CS6304-Analog and Digital Communication

Two marks questions and answers

Unit I- Analog Communication

1. Define − Noise (May/June 2007)

Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere with proper reception
and reproduction of wanted signal.

2. What is white noise? (May/June 2007) (Nov/Dec 2007) (May/June 2011)

White noise power spectral density of which is independent of operating frequency

adjective white is used in the sense that while light contains equal amount of all frequencies
within the visible band of EM radiation.
Sw(f)=No/2

3. What is thermal noise?(Nov/Dec 2008)

The electrons in a conductor possess varying amounts of energy by virtue of temperature
of conductor. The small fluctuation in Energy are sufficient to produce small noise voltages in
the conductor .These random fluctuations produced by the thermal agitation of the electrons are
called thermal noise.

4. What is meant by figure of merit of a receiver? (Nov/Dec 2006)

The figure of merit of receiver is given by
Figure of merit= (SNR)o / (SNR)c
Higher the value of figure of merit better will be the noise performance of receiver. It may be
equal to one, less than one or greater than one, depending on the type of modulated used.

5. List the characteristics of Shot Noise. (May/June 2009)

 Shot noise has a uniformly density.
 Mean square noise current depends directly on the direct components of current.
 Shot noise is dependent upon the operating conditions of the device.

6. List the characteristics of white noise? (Nov/Dec 2009)

 The PSD of white noise is independent of the operating frequency is S(f)=No/2.
 The auto correlation function of white noise is delta function is
Rw( t)=No/2 d(t).

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7. What is thermal noise? Give the expression for the thermal noise?
(Nov/Dec 2009)
 Thermal noise is the electrical noise arising from the random motion of electrons
in a conductor.
 The mean square value of the thermal noise voltage E(VTH2) appearing across the
terminals of a resistor (R),
 Measured in a bandwidth of delta f hertz is
 E(VTH2)=4KTR delta f volts.

8. List out the types of internal noise and external noise.

Internal noise External noise

Thermal noise Atmospheric noise

Shot noise Extraterrestrial noise

Transit time noise Man - made noise or industrial noise

Miscellaneous internal noise

9. Define − Noise Factor (Nov /Dec – 2008)

Noise factor is defined as the ratio between available S/N power ratios at the input
to the available S/N power ratio at the output.

10. What is the need for modulation?

The needs of modulation are for
 Ease of transmission
 Multiplexing
 Reducing noise and interference
 Narrow bandwidth
 Frequency assignment

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11. Define − Amplitude Modulation (Apr/May 2009)

Amplitude modulation is defined as a process of varying the amplitude of high frequency
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

12. Mention the types of analog modulation.

The types of analog modulation are:
a) Amplitude modulation
b) Angle Modulation
Amplitude modulation is further classified into
a. DSB-FC : Double Sideband - Full Carrier
b. DSB-FSC : Double Sideband - Suppressed Carrier
c. SSB-SC : Single Sideband – Suppressed Carrier
d. VSB : Vestigial Sideband
e. ISB : Independent Sideband
Angle modulation is further classified into
a. Frequency modulation
b. Phase modulation

13. Define − Depth of Modulation (Apr/May 2006)

Depth of modulation is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the message signal to that
of carrier amplitude.
m = Em / Ec
where, m = Depth of modulation
Em = Amplitude of the modulating signal and
Ec = Amplitude of the carrier signal

14. Define − Amplitude Modulation (Nov/Dec – 2011)

Amplitude modulation is defined as the process of varying the amplitude of high
frequency carrier signal in accordance with the low frequency of the modulating signal or
message signal.

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15. What are the different types of degrees of modulation?

The degrees of modulation are classified as
a. Under modulation : m < 1 when Em < Ec
b. Critical modulation : m = 1 when Em = Ec
Over modulation : m > 1 when Em > Ec

16. Draw the waveforms of AM signal and SSB - SC signal. (Nov/Dec– 2009)

17. In an amplitude modulation system, the carrier frequency is f c = 100 kHz. If the
maximum frequency of the signal is 5 kHz, determine the lower and upper side
bands and the bandwidth of AM signal. (Nov. / Dec –2010)
Given:
Carrier Frequency fc= 100 kHz
Modulating signal frequency fm = 5 kHz

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To find:
Upper and lower side bands
Bandwidth
Solution:
fUSB = fm + fc =100 kHz + 5 kHz = 105 kHz
fUSB = fm - fc =100 kHz - 5 kHz = 95 kHz
Bandwidth= 2 fm=2 x 5 kHz = 10 kHz
18. Draw the frequency spectrum of AM signal and write the bandwidth of it.
(Nov/Dec –2011)

Bandwidth = fm +fc +fm - fc =2 fm

19. List out the applications of SSB − SC AM. (Nov /Dec – 2007)
Applications of SSB − SC AM are,
i. SSB telegraph system

ii. Point to point radio telephone communication

iii. VHF and UHF communication systems

20. Distinguish between FM and PM. (Nov /Dec – 2012)

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

The maximum frequency deviation The maximum frequency deviation
depends on amplitude and frequency of depends only on amplitude of modulating
modulating signal signal

Noise immunity is better than AM and Noise immunity is better than AM but

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PM worse than FM

Frequency of the carrier is modulated by Phase of the carrier is modulated by

modulating signal modulating signal

21. List the advantages of FM over AM.

The advantages of FM over AM are:
i. The amplitude of FM is constant. Hence transmitter power remains constant in
FM where it varies in AM.

ii. Since amplitude of FM is constant, the noise interference is minimum in FM. Any
noise superimposing on modulated carrier can be removed with the help of
amplitude limiter.

iii. The depth of modulation has limitation in AM. But in FM, the depth of
modulation can be increased to any value.

iv. Since guard bands are provided in FM, there is less possibility of adjacent channel
interference.

v. Since space waves are used for FM, the radius of propagation is limited to line of
sight (LOS).Hence it is possible to operate several independent transmitters on
same frequency with minimum interference.

22. Define − Phase Modulation (Nov /Dec –2007)

Phase modulation is defined as the process of varying the phase of the carrier
signal in accordance to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
23. Compare WBFM with NBFM. (Nov /Dec –2010)
WBFM NBFM
Modulation index is greater than 1 Modulation index less than 1
Noise is more suppressed Low noise suppression
The bandwidth for wide band is 2(fm The bandwidth for narrow bandwidth is

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(max)). 2fm.

24. Define – Depth of Modulation (Apr./May – 06)

Depth of modulation is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the message signal to that
of amplitude of carrier signal.

m = Em / Ec

where, m = Depth of modulation

Em = Amplitude of the modulating signal and

Ec = Amplitude of the carrier signal

25. Compare amplitude modulation with SSB - SC.

Parameter AM SSB-SC
Bandwidth 2 fm fm
Frequency It consists of USB, LSB and
It consists of USB or LSB
spectrum carrier
More power is required for Power required is less than that of AM
Power
transmission and DSB-SC

26. Draw the block diagram representation for converting PM wave to FM wave and
FM wave to PM wave?

PM wave can be converted to FM wave:

Message
Signal Integrator Phase Modulator FM

Carrier
Signal

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FM wave can be converted to PM wave

Message
Signal Differentiator Frequency Modulator PM

Carrier
Signal

27.Differentiate Phase Modulation from FM? (May/June 2007)

Frequency modulation Phase modulation
The maximum frequency deviation The maximum frequency deviation
depends upon amplitude of modulating depends only on amplitude of modulating
voltage and modulating frequency voltage
Better noise immunity is better than AM Better noise immunity is better than AM
and PM but worse than FM
Frequency of the carrier is modulated by Phase of the carrier is modulated by
modulating signal modulating signal

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Unit II- Digital Communication

1. Write the advantages and disadvantages of digital communication.
(Apr./May – 2011)

The advantages of digital communication are,

(a) Ruggedness to channel noise and external interference.
(b) Flexible operation of the system.
(c) Multiplexing of various sources of information into a common format.
(d) Security of information.
(e) Digital circuits are more reliable, lower cost than analog circuits.
(f) Errors may be corrected by the use of coding
The disadvantages of digital communication are,
(a) Digital Communication has completely ignored the human touch. A personal touch
cannot be established because all the computers will have the same font
(b) The establishment of Digital Communication causes degradation of the environment
in some cases. "Electronic waste" is an example

2. Draw the functional block diagram of digital communication system.Nov/Dec–2011

Discrete Source Channel Baseband

information Encoder Encoder processor or
source modulator
Electrical
communication
channel

Baseband
Source Channel decoder or
Destination
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decoder demodulator
 CS6304-Analog and Digital Communication
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3. What is linear modulation?

In linear modulation technique the amplitude of the transmitted signal varies linearly with the
modulating digital signal. It does not have a constant envelope. It is bandwidth efficient.

4. What is nonlinear modulation?

In non linear modulation the amplitude of the carrier is constant, regardless of the variation in the
modulating signals. The Nonlinear modulations may have either linear or constant envelopes
depending on whether or not the baseband waveform is pulse shaped.

5. List out some examples of linear modulation.

Examples of linear modulation are

i. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

ii. Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
iii. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
iv. π/4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
v. Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK)
MODULATION AND DEMODULATION – QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING

6. State the advantages of QPSK. (May /June – 2012)

The advantages of QPSK are:

i. For same bit error rate, the bandwidth required by QPSK is reduced to half as
compared to BPSK
ii. Because of reduced bandwidth, the information transmission rate of QPSK is
higher

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iii. Variation in QPSK amplitude is not much. Hence carrier power remains constant

7. What is QPSK?
The quadrature phase shift keying is a 4-ary PSK signal. Two successive bits in the data
sequence are grouped together.
1 symbol = 2 bits
This reduces bit rate and bandwidth of the channel.
Coherent QPSK = 2 x coherent BPSK system
The phase of the carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values such as π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 and
7π/4.

8. Define – QPSK
QPSK is defined as the multilevel modulation in which four phase shifts are used for
representing four different symbols.

QPSK for the set of symbols is defined as,

2E s  
S QPSK (t )  cos 2f ct  (i  1) 0  t  Ts i= 1,2,3,4
Ts  2

9. What is QAM?
At high bit rates, a combination of ASK and PSK is employed in order to minimize the errors in
the received data. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is a modulation scheme which
conveys data by modulating the amplitude of two carrier waves. These two waves (a cosine and
a sine) are out of phase with each other by 90° and thus called Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation.

10. What is quadrature modulation?

Technique used to modulate two carriers is known as quadrature modulation. Some of quadrature
modulation techniques are:

i. Quadrature amplitude modulation

ii. Phase-shift keying
iii. Minimum-shift keying.

11. Define – M-ary Transmission System

In digital modulations instead of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits are transmitted
simultaneously. This is called M-ary transmission.

12. What is π/4 differential QPSK?

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In π/4 QPSK, signaling points of the modulated signal are selected from two QPSK
constellations which are shifted by π/4 with respect to each other. It is differentially encoded and
detected. Hence, it is called π/4 differential QPSK. Usually, either the even or the odd symbol is
used to select points from one of the constellations and the other symbols select points from the
other constellation.

13. What is OQPSK? (Nov. /Dec –2011)

OQPSK is a variant of QPSK that uses half-symbol timing offset to prevent large amplitude
fluctuations in the modulated signal. It uses 4 different values of the phase to transmit. The
amplitude of the data pulses are kept constant. The time alignment of the even or odd bit streams
are offset by one bit period in offset QPSK. Bit transitions for the in-phase and the quadrature-
phase components occur at different time instants. It is another way of improving the peak-to-
average ratio in QPSK.

14. Distinguish between MSK and GMSK. (May /June – 2012)

S.No MSK GMSK

1 It has smoother waveform than QPSK It is simple binary modulation scheme

2 Main lobe is wider, contains 99% of Pre modulation is done by Gaussian

signal energy. pulse shaping filter, so side lobe levels
are much reduced.

3 It has good spectral efficiency It has an excellent power and a spectral

efficiency

15. What is meant by MSK?

A continuous phase FSK signal with a deviation ratio of one half is referred to as MSK. It is a
spectrally efficient modulation scheme.

16. Why GMSK is preferred for multiuser, cellular communications?

GMSK is preferred for multiuser, cellular communications for the following reasons:
i. It is a simple binary modulation scheme
ii. Premodulation is done by Gaussian pulse shaping filter, so side lobe levels are
much reduced

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iii. GMSK has excellent power efficiency and spectral efficiency than FSK

17. Write the advantages of MSK over QPSK.

i. In QPSK the phase changes by 900 or 1800.This creates abrupt amplitude
variations in the waveform, therefore bandwidth requirement of QPSK is high
when compared to MSK

ii. In MSK the output waveform is continuous in phase hence, there is no abrupt
changes in amplitude. It is spectrally efficient modulation scheme

18. What is the need of Gaussian filter?

Gaussian filter is used before the modulator to reduce the transmitted bandwidth of the signal. It
uses less bandwidth than conventional FSK.

19. Mention some merits of MSK.

Merits of MSK are:
i. It has constant envelope, smoother waveforms than QPSK
ii. It has Relatively narrow bandwidth
iii. Coherent detection is suitable for satellite communications
iv. Side lobes are zero outside the frequency band, so it has resistance to co-channel
interference

20. Why Binary ASK is called on-off keying?

Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) or On - Off Keying (OOK) is one of the
digital modulation techniques in which the amplitude of carrier is switched according to
the binary data. This digital modulation scheme is used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber, point to point military communication applications, etc. Binary 1 is
represented by a short pulse of signal and binary 0 by the absence of signal

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21. Differentiate ASK from FSK. (Apr./May– 2008)

ASK FSK
 Strength of carrier signal is  Frequency of carrier signal is
varied to represent binary 1 or 0 varied to represent binary 1 or 0
 Both frequency & phase remain  Peak amplitude & phase remain
constant while amplitude constant during each bit interval
changes commonly, one of the
amplitudes is zero

22. What are the requirements for a digital modulation scheme?

The requirements for a digital modulation scheme are:
i. Maximum data rate
ii. Minimum probability of symbol error
iii. Minimum transmitted power
iv. Minimum channel bandwidth
v. Maximum resistance to interfering signals
vi. Minimum circuit complexity

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UNIT III
DATA AND PULSE COMMUNICATION
1. What is Data Terminal Equipment? [N/D – 10]
Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that converts user
information into signals or reconverts received signals. These can also be called tail
circuits. A DTE device communicates with the data circuit-terminating equipment
(DCE).
2. List out some standard organization for data communication. [N/D – 11]
Some standard organization for data communications are:
i. International Standards Organization.(ISO)
ii. American National Standards Institute.(ANSI)
iii. Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
iv. Electronics Industries Association.(EIA)
3. What is ASCII code? [A/M – 10]
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is defined by
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).It uses 7-bits to represent every symbol.
Thus ASCII codes represent 128 various symbols.
4. What is the need for error control coding? [N/D – 11]
Error detection and Error Correction are together called as Error Control. Error
detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction is the correction of
errors and reconstruction of the original, error-free data.
Error correction may generally be realized in two different ways:
1. Forward error correction
2. Detection with retransmission
5. List out any two error control codes. [A/M – 12]
Two error control codes are:
1. Error detection codes
2. Error correction codes

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6. What is meant by forward error correction? [N/D – 10]

FEC is the only error correction scheme that allows the receiver to detect and
correct a limited number of errors occurring anywhere in the message without the need to
ask the sender for additional data. FEC gives the receiver an ability to correct errors
without needing a reverse channel to request retransmission of data, but this advantage is
at the cost of a fixed higher forward channel bandwidth.
7. What are the advantages of digital transmission? [N/D – 10]
The advantages of digital transmission are:
i. Effect of noise is reduced.
ii. Digital signals can be multiplexed easily.
iii. Error detection and correction is possible in digital transmission.
8. Define – Data
Information or intelligence that can be processed, organized and stored is called
data.
9. Define – DCE
DCE is the Data Communication Equipment that converts digital signal to analog
signals and interfaces the DTE to the analog transmission medium.
10. What is mean by error detection?
Error detection is the process of monitoring the received data and determining the
transmission error has occurred.
11. What is PAM?
PAM is the Pulse Amplitude Modulation. In PAM, the amplitude of a carrier
consisting of a periodic train of rectangular pulse is varied in proportion to sample values
of a message signal.
12. What is PPM?
Pulse Position Modulation is the process in which the position of a pulse relative
to its unmodulated time of occurrence is varied in accordance with message signals.
13. What is PWM?
Pulse Width Modulation is the process in which the samples of message signal are used
to vary the duration of individual pulses in the carrier.

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14. Define – Nyquist Sampling Theorem [A/M – 11]

Nyquist Sampling Theorem establishes the maximum sampling rate (fs) that can
be used for a given PCM system.
Mathematically the minimum nyquist sampling rate is
Fs >= 2Fa
Where Fs = minimum Nyquist sample rate (Hz).
Fa= minimum analog input frequency (Hz).
15. Define – Pulse Code Modulation
In Pulse Code Modulation, analog signal is sampled and converted to fixed
length, serial binary number for transmission. The binary number varies according to the
amplitude of the analog signal
16. How quantization noise can be reduced in PCM?
The common method to reduce quantization noise is to increase the amount of
quantization intervals. The difference between the input signal amplitude height and the
quantization interval decreases as the quantization intervals are increased. (Increases in
the intervals decease the quantization noise.). However, the amounts of code words also
have to be increased in proportion to the increase in quantization intervals. This process
introduces additional problems dealing with the capacity of a PCM system to handle
more code words.

17. Define − Quantizing Process

The conversion of analog sample of the signal into digital form is called
quantizing process.
18. What is aliasing?
Aliasing occurs when the signal is sampled at a rate less than Nyquist rate (2W
Samples / Sec). It is prevented by using guard bands and pre-alias.

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19. Draw PWM and PPM waveforms.

PPM WAVE FORM

PWM WAVE FORM

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UNIT IV
SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODING
PART A
1. Define – Entropy Function [A/M – 10]
Entropy Function is defined as the measure of average information content per
second. The expression for the entropy function is,

H(X) =∑I P (xi) log2P (xi) bits/sample

2. Define – Information Rate [A/M – 10]

Information Rate is defined as the measure of total number of bits that is being
transmitted per second from the source to destination.
3. A source generates 3 messages with probability 0.5, 0.25 and 0.25. Calculate source
entropy. [N/D – 10]
Given data
P1 = 0.5; P2 = 0.25; P3 = 0.25
Entropy H = p1log2(1/p1) + p2log2(1/p2) + p3log2(1/p3)
H = 0.5 log2(1/0.5) + 0.25 log2(1/0.25) + 0.1 log2(1/0.25) = 1.1 bits/message
4. Calculate entropy of the source with symbol probabilities 0.6, 0.3 and 0.1. [N/D – 11]
Given data
P1 = 0.6; P2 = 0.3; P3 = 0.1
Entropy H = p1log2(1/p1) + p2log2(1/p2) + p3log2(1/p3)
H = 0.6 log2(1/0.6) + 0.3 log2(1/0.3) + 0.1 log2(1/0.1) = 1.295 bits/message
5. What is coding efficiency?
Coding efficiency or code rate is defined as the ratio of number of message bits in
a block to the number of transmitted bits for the block.
Coding efficiency or code rate = k/n
where

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k is the number of message bits in a block

n is the number of transmitted bits for the block

6. What is meant by channel capacity?

Channel capacity means the maximum data rate that can be attained over a given channel
7. Find the Hamming distance between the following code words C1 = (1000111) and
C0 = (0001011). (Nov. /Dec –2010)
Hamming distance d(C1,C2) between a pair of code vector is defined as the
number of locations in which their respective elements differ.
C1 = 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
C2 = 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
The Hamming distance is 3.
8. List out the source coding techniques. Nov. /Dec –2009)
The various source coding techniques are
 Prefix coding
 Shannon-fano coding
 Huffman coding
9. What is convolution code?
In convolutional code the encoder accepts the message bits in serially rather
than in larger blocks and generates n-bit code word. The resultant bits are generated using
modulo-2 additions and hence called convolutional codes.

10. Differentiate block code from convolution code.

Block Codes Convolutional codes

The encoder accepts a k-bit message The encoder accepts the message bits
block and generates a n-bit code word. serially rather than in larger blocks and
Thus, code words are produced on a generates n-bit code word. The resultant bits
block-by-block basis. are generated using modulo-2 additions.

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11. What is Viterbi algorithm?

Viterbi decoding scheme performs maximum likelihood decoding and it reduces the
computational load by taking advantage in code trellis. Decoding is done with algorithm.
Metric: Metric is the discrepancy between the received and the decoding signal at
particular node.
Survivor path: Survivor path is the path of the decoded signal with minimum metric.
12. Define – Bandwidth Efficiency [A/M – 10]

Bandwidth Efficiency is defined as the ratio of channel capacity to the available

bandwidth.

Bandwidth Efficiency = Channel capacity (C) / Available bandwidth (B)

13. What is prefix coding? (Nov. /Dec –2003)

Prefix coding is a variable length coding algorithm in which the binary digits are

assigned to the messages depending on their probabilities of occurrence.

14.Define − Lossless Channel

The channel described by a channel matrix with only one nonzero element in each
column is called lossless channel. In the lossless channel no sources information is lost in
transmission.

15. Define − Deterministic Channel

A channel described by a channel matrix with only one nonzero element in each
row is called a deterministic channel and this element must be unity.

16. Define − Noiseless Channel

A channel is called noiseless if it is both lossless and deterministic. The channel

matrix has only one element in each row and in each column and this element is unity.
The input and output alphabets are of the same size.

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17. What is memory less source?

The source in which the alphabet transmitted does not depend upon previous
alphabets is called memory less source.

18. What is channel diagram and channel matrix?

The transition probability diagram of the channel is called the channel diagram and its
matrix representation is called the channel matrix.

19. State the advantages of channel coding.

The advantages of channel coding are

 Error probability is reduced

 Channel capacity is fully utilized

 Forward error correction

 Automatic repeat request

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UNIT V
MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION
PART A
1. What is meant by AMPS?
AMPS- Advanced Mobile Telephone Service.
The original cellular telephone networks provided along traffic channels; these are now
referred to as first generation systems. Since the early 1980s the most common first
generation system in the north America has been the Advanced Mobile Phone Service
(AMPS) developed by AT&T. This approach is also common in South America, Australia
and China

2. List three important functional blocks of GSM system. [N/D – 11]

The important functional blocks of GSM system are:
i. Mobile Station
ii. Base station systems
iii. Network switching center
iv. Public Networks

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3. Write the goals of GSM standard.

Better and more efficient technical solution for wireless communication. Single standard was to
be realized all over Europe enabling roaming across borders.

4. What are the services offered by GSM?

The services offered by GSM are:

i. Telephone services
ii. Bearer or Data services
iii. Supplementary services

5. What are the parameters used in AMPS?

The AMPS parameters are:
Base Station Transmission Band, Mobile Unit Transmission Band, Spacing between
forward and reverse channels, cell size, radius channel bandwidth, data transmission rate,
error control coding, modulation voice channel, modulation control channel.
6. List out the three types of service provided by GSM.
 Telephone services
 Bearer or Data services
 Supplementary services

7. Draw the frame structure of GSM.

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8. Define – Channel Assignment

For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme that is consistent
with the objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required. This is
known as channel assignment. The types of channel assignment strategies are:
i. Fixed channel assignment
ii. Dynamic channel assignment
9. Define − Frequency Reuse
The carrier with opposite senses of polarization may overlap in frequency.
This technique is known as frequency reuse.
10. Define − Channel Interference
Channel interference is nothing but channel mixing. They are two types
1. Co-Channel Interference
Interference between signals from co channels are termed as co
channel interference
2. Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to
the desired signal is called adjacent channel interference.
11. What is the co-channel reuse ratio?
It is defined as the ratio between the distances between the centers of nearest co channel
cells to the radius of the cell. Q = D/R
12. What are the techniques used to reduce co-channel interference?
The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing a single
omni directional antenna at the base station by several directional antennas, each radiating
within a specified sector. By using directional antennas, a given cell will receive interference
and transmit with only a fraction of the available co channel cells. This technique for
reducing co channel interference and thus increasing system performance by using
directional antennas is called sectoring.

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13. What is handoff? What are the types of handoff?

The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel or base station to other base
station without interrupting the call (without disturbing the conversation) is called as hand off.

14. What is meant by hard handoff?

Hard handoff, also known as “Break before make”, is characterized by releasing current
radio resources from the prior base station before acquiring the resources from the next base
station.
15. What is meant by soft handoff?
Soft handoff, also known as “Make before Break ” is a process that the Mobile Station
communicates simultaneously with the prior base station as well as the new base station for
short duration of time before deciding to communicate its traffic through one of them.

16. List out the parameters that influence the handoff.

The parameters that influence the handoff are
(i) The radio link.
(ii) Network management.
(iii) Service issues.
17. What is cell splitting?
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing congested cells into smaller cells each with its
own base stations and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. It
increases the capacity of cellular system.

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18. What is sectoring?

Sectoring is a technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing the system
performance by using directional antennas.

Sectored Cell

A seven-cell cluster with 60o

sectors

19. What are the different types of conflict free protocols?

The different types of conflict free protocols are
(i) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
(ii)Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
(iii)Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

20. What is mean by multiple accesses?

Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum. It is required to achieve high capacity by simultaneously
allocating the bandwidth to multiple users

21. List out the advantages of CDMA.

The advantages of CDMA are
i) frequency Diversity
ii) Multipath resistance
iii) Privacy
iv) Graceful degradation
22. What are the methods of multiple access techniques?
Multiple access techniques are,
i) Frequency division multiple access

ii) Time division multiple access

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ii) Code division multiple access

23. Write the advantages and disadvantages of satellite communication.

The Advantages of satellite communication are,

i. Wide area of coverage.

ii. Point to multipoint links whereas many terrestrial links are point to point.
iii. Mobile communication can be established.
iv. Economical when long distance is involved.
v. For Geo‐Stationary Satellite Doppler shift is negligible.
The Disadvantages of satellite communication are,
i. Propagation Delay is very high.
ii. Impedance Mismatch plus Propagation Delay produces echo in telephone systems.
iii. Echo Suppressors or Echo chancellors are to be added so that Complexity Increases.
iv. Propagation Delay reduces the efficiency of the data transmission over satellite
communication.

24. What are the different applications of satellite systems?

The application of satellite systems are,
i. The largest international system (Intelsat)
ii. The domestic satellite system (Dom sat) in U.S.
iii. U.S. National oceanographic and atmospheric administration’s (NOAA)

25. List out the different services of satellite systems.

i. Fixed satellite service
ii. Broadcasting satellite service
iii. Mobile satellite service
iv. Navigational satellite services
v. Meteorological satellite services

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26. Define − Polar Orbiting Satellites

Polar orbiting Satellites orbit the earth in such a way as to cover the north & south Polar
Regions.

27. What is Bluetooth? What is the data rate of Bluetooth?

Bluetooth is an open specification for short range wireless voice and data
communications that was developed for cable replacement in PAN (Personal Area Network).
The maximum data rate is 721Mbps for asymmetric mode.

28. List out the Bluetooth applications.

The applications Bluetooth are:
a) Data and voice access points.
b) Cable replacement.
c) Adhoc networking

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