load the large components last . The leads of some controls and
ceramic capacitors are made so they will hold themselves in the holes for
soldering . Several of these may be loaded at one time. Load and solder the
rest of the parts one by one.
Three precautions that were mentioned on the discussion of layout
design are worth repeating: Observe polarity of diodes and polarized
capacitors. Do not make very sharp bends in component leads. Leave a
little distance between the component and the bend. There is one more
precaution: If transistor sockets are not used, mount the transistors about
one-half inch above the board. The extra lead length helps protect them
from overheating during soldering.

Soldering Irons
An important point to remember is that heat quickly damages
semiconductors. Using a soldering iron that is too hot may transfer enough
heat to the semiconductor to damage it . If reasonable care is used, a 30-watt
soldering pencil like the one shown in Fig . 3-22 is satisfactory for PC
soldering. The battery-powered units shown in Fig. 3-23 are also recom-
mended for PC boards. These units remain in their charger stands when

Fig . 3-22 . A 30-watt soldering pencil suitable for most electronic soldering.

34
Fig. 3-23. Battery-powered soldering pencils. Both types have stands which
charge the batteries while the pencils are resting.

they are not actuall y in use. They are very convenient since no wire gets in
the way during soldering.

Heat Plus Solder

When soldering, bring the pencil tip into contact with the lead and the
copper pad at the same time. Add a very small amount of solder to the pencil
tip . This solder will bridge between the joint and the solder pencil, allowing
the heat to transfer to the join. Figure 3-24 shows the proper way to do this.
Solder is directed to the joint at the side opposite to where the heat is
applied. This will allow the joint to melt the solder. This is important
because it permits the flux to clean the copper. If the solder is applied to the
tip of the pencil and then transferred to the joint, the flux will be burned
away before it cleans the joint. The result will be a poor connection, at best.
Use only enough solder to cover the joint and the pad. Too much solder
is a waste and serves no purpose.
Keep the solder pencil on the joint for a few seconds after the solder
has melted . This will burn out any flux which may be trapped in the joint.
Flux in the joint may cause a "cold" joint which can be a problem later on.

Solder and Flux

It is important to use only rosin type flux (sometimes called resin).
Never use acid flux or acid-core solder. These are commonly used in
sheet-metal and plumbing work. Acid flux wi ll react with the copper and
eventuall y it may destroy the copper pattern and the component leads. At
best, it will tum the joint green and cause poor conductivity .

35
 The best all-around solder for e lectronics work is 60-40 with multiple
rosin cores. This is an alloy of 60% tin and 40% lead. Do not be misled by
"bargain basement" solder which is sometimes labelled, "For all e lectrical
and electronic work. 40-60 ."This is 40% lead and 60% tin. It is cheaper, but
it will not work satisfactorily.

Soldering Heat Sensitive Devices

Diodes, transistors, and !Cs can be ruined by heat from the soldering
process flowing into the component. To avoid this undesirable event, use a
heat sink . A heat sink is a metal body which wi ll sink, or absorb, heat. It is
attached between the solder joint and the body of the component to prevent
heat from reaching the inside of the component.

Fig. 3-24. Correct way to heat the joint and add solder. Notice that solder is added
opposite the heat, so that the joint melts the solder. This allows the flux to clean
the joint and the solder to flow easily and stick to the metal.

36
Fig. 3-25. Use of an alligator clip as a heat sink. A heat sink should be used with
semiconductors to prevent damage while soldering .

A simple and effective device which can be used as a heat sink is the
alligator clip. Figure 3-25 shows how it is used. Notice that the clip is
attached to the lead wire betwee n the heat so urce and the body of the
component.

Clip Excess Leads

After soldering has been completed, all excess leads should be re -
moved. Where test points are required, cut the lead about one-fourth inch
from the board. The other leads should be clipped as close to the solder joint
as possible. Thi s can be done with a diagona l cutter. It is easier to solder
and clip each component before proceeding to the next. In some cases, all
the excess leads may be cl ipped after the soldering is done.

PC Board Holders
When mounting and soldering components on a PC board, it is often
desirable to have a " third hand. " There are a number of device s available
which serve to hold the PC board. Thi s frees both hands for soldering . One
hand is used to heat the joint and the other to apply the solder. Figu re 3-26
shows a comme rcial PC board holder which has several good fe ature s. It
has a heavy base so it remains stable when in use . The holding arms are

37
adjustable so many sizes of boards can be held. The angle of the arms is
adjustable so that the PC board can be placed at whatever position is
desired.
An additional feature of this unit is that the enti re PC board can be
turned over and locked in the upside-down position. This allows parts to be
mounted from the component side, and then the board can be turned over
for soldering .

Home-Made Holder
A simple, cheap , and quickly made holder, shown in Fig. 3-27, can be
used to hold the PC board. This uni t has a wood base approximate ly fo ur
inches square. Number 12 copper wire is used to support the alligator clip.
The alligator clip is soldered to the copper wi re. For stability, several
holders are used at the same time. The wire can be bent to hold the PC
board at any desired work angle .

TESTING
After the excess leads have been removed, the PC board is ready to be
tested . It is wise to inspect visually for solder bridges or other defects
before applying power to the unit. If a visual inspection does not reveal any
problems, proceed to test it electrically.
If the PC board operates properly, fini sh the project by placing it in its
enclosure or larger assembly . Chapter 4 will provide more information on
the design and construction of boxes and cases for projects.

DIP SOLDERING
Hand soldering is too slow for mass producing PC boards. Other

Fig. 3-26. A commercial PC board holder which can be adjusted for board size
and position .

38
Fig. 3-27. A home-made "third hand. "

techniques have been developed which re duce hand work and thus save
time and money. One such method is known as dip soldering. In this
process , all components are mounted on the PC board. Then all are
soldered at once by dipping the joints into molten solder.
Dip soldering is e mployed for production rates up to fifty or one
hundred boards per day.

Dip Soldering Station

Figure 3-28 shows a dip soldering station which has a flux dip and a

Fig. 3-28. Dip-solder station and flux tank. The solder pot is at the right. The
skimming tool is lying next to the solder pot in the sand box. Flux is kept in the
container at the left.

39
Fig. 3-29. Solder pot set in anti-spatter sand box. The skimmer lying in the sand is
used to skim the dross from the top of molten solder. Wood-handled PC board
holders at lower right use rubber bands for tension.

small solder pot. The control box in the center is wired to an exhaust fan
located above the so ldering station. The fan must be running when the
solder pot is turned on. This insures that fumes from the flux are removed.
A close-up view of the solde r pot and PC board holders is shown in Fig.
3-29 . The holders for the PC boards are aluminum with wood handles.
Notice that the solder pot has been placed in a sand box to catch any solder
that might be spilled.

Loading for Dip Soldering

In hand assembly, a few parts are installed and soldered, then a few

Fig. 330. Tool used to cut and crimp leads to prevent the component from falling
out of the hole while handling.

40
Fig. 3-31. Close-up view of crimped lead.

more, etc. When parts are loaded for dip soldering, all of them are loaded
before soldering. All parts are mounted on the component side of the board
and the excess leads must be cut off.
After their leads are clipped, the components are not held very well,
and sometimes they come loose during handling or soldering. Figure 3-30
shows a tool which solves this problem. This hand tool is known as a
cut-and-crimp tool. The tool not only cuts off the excess lead, but it also
flattens the lead at the end. This prevents it from pulling out of the hole.
Figure 3-31 shows this process .
Air-operated tools are available which cut and bend or crimp the leads of
components. These are usually costly . The hand tool shown here is well
within the reach of the hobby or home-workshop budget.

Holder for Soldering

After all components are mounted on the board and the leads have been
cut and crimped, the PC board is placed in the holder. Figure 3-32 shows a
board mounted in the holder. The foil side is facing away from the handle. A
rubber band across the aluminum arms holds the PC board tightly during
fluxing and soldering.

41
Flux
Rosin flux is applied at this time to the entire area to be soldered.
Figure 3-33 shows one method of doing this. The flux is placed in a plastic
container and a sponge is placed in the flux. The level of the flux should be
slightly below the top surface of the sponge. Simply press the board against
the sponge and the flux will be transferred to the copper and joints. Be
careful to coat only the surface to be soldered. If too much pressure is used,
the flux will flow over the top of the board and through the holes. It will be
hard to remove afterwards.

Soldering
Preparation. The last step is to dip the board in the solder . Make
sure the pot contains 60-40 or 63-37 solder and that the temperature is
correct, 500 to 525F. If the solder is too cold, "icicles" will form when the

Fig. 3-32. PC board in holder, ready to be fluxed and dip-soldered. The foil
pattern is facing down toward the surface of the flux or solder.

42
 Holder

I.

Flux

,___ ......__
I _ __,.....,___ --

Sponge
'
------
Fig. 3-33. PC board in holder is pressed lightly against surface of a sponge which
is filled with liquid flux . Do not allow the flux to get on the components. Only a light
coating of flux on the joints is needed.

_.=---==--==--===:=Molten solder=---=-=._-:=:::: ~--

Fig . 3-34. Dip-soldering a board should begin by holding the board at a 45 angle
as it is slowly lowered and tilted to the surface of the solder.

43
Fig. 3-35 . PC board floated on solder surface. Rotate holder so that board
surface moves through solder. This ensures burning off all flux and good solder
coverage of all joints.

board is lifted from the solder . If the solder is too hot, parts may be damaged
from overheating.
The dross or scum (oxide) which forms on the surface of the molten
solder must be removed. An aluminum skimmer with a wooden handle is
used for this purpose. See Fig . 3-29. The surface should be skimmed
immediately before the board is dip soldered.
Wear eye and face protection, gloves, and an apron while soldering. It
is very important that no water or moisture be present on the PC board suiface
or joints. The presence of moisture will cause steam to form and the molten
solder will spatter when the board contacts the solder surface. Make sure
the board is thoroughly dry before fluxing. Molten solder is dangerous.
Treat it with respect.
Procedure. When dip soldering, it is important to follow certain
steps. Practice "dry runs" several times so that the process can be done
without stopping to think about the next step.
The following steps must be done in order:
1. Skim the dross to one side. Use a wooden-handled skimmer.
2. Flux the surface to be dip soldered. Be careful not to get flux on
the top of the board .

44
 3. Lower the PC board onto the molten solder so that it contacts at
about a 45 angle. See Fig. 3-34.
4. Slowly (take about three seconds) lower the board until it floats on
the surface of the solder. See Fig. 3-35. This process burns away
the flux as the solder contacts the board. It prevents pockets of
flux or gas from forming as they might if the board were brought
into contact with the solder all at once.
5. Slowly move the board in a circular motion. This insures that all

Fig . 3-36. Finished PC board with parts mounted . Dip soldering was used to
solder all joints at once.

45
Fig. 3-37. Electroless tin-plating station. In operation , the cover is removed and
PC boards held by the holders are lowered into the solution. The electronic timer
at the right turns off the agitator motor after five minutes.

joints contact the solder and that all flux will be burned out. Push
the board firmly against the solder , but do not submerge the board
in the solder .
6. Remove the board from the solde r in the reverse order from which
it was inserted. Slowly ra ise the edge that entered the solder first
to a 45 angle . Thi s allows any excess solder to fl ow back into
the pot. Now lift the board away from the solder and allow it to
cool.

Fig. 3-38. Close-up view of photographic negative holders used to suspend the
PC boards in the plating solution.

46
 Plating solution

Fig. 3-39. Home-made plating unit. The motor drives a linkage which causes the
PC boards to move back and forth through the solution.

The board should be in contact with the solder no more than five or six
seconds. Do not allow the board to remain in contact with the solder for too
long. This is very important if there are any semi-conductor devices on the
board . Use sockets for transistors and ICs so the devices themselves will
not be on the board during soldering. These components can be mounted in
their sockets after the board is cool.

Time
3.3k adjust
9 14
Diode 5k
Time
adjust
1 Meg

10k

100F

N.O.

Stan
I-
22011

220!!

Ou1
LM309
\,\. ;~~
lamp
m

Fig. 3-40. Schematic diagram for the five-minute timer.

47
 5k
(i,

'"gD~AC[)"''
914

1Me~O~~
Start

-1 L.::J
g 0 220ll

~ J
~
10k Relay

J deRelay
Contacts

0
Out

1A

Transformer

Component side

Fig. 3-41 . Layout (not to scale) for component side of timer PC board (A), and the
foil side (8).

Inspect and Repair

After the board is cool, inspect it to make make sure all joints have
been properly covered with solder. Unwanted bridges may be removed by
using a solder pencil. Hold the pencil under the bridge so that the solder will
flow readily to the pencil tip. Resolder by hand any joints that need it.
Figure 3-36 shows a completed PC board which has been dip soldered.
Notice that all joints are well covered and all the copper pattern is coated
with solder.
Wave Soldering
Wave soldering is preferred for mass production. A wave-soldering
machine can solder up to about 700 boards per hour. Quality is better than it
is with dip soldering.

48
 Foil side

In this process, the PC board moves along a conveyor device. The

boards are fluxed and then the solder is applied by passing the boards over a
fountain of molten solder. These machines are too costly to be used for
doing a small number of PC boards.

TIN PLATING
The PC board copper should be very clean for soldering. It can be
scrubbed with steel wool or a cleanser such as Ajax. If a few days pass from
the time it is cleaned until it is soldered, it may have to be cleaned again . To
avoid this problem and to insure the best possible soldering, the copper
surface can be plated with tin.
The process described is an electroless chemical plating process.
Simply bringing the copper into contact with the solution will cause a thin

49
Fig. 3-42. Desoldering vacuum units. Both have Teflon tips which can be re-
placed when worn out.

coat of tin to be deposited on the copper. No electricity is used, as would be

the case in electro-plating.

Home-Made Tin Plater

A home-made plating unit is shown in Fig. 3-37. The plastic tank holds
the solution. This solution can be purchased from Kepro. It must be handled
with care . Wear rubber gloves and eye protectors when using it. The plastic
photograph clips hold the PC boards. These holders can be seen better in
Fig. 3-38. A number of hooks have been mounted on the arm so that many
boards can be plated at the same time. The arm holding the boards has been
lowered into place to immerse the PC boards completely in the plating
solution.
The arm is moved back and forth by a motor and drive whee l. Figure
3-39 shows how this is done . The optional motor timer is shown to the right
of the tank in Fig. 3-37.

Motor Control
The PC board should be moved through the plating solution for about

Fig. 3-43. Commercial solder cream in dispenser.

50
five minutes to get a good tin coating. The unit shown in Fig. 3-37 uses an
electronic timer so that a start button is the only control. The motor starts
when this button is pushed and shuts off automatically after five minutes.
Figure 3-40 shows the schematic diagram of the timer circuit. A 555 IC
is used to determine the timing. An H11C opto-isolator is used to provide
isolation between the relay and the 555 IC .

Timer PC
Figure 3-41 shows the layout of both sides of the PC board used for this
timer. This layout may be modified , depending on the size and shape of the
relay and transformer . Make sure the relay can be operated by 5 volts, de,
and that the re lay contacts are rated for the voltage and current of the
motor . A hobby motor with attached gear box having a shaft speed of 10 rpm
seems to work well . These motors can be obtained from suppliers such as
John Meshna, or Herbach and Rademan.

REPAIRING PC BOARDS
Repairs to PC boards are sometimes necessary . Defective compo-
nents may have to be replaced, or a modification may involve changing
several parts. At times it may be necessary to repa ir the foil pattern of the
board.

Fig . 3-44. Detail showing solder cream applied to joints on a PC board .

51
Fig. 3-45. Joints after soldering-pencil heat was applied. Flux may be removed
with solvents.

Solder Removal
To remove a part without damaging the board, the solder on the joint
must be removed first. The most popular way to do this is to heat the joint
until it is molten , then use a suction device to extract the solder. Two of the
solder extractors that are avai lable are shown in Fig. 3-42.
These units are cocked by compressing a spring. At the moment when
the solder is melted , a button is pressed to release the spring . Thi s pulls the
plunger up the barrel and causes a vacuum at the tip of the unit. The vacuum
sucks the solder into the unit. The solde r will solidify in the unit , but it can
be emptied from the device as often as necessary. The tip is made of teflon
so it wi ll not bum easily, and it can be replaced if damaged.

Broken Foil
Breaks in the foi l pattern can be caused by a fractured board, excessive
pull on components, poor etching, etc. If the copper has lifted from the
board, it must be replaced with another conductor. Repairs of cracks or
voids in the copper can be made by soldering a bridge of copper wire across
the void. Do not try to bridge with solder alone . It usually will not make a
bridge unless the parts are very close together. The attempt wi ll only heat
the board and cause more copper to separate .

Solder Cream
A product which may be useful to repair PC boards and replace parts is

52
solder cream. This solder is useful in many applications, but it is more
expensive than wire solder.
Figure 3-43 shows solder cream in an applicator. This applicator
allows the placement of an exact amount of cream to a specific place. The
solder cream is applied to the joint either before or after the excess lead is
cut off. In Fig. 3-44, the cream has been applied to IC socket pins, whose
joints do not have any excess lead. The cream is thick and has a grey color .
After the cream has been applied, heat from a soldering pencil is
applied to the joint. The cream will melt and become shiny as it fuses into
solder. Figure 3-45 shows the same joint after soldering.

53
Chapter 4

Construction
Procedures and Enclosures
This chapter will provide information about construction procedures for the
projects that follow . Enclosures and cases wi ll also be discussed. Details
about design and layout of front panels and proper use of materials will be
treated briefly .
The case which houses a project is important. Since it is seen first, it
can give a good or bad first impression. Care should be taken to create a
pleasing enclosure for every project.

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
It is important to follow all directions provided when constructing
electronics projects. More mistakes are made by not following directions,
and trying to hurry, than for any other reason.
Read through the directions and organize parts and tools before start-
ing construction. Do not work for too long at one time. Take a break often,
then return to work. Electronic work is often done with small, hard-to-see
parts which tends to tire the eyes and neck muscles.
There is a tendency to rush as the completion of a project approaches.
This is natural because the builder is anxious to see the completed unit in
operation. It is a common problem, but , because of last minute rushing,
errors are more likely to occur. Be aware of this and slow down toward the
end of construction.

Tools
Have the proper tools ready. Commonly used tools such as pliers and
screwdrivers should be arranged to be within easy reach from the work
position. Keep soldering equipment ready. Clean the tip of the hot solder-

54
ing pencil frequently. This can be done by wiping it with a wet sponge or a
wet paper towel.
Take care in using power tools such as saws and drills . These
machines are very useful for making cases and in other operations, but they
can be dangerous. Always observe safety rules and get help if necessary.

Step by Step
Projects from magazine articles or projects such as those found in this
book usually include a step-by-step procedure. Follow it as closely as
possible. If you are designing your own project, take a few minutes to
outline a step-by-step procedure that can be followed later . The time spent
organizing the work may prevent a serious error later during construction .

ENCLOSURES
A finished project, even if it works well, can lose its appeal if it is not in
a pleasing case. There are many metal and plastic cases made to hold
electronic devices. These can be obtained from most electronic suppliers .
They need to be punched, drilled, and perhaps modified to hold a project.
More about proper layout will be said later.

Housewares Materials
A good source of inexpensive cases is the housewares section of a
department store. There are all kinds, sizes, and shapes of plastic and metal
containers to be found there . Many can be adapted to make good cases. For
example, a plastic filing box can be modified to make a good enclosure . The
audio-ohmmeter project in this book uses such a case. School lunch boxes
may be used to carry tools as well as to enclose electronic projects.
Walk through a housewares store at the next opportunity . A number of
uses can be found for items seen there .

Materials
Three materials commonly used in constructing cases for electronics
projects are wood, plastics, and metal. Wood and plastic can be drilled,
sawed, and shaped with common woodworking tools. Metal must be
worked with tools designed for metal.
Some plastic can be formed or bent easily. Acrylic sheet stock is very
useful for electronics cases, because it can be heated and bent around a
form. The digital-clock project in this book gives an example of how acrylic
plastic can be formed into a case.

FRONT PANEL
Layout of the front panel and other areas where controls are located
must be planned in advance. Figure 4- 1 shows good and poor front-panel
layouts .Notice that the better example has the controls located in a line so

55
 Centerline ~enterline

I I I
+ +
+ + ++++
f)Poor l)Good

Fig. 4-1. Examples of good and poor panel layouts. The poor design has
switches above other switches or controls. The good design places all controls in
a line, equally spaced. Notice that the layout reference is to a center line, rather
than from one edge of the panel.

they do not interfere with each other. Notice also that the panel is laid out
equally from a center 1ine, rather than from one edge.
The front panel should be laid out in full scale on paper . Then the paper
can be used as a template to transfer the hole locations to the panel
material . If acrylic plastic is to be used for the panel, draw the layout on its
paper protective covering. After all holes have been drilled, this paper may
be removed. Do not remove it any sooner than necessary, since it prevents
the acrylic surface from being marred.
A good example of a front panel design is the Digital Audio-Frequency
Generator Project.

Rear Panel
The rear panel of most electronic equipment has the seldom-used
controls. Connecting terminals, power-supply cords, fuses, etc. are com-
monly located on the back panel. Careful design of the rear panel is also
important.

Bending Plastic
If a panel or case requires bends, these should be planned and shown
on the layout drawing. Bends are shown as dashed lines.
To bend acrylic plastic, the bend line is heated with a strip heater and
then bent over a form. The plastic must be held in place on the form until it
becomes rigid. Figure 4-2 shows this process.

56
Bending Metal
Metal can be bent over forms in much the same way as plastic. If the
metal is thin and soft , it can be bent by hand using wood forms. If a vise is
handy, the wood forms should be held in the vise. Figure 4-3 shows how it is
done. Use of a plastic hammer or wooden mallet makes bending easier. Be
careful with hammers since they may mar the surface of the metal. It is a
good idea to use a wooden block between the work and the hammer.
If a box-and-pan break (sheet-metal break) is available, excellent
bends can be made with this tool. Figure 4-4 shows how this device is used.
The sheet metal is clamped between the bed and the jaw by a lever. The
front table is hinged so that it may ro tate up and bend the sheet metal to the
desired angle. The jaws are movable and come in various sizes. This allows
the sides of a box to be bent to right angles.

Fastening Plastics
Plastics can be fastened either by cementing or by using screws or

Bend line
Acrylic plastic
(Remove paper on
both sides where
heat is applied .)

Strip heater

A Bend plastic to fit

\iiir form . Hold plastic
in place until it
Stop
becomes rigid and
retains shape.

Wood form

Fig . 4-2. Bending acrylic plastic to shape. Be careful to round the edge of the form
where the bend will occur. Remove the protective paper on both sides of the
plastic where heat will be applied, and then heat plastic along the bend line (A).
Bend the plastic to fit the form (B). Hold the plastic in place until it becomes rigid
and retains its shape . Do not try to bend very sharp angles.

57
 0 Hold sheet metal in vise with wood blocks at the bend line.
/'Bend

e Bend sheet metal over wood to form proper angle.

Fig. 4-3. How to bend sheet metal in a vise. Place the sheet metal in a vise with
wood blocks at the bend line (A). Bend the metal over the wood to form the
desired angle (B) .

bolts. Riveting is not recommended for acrylic plastic since it tends to crack
the material.
To cement acrylic, the surfaces to be joined are dissolved with a
solvent such as ethylene dichloride . The two surfaces are then clamped
together until dry.

58
 Clamp down

~aw
Bend line \ Lift

Front table
Bed

Fig. 4-4. Box-and-pan brake can be used to bend sheet metal to almost any
angle.

It is important to make the joint match as well as possible. To do this,

the pieces are clamped lightly and aligned. The solvent is added; then the
clamp pressure is increased slightly. The joint must be allowed to set
before the clamp is removed.
The use of plastic solvents can be dangerous. Check the manufacturers
information carefully before using the chemical. Follow all safety rules.
Epoxy cements are available for cementing plastics to metal, metal to
metal, metal to wood, rubber to metal, and many other combinations.
These cements are easy to use and cure in a matter of minutes.
Plastics can be drilled and tapped using the same procedures that are
used for metal. Often ordinary bolts are used to fasten plastics together
with good results.

Fastening Metal
Metals can be fastened together with bolts or sheet metal screws.
Sheet metal, other than aluminum, can be soldered or spot welded with
common equipment. New solders are available which will solder aluminum .
Pop rivets have become popular for joining sheet metal. It is a simple
method which gives good results . Nearly every hardware store se lls pop
rivets of various sizes as well as tools to use them.

Finishing
A front panel should have all controls marked in some manner. Self-
stick lettering used in drafting is useful for this purpose. If the panel is
aluminum, it should be rubbed with stee l wool until a uniform finish is
obtained. Apply stick-on lettering carefully or use ink and a lettering guide.
After the lettering is done, spray the surface lightly with clear sealer such
as Krylon. The sealer coat will protect the lettering and provide a profes-
sional touch to the finished panel. Let the panel dry before mounting
controls.

59
Chapter 5

Working with Integrated Circuits

The term semiconductor is used to describe a material that is neither a good
conductor nor an insulator. Very pure germanium or silicon is the basic
material of semiconductors. Si licon is used more often than germanium.
Oxides of silicon are very common in nature.
Pure silicon is a good e lectrical insulator . Very small amounts of other
e lements added to it make it a semiconductor. Depending on what is added,
the semiconductor is type "N" or type "P ."

Diodes and Transistors

A diode is made by joining together a piece of N material and a piece of
P material. A "sandwich" of two pieces of N material with P material
between makes an NPN transistor . If the "bread" is P and the "meat" is N, it
is a PNP transistor. Wires are attached to each piece of material, and the
assembly is sealed in plastic or glass. Sometimes an outside metal case is
added to carry away heat or to provide electrical shielding.

Integrated Circu its

An integrated circuit , IC , consists of several diodes and transistors, all
in the same case. All these parts are formed by depos iting N and P material
on top of a wafer of pure silicon called the substrate. Sometimes the
substrate is called a chip.
Resistors, capacitors, and leads are formed by depositing other mate-
rials on the chip . Wires to the outside world are attached to desired points.
The whole assembly is sea led in plastic. This projects it from damage and
keeps out water and dirt.

60
LSI
The first IC's contained only a few parts . As the science developed,
more and more parts could be placed on a single chip. Today, seve ral
thousand parts may be mounted on a single substrate. These very complex
ICs are classified as Large-Scale Integration . The ICs used in calculators , for
example, are LSI circuits.

Packaging
The science of encl os ing the chip and the parts on it is called packag-
ing. The IC, in its enclosure, with all the leads extending from it, is often
called a package.
!Cs that have only a few leads may be packaged in a round case called a
TO package . The leads are an inch or so long. The IC is mounted on the PC
board similar to the way a transistor is mounted . Several other packages are
used, but the one used most ofte n fo r most digital work is the DIP. DIP
stands for Dual In-line Package.
Figure 5-1 shows two examples of D!Ps. The one on the left is small
and has onl y eight leads . It may be called a mini-DIP. The one on the right is
a fourteen-pin DIP. DIPs may have 16, 24 , or eve n 40 pins . Even hi gher pin
counts may appear in the future.
Flat packs are similar to DIPs but th e leads extend stra ight out from
the package . Sometimes eve ry othe r lead of a DIP is be nt downwa rds
fa rther away from the case . This is called a stagge red DIP. D!Ps, fl at packs,
and staggered DIPs are identical packages except for the way the leads are
bent. ICs in all these packages are often called "bugs ."

IC AND TRANSISTOR LEADS

The pins or leads of O!Ps are numbered in a counter-clockwise direc-
tion whe n viewed from the top . An indentati on , a dot , or both , on the plast ic
body of the package identifies pin numbe r one . These identifiers are clearly
sho wn in Fig . 5-2. They can also be seen on the ICs in Fig. 5-1.

Fig. 5-1 . Dual In-Line (DIP) integrated circuits. The "Mini-Dip" at left has eight
leads and the one at right is a fourteen-pin DIP . The indentation indicates the left
end of each . Pin 1 is at the lower left corner.

61
 (+)
14 13 12 11 10 9 8

2 3 4 5 6 7
(-)

Fig. 5-2. Top view of typical DIP showing end locators and pin numbering . Pins 7
and 14 are frequently the power inputs.

Figure 5-3 shows several types of transistor packages. The large

package has the emitter and base marked. The metal case is the collector
lead . This unit is a power transistor used to handle a large amount of
current. Since the case is connected directly to the transistor material, it
can carry away excess heat.
One important thing which must be known about a transistor is the
identity of the leads. Most transistors have three wires or leads coming out
of the unit. Figure 5-4 shows how the emitter, base, and collector are
usually identified. In Figs. 5-4A and 5-4B, the emitter is identified by a
metal tab on the case. When one lead connects to the metal case, Fig . 5-4A,

Fig. 5-3. Various types of transistor packages.

62
it is usually the collector. When the three leads are arranged in a semi-
circle, Fig. 5-4B, the usual order is E, B, C . Figure 5-4C shows the usual
lead arrangement for small plastic packages. Frequently, the letters E, B,
C, will be printed on the package. This makes identifying the leads easy .
A base diagram supplied by the maker of the transistor is a sure means
to identify the leads. If the leads cannot be identified any other way, use a
transistor tester . Many transistor testers will test the transistor and iden-
tify its leads as well.
IC POWER AND GROUND
Most ICs of the TTL fami ly have the power and ground connections at
opposite comers of the package. The last lead in the row that starts with pin
one is usually ground . This is pin 7 of a 14-pin DIP, pin 8 of 16, etc. The
highest-numbered pin is usually hooked to the positive or plus side of the
power supply . "Usually" is used here because there are a number of units
which do not follow this ru le. If you are not sure, consult pin diagrams such
as the ones in the appendices of this book. As you gain experience, you will
remember the base diagram of often-used ICs.
If in doubt , double-check. An IC can be ruined if the power connections
are reversed.

INSERTION AND REMOVAL OF ICs

It is very wi se to make sure that the powe r is never on when inserting
or removing an IC . The sparks which may occur can cause current surges
which wi ll damage the unit. Be careful to check the polarity of the IC and
make sure it is correct before turning on the power. Some ICs can be ruined
by static electrical charges from fingers or other sources. The CMOS
fami ly of ICs is very sensitive to thi s sort of damage. In some cases ,
extreme care and anti-static equipment are necessary to prevent static
damage . Most TTL ICs are not sensiti ve to damage from static discharge
and do not require special handling precautions .

0 e
Fig. 5-4 . Bottom view of common transistor packages with emitter (E), base (B),
and collector (C) leads identified.

63
Fig. 5-5 . DIP inserter and pin straightener.

When placing ICs into a socket, take care to avo id bending the leads .
The use of an insertion tool is recommended. Figure 5-5 shows such a tool.
This tool can also be used to straighten pins that are bent in hand ling .
To remove an IC from its socket , pry with a small screwdri ver. Lift
each e nd a little at a time until the unit is free. Small , inexpensive IC pullers
are ava ilable that will remove ICs without damage .

REMOVING SOLDERED ICs

It is very difficult to remove an IC if it has been soldered to the PC
board. If the JC is known to be bad, the only concern is to protect the PC
board. In thi s case, simp ly cut off the IC leads close to the package and then
unsolder them one at a time.
When the IC is good, you must be careful not to damage either it or the

Fig. 5-6. Tip used to apply heat to all connections of a DIP package at the same
time. Notice the grooves in the side runners which cover the joints and apply the
heat.

64
Fig. 5-7. DIP desoldering clip. The metal clips go under the ends of the DIP
package. When the solder joints are melted, the DIP is pulled away from the PC
board.

board while removing it. One method is to use a solder remover such as the
ones shown in Chapter 3, Fig . 3-42. Remove the solder from one pin at a
time . When all the pins are free , lift the IC off the PC board.
Be careful not to heat any pin for more than about 5 seconds at a time. If
some solder sti ll remains , work on another pin until the first one has cooled.
It is better to use a heat sink such as the one shown in Chapter 3, Fig. 3-25 .

Desoldering Tool
Another method of removing an IC without damage is to melt all the
connections at once . Special tips that attach to a regular soldering pencil are
available for this purpose . Figure 5-6 shows one such tip. Notice that this tip
screws onto the soldering pencil in place of the regular tip.

Fig. 5-8. DIP removal tool. Spring loaded jaws fit under the package.

65
Fig . 5-9. Logic probe being used to check the logic state of an IC pin. (Courtesy of
Continental Specialties Corp.)

Before heat is applied to the connections, tension is applied to the case

of the IC. This can be done by using one of several types of tools. Figures
5-7 and 5-8 show two types of units used for this purpose . Figure 5-7 shows
a spring loaded clip which is placed over the ends of the IC. Figure 5-8
depicts a pliers-like device wh ich fits over the sides of the IC . In both cases,
spring pre ssure pulls the IC away from the PC board when the solder melts .
The excess solder on the PC board must be removed before inserting a new
IC.

TROUBLE SHOOTING ICs

Troubleshooting ICs is easy with a few tools and an understanding of
the operation of logic circuits. First, make sure the proper supply voltage is

66
present and that the IC is inserted correctly. Also be sure that the return
path from IC to power suppl y is complete.
A voltmeter can be used to check the voltage. Most ITL un its require
exactly five volts. Voltage regulators are used to keep the vol tage at 5
volts. If no voltage is present at the power-input terminal of the IC , check
the power suppl y and the current path to the IC. If the ground pin of the IC
has voltage on it, the path to the power suppl y is probably open.

Probes and Monitors

A digital logic probe, such as the one in Chapter 7 of this book, can be
used to detect supply voltages and grounds. It also checks the logic level at
any point. Oscilloscopes are frequency used to display logic trains when the
frequency of the logic states is high. "Scope s" that have de input can be used
to measure supply voltage. Figure 5-9 shows a commercial digital probe
being used to determine the logic state of a pin of an IC . The indicator lamps
light to show e ither a high (+ )or low (-)state. Probes such as these can be
used to determine if the IC is working properly.

Fig. 5-10. Logic monitor clamped to an IC under test. The monitor obtains its
power from the IC under test. (Courtesy of Continental Specialties Corp.)

67
Fig . 5-11 . Logic monitor with its own power supply. The power supply can be set
for any one of five logic families. (Courtesy of Continental Specialties Corp.)

The usual procedure is to trace the digital signal from IC to IC until the
unit which is not operating properly is found.
Monitors are useful since they provide a view of the logic states of all
the pins at the same time. The changes in logic status of the pins can be
viewed as they occur. This tells more about the operation of the IC and the
circuit than pin-by-pin testing with a probe.
Figure 5-10 shows a logic monitor which clamps over an IC . The IC
under test supplie s the power for the monitor. The lamps along the top of
the monitor light in order to show the logic status of each pin of the IC .
Figure 5-11 shows a simi lar monitor but this one has its own power

68
supply and control box. As the picture shows, this monitor checks five
different logic families .
Monitors are rather expensive, but they are a good investment for the
serious student of digital electronics. A probe is almost a must. Either a
home-made unit or a commercial probe is satisfactory.

69
Chapter 6

A Deluxe Code Oscillator

If you want a deluxe code practice oscillator, this is your project. Fre-
quently, only a series circuit, consisting of a battery, a buzzer, and a key, is
the beginner's first code practice oscillator. This project uses a speaker and
a built-in key. Both tone and volume can be controlled. Instead of batteries,
it operates from standard household voltage .

OPERATION
The schematic diagram shown in Fig. 6-1 shows the circuit. It includes
a regulated 5-volt power supply, a 555 timer IC, and all other components.
The power supply uses a solid-state regulator, the LM309. A pilot light is
connected to the output terminals. A regulated power supply is not abso-
lutely necessary since the 555 IC will operate over a wide voltage range.
The 555 is wired as an astable , or free-running multi vibrator. This is a
type of oscillator. The output of the 555 is a square wave , but the tone
quality is good enough for most uses . The parts used are not critical and
substitutions of near values will provide good results .

CONSTRUCTION

PC Board
Figure 6-2 is a layout of the printed circuit board . Both the foil and
component sides are shown. The foil pattern will need to be made larger

Adapted from the May/June 1977 issue of Industrial Education magazine with permission of the publisher.
Copyright:> 1977 by Macmillan Profes sional Magazines, Inc .. 77 Bedford Street, Stamford, CT. 06901. All rights
reserved.

70
 s,
LM 309
+
120 v JI ' In Out 1
R3
GND 220

LED

5V
C2
8
;J;' 0.1 MF
-----7
R2 LM309 (Bottom view)
100k 6 0 8
8 Out

T 121 I 2 7

rKey
555

3 6

4 5

555 (Top view)

"'-I Fig. 6-1. Code practice oscillator schematic diagram. (Courtesy Industrial Education.)
......
 ,,

6-12

Vac

Spkr
8 ohm

e Component side 20 ohm , volume

Fig. 6-2. Layout (not to scale) of PC board. External circuit includes two poten-
tiometers, speaker, and key. (Courtesy Industrial Education .)

since this layout is not full scale . Figure 6-3 shows the completed unit
installed in a utility box. Notice that the unit is se lf-contained and needs
only to be plugged into a 120-volt ac power source. Figure 6-4 is an interior
view of the unit which shows the location of the PC board and other parts.

Fabrication and Wiring

The PC board sits on edge and the wiring secures it in place. It may be
rigidly mounted with wooden blocks and epoxy cement. The front panel
layout, showing the placement of holes, appears in Fig. 6-5. Drill the box
and the front panel so that all parts will fit. Change the hole sizes if
miniature potentiometers or switches are used. The control panel may be
marked with stick-on lettering or a resist pen. The PC board is fairly easy to
build . Only one jumper wire is used.

72
Fig. 6-3. Completed code practice oscillator. The key is placed at the opposite
end from the transformer for balance. (Courtesy Industrial Education.)

Fig. 6-4. Interior view of the unit. (Courtesy Industrial Education .)

73
 ~ 3 9 /1 6 - - - - - - i....il
i
1 /4 Dia.

3 / 16 Dia

1 11 / 16

6
On --------t-~3 / 16

Dia

7 /8"

L~+~.__~~~~~

Fig. 6-5. Layout of front panel. Hole diameters may vary, depending on sizes of
shafts and switches. (Courtesy Industrial Education.)

PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 Ac line cord with plug.

2 Filament transformer Primary: 120 Vac.
Secondary: 6.3 Vac, 1 A 1
3 Switch, SPST, toggle or pushbutton 1
4 Rectifier , full-wave bridge type, 1 A 1
5 Capacitor , 1000 ,F , e lectrolytic, 10 V 1
6 Capacitor, .1 ,F, 10 V 1

74
Item Description Quantity
7 Capacitor, 100 ,F, electrolytic, 10 V 1
8 Capacitor, .02 ,F, 10 V 1
9 IC , voltage regulator, type LM309 1
10 LED indicator, red 1
11 Resistor, 2.2k ohms, V2 W 1
12 Potentiometer, tone, lOOk ohms 1
13 Resistor, 220 ohms, V2 W 1
14 Potentiometer, volume, 20 ohms 1
15 Telegraph key 1
16 Speaker, 2-V2 inches diameter , 8 ohms 1
17 IC, timer, type 555 1
18 Socket, 8-pin DIP, for 555 IC 1
19 Utility box , 6" x 3-9/16 ", with cover plate
20 Miscellaneous items such as knobs, wire,
solder, screws, etc.

75
Chapter 7

A Digital Logic Probe

When working with digital circuits, it is very useful to be able to determine
the state of the logic at any given terminal . Logic state refers to the voltage,
either zero or equal to supply, which may be present at a point. Probes are
avai lable which indicate the logic state, but they may cost more than the
beginner wishes to pay .
The probe described here is not designed to perform as well as the
more expensive commercial types . However, it does do an acceptable job.
It is designed to be used with TTL circu its, but it can be used with some
other families.

OPERATION
This probe is used with the type of logic known as positive logic. This
means that the presence of a positive voltage represents an "on" or "high"
logic state. This may be shown as a " l." The absence of a positive
voltage, or the presence of a ground, represents a "low" or "off' logic state.
This state is often shown by using a "O."

How It Works
This probe makes use of the reliable 555 timer IC. In Fig. 7-1, the
schematic for this circuit, two ICs are used. Each drives an LED indicator
which is connected to its output pin 3. LED stands for Light-Emitting-
Diode.
The power is usually supplied to the probe from the circuit under test.
This voltage may range from + 5 to + 15 Vdc .
If the probe is not touching any voltage source or ground, neither IC
operates and the LEDs will remain off. When the probe tip contacts a

76
 5-15 v
+

High
~ 470!!

~Low
Probe
2N2222 470!!

Fig _7-1. Schematic diagram of the digital logic probe.

low-logic point (ground), the "low" IC and its LED are turned on _The low
condition is also app lied to the base of the transis tor . Since its base has ze ro
vo ltage, the transistor does not conduct. Therefore pin 2 of the "h igh" IC
remains ungrounded and its LED is off .
When high logic is app lied to the probe tip, the positive vo ltage turns
the " low" IC off. Thi s posit ive vo ltage is also applied to the base of the
transistor and causes it to conduct. When the transistor switches on, it
connects pin 2 of the "hi gh" IC to ground. This causes the "h igh" IC to turn
on and light its LED. In short , positive logic at the probe lights the high
LED and will not light the low LED. The opposite condition results whe n
low logic, ground, is app lied to the probe.

Frequency and Voltage

The voltages li sted in Table 7-1 we re measured under laboratory
conditions with a meter having 5% accuracy. Tests were conducted at two
frequencies to see if the probe responded we ll at freq ue ncy extremes.
These data indicate that the probe work s well to at least 500 kHz. The

Table 7-1. Logic Voltages Required to Operate Probe at Low and High Frequency.

Frequency Voltage required

20 Hz Low (0) Less than 0.15 V

20 Hz High (1) More than 0.85 V
500 kHz Low (0) Less than 0. 12 V
500 kHz High (1) More than 0.21 V

77
 + (o)..,
Probe '-!/+
+
1
.1 220k 220k -
~ ..c:J-e ~A.1 LED+

~cEJ8 ~~? :~ 5-15

Vdc
Be ~~
+ 470f! 470f! +
0 Component side

--0

Foil side

Fig. 7-2. Layout of both sides of the logic-probe circuit board.

voltages necessary to cause high and low logic indications are reasonable.
The probe has been very reliable in actua l use.

CONSTRUCTION
PC Board
The circuit is laid out on a PC board. Figure 7-2 provides the layout of
both sides. A single 16-pin DIP socket was used to hold the two !Cs . This
board was designed to fit the small 2" x 3" utility boxes commonly found in
electronics stores.
Figure 7-3 shows the completed probe, ready for use. Notice that the
LEDs are marked 1 and 0 for high and low logic. The LEDs hold the PC
board in place. Figure 7-4 shows the case opened and the foil side of the PC
board is visible.

Fabrication and Wiring

Notice the power connections at the left and the probe connections at
the right in Fig.7-4. The probe is a standard probe which may be purchased
at a local electronics store . A sheet-metal screw holds the probe to the
utility box.
A connecting wire runs from the probe tip through the hollow plastic
tube. It exits from the tube about one-half inch from the utility box. It
proceeds through a hole into the utili ty box where it is attached to the PC

78
Fig. 7-3. The completed probe ready to use. The alligator clips attach to the
power supply of circuit under test.

board. Some builders may prefer to have the probe separate from the box.
Use a flexible test lead about three feet long.

HOW TO USE THE PROBE

In operation, the unit is attached to the power supply of the circuit
under test. The red lead is attached to the positive source and the black lead
to ground or a negative point. Do not connect this probe to circuits that
operate with more than fifteen volts .

Fig. 7-4. The underside of the circuit board. The board is held to the aluminum
panel by the LEDs.

79
 When the probe tip is app lied to a terminal, it will cause e ither the high
or low LED to light. This indicates the logic state of that terminal at that
moment. If neither LED lights, check to see if power is actually available to
the probe. Also , if the terminal under test is not connected, the probe will
act as if it is not connected to a terminal. This may be the case if the IC is
defective.

High and Low Frequency

At low frequencies, the LEDs can be seen to turn on and off as the logic
state switches . At high frequencies, they flicker so fast that both LEDs
seem to remain on. Generally, the higher the frequency, the dimmer both
LEDs appear . If one LED is brighter than the other, it means that the
duration of the "bright" state is longer than the "dim" one.

PARTS LIST
Item Description Quantity

1 Utility box, 2" x 3" 1

2 Voltage probe 1
3 Wire with alligator clips, one red and one black 2
4 Timer IC, type 555 2
5 Resistor, 220k ohms 2
6 Socket, 16-pin DIP 1
7 LED, red, with holder 2
8 Resistor, 1000 ohms, 1/2 W 1
9 Capacitor, . lJ.LF 2
10 Resistor, 470 ohms, V2 W 2
11 Switching transistor, NPN, type 2N2222 1
12 Miscellaneous items such as solder, PC stock,
wire, etc.

80
 Chapter 8

An Audible Ohmmeter
The audible ohmmeter is a rather unusual device which may be used in a
variety of ways. It can provide the builder with a number of experiences in
building and using an electronics project.
Some of the specific things which can be learned from constructing this
device follow:
1. Layout and fabrication of a printed circuit board.
2. Soldering.
3. Selecting and identifying components.
4. Sheet metal layout and fabrication.
5. Calibration.

OPERATION
Figure 8-1 is a schematic diagram of the audio ohmmeter. It uses a 555
timer IC as an oscillator. Audio frequencies generated by this IC are
available at its output, pin 3. This audio is amplified by a type 386 IC audio
ampl ifier. The frequency ranges of the oscillator may be altered by chang-
ing the value of the .01-F capacitor or the potentiometers . A lower
frequency may be obtained by making the capacitor larger. By selecting
other value potentiometers, the range can be extended either up or down. A
larger potentiometer wi ll extend the upper range and lower value will
extend the lower range. The device is fairly accurate from 1000 ohms to
680k ohms.

Adapted from the November 1976 issue of Industrial Education magazine with penniss ion of the publisher.
Copyright C> 1976 by Macmillian Professional Magazines, Inc .. 77 Bedford Street, Stamford. CT 06901. All rights
reserved.

81
 9V

22k 1.2k *

. . - - - - - -.... ? 3
555
10k

"J; .OlF

DPDT

10k

* Substitute to change volume

Fig. 8-1. Schematic diagram of the audible ohmmeter. (Courtesy Industrial

Education.)

Measuring Unknown Resistances

To measure an unknown value of resistance, connect it to the binding
posts. When the switch is placed in the "known" position, a tone will be
heard. When the switch is moved to the "unknown" position, another tone
will be heard. The first tone can be varied by any one of the three poten-
tiometers. Select one potentiometer and adjust it until the known and
unknown tones are the same. It may be necessary to select a different
potentiometer. When the two tones are the same, the resistance is indi-
cated by the dial of the potentiometer. This is also the resistance of the
unknown , since the two are equal.
It is important to note that this device is not as accurate as most

82
common analog ohmmeters . It is unusual and it may be of interest for this
reason. It is also easy to build and costs very little.

Other Uses
Although this device was designed as an ohmmeter, it can serve some
other purposes:
1. By attaching a key and series resistor to the terminals, it can be
made into a good code osci llator.
2. It serves as a continuity tester when probes are attached to the
terminals . A short produces a high-pitched sound . Opens produce
no sound . After a little practice you will be able to estimate the
resistance between points on a PC board.

Fig. 8-2. The ohmmeter is installed in a plastic file box. Note instructions in the lid.
(Courtesy Industrial Education.)

83
 3. Resistors can be sorted by determining the tone produced by
certain resistance. All unknown resistors that produce thi s tone are
the same.
4. The unit can be modified to measure unknown capacitors. Let a
DPDT switch connect the internal capacitor or the unknown. Cal i-
brate the pote ntiometers to read capacitance .

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
Figure 8-2 shows the comple ted unit installed in a plastic box . Figure
8-3 shows the reverse side of the front panel. The circuit board can be seen
above the speaker. The PC board is secured by the wires that attach it to the
rest of the components .
The following procedure should be fo llowed when constructing this
project:
1. Secure all parts. Except for potentiometers, parts values are not
critical. Calibration wi ll compensate for minor changes.
2. Lay out and punch or drill the front pane l. See Fig. 8-4 for a layout
which can be used. Be sure to drill the right size holes for the parts
to be used.
3. Mark the panel surface as desired with stick-ons or a resist pen.

Fig. 8-3. The underside of the front panel. The circuit board is above and to the
left of the speaker. (Courtesy Industrial Education .)

84
 5 3/16 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..
,

11 /B-t-11 /4~

.....---+----

1 7/ 16
y ~ 3 /8 (4 holes)

+ $8~
"$.

~
~

-'t

fif
+ ::Ill

~. l!1l
,!,, '.
.
..-1 18 (25)

.
~"!"'~
)

J/3/4 ~6
5
-+---+--- -$-
) 1 1 5/16 [ (3holes

115/32 ~ f ~]

"" ~ .@::
'~,____ _____________
f~
0_1_1_3~/_4 _ __..,

Fig . 8-4. Layout dimensions for front panel. (Courtesy Industrial Education.)

4. Mount switches and other parts on the fron t panel.

5. Lay out and etch the PC board. See Fig. 8-5 for the layout of both
sides of the PC board.
6. Drill the PC board .
7. Wire the jumper , "]" in Fig. 8-5 , component side, under the IC
socket fi rst. Then mount the IC socket and other components.
Solder each joint and clip the excess leads . Use of the IC socket is
recommended, since it will avoid possible damage to the IC during
soldering.
8. Wire all leads to the front panel accord ing to the schematic dia-
gram .
9. Insert the ICs in the socket according to the layout and hook up the
battery.

Test and Calibration

1. Test the unit with switch in the "known" position. By switching to
each potentiometer in turn , three different tones should be heard.
The tone may be varied in pitch by adj usting the potentiometer that
is in the circuit.

85
 + ,, . Sw + -
,.,,~
Spkr +
-c:D-0
$1.::Jf.:~J
"': :"' 8
~ ~
l.J____L
r- 01.F

Component
side
+
Fig. 8-5. Layout of both sides of the circuit board. (Courtesy Industrial Educa-
tion.)

2. Calibrate the dials by connecting known values of resistance to the

binding posts and adjusting the "known" tone to match . The dial
may then be marked for this value of resistance.
3. If linear potentiometers are used, the dial markings should be
evenly spaced. If non-linear potentiometers are used, the marks
will be unevenly spaced . The important point is to mark the dial
accurately and to use accurate resistors ( 5% or better) .
4. After calibration, make spot checks of other known value s to verify
the accuracy of the device .

86
PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 Switch, 3 position rotary 1
2 Switch, slide, SPST 1
3 Switch, slide, DPDT 1
4 Battery, 9 V
5 Battery connector
6 Case, plastic, see text
7 Knobs, for V. ." Shaft, pointer type 4
8 Potentiometer , linear, 1 Megohm 1
9 Potentiometer, linear, lOOk ohms 1
10 Potentiome ter, linear , lOk ohms 1
11 Dial plate , aluminum (use unmarked side) 3
12 LED , red 1
13 Binding posts 2
14 Speaker, 2-inch, 3.2 ohms 1
15 IC , timer , type 555 1
16 IC , amplifier, Radio Shack type 386 1
17 Socket, DIP, 16-pin 1
18 Capacitor, .01 ,F, 12 Vdc 1
19 Capacitor, electrolytic, 100 ,F, 12 Vdc 1
20 Resistor, l.2k ohm , Yz W 1
21 Resistor, lk ohm, Y2 W 1
22 Resistor , lOk ohms, Y2 W 1
23 Resistor , 22k ohms, 1/2 W 1
24 Copper clad board , miscellaneous nuts and bolts, sheet
metal, solder , wire, etc.

87
Chapter 9

A Digital Counter Demonstrator

Early in the study of digital e lectronics, it becomes necessary to understand
the various number systems used in digi ta l circu its. Nearly all digital
devices operate in a common code system known as BCD (binary coded
de cimal). The ability to dis play both decimal and BCD is useful to any
instructor teaching digital electronics.
The truth table in Fig . 9-1 indicates the coding fo r both dec imal and
BCD outputs. The schemat ic diagram which electricall y demonstrates this
truth tab le is shown in Fig . 9-2 . This circuit operates in the following
manner .

OPERATION
A type 555 IC is used as a clock, or astable multivibrator. It produces a
square-wave signa l with the frequency adjustable to several seconds. The
display circuits count the square waves in both the binary and decimal
systems .

Counter
A 7490 decade-counter, IC2, is used to count the clock pulses. It
counts to nine and the n begins again at ze ro as long as pulses are delivered
to it. The output of !CZ is a four-b it code, ABCD. This represents the binary
equivalents of decimal numbers from 0 to 9. Refer to Fig. 9-1.
IC2 can be reset to zero at any time by switching pin 2 or 3 to positive,
or high . Switching must be bounce less, therefore IC4, a 7400 quad NANO

This project first appe ared in the Octo ber 1977 issue of School Shop , Prakk en Publi cations, Inc .. Ann Arbor.
Michigan.

88
 Binary-7 segment display truth table

Binary coded 7 segr:nent Decimal

decimal (BCD) binary code

A B c 0 a b c d e I g

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 = high =on a 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 2
0 = low = 'otf
1
1-1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 10 0 1 3

7 segment
display con l igu r~
e r-g-1
d
c
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 00 1 1 4

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 5

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 6

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 7

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 g

Fig. 9-1 . BCD and seven-segment-code truth table. (Courtesy School Shop.)

gate is used as a de-bouncing circuit. Most manual switches produce one or

more voltage pulses, or spikes , when they are operated. This is called
bounce.

Transistor Drivers
The BCD output of IC2 cannot drive the 40-milliampere display lamps
which are used in this circuit. LEDs can be used directly with the 7490 IC
but the visibility in a classroom is not good. If LEDs are used, connect a
220-ohm limiting resistor in series with each.
The use of 2N2907 PNP transistors provides enough current to acti-
vate the display lamps . The BCD output from IC2 must be inverted to drive
the bases of the transistors . IC5, 7400 quad NAND gate , is used as four
inverters to provide signals of the correct polarity for the transistors .

Display Lamps
The BCD display lamps are mounted on a PC board which is plugged
into a socket atop the unit. The BCD display lamps are marked ABCD . The
seven-segment decimal display needs no marking.
To provide manual display of the BCD output, switches are provided to
turn on each transistor . This is also true for the decimal display. Automatic
counting is stopped by moving the auto/manual switch to manual. This
removes supp ly voltage from IC3 and IC5.

Seven-Segment Display Driver

The seven-segment decimal display is powered by applying the BCD
output from IC2 to a decoder-driver. IC3, type 7447, is used for this

89
 a b

Auto-Man

... 220
fl

Zero

Fig. 9-2. Schematic diagram of demonstrator. (Courtesy School Shop.)

90
d e

220!1 (8)

sv
lamp (4)

91
purpose. It will drive a small seven-segment decimal display in response to
a BCD input. The display unit used here requires more current than the
type 744 7 is designed to supply . Driver trans istors are used to provide
enough current.

Display Unit
The display board is plugged into a socket on the top of the unit. Each
segment of the display consists of three LEDs. The LEDs are covered with
a red translucent plastic sheet to make the display more visible from a
distance. Filament lamps such as were used in the BCD display are not used
here. The combined current would have been too much for the power
supply.

Power Supply
A regulated power supply using an LM309K regulator , IC6, provides a
5-volt, I-ampere supp ly. This is quite adequate for the entire circuit.

8 4 2

D c B A
(MSB) (LSB)

I
Com. D C B A

Fig. 9-3. Layout of the component side of display PC board (not to scale) .

92
 A 8 C D Com .

Fig. 9-4. Foil side layout of BCD display PC board (not to scale) .

PC BOARD CONSTRUCTION
The entire circuit , except for the display and power supp ly boards, is
mounted on one large PC board . See Chapter 3 for details on how to make a
PC board . The use of IC sockets is re commended to reduce the problem of
heat damage to ICs.

BCD Display
Figures 9-3 and 9-4 are the layouts for both sides of the BCD disp lay
board. The bi-pin lamps are the on ly components to be insta lled on this
board.

Decimal Display
Figures 9-5 and 9-6 show the layouts of both sides of the PC board for
the dec imal, or seven-segment , display. This board will have onl y the
twenty-one LEDs soldered to it. Be careful to mount all the LEDs at the
same height, since they will be covered by the red filter.
Both the BCD and seven-segment boards plug into edge -connector

93
 Fig. 9-5. Layout of the foil side of
seven-segment display PC board
(not to scale).

fedccg

sockets installed on the top of the unit. If odd sized sockets are used, be sure
to redesign the edge connector pads of these two boards.

Main Board
Figures 9- 7 and 9-8 show the layouts for the main PC board. There are

Fig. 9-6. Layout of the component

side of seven-segment display PC
board (not to scale) .

94
95
co
0)
7 segment display
~
f a b c
+
+ ~o!ttb~d~e~f~;>M1J
I
c
I I I 1 I
I I I I I
.......
' \ \ \ \ \ ',..... ---....:'

Fig. 9-8. Component layout of mair,

SPST (4) board (half-scale).

E =:tm- }
BCD

+
Auto _ - - = Jumper
manual ZERO
 +rut

'"' In

Fig. 99. Power supply PC layout, foil

side (not to scale).

6 12Vac
input

a number of jumpers to be installed. These should be soldered in first, the

components next, and hook-ups to the outside world, off board, last.

Power Supply
The regulated power supply has been placed on a separate PC board .

SV reg . out.

- +
.1/.tF
c::::::J

Fig. 910. Power supply PC layout,

component side (not to scale) .

8
Bridge
rectifier

'
~
612 Vac
input

97
<O
CX> 10~" ~~~~~------------------:lf\"""1'
r

I - $ I+
7 segment decimal Binary coded decimal

Fl- Is
El G IC "
D

_J
A B c D E F G A B c D

~ J\ O ~<om< l'~o
~
1 amp
-y--Power
\f7
Manual
'f
Count

+
Fig. 9-11. Front panel layout, full scale.
~1
Figures 9-9 and 9-10 give the layouts for both sides of this board. The
transformer is not mounted on the PC board, but is located on the inside
wall of the case.

FRONT PANEL AND CASE

The front panel layout is provided in Fig. 9-11. This layout can be
modified for other size switches or sockets . You may want to mount the
clock rate control on the panel, or drill an access hole for it. The finished
panel is bent to form a sloping front. Put all markings on the panel before
installing the parts.
The box can be made of wood or metal. Make it to fit the front panel
after the panel has been bent. The power cord can be brought out the front
or back, or you may prefer to use mounting feet and bring the cord out the
bottom .

USE
In operation, the unit is placed on the lecture table before the class.
The display boards face the class and the s loping control panel faces the
instructor . Figures 9-12 and 9-13 show two sides of the unit.
Using the manual mode and switches, you can demonstrate the BCD
code. The next step could be to do the same thing with the seven-segment

Fig. 9-12. View of demonstrator from the operator's side. (Courtesy School
Shop.)

99
Fig. 9-13. Observer's view of demonstrator. Left board displays numbers in
binary code and right board displays the seven-segment decimal number.
(Courtesy School Shop.)

display. This will show how all the decimal numbers can be made from
combinations of seven segments. It may avo id confusion if one display
board is removed or covered while the other is in use.
Finally, the circuit may be run in the automatic mode. The BCD and
decimal displays will both count and display the same quantities at the same
time. By adjusting the clock control, the display sequence can be slowed to
about two or three seconds. This should be enough time to recognize the
relationships between the decimal and BCD numbers .

PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 Resistor, 220 ohms Y2 W 7

2 Resistor, l.5k ohm, 1/2 W 11
3 Resistor, lOk ohms, Y2 W 1
4 Capacitor, electrol ytic, 1 ,F , 10 V 1
5 IC , quad NANO, type 7400 2
6 IC , decade cou nter, type 7490 1
7 IC, 7-segment decoder/driver, type 7447 1
8 Transistor, switching, PNP, 2N2907 11
9 Switch, toggle , SPST 13
10 Fuse, 1 A and holder 1
11 Switch, toggle, SPOT, zero control 1
12 Socket, circuit board , edge mount 2
13 Lamp , bi-pin type, 5 V, 40 MA 4
14 LED, red 22
15 Potentiometer, 1 megohm, PC type 1
16 Rectifier, bridge , 12 V, 1 A, full wave 1

100
Item Description Quantity
17 IC , time r, type 555 1
18 Socket , DIP, 14 pin 3
19 Socket DIP , 16 pin 1
20 Socket, DIP , 8 pin 1
21 Transformer, 120 Vac to 6.3 Vac , 1 A 1
22 IC , 5-vo lt regulator, type LM309K 1
23 Capacitor, electrolytic , 2000 ,F , 10 Vdc 1
24 Capacitor, ceramic, .l ,F, 10 Vdc 1
25 Misce llaneous wire , solder, wood, nuts . etc .

101
Chapter 10

A Modular Decade Counter

This project will allow the reader to construct a digital counter of up to
seven decades. The first part of the information is devoted to the theory of
operation. The last part provides the comp lete plans, a parts li st, and a
step-by-step procedure.
BINARY AND DECIMAL NUMBERS
In the world of digital electronics and compute rs, the familiar decimal
system is used to enter and read out information. The decimal system is
called the base-10 system, because ten digits are used, zero through nine.
The functions inside a computer are largely performed by using binary
numbers, or a base-2 system. Now that digital circuits are used so often, a
knowledge of the binary numbers system is necessary for anyone studying
electronics.
The binary system is an on-or-off, or a one-of-two-states, system. In
Fig. 10-1 when the switch is open, one state, the lamp is off. When the
switch is closed, the other state, the lamp is on. Open and closed are the only
two possible conditions in which the switch can be placed. On and off are the
only two possible conditions of the lamp.
High and Low
In digital electronics, the on state is usually called a high and is
indicated by a one . In the example in Fig. 10- 1, onl y two bits of information
can be conveyed by the system, on or off. If two switches and two lamps are
used, the number of states, or combinations, or bits, is more than two .

Adapted from the November 1977 issue of Industrial Educaticn magazine with permission of the publisher.
Copynght iCI 1977 by Macmillian Professional Magazines, Inc., 77 Bedford Stree t , Stamford, CT 06901. All rights
res erved.

102
 Switch

Lamp

'-------ll t-----------~
1

Fig. 10-1 . Circuit to demonstrate binary number system.

Bits
Figure 10-2 is an example of a system with more than two possible
combinations or states .
Figure 10-3 is a truth table which shows all the possible on-off combi-
nations of the lamps in Fig. 10-2. Notice that there are four on-off combina-
tions of the lamps.
In the truth table, the digits "O" and "1" are used to count the four
possible combinations . When they are used in a binary system, the digits
"O" and 'T' are called binary digits. Binary digiT is abbreviated bit. To
count in binary from zero to three, four counts, write 00, 01, 10, and 11.
If three lamps and switches are connected instead of two, three bits are
available for counting . With three bits, it is possible to count e ight combi-
nations, events, or things . The sequence is written: 000, 001, 010, 011,
100, 101, 110 , and 111.
From this it may be seen that the number of things that may be counted
increases when there are more places for digits. The same is true in the
familiar decimal system. With only one place for a digit, we can count from
zero to nine, ten counts. With places for two decimal digits we can count to
99; with three, to 999; etc.
With a place for only one binary digit, or bit, we can count from zero to
one, two counts. With two bits we can count from zero to three, four counts.
With three bits, we can count to seven , a total of eight counts . The formula
which tells how many things can be counted with a given number of bits is:

SW 1 L,

l k~

Fig. 10-2. Circuit to demonstrate two-bit binary system.

103
 SW, SW2 L, L2

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 1 1

Fig. 10-3. Truth table showing all on-off combinations for the circuit in Fig. 10-2.

X = 2N, where

Xis the number that can be counted, and

N is the number of bits avai lab le.
(The number 2 is for the base 2 system)

Ordinary switches and light bulbs were used to illustrate Figs . 10-1
and 10-2. In digital electronics, electronic swi tches, transistors and !Cs,
are used. The number of switches, equal to the number of bits, may be
thousands or millions. Therefore, very large numbers may be counted. For
example, a ten-bit circu it can count up to 2 10 , or 1024. It is left to the reader
to find how many things can be counted by a one-megabit circuit. (A megabit
equals one mill ion bits .)
Decimal Conversion
Digital circuits must use binary numbers because "on" and "off' are
the only possible states of a switch. People use the decimal system because
it is almost impossible to comprehend numbers expressed in binary. For
example, the number 275 in decimal is written in binary as 100010011.
An important function of a computer is to change the decimal input to
binary for processing. Then it must change the binary solution of the
problem back to decimal so it can be understood .
Since the decimal system is based on ten and a three-bit system can
count only to eight, a four-bit system is needed. This means that four
devices, or switches and lamps, are required. The four-bit system has an
excess of combinations, but the excess need not be used.

4-Bit Truth Table

Figure 10-4 shows a truth table of the four-bit system just discussed.

104
The combinations from zero to nine are used quite often , so they have been
given a name. They are called the BCD code, or binary coded decimal.
DCBA represent the individual bits. A is the least significant digit,
because it appears to the right.Dis the most significant digit, but it appears
to the left. These terms also apply to ordinary decimal numbers. For
example, in the number 9746, 6 is the least significant digit and 9 is most
significant. These terms are abbreviated LSD and MSD .

DECADE COUNTER
The decimal system is used in almost everything we do. If digital
electronics is to be practical, it must be able to handle decimal numbers.
The device which does this is called a decade counter, because it can count
up to ten. One device that can be used as a decade counter is the type 7490
IC.

Resetting
It was explained before that a digital counter must count by some
power of two: 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. It is possible to arrange a counter so that it
resets, or goes back to zero before it counts to maximum. A four-bit counter
starts at zero and counts to fifteen, but it can be made to reset after it gets to
nine . Thus the tenth count reads out zero, and the counter starts over.

D c B A Decimal 0 =off (low)

23 22 21 20 1 - on (high)

0 0 0 0 0 )
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 0 4 BCD Code
0 1 0 1 5
0 1 1 0 6 I
0 1 1 1 7
1 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 9 )
1 0 1 0 10 --..
1 0 1 1 11
1 1 0 0 12
1 1 0 1 13 > Not used
1 1 1 0 14 for BCD .
1 1 1 1 15
I........

Fig . 10-4. Truth table for four-bit binary code system. Numbers from 1Oto15 are
not used in the BCD code for decade counting .

105
 The same electrical pulse that resets the decade counter to zero can be
used as the input to a second decade counter . This second counter receives
onl y one input pulse for every ten that feed the first counter .

Second Counter
Suppose that 93 input pulses have been fed into the first decade
counter. Since it resets after every ten pulses, it now "reads" 3. Each of the
nine times that it rese t itself, it sent a pulse to the second counter. The
second counter is reading 9. The display unit shows the 9 to the left of the 3,
so it reads out 93 .
If seven more pulses are fed into the system, both decade counters will
be reset back to zero . Ninety-nine is the highest number that can be counted
in two decades .
A third decade can be connected so that it counts the reset pulses of the
second . This system can count to 999. Four decades can count to 9999, e tc.
The 7490 can also be used to di vide, which is actually a counting
process . It is often used in making master clocks . A master clock is an
e lectronic device that produces pulses at regular, accurate intervals. It
usually produces other pulse trains at longer intervals. Each train of pulses
will have an inte rval te n times longer than the one that precedes it. To say it
another way, each train has a frequency that is one-tenth that of the
preceding train.

MASTER CLOCK
In this project, a maste r clock is used to provide seven different
frequencie s in decades. The highest frequency is 1000 events per second,
or 1000 Hz (Hertz). The next one is 100 Hz, then 10 Hz, etc. The lowest
frequency is .001 Hz, or one event eve ry one thousand seconds. This makes
it possible to measure times from as short as .001 second to as long as
9999. 999 seconds.

Oscillator
The clock oscillator is the type 555 IC , marked !Cl in Fig . 10-5. It is
connected as an as table, or unstable, multi vibrator. The output voltage from
it, pin 3, is a square wave. That is , the voltage at this point is alternately
zero and about five volts .
In one cycle, thi s voltage rises from zero to about fi ve volts, goes high .
Then it remains high for a period of time before it returns to zero, goes low .
When it is just ready to go high again, a cycle is completed . The number of
times it does thi s per second is called the frequency. If 1000 cycles are
completed in one second , the frequency is 1000 Hz. The frequency of !Cl
can be set accurate ly by adjusting Rl.

Dividers
The output of !Cl drives IC2 , pin 3. The function of IC2 will be

106
 Start

.01.F

All pins top view.

6 .3 Vac 110120 Va

tOOO HZ .
)gOH~z Output to decoders
' - - - - 1 HZ.
M Zero L-------o.01
~--------
' - - - - - .1 HZ.
HZ .
.001 HZ .

Fig. 10-5. Master clock and power supply.

described later. The output of IC2 , pin 5, has a frequency of 1000 Hz . This is
one of the outputs to the decoders, which will be described later. It is also
the input to IC3, pin 1.
The output of IC3 , pin 12, is brought out to the decoders. It is also used
to drive IC4, pin 1. The frequency of thi s voltage is 100 Hz. This is exactly
one-tenth of the highest clock frequency.
As Fig. 10-5 shows, each of the 7490 ICs receives its input from the
one before it and drives the one that follows. An output from each one of
them is used to drive a de coder , to be described later. The frequencies of
the seven outputs of the clock that go to the decoders are shown in Fig.
10-5 .

107
De-Bouncing
Digital counters have the abi li ty to count very fast, 20 MHz or so. This
ability to count high-frequency pulses can cause errors if a mechanical
switch is used. Mechanical switches "bounce." That is, they often produce
several pulse s of vo ltage when they are operated . Each bounce is counted,
so the counter advances more than it shou Id.
One way to "de-bounce" a sw itch is to connect a bi-stable sw itch, or
flip-flop, between the switch and the counter. The start-stop circuit, IC2 in
Fig. 10-5 is an example. A cheaper and quite adequate de-bouncing circuit
uses a 7400 quad NANO gate IC. IC9 ha s been utilized to de-bounce the
zero switch, used to clear all counters. Both of these ICs operate on the first
pulse from the switch. Any bouncing which occurs afterwards is blocked
from the counters.

Summary
The master clock and its dividers produce a total of seven outputs. The
output with the highest frequency , 1000 Hz, has a pulse every .001 second .
Each of the others has a frequen cy that is one-tenth of the one-preceding it .
A start-stop circuit, IC2 and the switches, permit the clock to be
started and stopped at will . The zero re set circuit , IC9 and its switch,
resets all the dividers, or decade counters, to zero.
Notice that the e lectronic circuitry does all the things that a mechani-
cal stop-watch can do, except one: It does not indicate. It is something like a
stop-watch without hands. The next step is to put "hands" on the clock. In
digital electronics, the hands are called the display, or readout , system.

READ-OUT CIRCUITS
There are seven similar read-out modu les in the complete unit. One is
connected to each of the seven outputs from the master clock. One indicates
thousandths of seconds. The next indicates hundredths of seconds: the third
indicates tenths; etc. The seventh indicator shows how many thousands of
seconds have elapsed since the start switch was closed.
Figure 10-6 is the schematic diagram of one of these read-out modules.
It consists of two !Cs , resis tors , and a seven-segment LED indicator.
These components are mounted on a PC board.
ICll is the same type 7490 that was used for decade counting in the
master clock. Here it is connected differently. While only one output was
taken from it before, now there are four outputs. They come from pins 12,
9 , 8, and 11. These are identified as outputs ABCD in the truth tab le , Fig.
10-7.
Assume !Cll has just been reset to ze ro. According to Fig. 10-7, all
four outputs are low. When the next pulse arrives at the input, pin 14, A
goes high and BCD stay low. The next pulse drives B high and ACD are low.
Figure 10-7 shows which outputs are high and which are low for each

108
 7 8

220 fl (8)

7447

14 13 12 11 10 9 8
(A) (D) ~ (8) (C)
7490
IC11

+
4 5 6 7

Input
Zero +5V OUT IN
Decimal
" O blank
point

Fig. 10-6. Schematic diagram of decade counter and indicator. A resistor to pin 6
of the MAN-1 lights the decimal point. (Courtesy Industrial Education.)

109
 a
Decimal Binary 7 segment code

D c B A a b c d e f q
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O =low
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 =high (on)

Fig. 10-7. Truth table showing decimal to binary to seven-segment code.

number of input pulses. Remember that the tenth input pulse resets the IC
to zero, ABCD low.

Four-Lamp Read-Out
It is an interesting exercise to learn to read the output of IC11 in
decimal numbers. Mount four LEDs in a row and label them DCBA from left
to right. Connect them to the DCBA outputs of IC11. Use 220-ohm limiting
resistors in series with the LEDs.
When only A is on, read 1. Only Bon stands for 2. A and B indicate 3,
etc. Refer to Fig. 10-7 to learn the code.

Decoder-Driver
The exercise above is interesting, but decoding several banks of lamps
is not very practical. A decoder-driver IC can do the job a few thousand
times more quickly, and it makes no mistakes.
IC12 is the decoder-driver in Fig. 10-6. It has four inputs, ABCD,
corresponding to the outputs of ICll. Its seven outputs, a through g,
correspond to the seven segments of the MAN-1 indicator. When inputs A
and C are high, for example, segments a, c, d, f, and g of the indicator are
lighted. This forms the numeral 5. The truth table in Fig. 10-7 shows the
codes for the other decimal digits .

Seven-Segment Indicator
The indicators used in this project are complete units. All that is
necessary is to connect them to a decoder-driver and a power source. The
resistors in the schematic, Fig. 10-6, are necessary to limit the current.
Without them, too much current will destroy the IC or the indicator.

CONSTRUCTION
Before construction is begun, a brief discussion of the counter module

110
 tsuco
1977

foil side
decade counter

+ Man1
+-
c:J
33on (8)

7447

+ 7490 - ~Yo.
+In "O" D.P Out In+

Fig. 10-8. Layout (not to scale) of foil (A) and component (8) sides of decade
counter module PC board . (Courtesy Industrial Education.)

and other layout information is necessary. After this material is covered, a

step-by-step procedure for constructing the unit will be presented.
Figure 10-6 shows the schematic diagram of the counter module . A
total of seven of these modules is required. Each module contains the 7490
counter, a 7447 decoder-driver and a MAN-1 seven-segment LED display.
Figure 10-8 is a layout of both sides of the module PC board. Notice that this
unit is designed to be plugged into an edge connector.

Master Clock
Figure 10-9 is the layout of the foil side of the PC board for the master

111
clock . Figure 10-10 is the component side of the PC board and shows the
correct location of all components and jumpers.

Start Stop
A separate start-s top de-bouncing switch is used to operate this

Zero
set

Fig . 10-9. Foil side layout of the master clock PC board .

112
 t
? I 0
+
.001 Hz . .___7490

--
_ __, J

J-J
LM 309k
.01 Hz

D.,"
7490
ac

--
J
BcidgO~
Hz .

J
~~-7-49-o-...I
j 1000F
.1 Hz A

? 7490 ~~
10 Hz. j
~10k

.01F

~ 7490
D~
555

-
100 Hz . J
j

? 7490 _ j
r
"' 1400 I. / J_,,,.

1000 Hz.

.. -+
+ 0 +

lJ
Zero T
Zero set Stop*

* If stop-start IC is used , do not use switch

at stop terminals and remove j*. Attach start
stop IC to points A-A.

Fig. 10-10. Component layout of master clock PC board (not to scale) .

113
 Start-Stop
+ l. l.

14 13 10 8
7474

2 3 5 6 7
In J1Jl _n.n_ Out

Fig. 10-11. Schematic diagram of de-bounced start-stop unit.

counter. It uses a 7474 flip-flop IC as illustrated in Fig. 10-11. The layout of

the PC board for this circuit is shown in Fig. 10-12. A touch switch can also
be used for start and stop control.

IC Diagrams
Pin diagrams with notes about the operation of the various ICs used in
this project are presented in Figs. 10-13 through 10-15 . This information
can be useful for verifying pin connections and for trouble-shooting. Figure
10-13 is the diagram forthe 7490, Fig. 10-14isforthe 7447, and Fig. 10-15
is for the MAN-1 display device.

Zero Suppression
To avoid confusion in reading the display of the counter, the zeros to
the left of the decimal point shou ld be suppressed. This can be done by
wiring the modules as shown in Fig. 10-16. Notice that pin 5of the decade at

+ +
Start ~
(7\ (-\
\.!!.,)Stop
+
SPST (2)
(No)

~ 7474

+
I
+ Out In
;- In Out +
Foil side Component side

Fig. 10-12. Layout of both sides of the start-stop PC board.

114
 BCD out
,_.... BCD out
,...__.._
Clock
#272 A D B c
14 13 12 9 8

7490

2 3 4 5 6 7

Clock +
# 1 -7- 5 0 set

Fig. 10-13. Pin diagram of 7490 decade counter. Notice power connections are
not to pins 7 and 14 as is usual in TTL ICs.

the left is grounded to keep the zero from being displayed . Suppression
passes from module to module, left to right, to suppress all unneeded zeros.

ASSEMBLY
The cabinet for this timer is made of acrylic plastic. This allows a view
of the interior of the unit and prevents viewers from touching the compo-
nents. Figure 10-17 shows the completed unit . One piece of plastic is bent
to form the front, back, and top panel. The ends are cut to fit and cemented

7 segment output

g a b c d e
+
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9

7447

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Zero blank BCD in .

Fig. 10-14. Pin diagram of 7447 IC. Current limiting resistors must be used in
series with the output leads to protect LEDs.

115
 a

+ Man-1

DP .

Fig. 10-15. Pin diagram of MAN-1 seven-segment LED display. Limiting resistors
must be used in series with each segment to protect the LED from excessive
current.

to the top. The base is made of wood. The decade modules are mounted
along the top. A red plastic filter is placed above the modules to make the
displa y more visible.
Figure 10-18 gives a closer view of the unit showing the plug-in
modules. The viewing filter is hinged to allow the modules to be removed .
Notice that thi s unit has start-stop push-button switches plus a touch plate
for control.

Fabrication Procedure
Follow these steps to construct the timer:
1. Obtain all parts. Check the parts list to be sure all the parts are on
hand .
2 . Cut the PC boards to size and clean them. Lay out the foil patterns
for all PC boards; then etch , dri ll , and fini sh them.
3 . Prepare the right-angle sockets fo r the display units. Bend the
leads of the wi re- wrap type 14-pin DIP sockets so that the sockets
are at ri ght angles to the PC boards. When the display units are

Decoder-drive rs
1000 100 10 0.1 0 .01 0.00 1-4-Seconds
MSB
~~~LSB
No zero su ppress ion

Fig. 10-16. Wiring diagram for suppression of leading zeros. Zeros to the right of
the decimal point are not suppressed.

116
Fig . 10-17. Completed counter. Red acrylic filter is hinged so it may be pushed
out of the way to plug in modules. Clear acrylic case allows the complete circuit to
be seen.

plugged into these sockets they will be visible through the red
filter.
4. Install all jumper wires on the PC boards. Then insert the sockets,
and finally the other components.
5. Solder all joints.
6. Make a layout for the plastic sheet that will be the fron t, back, and
top panel. Drill and bend the plastic, and secure it to the base.
7. Mount switches, sockets, main PC board, and other hard ware.
8. Wire the edge-connector module sockets to each other and to the
master-clock board.
9. Wire all switches and other components according to the schema-
tic diagram.

117
 10. Plug modules into proper connectors and test the entire circuit.
11. Make and install the plastic end pieces and the red light filter.

USES
This counter wi ll display up to 9999.999 seconds. It can be used to
time events that last from a fraction of a second up to about 2 hours and 46
minutes .
When very short events are timed, the reac tion time of the operator
wi ll introduce errors. It wi ll be necessary to replace the start-stop buttons
with an e lectronic switch. It could even be used to determine such things as
the muzzle ve locity of a gun . Special start-stop switches and controls would
have to be designed for this application.
The timing range can be changed by changing the frequency of the
clock oscillator, !Cl . By increasing the frequency ten times, events as brief
as .0001 second can be measured. In other words, the resolution will be
increased from .001 second to .0001 second . Refer to Chapter 8 for clues
about changing the clock frequency.

CALIBRATION
The clock potentiometer must be adjusted carefully if the timer is to
be accurate. This is Rl of Fig . 10-5. For a rough calibration, compare the
one-second display to a stop watch. For greater accuracy, use a five or ten
minute time interval.

Fig. 10-18. Close-up view of the unit with decade counter modules plugged in .

118
 You may want to mount a "fine calibrate" control on the control panel.
Use a 5k-ohm potentiomete r connected in series with Rl .

PARTS LIST
Item Description Quantity
MASTER CLOCK
1 IC , type 7490 6
2 IC, type 7474 1
3 IC , type 555 1
4 IC, type 7400 1
5 IC regulator , type LM309K 1
6 Capacitor 2000 1-tF. 10 V 1
7 Capacitor .01 1-tF , 10 V 1
8 Switch. SPST, normally open (push button) 2
9 Switch, SPOT, toggle 1
10 Switch , SPST , toggle 1
11 Transformer, 6.3V, l A 1
12 Bridge rectifier , 2 A 1
13 Capacitor .1 1-tF 1
14 Pote ntiometer, lOOk ohms 1
15 Resistor , lOk ohms , V2 W 1
16 Line cord with plug 1
17 Socket , IC, 14-pin DIP 9
18 Socket, PC board, to fit decade modules 7
19 Misce llaneous plastic , wood, e dge connector s, wire,
solder, and hardware

DECADE MODULE
1 Display , type MAN-1 7
2 Socket, DIP, 14-p in, wire-wrap type 7
3 Resistor , 220 ohm 56
4 IC , type 7490 7
5 IC, type 7447 7
6 Socket, IC , 16-pin DIP 7
7 Socket, IC , 14-pin DIP 7

119
Chapter 11

A Breadboard with Power Supply

The need to breadboard experimental circuits was explained in Chapter 2.
Although crude breadboards made of wooden blocks and nails may be used,
the serious experimenter will want something better. A number of com-
mercial breadboards are available. Some have built-in power supplies,
switches, controls, and other features. These units may be rather expen-
sive . The unit described here will provide a compact breadboard with a
regulated power supply for a reasonable cost.

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply used in thi s project provides regulated five volts de
with current up to one ampere. Most TTL I Cs operate from a 5-volt supply.
Small changes in supply voltage can cause many problems, so it must be
regulated. One ampere is adequate for most simple TTL circuits.
The schematic of this power supply is shown in Fig. 11-1. The trans-
former can be a common filament transformer . A bridge rectifier is called
for, but four diodes may be used. A 3000-,F capacitor is shown, but
2000-,F is large enough. The LED serves as a pilot light. Its limiting
resistance may be as much as 390 ohms.

PC Board
The PC board for this power supply is shown in Fig. 11-2. Both the foil
and component sides are shown. The layouts will have to be changed so that
the parts you use will fit. Make the foil conductors wide enough to carry one
ampere of current, one-eighth inch or 3 mm.
Figure 11-3 shows the top view of the completed power supply . A
bottom view of the PC board unit is shown in Fig. 11-4 . The capacitor tabs

120
 )11 1 amp .
-----tin

3000F
LM309

GNO
Ou11-----0+

Fig. 11-1 . Schematic diagram of regulated 5-volt de power supply.

are bent over to hold the unit. Two of the tabs are soldered to make the
ground connection. Notice how the foil pattern includes labels for various
terminals and the author's monogram.

CASE CONSTRUCTION
The case is designed to fit a Proto-Board No. 100 breadboard sold by
Continental Specialties Corp. A storage space for jumper wires is included
in this design.
Figure 11-5 shows the location of the holes which need to be drilled in
the proto-board. The holes located in the corners serve to fasten the

o ac o
In

Bridge +

3000,f

_ --c:::J- LED +
0 220 0 0 0

0 Component side

Fig . 11-2. Full-scale layout of power supply PC board .

121
Fig. 11-3. Top view of completed power-supply PC board .

Fig. 11-4. Bottom view of completed power-supply PC board . Ac power enters at

the left and regulated de is available at the right.

# 12 drill (LED) # 1 drill (switch)

0 0 #30 drill
4 corners

Terminals

0 0 0 0 0

.,'
I ''
I ~
Proto-board

Fig. 11-5. Approximate locations and sizes of holes to be drilled in the Proto-
board.

122
 Corner block

J<----4 --+----.,( 2

5 3/e

Dimensions in inches

Fig. 11-6. Internal dimensions of the case (in inches) . Corner blocks in the large
opening support the breadboard.

proto-board to the case. The other holes are aligned with the terminals
already in the board. The LED is located in the left hole and a miniature
toggle switch is mounted in the right hole. Hole sizes may be changed if
some other size of switch or LED is used. Do not drill these holes until the
parts have been obtained and the proper hole sizes are known.

T
2V2
j_

Masonite bottom

Fig. 11-7. Approximate size and shape of completed unit. Construction details
and joints may be modified to suit individual needs.

123
Fig . 11-8. View of completed unit. The compartment at the left holds jumper
wires.

The box is made of V2 -inch wood. Pine is acceptable. Befo re the

e lectronics are installed , the box should be stained or painted. The base is
made from 1/s -inch masonite. Figure 11-6 shows the internal dimens ions of
the box. Notice that blocks are glued into the comers to support the
breadboard.
Figu re 11-7 shows a drawing of the unit. Figure 11-8 is a photograph of
the fini shed unit. The fu se and power cord may be seen at the top . The PC
board and transform er are located under the breadboard .

PARTS LIST
Item Desc ription Quantity

1 Proto-Board breadboard, No . 100

2 Switch , SPST, mini ature type, Rad io Shack 275-612 or
equal
3 LED, red
4 Capacitor, 3000 .F , 10 V 1
5 Regulator, type LM309K 1
6 Transformer, 120 Vac to 6.3 Vac, 1 A 1
7 Line cord with plug
8 Fuse holder and fu se, 1 A
9 Resistor , 220 ohms , V2 W
10 Bridge rectifier, 1 A
11 Misce llane ous screws, wood, masonite , solder, PC
board stock , etc.

124
 Chapter 12

A Large Digital
Display with Breadboard
This breadboard is designed around AP models 234L and 206R breadboard
sockets . The sockets are mounted on the surface of a hardboard insert with
fasteners. The box shown in Fig. 12-1 has a storage compartment for
jumpe r wires and components . Figure 12-2 shows the interior view of this
unit. The transformer and power suppl y are mounted to the sides of the box .
The sockets will accommodate ICs , transistors , resistors, capacitors ,
and 24-gauge jumpers .

CONSTRUCTION
The power supply is under the socket panel. The schematic for the
power supply is shown in Fig . 12-3. It is a regulated 5-volt de supply which
will deliver up to 750 mA (mi lliamperes) . This is enough curre nt for most
circuits .
The rectifier, filter capacitor , and type 7805 regulator are mounted on
a PC board. Figure 12-4 shows both the foil and component sides of this
board.

Display Board
A mu lti-conductor cable is used to connect the display board to the
breadboard. Seve n wires are used . One wire is common to all lamps and one
wire connects each of the lamps to the collector of its driver transistor . A
driver transistor fo r each lamp used in the demonstrator is mounted on the
socke ts of the bre adboard unit. A terminal block is mounted next to the

Ada pted from the Octobe r 1978 issue of Industrial Education magazine with permission of the publisher.
Copyri ght 1978 by Macmillan Professional Magazines, Inc .. 77 Bedford Street. Stamford, CT 06901. All rights
reserved.

125
Fig. 12-1. View of the breadboard control box. Space at left is for components
and jumper wires. Barrier terminals at right connect to display lamps. (Courtesy
Industrial Education.)

sockets . This can be seen in Fig. 12-1. The cable from the display board is
terminated on one side of this block. Jumper wires are used to connect the
other side of the block to the breadboard.
The display board is constructed of heavy Vs-inch fiber board with a
pine frame. The dimensions are approximately 30" x 21 " .

Fig. 12-2. Inside of the breadboard control box.

126
 In Out
7805 1--- -.0 +

Ground

1000 5 Vdc
F

Fig. 12-3. Schematic diagram of the regul ated 5-volt power supply. (Courtesy
Industrial Education .)

A piece of heavy illustration or poster board may be inserted in the

lowe r two thirds of this display board. The diagram of the circuit to be
demonstrated is drawn here . The points to which the lamps are connected
are indicate d by lines drawn to the lamps .
Figure 12-5 shows a ring-counter shift-register circuit disp layed on
the board. The circuit diagram can be removed and anothe r circuit installed .
All diagrams can be stored for future use.

Display Lamps
The 5-volt display lamps have high brightness and can be seen very
well in a well -lighte d room. A maximum of six lamp s can be used. The lamp
hook-up is shown in Fig. 12-6 .
The lamps used are bi-pin types obtained from Poly-Paks , stock
number D3130. They are mounted in the display board by gluing each lamp
in a Vt- inch ho le.

Lamp Drivers
Each lamp on the display board requires 40 mA , which may be more

+ 7805
+ + +
[i]
e- ff.+
cap

~
- ! l rec

ac
~1~ -
e-i
Component side
+ +
e Foil side
+
Fig. 12-4. Layout of the power-supply circu it board. (Courtesy Industrial Educa-
tion.)

127
Fig. 12-5. View of display board with a shift-register /ring-counter circuit shown in
block form. Indicator lamps at top are driven by the flip-flops. Lamp Eis not used
in this setup. (Courtesy Industrial Education.)

current than some circuits can supply. A driver circuit using a transistor for
each lamp is used to overcome this problem. The schematic diagram fo r this
circuit is shown in Fig. 12-7. Only the lamps are located on the display
board. The rest of the parts are on the sockets.
A positive signal app lied to the base resistor of a transistor switches
the transistor on. This lights the lamp hooked to its collector.

OPERATION
The circuit must be constructed on the breadboard by using jumper

Com. A B c D E F

Fig. 12-6. Connection diagram for display lamps. (Courtesy Industrial Educa-
tion.)

128
wires. This permits experiments to be conducted and resu lts shown on the
display. This unit makes it simple to modify or redesign a circuit.

Ring Counter
The ring-counter circuit, Figs. 12-1 and 12-5 illustrates one experi-
ment. The schematic diagram of this circuit is shown in Fig . 12-8 . This
diagram shows LED indicators as well as lamps and their transistor drivers.
Only the lamps are on the disp lay; the rest of the circuit parts are in the
socket. The circuit may be operated as a straight four-bit shift register. It
can be pulsed by interrupting the connection between pin 7 of the clock IC
and R2. This will demonstrate how data is shifted from A to B to C to D and
out.
The 555 clock output, in this example, is also routed to lamp F. The
blinking lamp shows the rate of the pulses. Since lamp Fis not needed for
the register, its use as a clock indicator is a good feature .
By changing the val ues of Rl and R2, the clock can be made to run
faster or slower. In the r ing counter , the output data at Dis re-inserted into
A, thereby keeping the shift going in a "ring." A fast pulse causes the lamps
to light and display much as a scanner radio does.
Two more flip-flops can be added to provide six lamps in the ring. By
setting or pre-loading various flip-flops, effects such as those seen on a
theater marquee can be attained.

Conclusion
This display aid for electronics has many uses that have not been
discussed here . The important advantage of the unit is that it produces a
clear, highly visible display. This is very valuable in making somewhat

Repeat
03130 (all) as
needed

2N2222 (all)

I
+
1k

Fig. 12-7. Hook-up of driver transistors and lamps. (Courtesy Industrial Educa-
tion.)

129
VJ A B C D
0 330 ohm
(4) SV lamps

Fig . 12-8. Schematic diagram of

shift-register /ring-counter circuit.
(Courtesy Industrial Education.)

R2 - - 4 .7k(fast) , 470k(slow) ----add for ring counter 5 V lamps

R1 - - 220k Shift register
difficult digital theory come alive to a large group. Many circuits can be
developed and stored, adding to the usefulness of the device.

PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 Transformer, 120 Vac to 6.3 Vac, lA 1

2 Bridge rectifier, 1 A 1
3 Capacitor, 1000 .F, 10 V 1
4 Regulator, 5 V, type 7805 1
5. Fuse holder and 1-A fuse 1
6 Toggle switch, SPST 1
7 Line cord with plug 1
8 IC, timer type 555 1
9 Breadboard socket and buss (see text) 1
10 Lamps, bi-pin, 5 V, 40 mA 6
11 Transistor, 2N2222 NPN 6
12 LED, red 4
13 Resistor, 330 ohms , V2 W 4
14 Resistor, 1000 ohms, 'lz W 6
15 IC, J-K flip-flop, type 7476 2
16 Capacitor, 1 .F, 10 V 1
17 Resistor, 4.7k ohms, V2 W 1
18 Resistor, 470k ohms, 'lz W 1
19 Resistor, 220k ohms, V2 W 1
20 Terminal s trip , screw type 1
21 Binding posts 2
22 Miscellaneous wood, hardboard, wire, solder, PC
stock, etc.

131
Chapter 13

Audio-Frequency
Generator with Digital Readout
Digital meters are easy to use s ince the re ad ing is hard to misinterpret.
There is no need to determine to which scale or what value a needle points.
All sorts of e lectronic instruments are being produced with digital read-
outs. In genera l, they are more expensive than the needle-type analog
devices .
The instrument to be built in thi s chapter does two things. It generates
s ignals in the audio range and indicates the frequency being ge nerated . As a
frequency meter, it will indicate the frequency of a signal applied to its input
terminals.

OPERATION
Two frequency ranges, high and low, are available from thi s generator.
The low range operates from 100 Hz to 2100 Hz . The high range supplies
frequencies from 1600 Hz to 27,000 Hz, 27 kHz. The frequency control is
not calibrated, since the digital readout indicates the frequency be ing gener-
ated.
The output is a square wave which is not symmetrical at all frequen-
cies. That is, the positi ve and zero periods of the cycle are not alwa ys equal
in duration. The output level is about eight volts at all frequ encies.

Frequency Meter
When the unit is used as a frequency meter , the range switch has no
effect. The range switch controls only the range of the internal oscillator.

The bas ic circuit used in thi s project is adapted from an article , ''Frequenc y Counter Design Minimizes Number of
Parts" published in Electronics magazine, September 16, 1976. Copyright McGraw- Hill , Inc., 1976.

132
The readout is the same at all times. It can indicate frequencies from 0.1
kHz (100 Hz) up to 999.9 kHz.
The ampl itude of the signal to be measured must be about five volts for
frequencies above the audio range. More voltage is required as the fre-
quency gets higher. The unit was checked up to 500 kHz and it appeared to
be fairly accurate over this range.
Sampling Time. The frequency meter operates by counting the
number of cycles of input that occur in .01 second, 10 milli seconds. This is
called the sampling time. After the sample has been taken and counted, it is
displayed by the display units . This is called the display time. The sampling
time must be very precise, since it determines the accuracy of the mea-
surement. The display time is not critical and it is about the same as the
sampling time.
Resolution. Since the sampling time is 10 milliseconds, the unit
cannot measure a frequency less than 100 Hz. In 10 milliseconds only one
cycle of a 100-Hz input would appear at the input to the counters. If one
attempts to measure a 50-Hz signal, for example, the meter may read either
0 .1 kHz or 0 kHz. It would depend on which part of the half-cycle was
present during the sampling time. Likewise, a frequency of 19,574 Hz
might read either 19 .5 kHz or 19.6 kHz. In other words, the meter cannot
resolve differences in frequency less than 100 Hz. The resolution could be
extended downward in order to measure lower frequencies . This would be
done by modifying the osci llator switch to increase the sampling time to one
second in the low range.

The Circuit
The circuit used in this project uses CMOS I Cs. These devices will do
the same jobs that TTL !Cs do, but they consume less power.
Clock. Figure 13-1 is a schematic of the entire circuit. IC5 controls the
sampling and display times of the counters, I Cs 1 through 4. It is an astable
multivibrator, and its frequency is controlled by Rl, a I-megohm poten-
tiometer. Rl must be adjusted so that the sampling time is exactly 10
milliseconds.
Oscillator. IC6 is used as an audio oscillator. In the "generator mode"
of operation , its output goes to the in-out terminal and to the counter. R2
controls the frequency within each range. The high-low switch changes the
range of frequencies. In the "frequency-meter mode ," IC6 and its circuit are
not used.
Counter. Whichever signal is selected by the In-Out switch is applied
to the input of ICl, pin 1. During the sampling time, ICl divides by ten and
stores the remainder. The output from pin 5 is one-tenth the frequency of
the input. This is passed to the input of IC2. ICs 2, 3, and 4 operate in the
same manner. Each passes its output to the next IC and stores the remain-
der.
Table 13-1 shows the inputs and outputs of each IC, and the remainder
that each one stores. The frequency used for this example is 342 .5 kHz.

133
 MSB

13 12 11 10 9 8
IC 4
4047 ICS 4026

R1

12.6Vac

IC 7

011 1A
7812
LED
:.
2000

Fig. 13-1. Schematic diagram of frequency generator.

The sampling time is always 10 milliseconds . Therefore, 3425 cycles of the

signal enter the counter circuit during each sampling interval .
During readout time , the remainders stored in the ICs are displayed on
the indicators . These are ordinary seven-segment display devices using
LEDs. The output of ICl is displayed to the right, because this is the least

134
 470!1 LSB
For D.P .

--
. i---

~
_r--

1-1
I
I -
FND 503
I I
fhtJ/
--
. . - - -...._ T r--
. l. r-- +AST
.J f r.
c b e a d
IC 3 IC2 IC 1
) )
4026 4026 4026
CLK C- 10 I 9+
-- e:=-
~~~~~-+~-+~-+
T-
......
T1..L-
~+-~Tl~~t--"
T- Tl.l-
1

....
~ IC 6
I 555

In /out ~ Out -YA }

+L:f::{J
"112_ *
signiji.cant bit, LSB. The mostsignifi.cant bit, MSB, comes from IC4, and this
is displayed to the left.

Power Supply
The circuit includes a regulated supply. The 12.6 Vac from the trans-

135
former is rectified to produce about 17. 7 Vdc at the input to the regu lator,
IC7. The output of IC7 is a constant 12 Vde. The transformer is not mounted
on the PC board.

CONSTRUCTION
The entire circuit, except for the control switches and transformer, is
mounted on a PC board . Figure 13-2 is a layout of the foil pattern of this
board. Figure 13-3 is the component view of the same board.
The display part of the PC board will be cut off after the etching and
drilling is done. Then it must be soldered to the main board to form a right
angle. Figure 13-4 shows the detail of how the display board is soldered to
the main board. Solder the two end tabs first; then do the rest. The tabs
should line up perfectly.
Figure 13-5 shows a front view of the display with the LED display
units installed. Notice that the main board is upside down, with the compo-
nents on the bottom .
The use of sockets for all ICs is recommended to avoid possible
damage to ICs during soldering. Be sure to solder in all jumpers first , then
sockets, and components last.

Front Panel
The front panel is designed to show the display and provide control of
the unit. Figure 13-6 is a layout of the front panel. It is made from aluminum
sheet. After all holes have been made, it is bent to fit the case.
Figure 13- 7 shows the finished prod uct. Notice the clean design and
the clear markings of the panel . Stick-on lettering was applied; then a spray
coat of clear Krylon was used to give a protective finish. This photograph
shows the unit in operation as a frequency generator. The display is reading
14.8 kHz. The decimal point is used in the third LED display to give a
readout in kilohertz.

Case
The case for this unit is made of wood . Figure 13-8 gives the dimen-
sions. Side rails are used to hold the display and PC board at the proper

Table 13-1. Inputs and Outputs of Counter ICs.

(Frequency = 342.5 Hz. Sampling time = 10 milliseconds.)

IC1 IC2 IC3 IC4

Input freq: 342.5 kHz 34.2 kHz 3.4 kHz .3 kHz
Output freq : 34.2 kHz 3.4 kHz .3 kHz 0
Input cycles: 3425 342 34 3
Output cycles: 342 34 3 0
Remainder
stored: 5 2 4 3

136
t

137
w
()) r ----

Cut otf line

go'~f;Il~I~l~l~~
1 ll ~ I

D
4047 1 4026 4026 4026 68Fl
Q22m ~ 1~ I
I ~ "ac"
r::\
~ 10 D
I ;~1 1F
555
[J . I
y. .
--..
I

I. I High
I
2000 F 7812

10k

Component side

Fig . 133. Component view of PC board . Jumpers must be insulated, and should be installed before the JC sockets.
Fig. 13-4. Signal generator from foil side. Notice how display board is soldered to
the main board .

Fig. 13-5. Front view of digital frequency readout. High-low switch and frequency
control are at bottom .

139
 r - s s 116

11 4
7B

3 5 16

+ -;
112 + 1 12 4
~B e n d to fit
ca se

All dimensions in
inches- not to scale

Fig. 13-6. Front panel layout for frequency generator. All dimensions are ap-
proximate. Red acrylic filter is glued to panel behind display opening.

angle in the case. Detail A of Fig. 13-8 shows how the PC board is mounted.
The fu se and line cord are on the hard-board back panel .
Fi gure 13-9 shows the completed unit, read y for use . A push-button
on-off switch is used , but a toggle switch would do as well.

FREQUEN CY

n_ II UI. 0n

~ out
in; out

;:

Fig. 13-7. Front panel of frequency generator. Readout is indicating 14.8 kHz.
Lettering is rub-on type .

140
 3/4 stock used .
Dimensions
approx im ate
(not to scale)

Re adout

PC board
Detail A. location

Fig. 13-8. Layout dimensions of generator case. Side view detail A shows the PC
board location.

CALIBRATION
To calibrate this unit , the best procedure is to use an accurate fre-
quency ge nerator for comparison. The standard is used to supply a signal to
the digital unit. The n the display can be calibrated to agree with the
frequency standard .
The display in the uni t can be changed by adjusting Rl of Fig. 13-1.
Figure 13-10 shows the location of thi s adjustment . It is a good idea to drill a
small access hole through the case.
After calibrating the unit, spot check it at several frequencie s to make
sure that the unit is holding its accuracy. Readjust Rl as required to get the
best possible accuracy at all frequencie s . If the signal source is not accu-
rate, the digital unit will have the same inaccuracy .

Conclusion
This unit gives exce llent results for a small amount of money . The
entire unit can be built for a very reasonable price . It should serve for a long

141
time as a reliable signal source and frequency meter for the active experi-
menter.

PARTS LIST
Ite m Desc ription Qua ntity

1 Socket , 16-pin DIP 5

2 Dis play, LED. FND 503 4
3 IC, CMOS counter type 4026 4
4 IC. CMOS type 4047 1
5 Potentiometer, PC type , 5 megohms 1
6 Line cord with plug 1
7 Fuse holder with 1-A fuse 1
8 Transformer, filament, 120 Vac to 12.6 Vac, 1 A 1
9 Capacitor, 2000 .F, 20 Vdc. 1
10 IC, regu lator. type 7812 1
11 Bridge Rectifier, 1 A 1
12 LED . red 1
13 Resistor. 4 70 ohms. \12 W 2
14 Socket, 8 Pin DIP 1
15 IC, timer, type 555 1
16 Potent iometer, linear lOk ohms 1
17 Resistor , l k ohm, 1/2 W 1
18 Diode , type 4001 1
19 Re sistor. l Ok ohms , \12 W 1
20 Capacitor . .001 .F 1
21 Capacitor, .04 7 .F 1
22 Capacitor , .068 .F 1
23 Toggle Switch , DPDT 1

Fig. 13-9. Completed unit showing front panel and all controls.

142
Fig. 13-10. Partial component view of generator PC board. The power supply
and regulator are at the top. The control, right center, is used to calibrate the
display.

Item Description Quantity

24 Toggle Switch, DPST
25 Switch, toggle or push type, SPST
26 Jack and plug, RCA phono type
27 Capac itor, 200 picofarads
28 Miscellaneou s wire , wood, solder, PC stock, red acrylic,
sheet metal, e tc .

143
Chapter 14

A Semiautomatic Code Keyer

Code keyers help the amateur radio operator to send evenly spaced code.
Hand keying, even with mechanical "bugs, " often produces "<lits" and
"dahs" which are poorly formed.
This keyer forms precisely timed <lits and dahs in a stream when the
paddle control is pressed. It is self-contained for use as a practice osci llator.
It can also be used to key a transmitter .

THE CIRCUIT
The circuit used in this project is built around three type 555 IC timers.
Figure 14-1 shows the schematic of this circuit. ICl generates dits and ICZ
makes th e dahs. IC3 ge nerates an audible tone which drives the speaker.
When the paddle is at rest, none of the !Cs has power . When the paddle is
moved , it connects the positive side of the battery to the IC that is desired.
The output of the IC that is energized, pin 3, is a series of positive pulses.
The pul ses from !Cl are short and those from IC2 are long.The series of
dits or dahs continues as long as the paddle is held agains t the switch. The
!Cs can be adjusted for desired timing of <lits and dahs, speed control.
IC3 is an audio frequency oscillator which has a tone control. An output
from e ither of the other ICs turn it on . The output of IC3 is bursts of
audio-freque ncy vo ltage, one burst for each pulse from IC or !CZ. Diodes
are used at the outputs of ICl and IC2 to isolate one from the other.

Keying a Transmitter
If th is unit is to be used to ke y a transmitter, a reed rel ay can be
inserted in place of the speaker . The reed contacts would then be used to
key the transmitter. Other methods can be used, but this one is easiest.

144
 (Speed)
10k

10k

l10F
8 7 6 5
(Tone)
IC2
DAH
555
1 2 3 4

8 7 6 5
9V ICJ
+ - 555
0--,-0 J, 1 2 3 4

DIT
IC1
555
p~~""

Fig. 14-1. Schematic diagram of semiautomatic keyer circuit.

CONSTRUCTION
The paddle or key is made from glass epoxy PC board material. It is
located inside the case and protrudes through a hole at one end. Figure 14-2
shows the paddle mounted on a board . This set-up was used to operate an
early design of the project. Any convenient size can be used for the padd le .
Figure 14-3 shows the paddle installed in the case . Notice that the
microswitches are installed so that moveme nt of the paddle from side to

Fig. 14-2. Close-up view of paddle showing microswitch arrangement. A second

microswitch is mounted on the opposite side of the paddle.

145
Fig. 14-3. Detail showing microswitch and paddle mounting . The leaf arms of the
microswitche s may be bent to adju st them .

s ide wi ll acti va te each one in turn . Normall y the dit switch is on the ri ght
and th e dah switch is on the left.

PC Board
The circui t is built on a PC board. Figure 14-4 shows both foi l and
compone nt vie ws of this board . T he compo ne nt view also shows the co rrect

1k 1k
~~

f5551~5551
~~
r---.,,.._+e 10 F .~l F~
.l F
~~
Tone 1k

Q'08
100 F

Speake r

0 Compone nt side 0 Foi l side

Fig. 14-4. Layout of both sides of the PC board for the semiautomatic keyer unit.

146
hook-up to the offboard components. A dual potentiometer is used for speed
control so that only one knob is needed.

Case
The case used for this project is a 3-V2" x 6" utility box with cover. A
plastic one was used, rather than aluminum. Figure 4-15 shows the com-
pleted unit. Holes for the speaker and controls are in the cover. A rectangu-
lar hole is needed in the end of the case where the paddle exits the box. This
hole can be roughed out by drilling several small holes , and finished with a
file.
Figure 14-6 shows the case opened to see the PC board. The speaker
is cemented to the cover. Notice that sockets are used for the ICs to
prevent damage from soldering heat.

Procedure
Use the following step-by-step procedure when building this project:
1. Secure all parts; check against parts list.
2. Lay out, etch, and drill PC board.
3. Mount parts on PC board and solder.
4. Lay out and drill holes in case and cover.
5. Mount switch and control in cover.
6. Cement speaker to cover.
7. Fabricate paddle.
8. Mount paddle and microswitches in box.
9. Wire all components according to schematic.

Fig. 14-5. Completed semiautomatic code keyer. On-off and speed controls are
located on the top of the unit.

147
Fig . 14-6. View of proj ect showing PC board and other components of keyer.
Tone control is located on the PC board and should be adjusted before the case
is closed .

10. Test un it and bend microswitch leaves for proper operation.

11 . Adj ust tone as desired.
12. Install cover .

PARTS LIST

Ite m De scription Quantity

1 Socket, IC, 16-pin DI P 1

2 Socket, IC , 8-pin DIP 1
3 IC, type 555 3
4 Sheaker, 8 ohms 1
5 Potentiometer, PC type, 1 megohm 1
6 Resistor, l k ohm , \12 W 1
7 Resistor , lOk ohms, \12 W 2
8 Potentiomete r, dual, l Ok ohms 1
9 Diode, general purpose 2
10 Capacitor, 1 .F 1
11 Capacitor , 10 . F
12 Capacitor , .1 . F
13 Capac itor , 100 . F 1
14 Batte ry , 9 V 1
15 Battery connector 1
16 Util ity box wi th cover 1
17 Misce llaneous PC Stock , nuts, wire, sol der, etc.

148
 Chapter 15

A Digital IC Tester
Digita l !Cs can be purchased very cheapl y in mail order or surplus stores .
These !Cs are factory "fall-outs ." They are usuall y good e nough for hobby
and amateur experime nts, but they do not meet all the standards set by the
maker. "Poly-Paks" is one mai l order supply company which sells these !Cs
in quantity fo r a reasonab le price. The buyer must test each IC and discard
the ones which are reall y not fun cti oning .
This project is to bui ld a tester which can be "w ired" for testing various
!Cs. It uses special sockets with low insertion force, a 5-volt power supply,
and a digital clock . The clock has two speeds, 1 Hz and 1000 Hz.

CONSTRUCTION
The tester is constructed with two PC boards. One is the main board
which contains the te st sockets and wiring tie blocks. The second board
contains the regulated power supply and the clock circuit.
Figure 15-1 is the schematic diagram of the power supply. It uses a
LM309K, 1-ampere, 5-volt regulator. Figure 15-2 is the schematic diagram
of the clock. A 555 timer IC is used as a square wave oscillator. A switch is
used to select either a 1-Hz or 1000-Hz output frequency.
Figure 15-3 is the foil layout of the power-suppl y/clock PC board.
Figure 15-4 shows the component layout of th is board. External connec-
t ions are also shown in this view. The fo il patte rn of the main PC board is
shown in Fig . 15-5. Figu re 15-6 shows the component layout of this board.
The PC boards are constructed in the usual manner. All sockets are
mounted and soldered in place . The tie-point blocks are AP Products part
No . 923297 TBl. Care should be taken to drill the holes for these units

149
 + LM 309k +
In GNDOut

1QOQF 5 Vdc
Regu lated

Bridge
rectifier

Fig. 15-1 . Schematic diagram of the 5-volt regulated de supply.

accurately, since the y are press fits. The post holes require a #53 drill and
the solder-ta il holes should be drilled with a #60 drill .
Glass epoxy PC stock should be used for the main board. The power
suppl y board can be made with phenolic board or glass epoxy.

Case
The case is constructed of 3/i -inch wood stock . The main PC board is
mounted in the grooves at the time of assembly. A bottom of Vs-inch
masonite is recessed into the sides of the case. Figure 15- 7 shows the
dimensions and construction detai ls of the case.
Figure 15-8 is an inside view of the completed uni t with the bottom
pane l removed. The power-supply PC board is attached to the main PC
board with one bolt. Nuts are used as spacers to keep the boards about
one-half inch apart.
F igu re 15-9 is the top view of the completed unit with jumpers in place
and ready to test an IC.

Fig. 15-2. Schematic diagram of the clock circuit.

150
 Fig. 15-3. Layout of foil side
power-supply and clock PC
board.

Supply voltage

Fig . 15-4. Component side view

of power supply and clock board .

151
 + Foil side
+
r
~ H t L i g
~~
8-o
0
0 0 0
0
~ ~ ~ ~
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

00000000 00000000

~(p ~~~
~J~ ~~~
0
o o o o o o o o 00000000

+ +
Fig. 15-5. Half-scale layout of foil pattern for main PC board.

Wiring
Wiring inside the unit consists of connecting the line cord to the
transfom1er through a fuse and switch. The clock output and the outputs
from the power su pply are connected to the proper tie points on the main PC
board. Use insulated wire for all wiring.

0 0 0 0 0 0 n :~z 0V
D 5

000000 Lr,;
D0 D0 D0 D Clock lk + -

DDDDDODO DDDDDDDD
D D On 1off

DDDDDDDD DDDDDDDD 0
Fig. 15-6. Component-placement diagram of main circuit board (half-scale) .

152
 -1\-- - - -
IJ

-- - - -
7 3 /16
- - - - - - - I
I
I

I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 4 5 (4 corners)

~v
I
}

T3
1/eXl/e plow .

l 4%~
'I x 1/ notch
<E--- Masonite bottom

Fig . 15-7. Details of case construction , not to scale.

Fig . 15-8. Underside of completed unit. The clock and power-supply board is at
the center. The transformer is bolted to the side wall of the case.

153
Fig. 15-9. Front view of completed tester with jumpers in place to test a 7400 IC.

OPERATION
In order to test an IC, a test circuit must be designed and set up on the
unit. Two tests that have been designed are given as examp les. One is for
the type 7400 quad NAND gate and the other is for a type 7490 decade
counter.

7400 Test Circuit

Figure 15-10 shows the wiring for testing a type 7400 IC. Each of the
four NAND gates is pulsed by the clock and each output is monitored by an
LED. The LEDs indicate if the unit is good or bad.

7490 Test Circuit

Figure 15-11 shows the set-up used to test a type 7490 IC. The unit is
pulsed by the clock and the BCD output. ABCD, is monitored by the LEDs.
The directions for testing are given on the test set-up.

More Than One IC

Two sockets are provided so that more complicated circuits can be
arranged. For example, a type 7447 driver IC could be tested by driving it
with the BCD output from a 7490. The output of the 7447 would be
monitored by the LEDs.
In this case, seven LEDs would be needed. One LED cou ld be con-
nected first to one output and then to another. An extra LED could be wired
between the seventh output pin of the 7447 to the positive tie block.
Connect a 330-ohm resistor in series with this LED.
One nice feature of this unit is that test set-ups can be designed on

154
paper and stored for future use. This makes it easy to repeat a test in the
future.

Procedure
Follow thi s procedure when building the tester:
1. Secure all parts. Check against the parts list.
2. Fabricate the PC boards according to the layout drawings.
3. Spray the top of the main PC board with white paint.
4. After the paint is dry, apply rub-on lettering where necessary.
5. Mount all parts and solder the power-supply-clock PC board .
6. Mount the tie blocks and other components to the main PC board.
Solder all joints.
7. Mount the power-supply board under the main PC board.

Hertz 5V
1

LEDs

On 1off

0
234567

1. Wire to above diagram .

2. Set clock to 1 Hertz.
3. Turn power on.
Good /Bad : If all four LEDs blink on and off at one second
intervals, the unit is good .
If one or more LEDs do not blink (stay on or off)
then that NAND gate is bad .
If all LEDs stay on or off and the clock is ok,
all sections are bad.
Turn the clock to 1000 Hertz. All four LEDs should
light. If any do not light, that NAND gate does
not function at higher frequency.

Fig. 15-10. Test setup for 7400 IC.

155
 00 0 He rt z 5 v
LEDs

D On 0 11

DDDDDDDD 0
1 2 J 5 6 7

l . Wire to above diagram . 0 c B A

2. Set clock to t Hertz. 0 0 0 u
3. Tum power on. 1 0 0 0 1
4. Test : 2 0 0 1 0
(a) . LEDs ABC O will hght according to 3 0 u 1 1
the truth table at right. They shou ld 4 0 1 0 0
follow the table from top to bottom 1n 5 0 1 0 1
sequence . 6 u 1 1 u
7 0 1 t 1
(b) . II 100-Hertz clock is used . the LEDs
A 1 0 0 0
should stay on dimly .
9 1 0 0 1

7490 Trulh -Table

Fig . 15- 11 . Test setup for 7490 IC.

8. Fabricate the case sides and bottom .

9 . Mount the main PC board into the s lots of the sides as the case is
assembled . Glue joints.
10. After the glue is cured , mount the fu se ho lder and comple te all
w1rmg.
11. Test the powe r s upp ly and the clock for prope r ope rati on . If the
pilot light comes on whe n the switch is turned on, the power
supp ly is work ing prope rl y. Hook one LED to the clock and
operate in the 1-Hz position . The LE D should blink . Tes t each
LED thi s way to be sure they all work .

156
PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 Tie blocks, AP Products, TBl , part no. 923297 42

2 Toggle switch , SPST, miniature type 2
3 Test socket, 16-pin DIP , low insertion force 2
4 LEDs, red with mounting ri ngs 7
5 Resistor, 220 or 330 ohms, Y. W 7
6 Fuse holder and 1 A fu se 1
7 Transformer, 120 Vac to 6.3 Vac '1
8 Bridge rectifie r , 1 A 1
9 Capacitor, 1000 ,F, 25 Vdc 1
10 Regu lator, type LM309K , 5 V, 1 A 1
11 Resistor, 1 megohm, Y. W 1
12 Re sistor , 220k ohms, y, W 1
13 Capacitor, .001 ,F 1
14 Capacitor, 1 ,F 1
15 Socket, 8-pin DIP 1
16 IC , timer, type 555 1
17 Miscellaneous nuts, bolts, wood, glue, PC stock, etc.

157
Chapter 16

A Mini-Breadboard with Shift Register

This project consists of an introduction to digital experimenting . A bread-
board using a battery and voltage regulator will be built. This is followed by
experiments with a clock and shift register. The breadboard socket and
power supply are mounted on a PC board . A working shift register and ring
counter will be built on this breadboard .

OBJECTIVES
As a result of completing this project, the builder should be able to :
1. Understand the function of the 7805 regulator as it is used to
regulate a battery supply for 5-volt TTL experiments.
2. Construct a breadboard that uses an AP 234L socket and a
regulator-circuit PC board.
3. Use the breadboard to perform exercises with a shift register and
ring counter.
4 . Understand how to use the digital shift register to enter data, read
out data, and process data.
5. Know terms associated with the shift register such as: binary
word, bit, byte, parallel data and serial data.

BACKGROUND
Binary Theory
Before starting with the theory of the shift register , it is necessary to
understand some terms which are used in digital electronics. Some knowl-
edge about the basics of digital theory is required to understand shift
registers .

158
 Digital electronics is based on the "one-of-two-states" principle . This
is also known as the binary number system. At the simplest level of
information , the term bit is used. A bit usuall y refers to one on-or-off
cond ition. A single pole switch is an example of a one-bit device. It may
convey information, but the possibilities are limited to two states, on and
off.
When a number of bits are put together, a byte or word is forme d. A
digital byte consists of a number of bits . For example, a four-bit word is
used in common codes such as the BCD, binary coded decimal. Figure 16-1
illustrates this code . Each byte, or word, consists of four bits of information
ind icated as ABCD, For example, the word "8" is expressed "1000" in
BCD, a four-bit byte of information.
Bytes and words can be processed easily by digital circuits, si nce they
eventually reduce to on-off bits. The beauty of digital e lectronics is that
information can be coded and processed at very high speed. Speeds of
digital information processing are far greater than manual means. High
speed digital processing is the basis of the modem computer.

Flip-Flop
A term often used in digital electronics is flip-flop. The fl ip-flop is a
circuit or a function which allows the output states to reverse . When a
flip-flop is turned on, the outputs, Q and Q, will be complementary. The

Deci mal Bin ary

D c B A
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 O = O Volts
5 0 1 0 1 1 =+ Volts
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 u
15 1 1 1 1

Fig. 16-1. Binary-coded-deci mal (BCD) chart. Numbers Othrough 9 are BCD ; 1O
through 15 are bin ary coded , but are not part of BCD .

159
 Qi------u

Toggle ~

Oi------u

Fig. 161_. Block diagram of simple flip-flop unit. Change in toggle voltage causes
Q and Q to exchange states.

over-score, or bar, over the Q means that the logic state is just the opposite
of the Q without the bar. It is called "not Q." This usually means that if Q =
1 (or + 5 volts), then Q = 0 (or 0 volts, or ground).
When pulse s are presented to the toggle or "T" input of a flip-flop , the
two outputs change each time a pulse is received. First they flip, then they
flop. They will always be complementary, or opposites, of each other.
Figu re 6-12 shows a diagram of a simple flip-flop .

Shift Register
If a number of flip-flop s are wired together , they can be made to pass on
bits of data from flip-flop to flip-flop . This arrange ment is known as a shift
register. The experiment in th is project is a shift-register combination
which can handle a four-bit binary word.

Bounceless Switch
In the experiment with a shift register , it is necessary to provide a
bounceless switch. Ordinary switches bounce and cause inaccuracies in
digital work . An automatic clock using a type 555 timer IC is used for a
bounce less signal. This circuit has slow and fast rates and produces a square
wave output. In the slow mode, the pulses are several seconds in length.

Types of Flip-Flops
There are two basic types of flip-flops: the D and J-K type, and the
level type. The level type depends on the level of the input signal to cause a
flip-flop change . It is not useful for this exercise and will not be used.
The D and J- K type are known as clocked logic circuits. They work by
flip-flopping upon receipt of a clock pulse. They are also known as edge-
triggered devices. This means that they flip-flop either on the leading or
trailing edge (beginning or end) of a pulse. The J-K type will be used here
rather than the D type.

J-K Flip-Flop
The J-K flip-flop is shown in Fig. 16-3 . If the clear is brought to 0

160
(ground) momentarily, the output will go to Q = 0, Q = 1. Momentarily
grounding the set pin brings the output to Q = 1, Q= 0. The set and clear
pins are used to clear a number offlip-flops at one time . They are also used
to enter data into a number of units .
The J-K flip-flop in Fig . 16-3 has a set and a clear. If a clock pulse is
applied to the toggle input(T), the output's Q and Q will change, depending
on the state of both J and K. If] = 0 and K = 0, the flip-flop will do nothing.
This is an easy way to disable the unit. If J =1 and K = 0, a clock pulse will
cause Q = 1andQ=0 . IfbothJ and Kare 1, the output will flip-flop on every
other pulse. This is a divide-by-two function. If J = 0 and K = 1, a clock
pulse will cause Q = 0 and Q = 1.
By controlling the states of] and K, the output of this type flip-flop can
also be controlled. Any change in the state of J or K must be made after one
clock pulse has been received and before the next pulse arrives.

Four-Bit Shift Register

By wiring flip-flops in the correct way, a shift register can be de-
veloped. Four flip-flops of the J-K type will be used to make the shift
register in this project. Figure 16-4 shows a block diagram of this circuit.
All the clock inputs are wired together so that a clock pulse will be
applied to all flip-flops at the same time. If all flip-flops are cleared , then all
have Q = 0, Q = 1. This output is sent to the J and K inputs of the next
flip-flop. This makes all J = 0 and all K = 1. Under these conditions, a clock
pulse will not cause any change in the outputs. If the first flip-flop (A) is set
to J = 1, K = 0, then it will be able to flip-flop on the next clock pulse.
Suppose a bit of data has been entered into flip-flop A by setting it to Q
= 1, Q = 0. This output is transferred to the J-K inputs of flip-flop B. The

J Toggle K

Fig . 16-3. Block diagram of J-K type flip-flop. Q-Q states can be changed by a
signal at the toggle input only if J and K are properly conditioned.

161
 A B c D

JQ JQ J@Q J@Q
~-~K Q~-----lK O~-----lK Q LB
+ T T T

Clock

Fig. 16-4. Block diagram of four-bit shift register. Information, or bits, shift from A
to B to C to D, left to right.

next clock pulse will cause flip-flop A to change state. Flip-flop B will also
change with this pulse. Notice that the bit of data has been transferred from
A to B. The Q output of A is now 0 and from Bit is 1. This process will
continue with each clock pulse and the data will shift to C, then to D, and
finally out of the register.
The binary word 1000 was entered into this register and shifted to
0100 , then to 0010, then 0001 and finally to 0000.If Q and Q outputs of the D
flip-flop were entered into the J-K inputs of the A unit, the data cou ld be
recirculated. This function is called a ring counter and it serves many useful
purposes in digital electronics.

CONSTRUCTION
Power Supply
A brief discussion of the power supply used in this project is in order .
Since the unit is portable, a 9-volt battery is used. Ordinarily, when current
is taken from a battery, the output voltage becomes lower. Digital ICs, such
as the TTL types used here , require a constant 5 volts. Voltage changes can
cause the ICs to operate incorrectly.
The power supply schematic is shown in Fig. 16-5 . A 1000-F
capacitor and a type 7805 5-volt regulator are used to keep the 5 volts
constant in spite of changes of current. The regulator is capable of deliver-
ing 750 mA of current. By using a 9-volt battery, experiments can be carried
on for about two hours .
If the battery is to be eliminated, a 6-volt transformer and rectifier can
be substituted with good results. Construction details are given in several
projects in this book.

Breadboard Socket
The AP 234L socket used in this project is designed to accept any of
the common 14- to 24-pin DIP ICs. The five holes in each row are connected

162
 LB
In 7805 ,____
Out_ _ _ _'"' +
GND

+
9V 1OOOF
unregulated 5V
regulated

Fig. 16-5. Schematic diagram of regulated power supply.

together below the surface . Figure 16-6 shows this detail. When an IC is
plugged into the socket, four holes for each pin are still left unfilled. These
holes are used to connect the pins according to a schematic. Insulated #22
wire is used for these jumpers . Components such as resistors and
capacitors can be plugged into the holes.

PC Board
The PC board should be made of glass epoxy for durability. Figure 16-7
is the foil pattern of thi s PC board. The entire board is not shown, only the
corner where the foil pattern is to be placed. Figure 16-8 shows the
component side of this PC board. Figure 16-9 shows the completed bread-
board unit.

EXPERIMENT
Follow these steps to complete this project and experiment. Follow
the schematic diagram in Fig. 16-10. Red-line the circuit as the work
proceeds.
1. Build the breadboard and test it to be sure that it is producing 5
volts de .

Internal connections

Fig. 16-6. AP 234L socket used for breadboarding. Cut-away view shows the
connectors under the holes .

163
 Top left corner (foil side)

Fig. 16-7. Foil-side layout of PC board for mini-breadboard .

Digital

+ - 0
exp

+o
AP
234L
+
terminal
strip

9V

~ 1000
F

+
+
Fig. 16-8. Component placement on PC board . Dimensions are approximate
(not to scale).

164
Fig. 16-9. Completed mini-breadboard without the 9-volt battery.

A B C D
330!1
(4)

R 2 --4 .7 k (fast), 4 70 k (slow) ---add for ring counter

R,-220k

Fig. 16-10. Schematic diagram of shift-register /ring-counter.

165
 2. Place the ICs and LEDs in the approximate positions shown in
Fig . 16-11 . Be careful not to tie contacts together which are not
intended to be tied together. Figure 16- 12 shows the completed
unit wi th parts mounted but not wired.
3. Be sure to orient the ICs properly. The dot or pin-1 identification
must be observed . The LEDs have a flat area near one lead . This

Fig. 16-11 . Experiment socket with parts mounted .

166
Fig. 16-12. Completed breadboard with shift-register components mounted but
not wired. Normally, the 9-volt battery would not be connected when the circuit is
not in use.

is the cathode and is attached to ground. See Fig. 16-13 for details
of the LED pin connections.
4. Strip about one-quarter inch of insulation from each end of the
jumper wires .
5. Wire the circuit according to the schematic diagram in Fig. 16-10.
It is helpful to red-line each wire and component on the schematic.
Do not wire in the dashed line at this time.
6. Be sure to include the resistors for the LEDs and the capacitor and
resistors for the 555.
7. Attach the clip to the battery. The LEDs may light.
8. Momentaril y ground pin 3 or 8 of either 7476. They shou ld all be
tied together. All the LEDs will go out, indicating a clear condi-
tion of the register . Each flip-flop is monitored by LEDs attached
to the Q output's at pin 11 and 14 .
9. Make sure the clock is not operating by removing one end of the

Flat spot

I
0 =t~
Cathode
Anode

Bottom view

Fig. 16-13. Lead identification of LED.

167
 wire from pin 2 to 6 of the 555. Clear the register if necessary as in
Step 8.
10 . Momentarily ground the set pin, pin 2, of the top (A) 7476. LED A
shou ld light. This indicates that data has been entered.
11. Touch the wire at pin 2 of the 555 to start the clock. It should be
connected to pin 6 of the 555. Use the slow resistor (470k ohms).
Observe the LEDs . The pulses should cause the data to go to B,
then to C, then to D and finally out. Shift once, then disable the
clock (see Step 9) and enter data into A again. Then start the
clock. Various combinations can be shifted this way. Data is
entered in a parallel form and is shifted out in a serial form.
12. Hook up the wire from pin 11 of the lower 74 76 to pin 4 of the
upper 7476. See the dashed line in Fig. 16-10. This changes the
circuit to a ring counter .
Clear the register, then enter one bit, or set flip-flop A. Now
activate the clock. The data will continue to recirculate, rather
than being lost as in the previous circuit.
This ring counter, when run in a fast mode, begins to simulate the
LEDs of a sca1mer radio such as those used in fire and police work.
Enter data, shift two places, and enter data again. Now act ivate
the clock . The display wi ll resemble a running display such as may
be seen on a theater marquee. If a longer register were used,
various ripple effects could be demonstrated.

7476 Diagram
Figure 16-14 shows the base diagram of a 7476 dual J-K flip-flop IC.
The following information may be used to adapt this IC to many circuits.
1. This IC contains two independent J-K flip-flops. They may be used
separate ly.

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9

LS

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+
Fig. 16-14. Pin diagram of the 7476 Dual J-K flip-flop IC.

168
 2. The outputs, Q and Q, change when the pulse goes from high to
low.
3. Changes in output occur only when clock pulses are applied to the
clock inputs, pins 1 or 6.
4. When] and Kare grounded, Q and Q will not change, regardless of
the clock pulse.
5. If J and Kare made high, the input frequency will be divided by
two.
6. If J is high and K is low, the next clock pulse will make Q high and
Q low. If J is low and K is high, the next clock pulse will make Q
low and Q high .
7. Grounding the SET pin will cause the output to go to Q =low, Q =
high.
8. If the CLR pin is grounded, the output will go to Q =low, Q =
high.
9. The maximum switching frequency of this flip-flop is approxi-
mately 20 MHz.
10 . Do not ground both SET and CLR at the same time, because
control of the unit will be lost.

PARTS LIST
Item Description Quantity

1 Breadboard socket, type AP 234 L 1

2 IC, 7476 J-K flip-flop 2
3 Regulator, 5 V, 7805 (340T-5) 1
4 Timer IC, type 555 1
5 Capacitor, 1000 ,uF, 10 V 1
6 LED, red 4
7 Capacitor, 1 ,uF, 10 V 1
8 Resistor, 220k ohms 1
9 Resistor, 220 ohms 4
10 Resistor, 4 70k ohms 1
11 Resistor, 4.7k ohms 1
12 Battery, 9 V 1
13 Battery snap 1
14 Battery bracket for 9-volt battery 1
15 Epoxy board, 4" x 6" 1
16 Feet , stick-on 4
17 Screws , pan head, 2-56 x 'I" 2
18 Nut, hex, 2-56 2
19 Insulated wire, 22 gauge 4-inch 26

169
Chapter 17

Darkroom Timer with Beep Alarm

This project is to build a digital counter with an LED display . It is designed
for use in a darkroom whe re expos ure times or chemica l proce ss need
accurate timing . Thi s unit can be programmed up to a max imum of 999
seconds , or ove r sixteen minutes, with a thumbwheel switch. Whe n the
countdown reaches 000, the unit stops and sounds an alarm. A fl ashing red
LED is also activa ted at thi s time. A 100- watt ex te rnal load, such as an
enlarge r , can be cont ro lled by thi s unit.

OPERATING THEORY
Clock. Figure 17-1 is a block diagram that shows the function s of the
variou s sections of the timer . The power supply and regulator are not
shown. IC2 is the master clock. Its output normall y passe s through !Cl to
the decade counte rs. !Cl allows the clock pulses to be connected or
disconnected by pushing e ithe r the start or stop button. It al so di sconnects
the cl ock from th e counte rs when th e alarm so und s .
Loading the Counters. !Cs 11 , 13 , and 15 are preset by the three
thumbwhee l sw itches. That is called loading . Suppose the timer is to be set
for 185 seconds. Push the stop switch , then set the thumbwheel switches to
1, 8. and 5.ln Fig. 17-1 , the 1 would be set on the thumbwheel switch to the
ri ght. The n depress the load switch for about two seconds and re lease it.
The indicators wil l read 185, from right to left in the di agram, but left to
ri ght in practi ce . Thi s indicates that the uni t is ready to start timing and that
it is set for 185 second s .
Countdown. When the start is pressed , clock pulses pass to the
counte rs. Each pulse th at enters subtracts one number from the 185

170
seconds that were loaded. This continues for 185 seconds, until all three
indicators read zero .
Zero Detector. Four conductors are used to pass the BCD output
from each counter to its decoder driver. There are twelve inputs to the zero
detector , four from each counter. The only time that all twelve of these
inputs are zero is when all three indicators read zero.
When all twelve inputs to the zero detector go low, its output goes
low . In effect, when the output goes low, it is connected to ground. This has
the same effect or. ICl as pushing the stop button. Therefore, the output
from the zero detector can be called a stop pulse. This stop pulse also
triggers the alarm circuit and the external-load circuit.
Alarm Circuit. The stop signal is inverted by Q2 and it becomes a
start pulse for IC4, the alarm keyer. When it receives the start pulse, IC4
begins producing a 1-Hz square wave. This turns the tone generator, IC5 ,
on and off at a one-second rate. It also powers an LED which flashes at the
same rate.
External-Load Driver. While the timer is counting, the relay con-
tacts for an external load are closed. They could be used to switch on an
enlarger, for example. When the stop pulse is applied to IC3 , it turns off Ql
and this opens the relay contacts.

Clock and Start-Stop

The stop-start circuit uses a type 7474 dual flip-flop, ICl, to interrupt
pulses from the type 555 timer, IC2. Figure 17-2 shows the schematic
diagram of this circuit. A second 7474, IC3, is used to drive a transistor
which controls a reed relay. The reed relay controls the external load.
When the desired time has e lapsed, a stop pulse from a zero detector
circuit shuts down both ICl and IC3.

Zero Detector
Figure 17-3 is the schematic diagram of the zero detector. The BCD
outputs from the three counters is applied to inverters and NAND gates.
When all twelve BCD lines are at zero, the output from IC9, pin 8, goes to
zero or ground. This will occur only when the count reaches 000, and at no
other time. This stop pulse is used to disconnect the clock from the
counters. It also causes the alarms to tum on and the external load to tum
off.

Alarm and Power Supply

The alarm circuit is shown in Fig. 17-4. The driver transistor is cut off
until it receives a stop signal from the zero detector. When the alarm signal
is received, the transistor conducts and activates IC4 and IC5 .
IC4 operates as an as table multivibrator at a frequency of about 1 Hz.
The exact frequency can be measured by counting the flashes of the alarm

171
 1-second
indicator

Decoder-
driver
IC12

BCD
Clock On-off
10:1 co unt
IC2 IC1
IC11

St~
--T ~
Stop

Thumbwheel
switch

Inverter
02

Speaker
1-Second Tone
alarm generator
keyer ICS
IC4

Fig. 17-1. Functional diagram of darkroom timer.

172
 10-second 100-second
indicator indicator

Decoder- Decoder-
driver driver
IC14 IC16

Zero
- - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - detector 1--------.
IC6-10

BCD BCD

10:1 counl 10 :1 count

--
IC13 IC15
Load
~~--t---+---~~~~~-+---t---~~~~ ~

Thumbwheel Thumbwheel
switch switch

To external
External load
load
driver
IC3 & 01

173
 +
1k
SVdc
+

IC2
l 1F rc1
0
J
555 7474
1 2 3 4

Clock output
to d igit one
Alarm signal counter
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
from zero
detector IC3
7474 LB

01

~o-~1o_k~~--
Ext. load
control
Reed
relay, 51v
290ll maximum

Fig. 17-2. Master clock, start-stop, and external load control schematic.

5Vdc
+ 0 J,-
l._
To start

~~
To alarm
c1rcu 1t

from counters

Fig. 17-3. Schematic diagram of zero detector.

174
 + +
Q2
2N2907 ,k 10k

~ ,k 1 F
i,,F

+
8 7

555
6 5
l' 555
l'
IC4 IC5
Alarm signal
from zero , 2 3 4 , 2
LB
detector

220!!

~
,~~
speaker

Alarm - .
+
Bridge

011
LS
t------<J +

5Vdc
120
Vac

1A 6-12 Vac
transformer

Power supply _ _ !

Fig _ 17-4. Schematic diagram of alarm circuit and power supply.

LED. IC5 is also an astable multivibrator, but its frequency is about 1000
Hz. It is turned on and off by IC4. The alarm will make a beep-beep sound
with a 1-kHz note.
If the audio alarm is not always wanted, a switch should be added to
turn it on and off. Connect the switch in series with the speaker lead.
The power supply is also shown in Fig . 17-4. It consists of a trans-
former , rectifier, and type 7805 regu lator. The regulated output is 5 volts.
A common filament transformer with a 6.3-volt secondary is preferred, but
one with a 12 .6-volt output will do. The de working voltage of Cl must be at
least 1.5 times the ac secondary voltage.

Counters
Figure 17-5 is the schematic diagram of one counter. Actually, three
such decade counters are used in this unit. The decade counter, ICll , is a
type 74192 that can be programmed by a BCD thumbwheel switch. The
thumbwheel is shown in the lower left of the schematic.

175
 When the "load" switch is closed, the number selected on the
thumbwheel switch is loaded into IC11. The "clear" switch resets the IC to
zero . Each of these switches is connected to all three counters.
IC12 is used to convert the BCD output of IC11 into a seven-segment
code. This code drives the type MAN-1 common-anode LED display. This
counter can be used as either an "up" or "down" counter. In this unit, it is
used only as a down counter. A truth table for IC11 and !Cl~ appears in Fig .
10-7 of Chapter IO . The BCD output of ICl 1, pins 2, 3, 6 and 7, also goes to
the zero detector.

CONSTRUCTION
The main PC board contains all the circuitry except the alarm, power
supply, and LED displays. Figure 17-6 shows the foil layout. This board is
rather complex, so take care when making it.

MAN-1

Load
all decades ----~ Load
Clock to next
counter
E-f5F
1UUL +
Clear NC clear
al l decades .---++~-=---+--+-==----+-.ote>----.

1&1 5 1413121110 19
IC11
74192
Clock input
1 2 . 3 4 5 6 7 8
from
stop-star1
unit
+ JUL

Fig. 17-5. Decade counter with thumbwheel switch . Three of these are required.

176
 3 2 1 3 2 1

220~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~ -=- -=-

1

r:Ds;;;-i~ '74471 '74471

:;;;~ :
-c::::J-o 2 . 2 k
-I~ ~ ~ -c:>---=>--c::::J-o Al l
Load
.:..r.~--- -=- -=- -<::::::r-

+ _.
- -+

~-~
Clear L r - - =
~
J. ol.l.
St~Siop I I I ,_
II
~
Ext load

~1
Au10 ~

-):
J 1~
l~-
j l l
-
m -~
t::_
-=-
_,,,_ =~

-~Ss l
-~ B

-- ~ ,t, ,1, 330k liJ

1qp-]~~
1Dk 'r''r' 0011
1
LOAD ~ () ~
1K
Ala rm out
+---c:J--
o- 1F

Fig. 17-6. Foil layout of main PC board . Fig. 17-7. Component layout of main PC board showing components
'1
'1 and all connections. Jumpers must be insulated .
 +-

Fig. 17-8. Full-scale foil layout of display PC board.

+-
Figure 17- 7 is the component layout of the main PC board. A large
number of jumper wires are used. Be careful to avo id any shorts between
jumpers. This is an instance where red-lining the layout drawing is very
important.
A separate PC board is used to hold the three MAN-1 displays. Figure
17-8 is the foil layout of the display board and Fig. 17-9 is the component
layout. Sockets are used for the displays to avoid damage to them during
soldering.

Alarm and Power Supply PC Board

The alarm circui t and power supply are contained on a single PC board.
Figure 17-10 and Fig. 17-11 show the foil and component layouts. The
transformer , fuse, and on-off switch are mounted off the board .
Figure 17-12 shows the power-supply-alarm PC board mounted on the
side of the case. The transformer is mounted to the left of the PC board .

DOD
a f e d c g b a f e d c g b a f e d c g b+
3 2 1

Fig. 17-9. Component layout of display PC board .

178
Fig . 17-10. Full-scale foil layout of alarm and power supply.

Front and Rear Panels

The front panel layout is shown in Fig. 17-13. The panel is made of
aluminum sheet stock. The lettering can be done with ink or with rulJ-on
letters . Figure 17-14 shows the completed front panel. Notice that the

Alarm . Out
In + -

7805
~
LED
blinker
"\

an
1,,F 0
~I -:- In

Fig. 17-11 . Component layout of alarm and power supply.

179
Fig. 17-12. Power supply and alarm mounted in completed unit.

display indicates the same number of seconds as the thumbwheel switches.

This shows that the counte rs have been loaded and the unit is ready to begin
timing.
The rear panel is made from Vs-inch masonite. Figure 17-15 provides
the dimensions and layout of thi s panel . Figure 17-16 shows the completed
rear panel installed in th e unit.

Case
The case consists of two side pieces grooved so the top and bottom fit
into them. The bottom is glued in permanently and the top is fitted so that it
can be s lid out. Figure 17- 17 shows the general layout and dimens ions of the
case .

.-!'---- -- - - - - - - 8 1/a - - -- - -- - - - -

--
T
Alarm

4-V Set
---- -
1ct
Seconds
---I Stop

Q
o 3/s Auto

I : I 4~64

-t"
3 3 / 16
I I % Manual
- - - - --LJ:i. start Ext . load

1
Load Clear \.V
316

-Eft, 7 164 $

Fig. 17-13. Front panel layout, not to scale.

180
Fig. 17-14. Front panel of operating unit.

Figure 17- 18 shows the completed un it mounted in the case and ready
to operate. The top and bottom panel s have been covered with wood-
grained contact paper. T he sides are made of oi led cherry.

Assembly
The main PC board lies on the bottom panel. It is secured to the
readout board and the thumbwhee l switches by the wiring. It may be
secured to the bottom panel by any convenient method .
Figure 17- 19 shows the completed unit with the top removed. The
transformer and the power-supply-alarm PC board are located on the inside
left side of the case. Notice that blocks are glued to the corners to secure
the front and rear panels.
The display unit is held to the front panel by two 2-56 x :14 " screws.
Figure 17-20 shows the detail of this mounting. Two 2-56 hex nuts are
cemented to the PC board with epoxy. The 2-56 screws go through the front
pane l and the red fi lter into the nu ts. When the screws are tightened, the

8 V2 ----------~

T
v'
Fuse

Ext. load _i:

2
1 Amp
-c:=::J '!2
~1~1
1 120Vac
....iL ~0------------------------~
~ 2 -+-- 2~

Fig . 17-15. Rear panel layout and dimensions, not to scale.

181
Fig. 17-16. Rear panel of completed unit. Speaker is fastened to the panel with
model cement.

Top & bottom

3/a " x 9 x 8%

f5

Fig . 17-17. General shape and dimensions of the case , not to scale.

182
Fig. 17-18. Completed unit in case and ready to operate.

whole sandwi ch is pull ed toge the r and secured. Do no t over-tighte n these

scre ws since yo u may pull the nu ts off of th e PC board.
Figure 17-21 shows a vie w of the comp leted display board mounted to
the front panel . T he 2-56 mounting screws can be see n on eithe r e nd of the
MA N-1 display board.

PROCEDURE
This procedure should be fo llowed whe n bui lding the time r :

Fig. 17-19. Inside view of completed unit. The top slides into the grooves in each
side.

183
 1/e" red acrylic filter

/Man .- 1.
/ i iDisplay PC board

/
i--i---~"i

2-56 nut attached to

PC board with epoxy
2-56 x 3/ screw

~c:===:::i ~Main PC board

I
Front panel

Fig. 17-20. Details for mounting the display PC board and red filter to the front
panel, not to scale.

1. Secure all parts. Check against the parts list.

2. Lay out , etch, and drill the three PC boards .
3. Mount sockets, jumpers, and components on all boards and solder
them.
4 . Construct the front and rear panels according to the layou t draw-
ings .
5. Wire the display board to the main PC board. Be very careful to
connect the wires correctly.
6. Mount the thumbwheel switches to the front panel.
7. Mount all parts on the front and rear panels .
8. Wire the thumbwheel switches to the main PC board.
9. Construct the sides, top and bottom of the case.
10. Make a red acrylic filter lens the same size as the display PC
board.
11. Glue the sides and bottom of the case together.
12 . Glue corner blocks to the sides and bottom of the case.
13. Mount the transformer and the alarm PC board to the inside left
side of the case.
14. Insert the main PC board and front panel into case.
15. Cement the two 2-56 nuts to the display board.
16 . Fasten the display board and red filter to the front panel using 2-56
machine screws.
17. Install rear panel.
18 . Complete all wiring between power, alarm, and ac.
19. Check your work. Make sure all wiring is neat and secure .
20. Turn on power. The display should light.

184
 21. Test loading by setting various values on the thumbwheel then
pressing the load button. The display should change to the
thumbwheel value after the load button is he ld in for about two
seconds.
22. Press the zero button. The display should go to 000. The alarm
should sound and the LED should fl ash at this t ime. When a new
number is loaded the alarm shoul d stop .
23. The external-load circuit may be tested by plugging a light into the
outlet on the rear panel. The light should come on when the load
switch is placed in the manual pos ition. It should turn off when the
switch is placed in the au tomatic position.

Fig. 17-21 . Mounting details of display PC board . The screws on either side hold
the board and red filter to the front panel. The nuts are attached with epoxy.

185
 24. The light used as a load should turn on after a time is loaded in the
display and the start button is pushed. The display shou ld count
down until it reaches 000. At thi s time the load light should turn off
and the alarm should come on.
25. If the clock accuracy is poor, change the values of the resistors
connected to IC2 . Better, change the 4 70k resistor to 390k and
connect a lOOk potentiometer in series.
26. If the load does not turn off when the switch is placed in automatic ,
press the stop button. Always load in the time desired im-
mediately before starting a countdown. The stop button can be
used to stop a countdown and hold for as long as desire d. Push the
start button to resume counting .
27. If any part of the unit does not operate properly , check for poor
soldering or solder bridges and incorrect wiring. Check for !Cs
inserted backwards and for bad !Cs . Errors in wiring are probably
the most common problem.

Conclusion
Thi s unit should provide service for a long time. The reed switch and
the mechanical switches will probably be the first causes of failure. The
circuit does not generate much heat, so there is no need to provide a fan for
air circulation. It can be a darkroom for timing purposes , since only red light
is emitted from the unit.
If a heavy electrical load must be controlled (for example, a plate
marker) the external load circuit could be used to control a heavy-duty 120
Vac relay. This relay would then control the large load. Be sure to select a
relay with contacts rated for the machine which is to be controlled.

PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 LED Disp lay, type MAN-1 3

2 BCD thumbwheel swi tches , decade type 3
3 Fuse holder and 1 A fuse 1
4 On-off sw itch, push type 1
5 Push switch, NC (clear) 1
6 Push swi tch , NO (load, start , stop) 3
7 Toggle sw itch, SPST (external load) 1
8 Ac receptacle (rear panel) 1
9 IC, hex inverter, type 7404 3
10 IC, dual 4- input NANO gate , type 7420 2
11 Capacitor, 10 /LF 1
12 Diodes, general purpose 2
13 IC , dual flip-flop, type 7474 2
14 Transistor, PNP type 2N2907 2
15 IC , timer , type 555 3
16 Reed switch, 5 V coil, 1 A contacts
17 Capacitor , 27pF

186
Item Description Quantity

18 Capacitor , 1 ,F 3
19 Resistor , lOk ohms 3
20 Resistor, 1000 ohms 4
21 Line cord with plug 1
22 Capacitor , .1 ,F 1
23 Capacitor , 1000 , F (see text) 1
24 Resistor, 330k ohms 1
25 Re sistor , 4 70k ohms 2
26 Resistor, 2.2k ohms 12
27 LED , red 1
28 Resistor , 220 ohms 22
29 IC , BCD to seven-segment driver, type 7447 3
30 IC , up-down decade counter, type 74 192 3
31 Socket , 14 pin DIP 10
32 Socket, 16 pin DIP 7
33 Bridge rectifier, 1 A 1
34 Regulator, 5 V, type 7805 1
35 Transfo rmer , 120 Vac to 6 or 12 Vac (see text) 1
36 Speaker, 8 ohms, 2- inch 1
37 Mi scellaneous wood, glue, scre ws, nuts, bolts, solder ,
wire, PC stock , aluminum , ma sonite, red acrylic
plastic, etc.

187
Chapter 18

r~--cJ:
.-~~
l -0:
Digital Alarm Clock
A digital clock is a relatively complex device. Now, however, complete
digital clocks on one PC board are available. This project uses such a clock.
Options include an alarm circuit and a unique attractive case.

CLOCK MODULE
The MA1010 clock module contains the LED readouts, the clock IC,
and other components. All that is necessary for the clock unit to function is
the addition of the proper ac power. For the alarm function, a separate unit
must be added. Suggested alarm circuits are given in the specifications.
The MA1010 is manufactured by the National Semiconductor Corp . A
kit with this module and the switches and transformer can be purchased
from Digi-Key Corp .

ALARM
Figure 18-1 is the schematic of a simple alarm circuit that can be used
with the MA1010 module.
Two 555s are used to create a "beep-beep" alarm . It is completely
sol id state. An LED bl inks along with the audio beep. De operating voltage
is provided by a diode and capacitor that rectify and fi lter the transformer ac
output. A single transistor is used to activate the alarm when an alarm
signal is received from the MA1010 module .

CONSTRUCTION
Figure 18-2 shows both the foil and the component sides of the alarm
PC board. This board should be constructed in the usual manner . First, lay

188
 2N2222 .
From
clock o----OAA~---+-<
c
module alarm E E B C

~
Bottom view
2N2222
) R /W +
ac L 1000,,F

Red
10k 1k
330k

8 7 6 5

555 555

1 2 3 4

.1 F
330ll -:;:-
LE D

Fig. 18-1. Schematic diagram of beep alarm circu it.

out and etch the board. Then, drill holes for the parts. The use of a socket
for the 555s is recommended . Use a heat sink on the diode during soldering
to avoid heat damage to it. Before mounting parts, be sure to dri ll the hole
used for mounting the board.

Module Wiring
The module is wired to the alarm PC board , the transformer, and the
switches. Figure 18-3 shows the wiring used in this unit. Only three
push-button switches are used . Other functions using buttons can be wired
if desired . Check the specifications for proper connections. No on-off
switch was provided since clocks are usually always on. Be careful to wire
the complete.circuit exactly as shown. A brightness control can be added if
necessary.

Case
The case used for this project is a combination of plastic , wood, and
aluminum. The plastic part will be discussed first. Figure 18-4 shows the
dimensions of the acrylic case in flat form. The holes are all drilled first,
then the plastic is heated and bent into a triangular shape. Refer to Chapter
3 for details on how to heat and bend acry lic plastic stock.
Figure 18-5 shows a view of the plastic case after it is completed. The
heat is applied by using a strip h.e ater at the bend lines . Be sure to remove

189
 +- component side +
+

+ foil side +
Fig. 18-2. Layout of foil and component sides of alarm PC board .

190
 PM indicator

MA 1010 module (front view)

II 0

II 0
Alarm "on"
0 indicator
222120 19 181 71615 141 312 111 09 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

LED

120 Vac
Slow Fast Snooze Alarm

Fig. 18-3. Wiring diagram for clock module and external components.

-~~~'-"''P--
-4f. -4t, 4.
__+__ f
-t V2 n
Bend lines
--,r-
111,
-r-,
- -'Snooze1
" - - ~-
- =r------,
I __Clock
I

-b~-- 5/a
------t-+ 4

4
12

L _ module_ _ _ _JI
- - - --~:tr_ ___ - - -
LED,; l, . 2

Fig . 18-4. Layout of acrylic plastic case . It is not to scale and all dimensions are
approximate (in inches) .

191
Fig. 18-5. Completely formed acrylic clock case. Seam at bottom is to be
cemented before parts are mounted.

the protective covering over the bend line s before heating. The heated
bends are formed around a wood form. Figure 18-6 shows the form used
with the plastic fitt ed over it . The bottom seam is cemented after the case is
formed.

Fig. 18-6. View of wood form used to bend heated acrylic to required shape. All
holes are drilled prior to forming.

192
Fig. 18-7. End pieces. Edges are routed to fit acrylic case.

End Blocks
The end blocks fit into the plastic case and are used to suspend the unit
in a bracket. Figure 18-7 shows the two completed blocks. Figure 18-8
shows the approximate dimensions of these blocks. The hole for attach-
ment to the bracket is located in the center of the triangular surface.

Base
The base which holds the bracket is made of wood. Figure 18-9 shows
the proper dimensions of this part. Notice that all edges are beveled to an
approximate 10 angle .

Bracket
The bracket is made of aluminum strap. Figure 18-10 gives the dimen-
sions for this part . Be careful when bending this material. It will crack if the
bend is too sharp. The bend should have a radius of at least one-half inch.

Thickness
of ~j4- 1f

acrylic

/
~
1131 drill
T
4
(each side
of
triangle)

Counter bore 1/4"

5/a deep

l
Fig. 18-8. Detail showing sizes of end pieces, not to scale.

193
 ~ Bevel - all around
= 10

7 3;4 ----1...,1 Wood stock used.

thick.
314

Fig. 18-9. Wood base detail showing dimensions, not to scale .

Locate the mounting holes along a center line at equall y spaced posit ions
from the ends.
Figure 18-11 shows the completed base with the bracket mounted.
This un it is now ready to have the rest of the clock case installed.

Knobs
Knobs from electronic equipment are used to secure the case to the
bracket. These knobs allow for adjustment of the viewing angle of the unit.
Figure 18- 12 shows the two knobs used in this model. Black was used so

1"xW' aluminum stock

Fig. 18-10. Detail of aluminum bracket, not to scale.

194
Fig. 18-11. Wood clock base with aluminum bracket attached.

that it wou ld match well with the walnut wood used for the base and end
blocks. A 4-40 hex nut is epoxy cemented into the hole for the shaft in each
knob. The knobs screw onto the 4-40 machine screws which are anchored in
the end blocks .

Completed Unit
Figure 18-13 shows the front view of the completed clock. Notice the
"snooze" button above the module. This button is made from a calcu lator
button . The lettering is of the rub-on type. The module is mounted to the

Fig . 18-12. Knobs used to secure clock unit to stand. 4-40 nuts are cemented,
using epoxy, to the center holes of the knobs.

195
inside smiace of the acrylic with the proper solvent or cement. The wiring
is done first, then the parts are mounted in the case.
Figure 18-14 shows the rear view of the completed unit. The switch at
the lower left is the alarm arming switch . The alarm PC board is mounted,
using one bolt, to the acrylic surface at the center of thi s photograph. The
s low and fast push buttons are located at the lower right.

OPERATION
When the snooze-alarm switch is pressed, the time to which the alarm
is set will be displayed. While holding the snooze button down, advance or
"set" the alarm by using the fast and s low buttons. The fast and slow buttons
set the time when the snooze button is not depressed.

Colon
The display module has an LED which indicates PM time. The PM
LED shows in the upper left comer of the displa y. A colon between the
hours and minutes flashe s at a one-second rate .

Fig. 18-13. Front of completed clock. Snooze button is located at the top and LED
is directly below the clock module .

196
Fig. 18-14. Rear view of the completed clock. Alarm board is seen in center.
Switch at lower left arms the alarm. The button switches at the lower right are for
slow and fast set.

Power Interruption
When the clock is plugged in , the display should light. The entire
display will flash on and off at a one-Hz rate. When the fast or slow buttons
are used, this flashing will stop. Should the display be found fl ashing during
normal use, it means the power may have been interrupted. The time
should be checked and reset if necessary.
A few minutes practice with the buttons will provide enough skill in
setting the time and the alarm. To activate or "arm" the alarm, the alarm
switch is pushed to the arm position. An LED on the lower right corner of
the display lights to show that the alarm is armed and ready. It will sound
when the clock time reaches the time set into the alarm .

Nine-Minute Snooze
When the alarm so unds , it can be turned off by the arming switch. The
snooze button will also turn off the alarm, but only fo r about nine minutes.
This is enough time for a short snooze . After the snooze time passes, the
alarm will sound again.
This snooze function can be repeated over and over again for an hour.
After one hour , the alarm will re-cycle to the 24-hour alarm set in the unit.
The unit will alarm every 24 hours unless the arm switch is used to turn it
off.

197
Fig. 18-15. Front view of MA1010 display.

Brightness Control
T his display is qui te bright when viewed in a da rk room. If a brightness
contro l is desired, a lOk-ohm potentiometer can be installed accord ing to
the spec ifications furnished at the end of th is chapter .

MA1010 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION

Thi s desc ri pt ion of the MA 1010 clock modu le wil l he lp the experi-
menter to find more uses than are included in th is project. Thi s descript ion
an d the specifications are provided through the co urtesy of the Na ti onal
Semiconductor Corp. Refe r to Figs . 18-1 5 through 18-1 8.

General Description
T he MA1010 Series Electronic Clock Modules combi ne a monoli thic
MOS- LSI integrated clock circui t , 4-digit 0 .84" LED display, power s upply

Fig. 18-16. MA1010 LED display rear view.

198
 Modu le selection guide

Function
Part (clock 1rad10 Lin e Display
Number or alarm) frequency hou rs

MA1010A CR 50 /60 12
MA1010C CR 50 160 24
MA 1010E A 50 160 12
MA1010G A 50 160 24

Nole : For 50 Hz operalion, connect pins 16 and 17.

App/icarions informarion

Full feature clock radio

22 On

- - -- . Alarm display /snooz e

a.c
18 Y 00

20 Bri ghtness control

13 Slow set
_L
14 Fast set
12
10 Vss Sleep Sleep display
7.0 Vrms v,, (radio) Alarm
7
21 _L
Seconds display
"- 250 mA 17 9

, - Radial
chassis I
I
Wa ke I
mode
selec1

Alarm clock
22 On

IEiilii 011
J_
,,_--~ Alarm select

- - - - - .Alarrn display /snooze

19V 5 5
Dim
MAIOlOE .G Brightriess select
Bright
18 Y 00
20
_]__
13
10 v ~~ 14

Fig. 18-17. Module selection guide and applications information.

199
 (Ill
Al 10011
-~
'
.
' SW Ml
c4
I----+~---.
C:OO"" f-..---1'-.i---+H
..... 1orn
"'
' faslM1

H
~display
"
,;..,_
-,--_~,-,_ _ _ _ _ _ __, S-...p
1
l~dimpiay

;21 l:\212kll

'"

"'

,16 "'IO!l4

"'
I

No11 I Numtieri ci.nolt linpri on !he P.C. tio.rd

Noel 2 : NOi fl'QUlfld lor clock rldo ~bly . PI N MA.1010 - A,C .
"'"
Not
3 : NOi flQUlrtod lor "''""'clock 11MfT\bly . PfN MA.1010 E . G
4 : for 50 H1 opeor1t1on. conn1e1 pm1161nd 11.
Notes : 12 houri - Ult '"PM ." 'b," "c"' LED only , Z1 10 bl MM4391 : - Ult J2. do no! UM Al ,
MAIOIO - A. E
24 l'louri - ... , ,- 'b," "c."" "d ."' .., _...., .. LED ontv. Z1 10 bl MM4392,
- UM A3. do no1 "! J2. J3 or CA6; MA1010 - C,G

Fig. 18-18. Schematic diagram of circuits for digital clock.

and other associated discrete components on a single printed circuit board

to form a complete electronic clock movement. The user need add only a
transformer and switches to construct a pretested digital clock for appl ica-
tion in clock-radios, alarm or instrument panel clocks. Timekeeping may be
from 50 or 60 Hz inputs and 12- or 24-hour display formats may be chosen.
Direct (non-multiplexed) LED drive eliminates RF interference. Time
setting is made easy through use of "Fast" and "S low" scanning controls.
See Table 18-1 for MA1010 display modes .
Features include alarm "on" and "PM" indicators, blinking colon,
"sleep" and "snooze" timers and variable brightness control capability.
Alarm clock options include a transistor oscillator circuit for direct drive of
8-ohm loudspeakers.

200
Features
Bright 4-digit 0.84" LED display
Complete-add only a transformer and switches
Alarm clock and clock-radio versions
Alarm output drives 8-ohm speaker
12 or 24 hour displa y format
50 or 60 Hz operation
Power fai lure indication
Brightness control capability
"Sleep" and "snooze" times
Alarm "on" and PM indicators
Direct drive-no RFI
Fast and s low set controls
Low cost, extremely compact design

Applications
Clock-radio timers
Alarm clocks
Desk clocks
TV-stereo timers
Instrument panel clocks

Control Functions
Setting of Time , Alarm Time , Seconds and Sleep Timer registers is
accomplished by selecting the appropriate display mode and simultane-
ous ly contacting one or both of the FAST and SLOW time setting switches .
This is summarized in Table 18-2.
Alarm On/Off Switch. The Alarm On/Off switch is an SPDT
switch-the "on" position lights the alarm set indicator; the "off' position
disables the alarm output latch and silences the alarm. The alarm output will
continue for 59 minutes unless cancelled by the Alarm On/Off switch or
inhibited by the Alarm Display/Snooze button.
Alarm Display/Snooze Button. This momentary switch has four
functions : displays the alarm time; enables setting of alarm time (in con-

Table 18-1. MA1010 Display Modes.

Selected
display mode' Difit no. 1 Diflt no. 2 Dil!it no. 3 Difit no. 4

Time display 1Os of hours & AM JPM Hours 10s of minutes Minutes
Seconds display Blanked Minutes 1Os of seconds Seconds
Alarm display 10s of hours & AM /PM Hours 1Os of minutes Minutes
Sleep display Blanked Blanked 1Os of minutes Minutes

Jf more than one display mode is applied, the display priorities are in the order of Sleep (overrides all others).
Alarm . Seconds, Time (no other mode selected).

201
 Table 18-2. MA 1O10 Control Functions.

Selected Control
display mode input Control function

Time Slo w Minutes advance at 2-Hz rate

Fast Minules ad vance at 60-Hz rate
Both Minutes advance at 60-Hz rate
Alarm /Snooze Slow Alarm minutes advance at 2-Hz rate
Fast Alarm minutes advance at 60- Hz rate
Both Ala rm resets lo 12:00 AM ( 12-hour lormat )
Both Alarm resets to (0)0:00 (24-hou r format)
Seconds Slow tnput to entire time counter is inhibited (hold)
Fas! Second s and 1Os of seconds reset to zero with out a carry to
minutes
Both Time resets to 12 :00 :00 AM ( 12-hour format)
Both Time resets to (0)0 :00:00 (24-hour format )
Sleep Slow Sub tracts count at 2 Hz
Fast Subtracts count at 60 Hz
Bot h Su btrac1s count at 60 Hz

w hen setting time. sleep minutes will decrement at rate ol lime counter. until the sleep counter reaches 00
m inutes (sleep counter will not recycle) .

junction with fas t or s low set sw itches); cance ls the Sleep (Radio) output ;
and inhibits the alarm outpu t for a period of be twee n 8 and 9 minutes
(Snooze fun cti on) . The Snooze alarm feat ure may be used repeatedl y duri ng
the 59-minute alarm e nable pe ri od.
Sleep Display/Timer Button. A mome ntary contact displ ays the
t ime re maining in the s lee p regis te r and e nables programming the desired
s lee p time by s imultaneous ly us ing the Fast or S low buttons , as s how n in
T able 18-2. The Sl ee p (Radi o) output is latched on for the interval pro-
grammed , whi ch may be up to 59 minute s. The Sleep output may be
cancelled by momen taril y contac ting the Alarm Di splay/Snooz e button.
Resetting the time-of-day will decrement (count dow nward s) the Sleep
Timer , whi ch will not recycle pas t 00 .
Brightness Control. Maxi mum di splay curre nt is obtained by plac-
ing a short circuit be twee n VllIJ and the Bri ghtness Control input. For
clock- radio ve rs ions , insertion of a lOk potentiomete r will reduce display
brightness to a low leve l for ni ght viewing, with an ope n circuit turning the
dis pla y off complete ly . Alarm clock ve rs ions reduce di splay curre nt to
app rox imate ly 10% if the Bri ghtness Co ntrol input is ope n circuite d.

Outputs
Sleep (Ra dio) . A positive cu rre nt sou rce output co ntroll ed by the
s lee p time r . Thi s output ca n be used to switch on an NPN powe r trans is tor
fo r contro lling a radi o or othe r appliance.
Alarm. A po siti ve curre nt source output co ntrolled by the alarm
co mparator and e nab le circui t . Thi s output may be used to control an alarm
oscillator, wake-to-radio fun ction, or s tar t an appliance at a pre dete rmined
time.
Alarm Tone (Alarm Clock Vers ions Only). An oscillator output
ga ted by the alarm output. On 12 hour ve rsions , the tone is inte rrupte d at a

202
0.5 second "on," 0.5 second "off' rate. The oscillator produces a tone of
approximately 2 kHz and is capable of driving loads such as loudspeakers
directly. Load impedance is not critical, but should be at least 4 ohms.
Note: Certain outputs of the MA1010 module are directly connected to
MOS device inputs. Normal precautions taken for handling of MOS devices
should be applied to the handling of this module.

PROCEDURE
1. Secure all parts . Check parts list.
2. Fabricate alarm PC board. Mount parts and solder.
3. Fabricate plastic case. Drill all holes, then heat and form to proper
shape.
4. Cement seam in formed plastic case.
5. Make base. Be sure to bevel edges.
6. Make end pieces. Rout edges to fit thickness of acrylic used for
the case. Hand-work to fit.
7. Make aluminum bracket and install on base .
8 . Fini sh wood to suit, using oil , stain, etc.
9. Cement hex nuts into knobs.
10. Wire all components . Use small size wire to clock module. Use
care and a small soldering iron tip when soldering the junctions on
the clock module.
11 . After temporarily wiring the line cord to the unit, plug into 120
Vac and test.
12. If all works correctly, mount transformer, alarm PC board,
switches, etc., to the plastic case.
13 . Cement speaker to base of plastic case. Leave room for the
module.
14 . Hold the clock module in place, using a spring clamp, and ce ment
it into place on the inside surface of the case. Do not apply too
much solvent. Only a small amount around the edge of the acrylic
case and module joint is necessary .
15. Install line cord and make the connection to the transformer .
Arrange all wires neatly .
16 . Hold end pieces, with screws installed, to the plastic case. Spring
the bracket slightly and insert the case into the bracket.
17. Screw the knobs on and secure the case. The case can be re-
positioned by loosening the knobs.

PARTS LIST
Item Description Quantity

1 MA 1010 Clock module 1

2 Push-button switch, SPST, NO 2
3 Transformer, for MA1010 (Digi-Key) 1

203
Item Description Quantity

4 Li ne cord with plug

5 Switch, DPST sli de (a larm) 1
6 Speaker, 8 ohms, 2- inch diameter 1
7 Transistor, 2N2222 NPN 1
8 Resis tor, 1000 ohm s 2
9 Re sistor, 330k ohms 1
10 Resistor, 2.2 megohm s 1
11 Re sistor , lOk ohm s 1
12 Capac itor , 1 ,F 2
13 Resistor , 330 ohms 1
14 LED. red 1
15 Di ode, general purpose 1
16 Time r IC, type 555 2
17 Socke t, 16 pin DIP 1
18 PC board s tock 1
19 Switch , pu sh-button, SPST, ca lculator type (fo r s nooze) 1
20 Knobs, e lectroni c type, for \/, -inch shaft 2
21 Alu minum s trap , \/a- inch , one inch wide 12"
22 Clear acryli c s tock , 6" x 12" x \18''
23 Mi sce llaneous wire, solde r , ceme nt , nut s, screws, etc.

204
 Chapter 19

:_:[)_J-
A Metric Measuring Wheel
The metric system of measurement is fast becoming the standard for the
world. Most school s are now teaching metric terms at the elementary leve l
as well as the hi gher grade leve ls.
This project is a simple counter which provides a digita l readout
directly in meters . The project is easy to construct and provides lessons in
digita l electronics as well as practice measuring in metrics.
The project consists of a counter and display mounted on a hand-held
shaft. The end of the shaft holds a wheel which is 50 centimeters in cir-
cumference. Fifty evenly spaced brads are mounted on thi s whee l. The
brads activate a switch as the wheel turns. The switch pulses are then
counted by the digital counter and displayed by LED displays.

OPERATION
Figure 19-1 shows the schematic diagram of the entire circuit. Two
9-volt batteries are wired in para llel to power the unit. All ICs used in this
project are the CMOS type, which use very little power. The entire unit
uses only five !Cs.
The switch pulses must be conditioned to el iminate any bounce . This
is done with the 4011 NAN O gate, ICl.
The pulses are sent to the decade counter after de bouncing in ICl. The
decade counters are type 4026 !Cs. These !Cs not only count; they also
decode and drive seven-segment displays directly. In this unit , FND 503
common-cathode di splays are used. A decimal point is used between the
second and third digits. This means that the re adout can run to a maxim um
of 99. 99 meters. The accuracy of the unit is. 01 meter, or 1 ce ntimeter.

205
I\)
0
Ol
~ --
~ FiTTlr nllG:= l1

W- ~
'-~/
l'='l
I
Jc'
I
~~ rm-
I I I I
lgb
~

+: ~
n-

\ 1 n II-
I ~ LJ r-rc~ 33o;=L.J -
~
+

l,c:: ? IJ
).,).,,.,J.J.
l DP r>-
,,J. ,
+
9

4026
,r\
'""" "" A,!.~
"
16 15 14 13 12 11 10
AST c b e a d
9

4026 4026 4026

IC2 IC3 IC4
)

f p --yyy ryyu uyy'L!. CL K ICS , ,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Fig . 19-1. Schematic diagram of
n--r'--'l- r--nu metric counter circuit.
I -

+ - +

o---0 +
Clear t''i L__J
!"""""
1413121110 9 n8
4011
IC1
1 234567
L:.T L_
1k 1k
~
o+
r. 7
~heel
switch
 A switch is provided for clearing all units to zero .

CONSTRUCTION
Figure 19-2 is the fo il layout for the PC board for this project. This
board should be constructed in the usual manner. Figure 19-3 is the layout
of the component side. Sockets are used for all IC s.

Case
The case which contains the di splay is made of l/i-inch wood stock . The
front panel of 1116-inch aluminum is use d to mount the PC board. Figure
19-4 shows the layout and dimensions fo r the front panel. Figure 19-5
shows the general layo ut and dimensions of the case. Noti ce that the PC

------
Fig. 19-2. Foil layout of main PC board .

207
 - ~3302-:::
-
- --- ----
- - --
---.. a l I
- I -. ..-

EJ I
Il - +

J /On /off
Wheel
Run Clear switch
11r-J
6-12V

Fig. 19-3. Component layout of the main PC board .

board is mounted to the front panel with bolts and the front panel slides into
a slot in the case housing.

Wheel
The counter wheel is made from wood. Figure 19-6 shows the layout
and dimensions of this wheel. The 50 brads are driven into the wood
according to this drawing. Each brad is cemented in place with epoxy
cement after it is seated to the proper height. The brads should extend out
from the wood about one-half inch.

208
 Cement red
acrylic to
back

Locate to match
holes in PC
board

+ Met~rs
'

YsD(2 holes)
1
4
v ~c
1

#6-+-0n/ott
80

V2 7f-
9/ s I
Ru~rn
...______ _) _ _____, J_1
rn---{

Dimensions in inches
CL

Fig. 19-4. Front panel layout of metric counter, not to scale.

..... - PC

1
1---flJF"'-::--===-T""'r board
Front
panel

6 1/s
5 11 / 16

... IV
~
- - - -.. - - -
l,.. - -- -4 112 ~r-\
~ \ Right side
held with screws.
Other joints glued .

Fig. 19-5. Dimensions and details of case construction and assembly.

209
 Figure 19-7 shows the complete wheel mounted to the handle, with the
microswitch in place. Figure 19-8 shows the de tail of the wheel mounting
bracket and the microswitch bracket. A large rubber band is used as a tire
for the wheel.
Figure 19-9 is a close-up view of the micros wi tch. Notice that the le ver
arm is bent so tha t it will slip ove r the brads. The bend must be rounded so
that a backward motion does not damage the microswitch lever.
The handle is made from \/2 -inch EMT (thin-wall conduit). A bicycle
hand le grip is mounted at the top end. Figure 19- 10 shows the comp leted
counter mounted to the handle. The conduit may need several layers of tape
beneath the handle to make it fit tight ly.
Figure 19-11 shows a view of the control box with the right side
removed. The 9-vo lt batteries appear at the right. Notice how the PC board
is he ld to the front panel wi th machine screws and nuts.
Figure 19-12 shows the front pane l of th e operating unit. The display
shows 78. 14 meters.

Circumference =50cm

50 brads
equally
spaced

6 _1c~
7.9cm ~

Fig. 19-6. Layout of the measuring wheel. Construct this wheel as accurately as
you can.

210
Fig. 19-7. View of wheel showing placement of brass brads and the location of
the microswitch.

To operate the unit, use the clear switch to return the display to 00 .00 .
When this switch is returned to the "run" position, the unit is ready to count
or measure. The wheel is placed on the surface to be measured and run in a
forward direction unit! the measurement is completed .
Different size wheels and tires can be designed so that the unit can
measure in different units .
The rubber tire works well on smooth surfaces such as inside floors.
For outside use, such as on a track, drive brads into the rim in place of the
tire to prevent slipping.

PROCEDURE
Use the following procedure when constructing this project:
1. Secure all parts. Check against the parts list.
2. Cut out the wheel and lay out the brad locations very carefu lly.

211
 Drive the brads and epoxy each in place. Be sure all are the same
height, about one-half inch above the surface.
3. Cut the conduit and bend the end for a handle.
4. Flatten about two inches of the conduit at the lower end where the
wheel will be located.
5. Design and fabr icate the wheel and microswitch brackets .

Fig . 19-8. View of the microswitch mounting brackets. The " tire" is a large rubber
band.

212
Fig. 19-9. Detail of the microswitch showing the bend in the leaf. The bend is
round so the brads pass easily without any hang-up.

6. Mount the wheel, microswitch, an d brackets .

7. Bend the micros witch leaf so that it operates with every brad in
the whee l and no hang-ups are noted.
8 . Consult Figs. 19-8 and 19-9 fo r the design of the se brackets .
Modify these designs to fit the microswitch and wheel you use .
9. Fabricate the main PC board according to the layout drawing.

213
 10 . Fabricate the control box and case. Leave the right side panel of
the case off at this time .
11. Complete the front panel. Place rub-on lettering where needed
and spray with clear krylon.
12 . Cement the red acrylic filter to the rear of the window of the front
panel.

Fig. 19-10. Completed unit mounted in case. The case is mounted to the handle
with sheet metal screws. Wires run down the handle to the microswitch located at
the wheel.

214
Fig. 19-11. View of completed unit with side removed so that the inside can be
seen. Notice how the PC board is mounted to the front panel. The batteries are
mounted to the back of the case.

13 . Mount the PC board to the front pane l.

14. Mount the batte ries to the rear wall of the case.
15. Insert the front panel with the PC board into the case.
16. Wire batte ries, on-off switch, and whee l swi tch to the PC board .
17 . Install side pane l on case .
18 . Test unit and begin making measure ment s .

215
Fig . 19-12. View of front panel shows a reading of 78.14 meters.

PARTS LIST

Item Description Quantity

1 Switch, SPST, push type 1

2 Microswitch , SPOT type 1
3 Slide switch, SPOT (clear) 1
4 LED display , common cathode , type FND 503 4
5 Resistor , 1000 ohms 2
6 Resistor, 330 ohms 1
7 Battery, 9 V 2
8 Battery snaps 2
9 Battery holder 2
10 Socket, 14 pin DIP 1
11 Socket, 16 pin DIP 4
12 IC, 4026 CMOS decade counter 4
13 IC, 4011 CMOS NANO gate 1
14 Miscellaneous parts such as wood, nuts, PC stock, wire,
so lder, glue, 1/2' co nduit, sheet metal stock, etc. -

216
 Appendix A

IC Specifications and Diagrams

The following short-form specifications of a selected number of TTL ICs
are provided for quick reference. Pin diagrams are provided along with a
brief explanation of the use and special characteristics of the units.
The information contained in these append ices is adapted from publi-
cations produced by Texas Instruments, Inc. This material is used through
the courtesy of, and with the permission of Texas Instruments Inc., Dallas,
Texas . For a more extensive coverage of the specifications of these I Cs and
others , the reader should consult a good TTL reference book such as The
TTL Data book for Design Engineers, Second Edition, Texas Instruments
Inc ., 1976 .

+ Disc . Thresh. Bypass

8 7 6 5

2 3 4

Trig Output Reset

Fig. A-1 . 555 Timer pin diagram.

217
555 TIMER
The 555 timer IC is very popular as an inexpensive and accurate clock
(astable), or one-shoot (monostable) unit. It is a 8-pin DIP package which
can source or sink about 200 mA. Both monostable and astable wiring and
information are provided below.

2 3 4

Trigger +

Monostable

Fig. A-2 . 555 Timer, monostable circuit.

Monostable
1. When a negative pulse is app lied to the trigger, pin 2, the output,
pin 3, goes from its resting level (low) to high (+ ).The output will
remain high for as long as the timing network allows. After this
time period passes, the output wil l return to its low condition and
remain there until another trigger pulse is provided.
2. The "on time" is calculated with the following equation:

C = Microfarads
T = 1.1 RC R =Megohms
T = Seconds

3. Pin 5 should be bypassed to ground with a .01-,F tantalum

capacitor. The circuit may still work if this is not done. However,
literature recommends bypassing.

218
 +

R1 R2

l' 01F

8 7 6 5 Jc
2 3 4
output
_IUUL

Fig. A-3. 555 Timer, astable circuit.

Astable
1. When wired in the astable, or free-running, mode, the frequency
of the output is calculated with the following equation:

F =Hertz
1.5
F=----- R =Megohms
(R1 + 2R)C
C = Microfarads

2. If R2 is large when compared to Rl, the output square wave will be

on and off about an equal amount of time. The on and off time
relationship can be altered by changing the ratio of the se two
resistances .
3. Pin 5 should be bypassed to ground with a .01-.F tantalum
capacitor. The circuit may work well without this bypass
capacitor, but its use is recommended as good practice .

219
7400: QUAD 2-INPUT POSITIVE NANO GATES

7400
t
Four 2-input positive NAND gates

Gate 1()_9ic :
A = 0C
2 3 4 5 6 (-) 7

Fig. A-4. 7400 pin diagram.

1. Each ga te can be used separatel y .

2. Suppl y must be 5 vo lts.
3. Total package current is 20 mA , max imum.
4. Thi s IC has many uses and costs ve ry litt le. It is frequentl y used as
a quad inverte r as we ll as a quad NANO ga te.

7402
t
Four 2- input positive NO R g ates
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
(+ )
~--'-'-~J.J.-~-'ol--~--~---"''--~,,._~_.,1--~

Gate log ic
A= B +C

2 3 4 5 6 7 (- )

Fig. A-5. 7402 pin diagram.

220
7402 QUAD 2-INPUT POSITIVE NOR GATES
1. Supply must be 5 volts.
2. Each gate can be used separately.
3. Package current is 20 mA, maximum.

7404 HEX INVERTER

7404
t
,..._....___...
Hex inverter
+
14 13 12 11 10 9 8

Inverter logic:
A=B

2 3 6 7
(- )

Fig. A-6. 7404 pin diagram.

1. Supply must be 5 volts.

2. Each inverter can be used separately.
3. Package current is 20 mA, maximum.

7432 QUAD 2-INPUT OR GATES

------
7432

t
Four 2-input OR gates
( +) 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

Gate logic :
A = B+C

3 7(-)

Fig . A-7. 7432 pin diagram.

221
 1. Supply must be 5 volts .
2. Package current is 20 mA, maximum.
3. Each gate can be used separately.

7447 BCD-TO-SEVEN-SEGMENT DECODER/DRIVER

7447

(+)
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9

g a b d e
Output to display

Zero
Suppress Input
~ Lamp ,...-......_
B c Test Out In bA Sevent-segment
6 8 LED display
2 3
(- )

Fig. A-8. 7447 pin diagram .

1. Supply must be 5 volts.

2. Output lines must have 330-ohm series resistors when driving a
common-anode seven-segment LED display.
3. Outputs are low(-) and can sink about 40 mA.
4 . Pin 3, lamp test, normally remains high (+).If it is made low, all
segments of the display will light.
5. Zero blanking will occur if pin 5 is made low.
6. Pin 4 is used to pass on a ground to preceding units for zero
suppression.
7. Package current is approximately 64 mA.

7476 DUAL J-K FLIP-FLOPS WITH CLEAR AND PRESET

7476
1k 10 11! (-) 2k 20 i?J 2J
16 1s 14 13 12 11 rn s

1 5 6 7 8
1CLK 1PR lCLR 1J (+) 2CLK 2PR 2CLR

Fig. A-9. 7476 pin diagram.

222
 1. Supply must be 5 volts. Power s upply pins are not the us ual ones,
but are pins 5 and 13.
2. Each flip-flop can be used separately.
3. Package current is 40 mA.
4 . Maximum frequency which can be used is 20 MHz.
5. When clear is made low, output will go to Q = 1, Q = 0.
6. When preset is made low, outputs will go to Q 0, Q 1. = =
7. IF clear and preset are low at the same time, output control will be
lost.
8. If J = 0 AND K = 1, no change in output will occur when a clock
pulse is received. Flip-flops operate only on a clock pulse. J and K
must be changed after the pulse .
9. IO = 1 AND K = 0 when a clock pulse is rece ived, the output will
go to A = 1, Q = 0.
10. HJ= 0 AND K = 1, the clock pulse will cause the output to go to Q
= 0, Q = 1.
11. If J = 1 AND K = 1, the output will toggle the input and divide its
frequency by 2.

7486 QUAD 2-INPUT EXCLUSIVE-OR GATES

7486
(+ )
14 13 12 11 10 9 8

Ga1e logic:
A=B@C
=BC+BC

Truth table

Input Output
4 7
(- ) B c A
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Fig. A-10 . 7486 pin diagram and truth table for quad 2-input Exclusive-OR Gate.

1. Suppl y must be 5 volts.

2. Maximum package current is 30 mA.
3. Each gate can be used separate ly.
4. Each gate provides an output only if the inputs of the gate are
different logic levels . See the Truth Table .

223
7490 DECADE COUNTER

BCD OUl

~
/
Clock
#1 IN NC A D (-) B C
14 13 12 11 10 9 8

+2
CLK

CLK
+5

2 3 4 5 6 7
Clock -----.I \.--.,,.---1
NC (+)
112 IN Zero 9 set
set

Fig. A-11 . 7490 pin diagram.

1. Supply must be 5 volts . Notice power connections to pins 5 and

10. These are not the usual power connections for TTL ICs.
2. Maximum frequenc y is 16 MHz.
3. Two separate counters are in this package . The divide-by-two
input is pin 14, and the divide-by-5 input is pin 1.
4. In order to arrange a divide-by-10 counter, pin 11 can be jumpered
to pin 14. Pin 1 becomes the clock input. A BCD output results
from this configuration.
5. The counter can be set to zero by making pin 2 or 3 (or both)
positive. The counter can be set to 9 by making pin 6 or 7 (or both)
positive .
6. The input clock signal must be bounce less .
7. All set pins (2, 3, 6, and 7) shou ld be held at ground during
operation .

74192 SYNCHRONOUS BCD UP/DOWN DUAL CLOCK COUNTERS WITH CLEAR

1. Clock input is attached to either up or down (pin 4 or 5) depending

on desired direction . The pin not used for the clock must be
positive during counting . The output QABCD is a BCD code.

224
 (+)
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
(A) CLR CARR Y (C) (D)
BORROW LOAD

ABCD =
BCD data in
=
QABCD BCD data out

(B) QB QA DN UP QC OD

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(-)

Fig. A-12. 74192 pin diagram .

2. Data can be loaded into the counter by app lying the correct BCD
code to the input pins (ABCD) and momentarily grounding the
load pin (11) . The load pin must remain high during the time the
unit is count ing .
3. The unit can be cleared to zero by momentarily bringing the clear
pin (14) to high . The clear pin must be returned to low in order to
count .
4. Units can be cascaded. The carry and borrow outputs are used to
clock to or from other units.
5. Supply must be 5 volts.
6. Package current is 65 mA.
7. Maximum frequency is 32 MHz.

225
Appendix B

Parts Suppliers
Active Electronics Sales Corp. Excellent quantity prices for !Cs
P .0. Box 1035 and components. Wide variety of
Framingham, MA 01701 !Cs and other components.

Advanced Computer Products, Solder, IC breadboards, wire-wrap

Inc. tools, PC board layout materials,
P.O. Box 17329 cases, components such as resis-
Irvine , CA 92713 tors, capacitors, etc.

Allied Electronics Wide variety of electronics parts,

401 E. 8th Street hardware, components, and vac-
Fort Worth, TX 76102 uum tubes, PC board supplies.
Quantity prices.

Arch Electronics Co. Variety of components. Quantity

1318 Arch Street prices. Vacuum tubes.
Philade lphia, PA 19107

B & F Enterprises Wide variety of components and

119 Foster Street hardware. Many unusual items.
Peabody, MA 01960

Burstein-Applebee Wide variety of electronics tools,

3199 Mercier Street equipment, and components.
Kansas City, MO 64111

226
Contact East Inc. Excellent selection of tools and
7 Cypress Drive equipment for PC board and elec-
Burlington, MA 01803 tronics use. Production equipment
and supplies.

Digi-Key Corp. Excellent source of components

P.O. Box 677 Hi-way 32 South such as /Cs, capacitors, resistors,
Thief River Falls, MN 56701 and others. PC layout materials.
Good quantity prices.

Electronic Supermarket Hardware, test equipment, PC

P.O . Box 619 board, transformers, and many
Lynnfield, MA 01940 other items.

Fordam Radio Test equipment, solder supplies, re-

855 Conklin Street pair parts for radio and TV.
Farmingdale, NY 11735

Hanifin Electronics Corp. Good listing of semiconductors and

P .O. Box 188 other components.
Bridgeport, PA 19405

Herbach & Rademan Inc. Motors, fans, test equipment, and

401 East Erie Avenue many unusual items. Monthly
Philadelphia, PA 19134 catalog features a different item
each month.
J. Meshna Surplus and unusual items. Wide
P.O. Box 62 variety with many bargain prices.
E . Lynn , MA 01904
James Electronics Good variety of electronic compo-
1021 Howard Avenue nents and parts. Quantity prices on
San Carlos, CA 94070 some.

Kelvin Electronics Inc. Soldering supplies, layout materials

1900 New Highway and PC stock, etchant, wire,
Farmingdale , NY 11735 components, electronic kits, and
variety of hardware. Quantity
Prices.

Kepro Circuit Systems Inc. Clap board and chemicals for etch-
3630 Scarlet Oak Boulevard ing. Complete line of bench-top
St. Louis, MO 63122 units for PC board fabrication.

Mouser Electronics Excellent variety of parts and com-

11511 Woodside Avenue ponents for electronics. Quantity
Lakeside, CA 92040 prices.

227
Newark Electronics Wide variety of electronics parts,
500 N. Pulaski Road tools, equipment, and components.
Chicago, IL 60624
Factory fallouts, excellent prices on
Poly Paks "grab-bag'' type components good
P.O . Box 942 for self testing. Many unusual
South Lynnfield, MA 09140 items.

Prime Components Corp. Variety of electronics parts and

65 Engineers Road components.
Hauppauge, NY 11787

Radio Shack Stores located nearly everywhere in

(address nearest store USA. Generally good supply of
check telephone directory) component parts.

Techni-Tool Inc. Hand and production tools. Chemi-

Apollo Road cal and PC board layout materials.
Plymouth Meeting, PA 19462

Western Components Tools, test equipment, chemicals,

P.O. Box 1125 and kits for electronics. Catalog for
Lakeside, CA 92040 schools.

228
 Index
A Construction , 145
Audible ohmmeter, 81 Keying a transmitter, 144
Construction procedure, 84 Pc board, 146
Measuring unknown res istances, Code oscillator, 1
82 Code practice oscillator, 70
Operation, 81 Completed , 73
Other uses, 83 Construction, 70
Test and calibration, 85 Fabrication, 72
Audio-frequency generator with digital Interior view, 73
readout, 132 Layout of front panel, 74
Calibration , 141 Operation, 70
Case, 136 Pc board, 70
Construction, 136 Schematic, 71
Frequency generator schematic, Wiring, 72
134, 135 Component mounting, 16
Front panel , 136, 140 Components, 2
Frequency meter, 132 Components, polarized, 6
Generator pc board, 137 Connections, bad, 5
Operation , 132 Connections, good, 17
Power supply, 135 Connections, poor, 17
Construction, 110
B Construction procedures, 54
Binary numbers, 102 Copper layout, 11
Bits, 103
Board loading and soldering , 34 D
Breadboard, troubleshooting the, 5 Darkroom timer with beep alarm, 170
Breadboarding, 3 Alarm and power supply, 171
Breadboard sockets, 4 Assembly, 181
Broken foil, 52 Case , 180
Clock and start-stop, 171
c Counters, 175
Clip leads, 3 Construction, 176
Code keyer, semiautomatic, 144 Front and rear panels, 179
Case , 147 Functional diagram, 172

229
 Master clock schematic, 174 Frequency and voltage, 77
Operating theory, 170 How it works, 76
Pc board, 178 How to use, 79
Zero detector, 171 Operation , 76
Zero detector schematic, 174 Pc board, 78
Decade counter, 105 Wiring, 78
Decade counter, modular, 102 Diodes, 60
Decade counter, schematic, 109 DIP removal tool, 65
Decimal conversion, 104 Dip soldering, 38
Decimal numbers, 102 DIP soldering clip, 65
Decoder-driver, 11 O Dip soldering station, 39
Desoldering tool, 65 Drilling, production, 33
Developing, 22 Drilling techniques, 32
Digital alarm clock
Alarm, 188 E
Base, 193 Enclosures, 54, 55
Bracket, 193 Etchant, 28
Brightness control, 198 Etcher, home-made, 29
Case, 189 Etching, 27
Clock module, 188 Etching machine, 28
Completed unit, 195
Construction, 188 F
MA 101 Ofunctional description, 198 Flux, 42
Module wiring, 189 4-bit truth table, 104
Nine-minute snooze, 197 Four-lamp read-out, 110
Operation, 196 Front panel, 55
Power interruption, 197 Front panel finishing, 59
Digital counter demonstrator, 88
BCD display, 93
Decimal display, 93
G
Good connections, 17
Display lamps, 89
Display unit, 92
Front panel and case, 99
Operation, 88 IC insertion and removal, 63
Pc board construction, 93 IC leads, 61
Power supply, 92, 97 IC packaging, 61
Seven-segment display driver, 89 IC power and ground, 63
Transistor drivers, 89 ICs, removing soldered , 64
Digital display with breadboard , 125 ICs, troubleshooting, 66
Construction, 125 IC specifications, 217
Display board , 125 555, 218
Display lamps, 127 7400, 220
Lamp drivers, 127 7402, 221
Operation, 128 7432, 221
Ring counter, 129 7447, 222
. Digital IC tester, 149 7476, 222
Case, 150 7486, 223
Construction, 149 7490, 224
Operation , 154 74192, 224
7400 test circuit, 154 lmage-N-Transfer, 23
7490 test circuit, 154 Integrated circuits, 60
Test setup for 7490 IC, 156
Wiring, 152 L
Digital logic probe, 76 Logic monitor, 67, 68
Construction, 78 Logic probe, 66, 67
Fabrication, 78 LSI, 61

230
 M Pin diagram, 7490, 115
MAN-1 pin diagram, 116 Plastic, bending, 56
Masking, 20 Plastic, fastening, 57
Masking, direct method of, 19 Plating unit, home-made, 47
Master clock, 106, 111 Poor connections, 17
Dividers, 106 Power supply with breadboard, 120
Oscillator, 106 Case construction, 121
Master clock pc board, 113 Pc board, 120
Metal, bending, 57 Power supply, 120
Metal, fastening , 59 Printed circuits, 9
Metric measuring wheel, 205
Construction, 207 R
Metric counter circuit, 206 Read-out circuits, 108
Operation, 205 Rear panel, 56
Wheel, 208 Red-lining, 4
Mini-breadboard with shift register, Resist, types of., 18
158 Resist application, 16
Binary theory, 158
Bounceless switch , 160 s
Breadboard socket, 162 Schematics, 1
Construction, 162 Seven-segment indicator, 110
Flip-flop, 159 7447 pin diagram , 115
Four-bit shift register, 161 7490 pin diagram, 115
J-K flip-flop, 160 Shift-register /ring-counter circuit,
Pc board, 163 130
Power supply, 162 Silk screening, 19
Shift register, 160 Solder cream, 52
Shift-register /ring counter sche- Solder removal , 52
matic, 165 Soldering, 42
Types of flip-flops, 160 Soldering, dip, 38
Motor control, 50 Soldering , holder for, 41
Mounting components, 3 Soldering flux, 35
Soldering heat sensitive devices, 36
0 Soldering irons, 34
Ohmmeter, audible (see audible Stick-ons, 12
ohmmeter)
T
p Tin plater, home-made, 50
Parts substitution, 6 Tin plating, 49
Pc board, drilling the, 30 Tool, desoldering, 65
Pc board, exposing the, 22 Tools, 54
Pc board, repairing a, 51 Transistor leads, 61
Pc board cleaning, 21 Transistor packages, 62
Pc board .holders, 37 Transistors, 60
Pc board sensitizing, 21
Pc layout, 9 w
Perforated circuit boards, 4 Wave soldering, 48
Photographic process, 23
Pin diagram, MAN-1 , 116 z
Pin diagram, 7447, 115 Zero suppression, 114

231
 Digital Electronics Projects
by Harry M. Hawkins

Build a deluxe code oscillator, a digital game called Climb-the-

Mountain, a clock with alarm, a metric measuring wheel , a modular
decade counter, even a 14-note music generator! Here are seventeen
fascinating , highly useful digital projects, each one designed to give
you hands-on practice in applying basic digital electronics theory. It's a
learn-by-doing guide that includes several innovative devices that will
be of interest even to both novice and experienced experimenters!

Each project is thoroughly explained and illustrated-with com -

plete plans , printed circuit layouts, parts lists, step-by-step construc-
tion how-to's, photographs of the finished project, and full descriptions
of how the device is used-so that even a novice can successfully
build and use these digital electronics un its . And , in addition to the
specific projects included in this volume, the author gives you a wealth
of helpful information on sources for project ideas , details on basic
breadboarding, and advice on constructing digital devices. As a
further aid , there is a listing of technical data on commonly used
integrated circuits that wil l help you verify the use and hookup of ICs
used in the various projects.

As a project guide , a hands-on learning tool , and a valuable

reference on the basics of digital electronics , this is a book that
deserves a prominent spot on every electronics hobbyist's work-
bench .

Author of T AB 's Concepts of Digital Electronics , Harry M. Haw-

kins is an associate professor of industrial arts and technology at the
State University of New Yo rk at Oswego and adjunct professor of
electronics at Rochester Institute of Technology.
1

OTHER POPULAR TAB BOOKS OF INTERE ST

Beginner's Guide to Reading Schematics (No. 32 Electronic Power Supply Projects (No. 1486-
1536- $8.95 paper; $13.95 hard) $10.95 paper; $17.95 hard)
Concepts of Digital Electronics (No. 153 1-$11.95 The Master Handbook of IC Circuits (No. 1370-
paper; $17.95 hard ) $14.95 paper; $22.95 hard)
750 Practical Electronic Circuits (No. 1499- The GIANT Book of Electronics Projects (No.
$14.95 paper; $21.95 hard) 1367-$12.95 paper; $19.95 hard)

ITABI TAB BOOKS Inc.

Blue Ridge Summit, Pa. 17214

Send for FREE TAB Catalog describing over 750 current titles in print.
Pn ces high er in-Canada ISBN 0-8306-143 1-1