CHAPTER TWO

THE DAYAK BIDAYUHS

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides background information about the Dayak Bidayuh

community in Sarawak. From literature search and personal communication

with Dayak Bidayuhs of various backgrounds and generations, this chapter

reports information which is useful in understanding the Bidayuh people and

various aspects of their lives. The various sections in this chapter also provide

the basis to explain later some of the reasons for language choice among the

Dayak Bidayuhs undergraduates.

Information on the rural-urban migration, their socio-economic status and

cultural aspects is necessary to understand the background of the present day

Bidayuhs. It is also important to know the efforts to promote the use of the

heritage dialects. Other aspects which can determine the use of Bidayuh is the

amount of Bidayuh literature that exists, Bidayuh education that has been

provided and the role of the mass media. It is useful to know the codes which

have become ‘comfortable’ (Asmah cited in David, 2001: 153) among the

educated Bidayuhs in the Bidayuh forums such as Dayak Bidayuh National

Organisation (henceforth DBNA), Ja Ata Britong, Bidayuh Graduates

Association as well as the codes used by the Bidayuhs in social interactions.

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2.2 Rural-urban migration

The Bidayuhs are basically a rural people but from the early 1980s they began

migrating to the urban areas looking for better jobs, higher education and

modern lifestyle. Some ended working in the public service while others in the

private sector. Just as they were getting better pay and stable jobs, new housing

areas were developed in Kuching, namely Batu Kawa, Desa Wira, BDC and

Tabuan Jaya. Thus, it is only logical that when these areas were opened up, the

Dayaks including the Bidayuhs started to move in (Minos, 2000: 154). In fact,

rural-urban migration is a serious problem in Sarawak and among the Bidayuhs

in general:

‘It’s not easy for the Government to solve this growing problem of
rural-urban migration and its resultant effects. Since the 1980’s, the
Bidayuh school leavers have moved to the urban areas in search for
jobs and a better life for their families. The Bidayuhs are not fussy
about jobs and they take on any jobs that give them incomes.
However, a good number of Bidayuhs working in towns receive very
low incomes and eventually become town squatters.’
(Minos, 2000:155)

2.3 Socio-economic status of the Bidayuhs

Traditionally, the Bidayuhs were paddy farmers and the majority of them who

are still in the rural areas are still farming on their ancestral lands. From the

1960s they started planting cash crops such as rubber, pepper and cocoa and

showed less concern for paddy. This is because the cash crops provide them

with more cash which they need for their daily expenses. By the early 1970s, as

more and more Bidayuhs were educated and as more of them were exposed to

20
urbanisation, their preference had also shifted to securing stable jobs in both the

government and private sectors. Unlike in the past, today Bidayuhs can afford

to drive expensive cars and live in comfortable concrete houses in the urban

areas (Personal communication with Henry Anak Jimok on 22nd June 2006).

Nevertheless, according to Minos (2000):

‘The community is still economically backward compared to the

major races in Malaysia. Only about 10 percent (167,756) of the
Bidayuhs who have the education and expertise are working as civil
servants in the various Government ministries, departments, statutory
bodies and other agencies and in the private sector companies and
enterprises throughout the country, mainly Sarawak. Only a handful of
them are professional doing their own practices as doctors, lawyer and
accountants in the urban areas.’
(Minos, 2000: 44)

2.4 Adat Oma

Adat Oma is the ancient religion of the Bidayuhs which focused on nature.

Before the advent of Christianity in 1880s considered as a modern religion, the

Bidayuhs who were hill paddy planters offered prayers, rituals and offerings to

the supernatural. They paid a lot of homage and tribute to nature including the

hills and mountains where they planted paddy and gathered food, the woods

and forests which provided them with fire and materials for their homes and

streams and rivers which gave them water. Their special reverence was also

given to land and paddy which was the direct source of their livelihood,

sustenance and life (Minos, 2000:117).

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The common fear in the olden days was the penyamun-the fear of headhunters.

Periodically, it swept over the whole Bidayuh population in the Kuching and

Samarahan Divisions causing alarm not only among the Bidayuh community

but also among some Chinese and Malay in the nearby areas as well. The

common means of protection was through the belief of Tampa Raiuyuh and the

ancient spirit or adapt.

The Bidayuhs observed very closely the superstitious beliefs and omen. They

believed in dreams and in witchcraft connected with sickness. To the pagan

Bidayuh sickness was caused by the evil spirits and they tried by all means to

please the evil spirits so that they would not harm them. Both Chang (2002.:

226) and Minos (2000:118) estimated that there are about 10% of the Bidayuhs

in the Bidayuh Belt who are pagans and still practicing the Adat Oma. The

prayers are conducted in Bidayuh. However, the number of the atheist

population is decreasing because the old atheists have passed away and the

young atheists have embraced Christianity and Islam.

2.5 Christianity among the Bidayuhs

Minos describes the Bidayuhs as ‘a Christian race’ and he foresees that ‘as the

Bidayuhs get more educated and as the non–Christians meet and socialise with

the Christians in the villages or towns, almost 100 percent will be Christians by

the year 2020’ (Minos, 2000:119).

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Christianity was brought to the Bidayuh villagers from the era of James Brooke

in 1841 by missionaries of the Roman Catholic and Anglican denomination. By

the late 1890s the Roman Catholic had established a mission at Singghai when

the first priest Father Felix Westerwoudt was sent there in 1867 (Westerwoudt,

2002:24). The Anglicans established St James Mission in Quop in Kuching

District.

By the late 1960s Christianity was well accepted by the Bidayuhs. To become

Christian meant modernity and modernisation and a close association to

education and betterment. At present the Bidayuhs in the rural or in urban areas,

educated or otherwise perceive Christianity as a modern and progressive

religion and see it as part of their culture. There are also some Bidayuhs

belonging to other Christian churches such as Methodist, Seventh Day

Adventist, Borneo Evangelical Group (SIB) but the numbers are not as big as

the Bidayuh Roman Catholics who numbered 135,000 (unofficial statistics

provided by Father Simon Poh in charge of Kuching Catholic Archdiocese

Archive, 20th July 2007). The prayer services in the village chapels and

churches as stated on the church notice boards are conducted in both Bidayuh

and Bahasa Melayu on Sundays. In the urban churches and cathedrals the

church notice boards stated daily and Sunday masses are conducted in English

and Bahasa Melayu daily.

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2.6 Bidayuh festivals

In the olden days, the Bidayuhs celebrated Gawai Mukah or the Dried Skull

festival. However today, only Opar village in Bau District still observes this

practice and it is celebrated once every four years.

Today, all Dayaks (including Ibans and Orang Ulus) officially celebrate Gawai

Dayak on 1st June every year, to commemorate the end of the paddy harvesting

season. Some villages celebrate the Gawai earlier than others and one village in

each district each year is the main host for the celebration. During this festive

season, Bidayuhs from the urban areas and those working in other areas will

return to their respective villages to celebrate with family members and

relatives. Since Bidayuhs are also Christians, they also celebrate Christmas on a

grand scale in their respective villages.

Bung Bratak is celebrated on the 1st of May on Mount Bratak every year to

commemorate the first settlement of the Bau-Jagoi Bidayuhs in Sarawak. On

that day, Bau-Jagoi Bidayuhs from all walks of life gather on the mountain top

to celebrate according to Bau-Jagoi traditional customs and practices.

2.7 Bidayuh headhouse

The Bidayuh Head–house is known as ‘baruh’ in Bau District, ‘pangah’ in

Padawan District or ‘baluh’ in Serian District. Baruh/Pangah/Baluh has

24
traditionally and historically constituted a major symbol embodying the

Bidayuh ideology, its colourful world and unique culture. It plays a pivotal role

in the daily life of the Bidayuh villages. The existence of baruh/pangah/baluh

is recognized as an integral part or element of Bidayuh identity. Very often it is

a notable building in the village, a source of pride in achievement and

ownership to the Bidayuh community who built it together in their respective

villages. Macdonald (1956, cited in Chang, 2002), described the head house as

such:

‘a small round house stands in each community-a sacred place

especially constructed to lodge heads taken in the battle. Unlike the
other pagan tribes of Borneo, Land Dayak (Bidayuhs) may not keep
these honourable trophies in their houses. In the centre of every village
is the circular building raised on piles, with a steep, cone-shaped grass
roof crowned by a carved final. It looks like a fancy hayrick propped
on stilts.’
(Chang, 2002: 251)

The other uses of the Headhouse besides keeping heads are also to provide

residential needs of the unmarried men and accommodation for travellers to the

villages. During the Gawai, it serves as a venue for the religious and traditional

ceremonies. Besides the traditional functions of the past that have been carried

on to this day, the Head house also serves as centre for practicing Adat Oma by

the Bidayuh pagans, a centre for performing their traditional dances and a place

for meetings conducted in Bidayuh.

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2.8 Efforts to develop a common Bidayuh language

The Bidayuh language Development Project (BLDP) was formed in 2001 to

preserve and promote the Bidayuh language in the home, in schools and among
Bidayuh communities so that the language and culture will continue to be used
and practised and passed from one generation to the next. The project goals are
to:

 Revitalise the language, i.e., forgotten and neglected terms will be

recovered.
 Develop a unified orthography for all dialects of Bidayuh
 Expand the body of literature in Bidayuh
 Facilitate having Bidayuh taught in schools.
(The BLDP: A Status Report, 2003)

A unified orthography system was achieved after a series of workshops from

March 2002 to August 2003 as shown in Table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1
Current and unified symbolization for Bidayuh words

CURRENT SPELLING UNIFIED SPELLING

Pronunciation Bau Kuching Serian Proposed Decided
( α) A A a A A
ۨ
(ә)/ ( ◌λ) --- A a E E
(iә)/(ε) Ie E e É É
(i) I I i I I
(uә)/(‫)כ‬ Uo O o O O
. (‫)כ‬/(w) O Ŭ u( ŭ/ û) Ø or ŭ /û Ŭ
(u) U U u u U
(Adapted from Rensch, et al., 2006:25)

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2.9 Bidayuh education

Bidayuh has never been made or used as a medium of instruction or as a third

language to be taught in the Bidayuh Belt in the State of Sarawak since

Sarawak joined Malaysia in 1963.The major reason could be because there is

no common Bidayuh language. Article 152 of the Malaysian Constitution of

1957 gives provision for the mother tongue of the numerous other languages. It

states that the pupil’s own mother-tongue (POL) can be taught in the schools if

the parents so desired and if there are at least 15 students to make up a class.

Personal communication with Endawi Egup Anak Mayeg, a 62 year old Bau-

Singgai grandfather, revealed that many Bidayuhs prefer their children to

master English and Bahasa Melayu so that they could compete with the other

races when looking for jobs. They feel that Bidayuh could be taught at home by

the grandparents.

After Sarawak joined Malaysia on 16th September 1963, the local languages

such as Iban and Bidayuh have been marginalised by the wide usage of Bahasa

Melayu which is the official language in the new nation (Arrifin and Teoh,

1992: 117). Today, there are 140 primary schools and 67 pre-schools in the

Bidayuh Belt where over 80 percent of the teachers are Bidayuhs (Sarawak

Education Department, 2006). However, no formal attempt has ever been made

by the Malaysian Education Ministry to introduce any of the Bidayuh dialects

in these schools to the Bidayuh pupils.

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According to an online article published by DBNA (2005), the Bidayuh dialects

were used in schools before Sarawak joined Malaysia in 1963. One of the

strategies used to Christianise the pagan Bidayuhs by the Catholic Mill Hill

missionaries was to set up basic educational facilities in Bidayuh villages.

During this period, missionaries started a number of primary schools in

Bidayuh villages where the local dialects, notably Biatah in the Kuching-

Padawan region and Bukar-Sadong in Serian district, were used as the medium

of instruction. In Bau District in particular the Jagoi and Singgai areas, schools

and Catholics missions were built for the ‘primitive and dirty looking natives’

(Westerwoudt, 2002: 24).

These schools later became known as St John in Singgai, St Leois in Kampong

Serasot (Serasot village) and St Mark in Kampong Staas (Staas village). The

unnamed author of the DBNA on-line article also stated that:

‘These schools were only a few of the numerous schools set

up by the Mission. The medium of instruction was supposed to
be English but for the first three years Bidayuh language was
used as a transition medium. Most of the teachers at the early
stages were missionaries or volunteers. For the foreign
missionaries and teachers of different races, teaching in these
pioneer schools was also a place where they learn the local
language. Catechism books and church hymns were the first
written media available in the Bau-Jagoi dialect.’
(DBNA, 2005:2)

Sarawak joined Malaysia on 16th September 1963 and under the various

Malaysian educational policies, government schools were built throughout the

State including the Bidayuh Belt and with it came Malay as a medium of

instruction which was not easy for the Bidayuhs.

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 ‘The introduction of Bahasa Malaysia (or merely known as
“Malay Language” then) in Bau in 1967 was not any easy. To
most Bidayuh communities, the Malay language was as strange as
the English language. Again the use of Bidayuh, albeit informal
and normally not encouraged by school authorities, was used as a
‘bridging’ medium during the children’s first few years of
schooling. Thus, we can see that the Bidayuh dialect or language
was widely used in the past not only as a spoken but written form
as a medium of instruction.’
(DBNA, 2005:3)

The Borneo Post (1st August, 2006: 14) reported the latest development to

introduce Bidayuh in schools under a project called Multilingual Education, by

United Nations’ Education, Social and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).

Personal communication with Jim Smith, a representative from UNESCO‘s

Multilingual Education, in Kuching on 1st August, 2006, indicated that both

UNESCO and DBNA were looking at the possibility of introducing Bidayuh as

a medium of instruction in play schools in the Bidayuh Belt. There have been

no standard curriculum guidelines for these play schools. The project aims to

teach Bidayuh children five years and below to communicate correctly using

the dialect of their mother tongue. UNESCO and DBNA have also planned to

design a structured course to be implemented in the first year of pre-school

where the pupils would be taught in the Bidayuh dialect.

Phase One comprises two objectives: first to have a playschool in each major

Bidayuh village conducted 100 percent in the local dialect; second to produce

materials that could be used in the teaching programme.

29
 ‘UNESCO realizes that by promoting Bidayuh as a subject
may encourage its development, but this can also handicap
students’ ability to learn other subjects taught in Bahasa
Malaysia. As such, a broader policy is needed to make ethnic
minority languages the language of instruction in rural schools.’
(Borneo Post, 1st August: 14 2006)

The project which started in January 2006 now has five playschools set up in

various districts, catering to the various Bidayuh dialects–one each in Serian,

Bau, Padawan and two in Lundu (Borneo Post, 1st April, 2007: 13).

The Sarawak Cabinet Minister of Environment Health and Public Health, Datuk

Michael Manyin in his speech on 31st July 2006 (Borneo Post, 1st April, 2007:

13.), assured the Bidayuh community that written suggestions for introducing

the Bidayuh language as Bahasa Ethnik (Ethnic Language) into the national

education has been submitted to the Ministry of Education and Sarawak State

Education Department in early 2006. He also warned the Bidayuh community

not to miss the chance to preserve the language through books and research, or

else it would face extinction.

While DBNA President, Ik Pahon Joyik called for greater unity among the

Bidayuhs to really make the project a success (Borneo Post, 1st April , 2007:

13), Minos states that it is the dream of every Bidayuh to see that the dialects

can also be their symbol of unity and be taught in schools to their younger

generation.

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 ‘It is the Bidayuhs’ desire to keep alive, enrich and perpetuate their
respective dialects. If one day they should have one common
language, I believe the Bidayuhs too want the language to last
forever.’
(Minos, 2000:126)

2.10 Bidayuh Literature

The Dayak Bidayuh early literature was Christian materials compiled by

missionaries. The Christian missionaries not only compiled wordlists of the

various Bidayuh dialects but also wrote prayer books, hymnals and Bible

stories which they used when preaching Christianity to the Bidayuhs. Among

the materials produced by these missionaries were the translations of the New

Testament Bible by an Anglican missionary Rev. Fr. Peter H.H. Howes into the

Biatah dialect called Kitab Payu Bauh. In Bau District, the missionaries spread

the Roman Catholic faith to the Bidayuhs and also developed Christian

materials using the Bau dialects. Fr. Luis Schwabl from the Roman Catholic

Church not only spread Christianity, and trained local catechists but also

religiously wrote Christian materials for the pagan Bidayuhs. If not for the

Christian missions, the Bidayuh dialects would have declined in use more

rapidly (Rensch, et al., and 2006:10).

In fact, these materials are still used today with more materials being added. In

village churches in the Bidayuh Belt the prayers are still conducted in the

Bidayuh dialects although the hymns may also be in English and Malay. One

31
such church is St Mary’s Church in Kampong Bogag in Bau District where the

mass is conducted in Bau-Jagoi dialect.

The Borneo Literature Bureau established in 1959 during the colonial period

was responsible for publishing Bidayuh literature before it ceased operations in

1977. It published a couple of Bidayuh phrase books. It also organised writing

competitions and published winning short stories. It translated works in English

such as ‘The Story of Daniel’ into Bidayuh (Rensch, et al., 2006:16).

However, until today there are not many books written in the Bidayuh dialects.

Furthermore, with no education in the Bidayuh language it is difficult to expect

materials to be produced by the younger generation. However, secondary

schools such as SMK Lake, SMK Bau, SMK Serian and SMK Padawan have

published in their annual school magazines short stories written by Bidayuh

students using the various Bidayuh dialects.

The major contribution to Bidayuh literature since 1977 is the Bidayuh-English

Dictionary compiled by Datuk William Nais in 1988. It is a substantial work

and is used by the Biatah dialect speakers as well as other Bidayuhs when doing

research (Rensch, et al., 2006:17).

The Council of Customs or Majlis Adat Istiadat established in 1974 can be said

to be the main body which produces materials in Bidayuh dialects. It was

formed not only as a centre for the collection, codification, interpretation and

32
dissemination of the Dayak adat laws (customary laws) but also as a centre for

the collection, transcription and translation of the various oral traditions which

include, among other things, legends, folklore, myths, history, chants,

traditional songs, traditional music and games. In short, its mission is to

preserve and nurture the customs and traditions of the Dayaks of Sarawak so as

to maintain order and development of the community (Laws of Sarawak 1977).

The Council published one volume of Bidayuh folktales in Singgai, Biatah and

Bukar dialects in 2001 followed by another five titles of a similar genre in 2004

written by Robert Jonas Ridu in the Bukar-Sadong dialect (Rensch, et al.,

2006:18).

The Sarawak Museum Journal which started in 1911 occasionally publishes

Bidayuh short stories, written in both English and the Bidayuh dialects. The

earliest Bidayuh short story entitled Sirtuh Kumang Ruwai, written by Nyandoh

was published in 1956.

2.11 Bidayuh in the mass media

Radio Television Malaysia (RTM) Sarawak Bidayuh service broadcasts news

items in the Biatah, Bau-Jagoi and Bukar-Sadong dialects. Today, the Bidayuh

service of RTM broadcasts for nine hours a day. It features not only news but

also songs, stories and discussion forums in the various Bidayuh dialects. A

number of Bidayuh singers, who write and sing their songs in Bidayuh, have

them broadcast through the RTM Bidayuh service. The Bidayuh singers play a

33
very important role in promoting and preserving the Bidayuh language. Rensch,

et al., (2006:18) stated that the Bidayuh lyrics in songs are influential in

teaching reading and spelling in Bidayuh, as well as transmits Bidayuh words to

the younger generation.

Today, Bidayuh bands playing music with English lyrics are also popular

among the younger generation of all races. Among the popular Bidayuh bands

are Candy, Nice Stupid Playground, Indie’s Wild Child and Vormit. The

younger generation of Bidayuhs enjoy English and Malay music and movies

since there is little of such entertainment in Bidayuh. To date there has been no

movie made in Bidayuh.

There is no Bidayuh used in any of the local newspapers, Borneo Post and

Utusan Borneo. However, the Catholic News, the monthly Catholic Church

Bulletin printed by the Archdiocese of Kuching has 10% of news reports

written in Bidayuh Bau-Jagoi, Biatah and Bukar-Sadong dialects.

2.12 Dayak Bidayuh National Association (DBNA)

The first Bidayuh forum was the Dayak Bidayuh National Organisation or

DBNA. The main motive of DBNA which was established on 22nd September

1955 was ‘to unite the Bidayuh people who were then separated by dialects ,

distance and religions’ to quote the words of the First DBNA President Ah

Guan Guga (cited in Chang, 2002 :265). Today there are 16 DBNA branches

34
throughout the State, including the Women’s branch. According to Minos

(2000):

‘Because of DBNA, the Bidayuhs in the four Districts of Lundu,

Bau, Kuching and Serian have known, met and got acquainted with
each other through the numerous DBNA functions and activities held
over the years. When the Bidayuhs meet in the DBNA, they forget that
they are of the Salako-Larra, or Bau-Jagoi or Biatah or Bukar-Sadong
dialectal groups. In DBNA, all are simply Bidayuhs.’
(Minos, 2000:168)

This was supported by Chang (2002):

‘The Dayak Bidayuh National Organisation has made the Bidayuh

community conscious of their origin, of their identity, of their
historical and cultural roots, of their common problems and difficulties
and of their future and destiny.’
(Chang, 2002:272)

2.13 Ja Ata Britong

Ja Ata Britong is a popular modern day Bidayuh forum which uses modern

technology to discuss various topics on the old ways of the Bidayuh

community. It reflects a new dimension undertaken by the increasing number of

educated Bidayuhs. This discussion is done through the website:

http://www.bidayuh.com/britong

To give a new lease of life to ‘britong’, Ja Ata Britong (literally means ‘Let us

discuss’) was created in 1997 and since then the art of ‘britong’ (discussion) has

never been the same again as various codes are used. Below is an example

where no Bidayuh word is used but only English and Bahasa Melayu are used.

35
 ‘I heard on the term pelabelan being used on the TV news this
evening in the context of food production from our own local agro raw
material. I suspect the istilah is yet another pinjaman from the
English root word “label” so as to make pelabelan a Bahasa Melayu
equivalent for “ labeling” in English.’
(Ja Ata Britong, 13/4/2007 cited in McLellan’s
Working paper, UNIMAS, July 2007)

2.14 Educational attainment

The younger generation of Bidayuhs is highly educated with many of them

having university and professional qualifications. There is a Sarawak Bidayuh

Graduates Association (SBGA) which organises activities for members as a

way of getting the educated Bidayuhs together. English and Bahasa Melayu are

used during SBGA meetings. In the urban areas, Bidayuh parents are keen to

enroll children in missionary schools, perhaps because they are Christians

themselves. Nevertheless, there are many Bidayuh students who study in

government schools as well. The common codes used during social interaction

in schools are Sarawak Malay, Bahasa Melayu and English. Personal

communication with a Bidayuh senior school teacher Nyibos Anak Neggog,

(June, 2006) revealed that in schools, Bidayuh is never used among the urban

Bidayuh students during social interactions and is not encouraged by the

Bidayuh teachers in rural schools either. According to Minos (2000:116), by the

Year 2020, with a better attitude towards education, at least two percent of the

younger generation of Bidayuhs will be university graduates and professionals.

36
2.15 Conclusion

A Dayak Bidayuh lecturer at University Technology MARA in Samarahan best

summarises Bidayuh identity and unity:

“The Bidayuh unity does not come about with the dialect he or she
speaks. In fact, solidarity is achieved when a Bidayuh knows that the
other person is also a Bidayuh. There is already a natural ethnic bond
which exists because they know being Bidayuhs, although they do not
speak the same language yet, they have almost the same history, culture,
customs, beliefs and practices. These give them a Bidayuh identity.”
(John Francis Anak Noyan cited in Dealwis, 2007:247)

The background of the Bidayuhs shows that they have been much oppressed

throughout history and this has made them submissive people. Such an attitude

can be seen among the younger generation of Bidayuhs who often succumb to

the linguistic pressures in the environment by speaking more non-Bidayuh

codes during language contact (Minos, 2000). They are mild people who are

concerned with creating closer rapport and solidarity. For them, this can come

about not necessarily by using Bidayuh. The fact that less Bidayuh is used in

the mass media, literature, education also makes the younger generation of

Bidayuh more prone towards using the more dominant languages such as

English, Bahasa Melayu and Sarawak Malay.

Chapter Three will provide the theoretical constructs and related literature

review use in this study of language choice among the Bau-Jagoi, Bukar-

Sadong and Biatah undergraduates who represent the younger generation of

educated Dayak Bidayuhs today.

37