SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ECE

UNIT II ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT 2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Amplitude modulation types of amplitude modulation- Standard AM with Full Carrier

,Comparison of different amplitude modulations; Angle modulation (FM and PM), FM
generation using PM, PM generation using FM, Comparison of Narrowband and
Wideband FM, Comparison of AM,FM and PM. Analog pulse modulation
PAM,PWM,PPM; Digital pulse modulation Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta
modulation (DM), Adaptive Delta modulation (ADM), Multiplexing Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM), Time Division Multiplexing.

NOTES
Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points
for information exchange or Communication is simply the basic process of
exchanging information.
• The electronic equipment which are used for communication purpose, are called
communication equipment. Different communication equipment when assembled
together form a communication system.
• Typical example of communication system are line telephony and line telegraphy,
radio telephony and radio telegraphy, radio broadcasting, point-to-point
communication and mobile communication, computer communication, radar
communication, television broadcasting, radio telemetry, radio aids to navigation,
radio aids to aircraft landing etc.
Standard AM with Full Carrier
Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively
high frequency carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal (Information).  Application of AM - Radio broadcasting, TV pictures
(video), facsimile transmission  Frequency range for AM - 535 kHz – 1600 kHz 
Bandwidth - 10 kHz

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
Parameters  Amplitude, Frequency, Phase
 Message signal is low frequency signal, Carrier signal is High frequency signal
 Modulated signal is high frequency signal  Converting low frequency signal
into radio wave signal  Multiplication Process
Amplitude Modulation Types
1.Double-Sideband Full carrier (DSB-FC) AM or (Conventional Amplitude
Modulation)
2. Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) AM
3. Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) AM
4. Vestigial Sideband (VSB) AM

Representation of DSB FC -AM

Advantages:
 AM has the advantage of being usable with very simple modulators and
demodulators.
 AM is a relatively inexpensive.
 AM wave can travel a long distance
. Disadvantages:
 Poor performance in the presence of noise.
 Inefficient use of transmitter power.
 It needs larger bandwidth.
Applications:
 Low quality form of modulation that is used for commercial broadcasting of both
audio and video signals
 Two-way mobile radio communications such as citizens band (CB) radio.
 Aircraft communications in the VHF frequency range.
 Comparison of different types of AM

Features of angle modulation:

• It can provide a better discrimination (robustness) against noise and interference than AM
• This improvement is achieved at the expense of increased transmission bandwidth
• In case of angle modulation, channel bandwidth may be exchanged for improved noise
performance
• Such trade- off is not possible with AM

Basic definitions:
The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle
Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies according
to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is

Where,
AcAc is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
signal
θi(t)θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal linearly
with the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.
Now, let us discuss these in detail.
Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or message
signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of
the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant
and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating signal is
zero.

 There is yet another way of modulation namely the angle modulation in which the angle
of the carrier wave changes in accordance with the signal
 In this method of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is maintained constant
 The advantage is it can show better discrimination against noise and interference than
amplitude modulation

FREQUENCY MODULATION INDEX

The frequency modulation index is the equivalent of the modulation index for AM , but
obviously related to FM. In view of the differences between the two forms of modulation, the
FM modulation index is measured in a different way.

The FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency.

FM deviation ratio
 Accordingly the FM deviation ratio can be defined as: the ratio of the maximum carrier
frequency deviation to the highest audio modulating frequency.

There are two main classifications for frequency modulated signals and these can be related to the
modulation index and deviation ratio.

 Wideband FM: Wideband FM is typical used for signals where the FM modulation index is
above about 0.5. For these signals the sidebands beyond the first two terms are not insignificant.
Broadcast FM stations use wide-band FM which enables them to transmit high quality audio, as
well as other facilities like stereo, and other facilities like RDS, etc.

The wide bandwidth of wide band FM is enables high quality broadcast transmissions to be made,
combining a wide frequency response with low noise levels. Once the signal is sufficiently strong,
the audio signal to noise ratio is very good.

Sometimes high fidelity FM tuners may use a wide-band filter for strong signals to ensure the
optimum fidelity and performance. Here the quieting effect of the strong signal will allow for
wide-band reception and the full audio bandwidth. For for lower strength signals they may switch
to a narrower filter to reduce the noise level, although this will result in the audio bandwidth being
reduced. However on balance the narrower bandwidth will give a more pleasing sound when the
received signal is low.
Narrowband FM: Narrow band FM, NBFM, is used for signals where the deviation is small
enough that the terms in the Bessel function is small and the main sidebands are those appearing at ±
modulation frequency. The sidebands further out are negligible.

For NBFM, the FM modulation index must be less than 0.5, although a figure of 0.2 is often used.
For NBFM the audio or data bandwidth is small, but this is acceptable for this type of
communication.

Narrowband FM is widely used for two way radio communications. Although digital technologies
are taking over, NBFM is still widely used and very effective. Many two way radios or walkie talkies
use NBFM, especially those which conform to the licence-free standards like PMR446 and FRS
radio communications systems.

Phase Modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM),
the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can take
place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier signal.
When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is negative,
the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Phase Modulation:

Phase modulation is that form of angle modulation in which the angle is varied
linearly with the message signal m(t)
  The term 2 represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier wave and constant Kp is
the phase sensitivity of the modulator expressed in radian per volt
 We have assumed that the angle of the unmodulated carrier is zero at time t =0
 The phase –modulated signal s(t) is thud described in the time domain by

FREQUENCY MODULATION :

Frequency modulation is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency if(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t)

]
Frequency of the carrier varies with the signal mathematically in the above equation
  Comparison between phase and frequency modulated equations frequency modulated
signal is the same as phase modulation with the message signal integrated
 The variation of the frequency is discrete differing from the sinusoidal modulated wave
where the frequency changes constantly
 There will be a phase discontinuity in case of phase modulation when message is a square
wave
 There is a phase reversal in the phase modulation
 The visualization is easier

Note: The FM wave is a non linear function of the modulating wave m(t)
Generation of fm waves:

There are two types

Direct method and indirect method
In the indirect method of producing a narrow band FM is generated then frequency multiplied to
obtain wide band frequency modulated wave

VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR

A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies linearly with the
applied bias andThe varactor diode must be reverse biased.

Working Operation
The varactor diode is reverse biased by the negative dc source –Vb.
The modulating AF voltage appears in series with the negative supply voltage. Hence, the voltage
applied across the varactor diode varies in proportion with the modulating voltage.This will vary the
junction capacitance of the varactor diode.The varactor diode appears in parallel with the oscillator
tuned circuit.Hence the oscillator frequency will change with change in varactor dioide capacitance
and FM wave is produced.The RFC will connect the dc and modulating signal to the varactor diode
but it offers a very high impedance at high oscillator frequency. Therefore, the oscillator circuit is
isolated from the dc bias and modulating signal.

ARMSTRONG METHOD OF FM GENERATION

The crystal oscillator generates the carrier at low frequency typically at 1MHz. This is applied to
the combining network and a 90° phase shifter.
 The modulating signal is passed through an audio equalizer to boost the low
modulating frequencies .The modulating signal is then applied to a balanced
modulator.
 The balanced modulator produced two side bands such that their resultant is 90° phase
shifted with respect to the unmodulated carrier.
 The unmodulated carrier and 90° phase shifted sidebands are added in the combining
network.
  At the output of the combining network we get Fm wave. This wave has a low carrier
frequency fc and low value of the modulation index mf.
 The carrier frequency and the modulation index are then raised by passing the FM
wave through the first group of multipliers. The carrier frequency is then raised by
using a mixer and then the fc and mf,both are raised to required high values using the
second group of multipliers.

 The FM signal with high fc and high mf is then passed through a class C power
amplifier to raise the power level of the FM signal.

 The Armstrong method uses the phase modulation to generate frequency modulation.
This method can be understood by dividing it into four parts as follows:

INDIRECT METHOD:
FM modulation : The amplitude of the modulated carrier is held constant and the time derivative
of the phase of the carrier is varied linearly with the information signal.HenceTherefore NBFM
signal can be generated using phase modulator circuit as shown.
To obtain WBFM signal, the output of the modulator circuit (NBFM) is fed into frequency
multiplier circuit and the mixer circuit.
The function of the frequency multiplier is to increase the frequency deviation or modulation
index so that WBFM can be generated.The instantaneous value of the carrier frequency is
increased by N times.

CONVERSION OF FM TO PM AND PM TO FM
FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation:
Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a
voltage-controlled oscillator. For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated
to generate a phase-modulated signal.

Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation pattern for conditioning communication signals

for transmission. It encodes a message signal as variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier
wave. Phase modulation is one of the two principal forms of angle modulation, together
with frequency modulation.The phase of a carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing signal
level (amplitude) of the message signal. The peak amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal
are maintained constant, but as the amplitude of the message signal changes, the phase of the carrier
changes correspondingly.Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an
integral part of many digital transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies
like Wi-Fi, GSM and satellite television.PM is used for signal and waveform generation in digital
synthesizers, such as the Yamaha DX7, to implement FM synthesis. A related type of sound
synthesis called phase distortion is used in the Casio CZ synthesizers.
The change in phase, changes the frequency of the modulated wave. The frequency of the
wave also changes the phase of the wave. ... Phase modulation is an indirect method of
producing FM. The amount of frequency shift, produced by a phase modulator increases
with the modulating frequency.

COMPARISON BETWEEN AM AND FM

COMPARISON OF FM AND PM
SAMPLING
These pulse modulation techniques deal with discrete signals. So, now let us see how to convert a
continuous time signal into a discrete one.
The process of converting continuous time signals into equivalent discrete time signals, can be
termed as Sampling. A certain instant of data is continually sampled in the sampling process.
The following figure shows a continuous-time signal x(t) and the corresponding sampled
signal xs(t). When x(t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal xs(t) is
obtained.

A sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses, having unit amplitude, sampled at equal intervals of
time T_s, which is called as sampling time. This data is transmitted at the time instants T_s and the
carrier signal is transmitted at the remaining time.

Sampling Rate
To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be termed as
the sampling period T_s. Reciprocal of the sampling period is known as sampling
frequency or sampling rate f_s.
Mathematically, we can write it as
f_s= \frac{1}{T_s}
Where,
f_s is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate
T_s is the sampling period

SAMPLING THEOREM
 The sampling rate should be such that the data in the message signal should neither be lost nor it
should get over-lapped. The sampling theorem states that, “a signal can be exactly reproduced if it
is sampled at the rate f_s, which is greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency of the
given signal W.”
• It states that a continuous time signal can be recovered from its discrete samples if and only if the
sampling frequency is greater than or equal to twice the highest frequency of the continuous time
signal.

fs  2 fm
fs - Sampling frequency;
fm-maximum frequency of the message signal
If the sampling rate is equal to twice the maximum frequency of the given signal W, then it is called
as Nyquist rate.
The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist theorem, delivers the theory of sufficient
sample rate in terms of bandwidth for the class of functions that are bandlimited.
For continuous-time signal x(t), which is band-limited in the frequency domain is represented as
shown in the following figure.

If the signal is sampled above Nyquist rate, then the original signal can be recovered. The following
figure explains a signal, if sampled at a higher rate than 2w in the frequency domain.
If the same signal is sampled at a rate less than 2w, then the sampled signal would look like the
following figure.

ALIASING EFFECT
We can observe from the above pattern that there is over-lapping of information, which leads to
mixing up and loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of over-lapping is called
as Aliasing.

 If fs<2fm, low pass filtered signal contains some high frequency components along with
message signal due to spectral overlapping.
 The presence of high frequency signal in the reconstructed signal causes distortion. This is
called as Aliasing effect.
Aliasing can be referred to as “the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the spectrum of a
signal, taking on the identity of a low-frequency component in the spectrum of its sampled version.”
Hence, the sampling rate of the signal is chosen to be as Nyquist rate. If the sampling rate is equal to
twice the highest frequency of the given signal W, then the sampled signal would look like the
following figure.

In this case, the signal can be recovered without any loss. Hence, this is a good sampling rate.

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude of
the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
The pulse amplitude modulated signal, will follow the amplitude of the original signal, as the signal
traces out the path of the whole wave. In natural PAM, a signal sampled at the Nyquist rate is
reconstructed, by passing it through an efficient Low Pass Frequency (LPF) with exact cutoff
frequency
The following figures explain the Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
Though the PAM signal is passed through an LPF, it cannot recover the signal without distortion.
Hence to avoid this noise, flat-top sampling is done as shown in the following figure.

Flat-top sampling is the process in which sampled signal can be represented in pulses for which the
amplitude of the signal cannot be changed with respect to the analog signal, to be sampled. The tops
of amplitude remain flat. This process simplifies the circuit design.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time
Modulation (PTM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the duration or width or time of the
pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
The width of the pulse varies in this method, but the amplitude of the signal remains constant.
Amplitude limiters are used to make the amplitude of the signal constant. These circuits clip off the
amplitude, to a desired level and hence the noise is limited.
The following figures explain the types of Pulse Width Modulations.

There are three variations of PWM. They are −

 The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing edge varies according to the
message signal.
 The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading edge varies according to the
message signal.
 The center of the pulse being constant, the leading edge and the trailing edge varies
according to the message signal.

PULSE POSITION MODULATION

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude and
width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to the position
of a reference pulse varies according to the instantaneous sampled value of the message signal.
The transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses (or simply sync pulses) to keep the transmitter and
receiver in synchronism. These sync pulses help maintain the position of the pulses. The following
figures explain the Pulse Position Modulation.
Pulse position modulation is done in accordance with the pulse width modulated signal. Each
trailing of the pulse width modulated signal becomes the starting point for pulses in PPM signal.
Hence, the position of these pulses is proportional to the width of the PWM pulses.

Advantage
As the amplitude and width are constant, the power handled is also constant.

Disadvantage
The synchronization between transmitter and receiver is a must.
Comparison between PAM, PWM, and PPM
The comparison between the above modulation processes is presented in a single table.

PAM PWM PPM

Amplitude is varied Width is varied Position is varied

Bandwidth depends on the Bandwidth depends on the rise Bandwidth depends on the rise
width of the pulse time of the pulse time of the pulse

Instantaneous transmitter Instantaneous transmitter power Instantaneous transmitter power

power varies with the varies with the amplitude and remains constant with the width
amplitude of the pulses width of the pulses of the pulses

System complexity is high System complexity is low System complexity is low

Noise interference is high Noise interference is low Noise interference is low

It is similar to amplitude It is similar to frequency It is similar to phase

modulation modulation modulation

Pulse-code modulation (PCM

Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the
standard form of digital audio in computers, CDs, digital telephony and other digital audio
applications. The amplitude of the analog signal is sampled at uniform intervals and each sample is
quantized to its nearest value within a predetermined range of digital levels.
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.
The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the
carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long distance
transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of
modulation employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code
Modulation PCMPCM.
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence,
i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The following figure
shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine
wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this
process is called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the
approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded
pulses. This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both
time and amplitude.

Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,
Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section.
The low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block diagram
of PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver
sections.

Low Pass Filter

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal
which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the
message signal.

Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of
message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be greater
than twice the highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance with
the sampling theorem.
Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The sampled
output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses the value.

Encoder
The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized level
by a binary code. The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three
sections LPF,Sampler,andQuantizerLPF,Sampler,andQuantizer will act as an analog to
digital converter. Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.

Regenerative Repeater
This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one
regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal, and
also to increase its strength.

Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original signal.
This circuit acts as the demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the decoder, a
low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the original signal.
Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it and
samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is repeated in a
reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.
The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to achieve better
sampling. If this sampling interval in Differential PCM is reduced considerably, the
sampleto-sample amplitude difference is very small, as if the difference is 1-bit
quantization, then the step-size will be very small i.e., Δ deltadelta.
Delta Modulation
The type of modulation, where the sampling rate is much higher and in which the stepsize
after quantization is of a smaller value Δ, such a modulation is termed as delta
modulation.

Features of Delta Modulation

Following are some of the features of delta modulation.
 An over-sampled input is taken to make full use of the signal correlation.
  The quantization design is simple.
 The input sequence is much higher than the Nyquist rate.
 The quality is moderate.
 The design of the modulator and the demodulator is simple.
 The stair-case approximation of output waveform.
 The step-size is very small, i.e., Δ deltadelta.
 The bit rate can be decided by the user.
 This involves simpler implementation.
Delta Modulation is a simplified form of DPCM technique, also viewed as 1-bit DPCM
scheme. As the sampling interval is reduced, the signal correlation will be higher.

Delta Modulator
The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with two
summer circuits. Following is the block diagram of a delta modulator.

The predictor circuit in DPCM is replaced by a simple delay circuit in DM.

From the above diagram, we have the notations as −
 x(nTs)x(nTs) = over sampled input
 ep(nTs)ep(nTs) = summer output and quantizer input
 eq(nTs)eq(nTs) = quantizer output = v(nTs)v(nTs)
 xˆ(nTs)x^(nTs) = output of delay circuit
 u(nTs)u(nTs) = input of delay circuit
The present input of the delay unit is given by
ThepreviousoutputofthedelayunitThepreviousoutputofthedelayunit + thepresentquanti
zeroutputthepresentquantizeroutput
Delay unit output is an Accumulator output lagging by one sample.
From equations 5 & 6, we get a possible structure for the demodulator.
A Stair-case approximated waveform will be the output of the delta modulator with the
step-size as delta (Δ). The output quality of the waveform is moderate.

Delta Demodulator
The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a delay circuit. The
predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is given to the
demodulator.
Following is the diagram for delta demodulator.

From the above diagram, we have the notations as −

  vˆ(nTs)v^(nTs) is the input sample
 uˆ(nTs)u^(nTs) is the summer output
 x¯(nTs)x¯(nTs) is the delayed output
A binary sequence will be given as an input to the demodulator. The stair-case
approximated output is given to the LPF.
Low pass filter is used for many reasons, but the prominent reason is noise elimination for
out-of-band signals. The step-size error that may occur at the transmitter is called granular
noise, which is eliminated here. If there is no noise present, then the modulator output
equals the demodulator input.

Advantages of DM Over DPCM

 1-bit quantizer
 Very easy design of the modulator and the demodulator
However, there exists some noise in DM.
 Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)
 Granular noise (when Δ is large)
Applications
Delta Modulation is most useful in systems where timely data delivery at the
receiver is more important than the data quality. This modulation is applied to ECG
waveform for database reduction and real-time signal processing. For analog-to-
PCM encoding, this Modulation method is used. It is widely used in radio
communication devices and digital voice storage and voice information transmission
where signal quality is less important.

Adaptive Delta Modulation ADM

In digital modulation, we have come across certain problem of determining the step-size,
which influences the quality of the output wave.
A larger step-size is needed in the steep slope of modulating signal and a smaller stepsize
is needed where the message has a small slope. The minute details get missed in the
process. So, it would be better if we can control the adjustment of step-size, according to
our requirement in order to obtain the sampling in a desired fashion. This is the concept
of Adaptive Delta Modulation.
Following is the block diagram of Adaptive delta modulator.
The gain of the voltage controlled amplifier is adjusted by the output signal from the
sampler. The amplifier gain determines the step-size and both are proportional.
ADM quantizes the difference between the value of the current sample and the predicted
value of the next sample. It uses a variable step height to predict the next values, for the
faithful reproduction of the fast varying values.
Applications of Adaptive Delta Modulation
 It is effectively used in audio communications.
 It can be used in systems that require improved voice quality.
 It is used in voice coding.
 It is used in television signal transmission.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared
medium. If the analog signals are multiplexed, then it is called as analog multiplexing. Similarly, if
the digital signals are multiplexed, then it is called as digital multiplexing.
Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send through
a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into several number of
logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data stream to be transferred.
The device that does multiplexing can be called as Multiplexer or MUX.
The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done at the receiver
is called as de-multiplexing. The device that does de-multiplexing can be called as de-
multiplexer or DEMUX.
The following figures illustrates the concept of MUX and DEMUX. Their primary use is in the field
of communications.

Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further divided into
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM),
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
 Quadrature carrier multiplexing (QCM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)
• FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines different signals by modulating each
analog signal with a different carrier frequency.
 FDM o/p

Demultiplexing FDM signal

Demultiplexing is the processing of recovering the individual baseband signals from the
multiplexed signal
Block Diagram of FDM
System
Spectrum of FDM
 Spectrum of FDM signal shows that each subcarrier modulated signal is separated by a small
frequency band to prevent inter-channel interference or cross talk. These unused frequency
band between each successive channel are known as guard bands.If the channels are very
close to one other, it leads to inter-channel cross talk.
Merits and Demerits of FDM
Time division Multiplexing
 TDM is a multiplexing technique in which each signal is assigned a
different time slot for transmission. TDM requires synchronization between the switching unit at
Transmitter and Receiver.
 Block diagram of TDM system

Merits and Demerits of TDM

Advantages:
• Time division multiplexing circuitry is not complex.
• Problem of cross talk is not severe.
• Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
Disadvantage:
• Synchronization is required in time division multiplexing.
Applications:
• It used in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) telephone lines.
• It is used in PSTN (public switched telephone network).