GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03

FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 1 OF 47

GUIDANCE NOTES
ON
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
FOR
MARINE PIPELINES

Issue: OSIG Rev 03

Status: Final for Issue

Date: 17/09/04

Prepared by the Pipeline Working Group

of the
Offshore Soil Investigation Forum

Updated 2004 by The Society for Underwater Technology

Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics Committee
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 2 OF 47

CONTENTS

FOREWARD

1. INTRODUCTION 4

2. RELEVANT REGULATIONS & GUIDELINES 5

3. PLANNING AND SCOPE OF WORK 6

4. DATA ACQUISITION 13

5. SOIL PARAMETERS FOR ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 18

6. INTERPRETATION AND REPORTING 22

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I - Presentation formats

APPENDIX Il - Information on geotechnical equipment

APPENDIX III - Extracts from Relevant Standards

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 3 OF 47

FOREWORD

This document is aimed at offshore engineers, who are not geotechnical specialists, but may have the
responsibility for assessing the appropriate level of geotechnical data required for successful pipeline
design and construction and specifying a geotechnical investigation programme.

The document was originally produced by the Pipelines Working Group of the Offshore Soil
Investigation Forum (OSIF) and subsequently updated in 2003 to reflect recent developments in
industry, by the Society for Underwater Technology’s Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics
Committee (OSIG).

OSIF is an informal grouping of oil company geotechnical engineers, geotechnical contractors and
consultants and geotechnical drilling vessel operators, which have been meeting annually since 1983.

OSIG forms part of the Society for Underwater Technology and provides representation for
professionals with a particular interest in the geological and geotechnical aspects of subsea
engineering.

The primary objectives of the two groups are similar and may be summarised as:

• To promote and encourage best practice in the use and integration of geophysical and
geotechnical data.

• To provide a forum for exchange of experience and ideas

• To facilitate continuous improvement of all aspects of offshore site investigations, particularly

those related to: Technical Quality, Health, Safety and the Environment.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 4 OF 47

1. INTRODUCTION

This document has been produced to provide guidance on acceptable good practice in the
collection of geotechnical data for the purposes of design, installation and operation of
marine pipelines. It is intended that it will provide a useful aid in the planning and
specification of marine pipeline geotechnical surveys.

The principal contents of the document include:

- An indication of the relevant regulations and guidelines.

- Guidance regarding the planning and scope of work of geotechnical investigations.

- Information on the available methods of data acquisition such as corers, samplers and in
situ testing systems, and their applicability.
- Guidance on which soil properties are of importance for particular aspects of design,
installation and operation.
- Suggestions regarding the interpretation and presentation of geotechnical data for
pipeline projects.

This document concentrates on the geotechnical aspects of survey operations, however it

must be recognised that the collection and interpretation of geophysical data to identify and
assess seabed features and subsea geological profiles is an essential part of any survey.
Therefore, a brief description of appropriate techniques is included in this document for
completeness. Further information on geophysical survey techniques can be obtained from
the UKOOA document “Recommended Practice for Rig Site Surveys, Volumes 1 and 2”.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 5 OF 47

2. RELEVANT REGULATIONS & GUIDELINES

There are a number of published rules and guidelines relating to the design of offshore
platforms and pipelines, and these include a discussion of the geotechnical aspects of
design. However, there are very few standards that relate specifically to geotechnical
investigations for marine pipelines. Those most applicable are:

American Petroleum Institute

• API Recommended Practice 1111, 3rd Edition, July 1999 Design, Construction,
Operation And Maintenance Of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines and Risers.

• API Recommended Practice 2A-WSD. 21st Edition, December 2000

Planning, Designing and Construction Fixed Offshore Platforms.

Det Norske Veritas

• DNV, OC-F101, Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems. (January 2000)

• DNV-RP-F107 Risk Assessment of Submarine Pipeline Protection (March 2001)

• DNV 30.4 Foundations (1995)

British Standards Institution

• British Standard; BS8010 Part 3, 1993

Pipelines Subsea: Design, Construction and Installation.

International Standards Organisation

• ISO 13623 : Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries – Pipeline Transportation Systems

In addition to the above standards, there are a number of standards, which while not directly
related to marine geotechnical investigations, do provide a general framework for the in situ
testing, sampling and laboratory testing of soils. The most commonly used standards
include:
• British Standards Institution (1990) BS1377: Methods of tests for soil for civil engineering
purposes.
• British Standards Institution (1999) BS5930: Code of Practice for Site Investigation.
• American Society of Testing and Materials, (2002) Volume 04.08, Soil and Rock (1)
D420 – D5779. Annual Book of ASTM Standards
• EN1997, Eurocode 7, Geotechnical Design.
• International Standards Organisation: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing,
Identification and Classification of Soil, Part 1: Identification and Description ISO 14688-
1:2002.
• Norsk Standards 8000 to 8017. Series of standards for individual tests, eg:
Norsk Standard, NS8005, Geotechnical testing. Laboratory methods. Grain size analysis
of soil samples.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 6 OF 47

3. PLANNING AND SCOPE OF WORK

Objectives

The objective of the site investigation for a marine pipeline is to obtain sufficient reliable
information to permit the safe and economic design of installation and permanent works.
The investigation should be designed to verify and expand upon any information previously
collected.

The various stages relating to site survey and geotechnical investigation are illustrated in
Figure 3.1. At the initial stages of a project development, it is often adequate to assess
geotechnical aspects from desk study information. As the project progresses, the level of
detail required increases and additional costs are incurred in acquiring this information. The
important factor to appreciate is that at all times expenditure on the site survey and
geotechnical data should be commensurate with the level of detail required.

Project Desk Study

Definition FEED
Development Process

Site Survey
Data
Lab Testing
Acquisition

Parameters
Design
Engineering
Verification

Project Engineering
Execution Construction
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 7 OF 47

Planning and scheduling

At project conception, the data available should be sufficient to demonstrate the feasibility
and suitability of the preferred pipeline design concepts and selected route corridors. This
can often be achieved by a desk study to collate published data and information from
previous investigations. However in areas where little information is available a preliminary
investigation may be required. This can often be achieved by a geophysical survey, with
simple sampling methods such as a grab sampler, or drop corer.

As the project progresses towards detailed design and construction, the data should be
sufficiently detailed to provide input into pipeline design and to allow contractors to provide
optimised pricing for supply and installation works.

The site investigation programme for a marine pipeline development should therefore be
undertaken in progressive stages. Planning for each stage should be carried out based on
the results from previous findings in order to optimise the extent of investigation work.
Factors such as: vertical and horizontal uniformity of soil profiles, geological history and
pipeline system size and concept, should be directly reflected in the extent of the site
investigation. A full appraisal of the various geological factors at a site are often summarised
in a geohazard study.

It is recommended that all stages of the planning and performance of a survey are directed
by a suitably experienced person.

The sequence of the site investigation programme should be as follows:

Desk study

The desk study should incorporate a review of all appropriate sources of information and the
collection and evaluation of all relevant available types of data for the area of interest. The
various factors that should be investigated include, but are not limited to:
• Geological databases
• Bathymetric information
• Geophysical data
• Geotechnical data
• Metocean data (tides, currents etc)
• Seismicity
• Performance of existing pipelines
• Human activities (eg location of pipelines, cables wrecks, munitions
disposal site, aggregate dredging,
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 8 OF 47

The performance of a desk study alone is not normally sufficient for detailed engineering
purposes. The desk study is the best way of obtaining some information, including location
of existing subsea infrastructure (eg pipelines and cables) which may be required for the
planning of both the survey and the construction works.

Geophysical survey

A geophysical survey will need to be performed along the proposed route of the marine
pipeline to collect information on:

• Seabed topography – by echo-sounding or swathe bathymetry. The latter is particularly

important in sand wave areas or other areas of generally uneven seabed.
• Seabed features and obstructions – by methods such as side scan sonar
• Profiling of uppermost 5m, or so, of seabed – usually by means of reflection seismic
techniques (sub bottom profiling). Recent developments in towed resistivity and seismic
refraction methods are providing useful complementary data. This is particularly the
case in very shallow water where seismic reflection is not practical.
• Detection of existing cables, pipelines and other metallic obstructions – by means of a
towed magnetometer, however, note is made that not all metallic objects may be
detected, in particular small fibre optic cables.

As a general rule, the width of the survey corridor is between 500m and 1000m, centred on
the proposed pipeline route. The actual width is influenced by factors such as water depth,
seabed features and the need to provide a degree of flexibility in routing.

Shore approach corridors are more likely to be around 500 metres wide, whereas areas in
deeper water incorporating seabed features such as pockmarks and iceberg scars may
warrant survey corridors in excess of 1000 metres to allow re-routing based on detailed
engineering, to minimise the number of potential free-spans for example. If the geotechnical
survey is to be performed as a separate exercise (see below) it is still advisable and practical
to collect some soil samples by grab or gravity core to aid the immediate interpretation of
surface and sub-bottom profiling data. Survey tie-lines to nearby locations where soils
information has previously been gathered will also aid this process.

The geotechnical investigation will normally be performed on completion of the geophysical

survey, and after the route has been determined, either from the same vessel or as a
completely separate operation from a different vessel. This allows for sample and test
locations to be more effectively targeted to identify soil strata changes, clarify apparent
anomalies or investigate specific seabed features. To accelerate interpretation and reporting
on long route surveys, a “first pass” of sampling and testing can be made on completion of
the route centre-line survey. Again, this may be performed from the geophysical survey
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 9 OF 47

vessel itself or from a separate vessel. In the latter case, the geotechnical vessel can be
performing work along the centre line whilst the corridor “wing-lines” are being surveyed.

Using current satellite technology it is now feasible to transmit interpreted data between the
geotechnical and geophysical vessels to facilitate onboard interpretation and programme
modifications as appropriate.

The performance of the geophysical survey alone, or in addition to the desk study, is not
normally sufficient for detailed engineering purposes, unless site geotechnical data are
already available.

GeoBAS survey

The term ‘geoBAS’ (Geophysical Burial Assessment Survey) describes survey operations
using geophysical methods operated from seabed sleds, and towed by the survey ship, to
provide continuous quantitative information for the first few metres of soil below seabed.
Available methods include seismic refraction and electrical resistivity systems. The use of
these methods is often justified if trenching is difficult or the properties of the seabed are very
variable. A more reliable continuous engineering assessment of the route can be made if
geoBAS measurements are integrated with CPT and core sample data.

GeoBAS equipment is normally mounted on a sled, which is pulled by the survey vessel at
speeds of between 1 and 4knots. It is essential to have some knowledge of seabed features
and potential obstructions to reduce the risk of damage or loss of the equipment.

GeoBAS surveys may also be useful on the shore approach where deeper burial is required
and sometimes rock is present near the surface. Towed systems can be pulled through the
shallow water zone either towards or away from the beach. Technical issues relating to
shallow water and surf noise should be addressed in a project specific manner.

Geotechnical survey

The geotechnical survey will typically encompass:

• Coring and sampling for material identification, description and subsequent

laboratory testing.
• In situ testing for accurate stratification and determination of key engineering
parameters.

There is a large range of available equipment for each method. They are described in
Section 4.0 'Data Acquisition Methods', with additional detail presented in Appendix II.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 10 OF 47

The suitability of each tool for use in the geotechnical survey should be assessed by
reference to Section 4.0. This should be carried out in conjunction with knowledge of the
engineering objectives of the selected concept(s) and the results of the desk study and
geophysical survey phases. Guidance on data acquisition requirements for specific pipeline
engineering objectives are provided in Section 5.0, 'Soil Parameters for Engineering and
Design Considerations'.

Suitable vessels and supervision

The geotechnical survey can be performed either from the geophysical survey vessel,
provided it has the capabilities (e.g. craneage and station keeping) or from a suitable
alternate vessel.

Pipeline landfalls present particular problems due to the shallow water depths, usually
precluding use of normal offshore spreads. Trenching depths, and hence penetration
requirements, may also be greater than for offshore sections of the pipeline. There may also
be other factors to consider such as the presence of rock within the trench profile and a
greater risk of sediment mobility. The use of land-based drilling and/or CPT equipment,
deployed from suitable all-terrain or amphibious vehicles may be practical down to the low
water mark. However, such methods usually leave a significant gap in data coverage,
between their seaward limit and the landward limit of offshore spreads. In this situation,
options include shallow-draft anchored pontoons or, more ideally, small jack-up drilling
platforms may be used as a platform from which to drill, sample and test the seabed soil or
rock, usually using an adapted onshore drilling system.

Data coverage

The spacing of soil sampling and soil testing locations along the route of the marine pipeline
will depend on the lateral variability in ground conditions revealed by the desk study and
geophysical survey phases. In selecting appropriate spacing, consideration should also be
given to other project-specific factors such as:

• Trenching requirements including:

o depth of trench
o method of trenching
o trench side stability
• Method of backfilling
• Geotechncal input to pipeline engineering including:
o thermal insulation provided by trench backfill
o upheaval buckling resistance of backfill soils
o pipeline soil interface friction properties
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 11 OF 47

• Surface features or obstructions for example sand waves, pockmarks, boulders or

iceberg scars
• Size, purpose, location and foundation type of any seabed structures

Table 3.1 below gives some guidance on appropriate frequency and penetration of samples
and tests. However each project should be reviewed separately and an appropriate
sampling and testing programme determined by a competent geotechnical engineer.

Because of the exploratory nature of the geotechnical survey, it is probable that some
modification to the scope of work will be required as data acquisition proceeds and results
are reviewed. This is necessary to ensure that the objectives of the survey are being
achieved in the most cost-effective and optimised manner, and specifiers of survey services
should bear this in mind.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 12 OF 47

Table 3.1 Guidelines for Test/Sample Frequency and Penetration

Pipeline Route Sector Average Penetration1 Remarks

Spacing (m)
(km)
Untrenched sections 1 to 52 1–2 Increase frequency and penetration
in areas of soft clay or potentially
unstable slopes. Supplement with
grab samples in areas of
sand/gravel.
Consider any particular
requirements of project (eg pipeline
soil interface friction).
Trenched sections 0.5 to 1 Trench depth +1 Cores and CPTs should be located
(offshore) adjacent to each other for correlation
purposes, at the spacing suggested
Trenched section 0.3 to 0.5 Trench depth +1 Ensure spacing nd sampling regime
(shore approach) is adequate to identify any particular
aspects for example rock outcrops,
sediment mobility.
Soil transition zone 0.3 to 0.5 3–5
Features 3 per To maximum Representative features may need
Pockmarks, iceberg feature height/depth to be selected for investigation
scars, sand banks of feature rather than all of them
Pipeline or cable crossing min. 2 per 5 May need to be deeper for larger
or subsea structure such structure structures or piled structures
as ‘T’s, valve cover etc.
Anchor or support piles min 1 10 – 20 Needs to be checked against
per pile or required bearing capacity and soil
pile group type.
Notes
1 Typical penetration depth, each case should be reviewed separately and depth adjusted
accordingly
2 Average spacing greater than 1km should only be considered in areas of consistent geology where
geotechnical conditions are already well known

Figure 3.1 - Guidelines for Test/Sample Frequency and Penetration

(Graphical representation of Table 3.1)
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 13 OF 47

4. DATA ACQUISITION

Introduction

The methods used in the acquisition of soils data for marine pipeline routes comprise
geophysical, geoBAS and geotechnical techniques to determine the characteristics of the
seabed topography and geology. The principal aspects of these techniques are described in
the following sections, with a more detailed description of the geotechnical equipment
presented in Appendix II.

Geophysical Equipment

The geophysical equipment used for pipeline route surveys should include as a minimum:

• Echo-sounder (single-beam or multi-beam)

• Sidescan sonar
• Sub-bottom profiler
• Magnetometer

The uses and suitability of the generic types of equipment are summarised in the Table 4.1.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 14 OF 47

Table 4.1 Geophysical Survey Methods

Survey Equipment Use of Data Minimum Resolution

Required
Single beam Determination of water depth below 1% of maximum water
echosounder survey line and an estimate of depth
seabed gradients
Multi-beam Determination of water depth and 1% of maximum water
echosounder seabed gradient across full survey depth
corridor
Sidescan Sonar Identification of the nature of the Detect a nominal 0.1m3
seabed (sediment type, rock outcrop, object or a 0.1m width
coral etc.), seabed features (bed linear object
forms e.g. sand waves, megaripples),
and obstructions (cables, pipelines,
boulders, wrecks)
Sub-bottom Profiler Characterisation of shallow Vertical Resolution better
subseabed geology, which includes than 0.5m down to a
identifying vertical and lateral extent depth of 5m or depth of
of sediments and the presence of burial plus 3m whichever
any bedrock and other subsurface is greater
obstructions.
Magnetometer Detection and location of pipelines, 1 nanoTesla or better
cables and any ferro-metallic debris,
such as wrecks and munitions
dumps.

Geo BAS Equipment

The two methods normally used offshore are electrical resistivity and seismic refraction as
described below:

• Electrical resistance of the seabed soils is determined by generation of an electrical

potentiall (voltage) between two electrodes. Voltage is measured at intermediate
points by further electrode, from which lines of equipotential can be determined. A
mathematical model is then used to calculate the variation in resistance of the soil
with depth. The method is particularly effective in identifying changes in the
character of the soil because the resistivity is related to the soil porosity. Longitudinal
profiles of resistivity (or Formation Factor which is the resistivity of the seabed soils
normalised to that of the seawater) are prepared from the raw data.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 15 OF 47

• Seismic refraction requires generation of a compression wave, which is then sensed

by an array of geophones at increasing distance from the source. The time taken for
the compression wave to arrive at different geophones enables the depth of
reflectors, and seismic velocity, to be determioned. The results are presented in the
form of a profile of the compression wave velocity of the seabed strata, which can be
correlated to soil strength properties. Seismic velocity is particularly useful for
characterising weak rock formations for trenchability.

In general, systems are configured to penetrate to a depth of approximately 5m however, it is

possible to achieve greater depths if required. Vertical resolution is typically in the region of
0.3m.

Both methods typically comprise a sled housing control and logging electronics, with a
streamer of electrodes or geophones respectively. The sled is normally towed by the survey
vessel with a combined tow wire / umbilical.

The primary application for both methods is in delineating significant changes in seabed soils
and rock, and to aid extrapolation of soil parameters between CPT and/or core sample
locations.

Geotechnical Equipment

The most commonly used tools for geotechnical investigation of pipelines are cone (or
piezocone) penetration testing and vibrocore sampling. Where seabed soils are soft, gravity
cores may be suitable in place of vibrocoring. These may be considered ‘primary’ methods,
with a large number of ‘secondary’ methods such as box coring, and in situ vane testing.
Brief details are presented below, with a more complete description presented in Appendix
III.

Cone, or Piezocone, Penetration Testing equipment (CPT/PCPT or CPTU);

The cone penetration test comprises an instrumented probe, which is thrust into the ground
from a seabed reaction frame. It records values of cone tip resistance (qc), sleeve friction
(fs), and (in the case of piezocone) pore water pressure (u). These parameters in
themselves do not indicate a particular soil type or property. However, geotechnical
engineers can interpret these data to categorise soil type and geotechnical design
parameters for most routine geotechnical analysis. A drawback of this test is that no
physical sample is recovered to verify that the empirical correlations adopted are
appropriate.

A development of the cone penetration tests is the ‘T’ bar, which as its name implies,
comprises a closed horizontal tube mounted in place of the cone tip. This test is appropriate
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 16 OF 47

only appropriate in soft clays, but has the advantage of providing a more accurate
assessment of undrained shear strength than a CPT, together with the potential to determine
remoulded strength during extraction.

Vibrocore Sampling

A vibrocorer comprises simple a steel tube with an inner plastic liner which is vibrated into
the seabed by the action of two counter rotating eccentric weights driven by an electric
motor. Depth of penetration can be up to 8m in suitable soil conditions, with some sample
being obtained in almost all soil types. The tube is pulled out of the seabed by the A frame
orcrane used for deployment and the sample retained by a core catcher. Once recovered to
deck, the plastic liner is removed and the sample described as far as practical and stored
within the plastic liner for detailed description and laboratory testing onshore. Limitations to
this equipment include sample disturbance in very soft or loose soils and limited penetration
in hard seabed such as stiff clays and dense sands. The equipment is normally limited to
water depths of approximately 800m.

Other equipment which is used less frequently, includes:

• Gravity Corer
Similar to the vibrocorer in that a tube is lowered into the seabed, but with weights rather
than vibration causing penetration. Sample quality is variable with simple gravity corers,
however piston tye corers have the potential to recover good quality samples in very soft
clay. Some of the larger piston corers (Jumbo corers) can recover good quality samples
to depths of 20m.
• Grab Sampler
A simple device, which recovers a sample of seabed soil. Depth of penetration is
negligible, however it can be used on hard seabed where gravity cores may not recover
any material or become damaged. A range of sizes are available, the size selected
should be capable of recovering a representative volume of soil.
• Box Corer
Box corers are suitable in soft clays, and are designed to recover an undisturbed block
sample of the seabed soil.
• Rock Corer
A seabed mounted rotary coring system. Seabed systems of the type normally used for
pipeline routes are hydraulically powered from the surface and recover a single
continuous core of between 3 and 6m. Good quality cores are difficult to achieve in
many rock types. Note is also made of more advanced systems which are capable of
much greater depths and are fully remotely operated.
• In Situ Shear Vane Test
A more accurate method than PCPTs of determining shear strength in soft clay deposits.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 17 OF 47

Particularly useful in deepwater environments and commonly used in the Gulf of Mexico
and offshore West Africa.

More details on these tools are enclosed in Appendix II for information. It should be noted
that many specialist testing and sampling methods exist in addition to those briefly described
here. By their very nature these tools are designed for specialist tasks such as assessing
thermal or electrical conductivity in situ, measuring soil temperature and gaining in situ
estimates of density from nuclear density meters. It is recommended that if the requirements
of a pipeline design dictate specialist soil parameters, experts are consulted.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 18 OF 47

5. SOIL PARAMETERS FOR ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

Pipeline design and installation engineering requires selection of geotechnical design

parameters. These often cover a wide range of soil behaviour and design requirements.
Examples include soil strength or density for embedment or on-bottom stability analysis,
bearing pressures and settlement characteristics for stability of seabed structures,
scour/sediment transport susceptibility, trenchability, and backfill properties of reconstituted
soil after trenching.

It is important to ensure that the appropriate test methods are used to determine different soil
parameters. The suitability of different techniques is summarised in Table 5.1, with suitability
ranked on a scale of 1 (unsuitable / not appropriate) to 5 (ideal method for determination).
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 19 OF 47

Table 5.1 Suitability of Test Methods

Soil Parameter In-Situ Testing Laboratory Testing

Applicability Type of Tests Applicability
Type of Tests
Sand Clay Sand Clay
Interpolation of soil Seismic reflection, 2 2 N/A N/A N/A
layering in between cores (sub-bottom)
/ borings / (P)CPTs profiling
geoBAS 4 4
Soil classification Seismic reflection 1 1 Grain size 5 5
geoBAS 2 2 Water content 2 3
CPT/PCPT 4 4 Atterberg limits N/A 5
Soil density CPT/PCPT 3 to 4 2 Unit weight and water 1 to 2 5
content measurement
Soil strength CPT/PCPT 1 3 to 4 Unconsolidated triaxial N/A 3 to 4
compression
T Bar N/A 5[1] Consolidated triaxial 5 5
compression
In situ vane N/A 4 to 5[2] Fallcone, pocket N/A 4[2]
penetrometer, Torvane,
Labvane
Direct simple shear 2 5
(DSS)
Friction angle CPT/PCPT 3 to 4 1 Consolidated triaxial 5 5
compression
Direct Shear (Shear 4 1
box)

Sensitivity CPT/PCPT N/A 2 Fall cone, labvane N/A 5[2]

In situ vane N/A 4[2]
Consolidation PCPT dissipation 1 3 Oedometer 2 5
characteristics test
Permeability PCPT dissipation 1 3 Laboratory permeability 4 5
test
Pipeline soil friction N/A N/A N/A Modified shear box 5 5
Upheaval buckling N/A N/A N/A Centrifuge testing 5 5
parameters
Thermal conductivity Heat flow probe 4 4 Thermal needle probe 4 4
Notes: N/A method or parameter is not appropriate in this soil type.
Test methods in italics may be classified as special tests and are not normally
performed as part of a pipeline route survey.
[1] Very soft and soft clays only
[2] Very soft to firm clays only

As a minimum, the geotechnical investigation report for a pipeline should include the basic
soil parameters listed in Table 5.2 below. These form the basis for most geotechnical design
requirements.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 20 OF 47

Table 5.2 Basic Soil Parameters Required

Clay Sand
Particle size distribution Particle size distribution
Atterberg (plastic/liquid) limits Relative density
Water content Max / Min density
Bulk unit weight Bulk unit weight
Undrained shear strength Friction Angle

Experience has shown that additional soil information may be very useful and careful
consideration should be given to acquiring soil parameters specific to the project. Table 5.3
may be used as a guide for selection of other geotechnical parameters that may be required
on different projects. The advice of a suitable geotechnical specialist should also be
obtained when defining the specific laboratory test programme, since some soil
characteristics shown in Table 5.3 cannot be defined by individual tests.

It may also be appropriate to incorporate other testing within the geotechnical survey, for
example to assess water quality or any environmental pollution which may have occurred.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 21 OF 47

Table 5.3 Additional Soil Parameters for Specific Applications

Application Pertinent soil parameters

(Properties required for S=sand, C=clay, R=rock)

Particle size distribution

Pipe-soil friction factors

Liquefaction resistance

Electrical Conductivity

Thermal conductivity

Backfill properties
Chemical analysis
Relative density

Compressibility

Cyclic strength
Shear strength

Friction angle

Permeability

Rock quality
Sensitivity
On bottom stability C S S S C C/S S
Scour / erosion C S S S
Slope stability C S S S S C C/S S
Liquefaction / flotation C S S S S S C C/S S
Settlements (rock berms) C S S C/S
Upheaval buckling C S S S S C/S C/S
Free span assessments C S S S S
Dropped objects C S S
Shore approaches C S S S C C/S C/S S R C/S C/S C/S
Corrosion C/S C/S
Thermal insulation C/S
Spool pieces / tie-in/PLEMs C S S C C/S C/S S
etc.
Start-up piles C S S S
Ploughing C S S S S S C S C/S
Jetting C S S S S S C S C/S
Self bury potential / natural C S S S
backfill
Sinkage C S S C S
Axial/lateral resistance C C/S S S C/S
Upheaval buckling C S S S C S C/S C/S
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 22 OF 47

6. INTERPRETATION AND REPORTING

Introduction

To maximise the value of the survey it is essential that all field and laboratory data be:

• Evaluated critically
• Presented clearly
• Summarised succinctly

To achieve this it is important that a minimum standard of data presentation is achieved.

The following sections describe good practice and recommend some minimum standards.
All interpretation and reporting should be subject to Quality Assurance procedures to the
standards of ISO 9000 or equivalent.

Core and sample logs

These should clearly show the soil type variation with depth and include as a minimum:

• A graphical soil symbol column

• A detailed written description of the soil type, its strength, constituent parts and any
structure or inclusions and how these characteristics vary with depth. (Descriptions
should adhere to terminology laid down in the selected national or international
standard).

It is also eases understanding of the report if results of any testing on samples of the soil are
presented on the core log. Results that may be presented on the core log include:

• Moisture content
• Atterberg (liquid and plastic) limits for clays
• Wet density test results
• Undrained shear strength measurements for clay
• Internal friction angle for sands

Examples of typical core log formats displaying most of these requirements are included in
Appendix I.

CPT/PCPT results

Measured and derived parameters are normally presented graphically on a single sheet.
Results that are normally presented include:
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 23 OF 47

• Cone tip resistance (qc)

• Sleeve friction (fs)
• Excess pore pressure (u)
• Friction ratio (ratio of sleeve friction to cone resistance) (Rf)
• Pore pressure ratio (ratio of excess pore pressure to net cone resistance)
• Net cone tip resistance corrected for vertical effective stress and pore pressure
(qnet).

In addition, an interpreted log of the CPT or PCPT should be presented in a format similar to
a core log in order that it might be clearly understood by non-geotechnical engineers. The
interpreted log should incorporate:

• A graphical soil symbol column

• A detailed description of the interpreted soil types (using the same standard
terminology as the core logs).
• A graphical plot of interpreted shear strength for cohesive soils
• Estimated value of relative density for cohesionless soils.

Graphical representation of the results should be at an appropriate scale, typically 1cm per
metre for depth, with cone parameters varied to suit the project. Examples of a typical PCPT
result format are presented in Appendix II.

Special in situ test results

The results of non-standard tests should be presented in a clear and simple format,
preferably including graphical representation, together with an explanation of the results and
their implications.

Laboratory test results

Each individual laboratory test result should be presented graphically where appropriate, and
in a format that complies with the relevant national or international standard. All results
should also be summarised in tabular form.

Interpretation and design parameters

Competent geotechnical engineers should perform the interpretation and correlation of

laboratory and in situ test data. The results should be presented as ranges of recommended
geotechnical design parameters for each location or section of route.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 24 OF 47

Integration of results

It is essential that the results of the geophysical survey and the geotechnical testing are
carefully integrated by suitably qualified personnel. In this way, the full value of these two
components of the route assessment can be fully realised, and misleading interpolation
between individual sample and test locations is avoided.

Report Formats

The format of a geotechnical report should be designed to be easily understood by

engineers. The report should provide the following information as a minimum:

• The purpose for which the investigation was performed.

• A description of the equipment used and the work performed.
• Results of all in situ tests performed.
• Detailed descriptions of soils recovered by sampling.
• Results of any laboratory testing.
• All other information that may be of relevance.

Wherever possible the data should be summarised graphically in an “alignment sheet” format
familiar to the offshore pipeline industry. Alignment sheets typically comprise a series of
panels with the upper most presenting bathymetric results, followed by a panel showing
seabed features, and a third panel presenting a cross section of seabed geology based on
an interpretation of sub bottom profile data with results of the sampling and in situ testing.
An example is presented in Appendix I. Additional panels should be included as appropriate,
for example to present geoBAS results.

The data should be presented digitally on disk or by other electronic media. An example of a
suitable format for transfer and storage of electronic data is the Association of Geotechnical
Specialists format (AGS publication “Electronic Transfer Of Geotechnical Data From Ground
Investigations (Edition 3)”).

The extent of interpretation required will be dependent on the particular project for which the
report has been prepared. The various levels that may be considered include:

Factual Report: presents the survey information factually as described above, often with
some identification of the primary soil units present.

Geotechnical Parameters Report: presents the factual information and additionally integrates
the geophysical data to identify the soil and rock units present. Appropriate geotechnical
design profiles are then developed based on the results of the geotechnical survey for the
individual soil and rock units identified.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 25 OF 47

Engineering Report: This report summarises and integrates all the factual data (desk study,
geohazard, geophysical, and geotechnical) and the assessment of geotechnical parameters.
Based on this assessment, the suitability of different construction techniques, such as
trenching methods and backfill requirements, are discussed and recommendations made for
design factors such as upheaval buckling resistance parameters, pipeline soil interface
frction and degree of thermal insulation.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 26 OF 47

APPENDIX I
PRESENTATION FORMATS
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 27 OF 47
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 28 OF 47
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 29 OF 47
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 30 OF 47

EXAMPLE CONE PENETRATION TESTING RESULTS

Cone End resistance (MPa) Pore-water Pressure (kPa) Total Load (kN) Friction Ratio (%) Pore Pressure Ratio
0 4 8 12 16 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 2 4 6 8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.00 0 0 0

0.00

1.00 1 1 1

1.00

2.00 2 2 2

2.00
Depth below seabed (m)

3.00 3 3 3

3.00

4.00 4 4 4

4.00

5.00 5 5 5

5.00

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40

Sleeve Friction (MPa)

Co-ordinates Date of Testing

Approx. Water Depth Cone Used
Final penetration Location number
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 31 OF 47
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 32 OF 47

APPENDIX II

INFORMATION ON GEOTECHNICAL EQUIPMENT

GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 33 OF 47

APPENDIX II

INFORMATION ON GEOTECHNICAL EQUIPMENT

PRIMARY METHODS

Vibrocorers

a) Description

The vibrocorer, as the name suggests, is a method of driving a sample tube into the seabed
by vibratory means. Typical systems comprise a steel core barrel of between 75mm and
100mm outside diameter and 3m to 8m in length. Inside the core barrel is a closely fitting
plastic tube or "core liner", which is preferably transparent. This is held in place by a 'cutting
shoe' at the end of the barrel, which also incorporates a sprung steel "core catcher" sample
retention device. On top of the barrel is a vibratory motor, incorporating two contra-rotating
asymmetrical weights, driven electrically or hydraulically. The motor and core barrel are
usually encased in a tubular steel deployment frame with a tripod or oblong base to ensure
stability and verticality.

The equipment is deployed on a single steel lifting cable with an associated electric or
hydraulic umbilical cable. Once on the seabed the vibratory motor is activated, typically for
between 5 and 10 minutes, and the barrel penetrates under the combination of the vibratory
effect and the weight of the motor and core barrel.

On recovery to the surface the core barrel is removed and replaced by another ready for
redeployment. The internal core liner is extruded and usually cut into sections for core
description, testing and/or sealing for transport to an onshore laboratory.

System enhancements that are available include higher frequency motors to improve
penetration in sands and percussion attachments, usually comprising a spring and
reciprocating weight arrangement between the motor and core barrel, to improve penetration
in stiff clay.

b) Advantages

The main advantages of this method are that the equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive
and lightweight (around 0.75 tonnes to 1.25 tonnes in air typically, although lifting capacity
must allow for barrel retraction forces and the self weight of cored soil) and can be a very cost
effective method of recovering some material in most types of soil.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 34 OF 47

c) Disadvantages

The main disadvantages include :

i) Penetration may be limited in dense cohesionless strata or very stiff clays and thus fail
to recover samples of critical strata that may, for example, give rise to trenching
difficulties.

ii) Accurate definition of soil stratification may be impaired by plugging, compaction or

core loss, causing sections of the soil profile to be missed or misinterpreted. In 'soft'
soils for example the corer may penetrate say up to 0.5 metres before any material
enters the barrel. During subsequent penetration the barrel may periodically plug and
prevent the entry of soil and, on extraction of the core barrel, suction or gravity may
pull part of the core from the barrel causing it to be left on or in the seabed. The net
effect may then be that, despite achieving 3 metres penetration, the true stratification
of the recovered material within the 3 metre section cannot accurately be determined.

iii) The vibratory method induces disturbance in the soil with the effect that subsequent
laboratory tests for parameters such as shear strength and consolidation
characteristics may produce unrepresentatively low values. This effect will be more
predominant in softer soils, rendering the method unsuitable for accurate engineering
evaluations in soft to very soft clay for example.

iv) On some vessels the equipment can prove cumbersome to handle, particularly for the
longer barrelled models. For example, some “6 metre” vibrocorers have a total height
of around 7.5 metres and a maximum base width of 5 metres.

Gravity corers

a) Description

The standard gravity corer normally comprises a core barrel, liner and cutting shoe, very
similar to those used with vibrocorers; on top of which is a single large weight or a series of
adjustable smaller weights usually totaling between 0.5 tonne and 1.0 tonne. They are
deployed on a single steel lifting cable and penetration is achieved by allowing the unit to free
fall the last 5 - 10 metres to the seabed.

The “stationary piston corer” (or Kullenberg-type corer) operates with a ‘trip-release’
mechanism and differs from a standard corer in having the core barrel closed at the bottom by
a piston, which is connected to the main lift wire and remains approximately stationary as the
core barrel penetrates the seabed. The presence of the piston can create a partial vacuum
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 35 OF 47

between it and the top of the soil core, thus resulting in improved recovery in some soil
conditions.

b) Advantages

i) Relatively quick, inexpensive and simple to operate.

ii) Good quality samples possible in soft clays when using piston corers.

c) Disadvantages

i) Poor penetration in stiff clays and granular soils

ii) A “free fall” winch is required

or

iii) If a “trip-release” mechanism is used, this can be cumbersome to handle on deck and
potentially dangerous because of the possibility of inadvertent triggering.

Grab sampler

a) Description

The grab sampler is, in simple terms, an articulated bucket, which closes when it comes into
contact with the seabed and, in so doing, collects a sample of the surface deposits. These
samplers can range in enclosed volume from a few litres to a cubic metre, with closure
activated by a simple trip mechanism or by hydraulics in the case of some larger units. The
samples obtained are suitable for description and ground truthing of geophysical
interpretation, however they are not generally considered suitable for laboratory testing. When
selecting a grab sampler, it is important that the size is sufficient to ensure a representative
sample. Small ‘Shipek’ grabs are suitable in muds and sands, however where the seabed
includes gravel, a large grab is required. Note is made that cobbles and boulders may be
difficult to recover in representative numbers and that the result sample volume is likely to be
very large volume.

b) Advantages

Usually relatively small, simple, inexpensive and easy to operate, with the larger hydraulic
units being slightly more complex. However, the hydraulic units have the advantage of greater
and more consistent recovery.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 36 OF 47

c) Disadvantage

i) Sample recovery tends to be hit and miss

ii) Very shallow penetration

iii) Highly disturbed sample

iv) Potential for wash-out of finer fraction of recovered sample, thus rendering particle
size distribution analysis unreliable.

Cone/Piezo Cone Penetration Test (CPT/PCPT or CPTU)

a) Description

Cone Penetration Testing involves the measurement of the resistance to the controlled
penetration into the ground of a steel rod with a conical tip. Standard electrical cone
penetrometers incorporate internal load cells that measure resistance on the cone tip and side
friction on a 'sleeve' behind the tip. The 'piezocone' version also measures excess pore water
pressure in the ground generated by progress of the cone. This is achieved via a porous disc
set in, or close to, the tip, which is connected to an internal pore pressure cell. Standard
cones have a cross sectional area of 1000mm2 or 1500mm2 and are pushed into the seabed
by a seabed frame with a drive mechanism. Normal depth of penetration is up to 5m,
dependent on soil conditions.

Mini cones, with a cross sectional area of 100mm2, 200mm2 and 500mm2 are also available.
These units have the advantage of being much lighter and more compact than frames for full
size cones, however penetration into harder soils is usually more limited. For the smaller
cones, care is required in interpretation of geotechnical parameters.

A standard penetration rate of 20mm/sec is used for all cones and readings of tip resistance,
sleeve friction, excess pore pressure and penetration distance are usually transmitted to the
surface in real time via an umbilical cable at not less than 1 second intervals.

Parameters such as soil type, relative density, shear strength and stress history can be
derived from the direct measurements and calculated ratios using empirical correlations.

Variations on cone penetration testing include fitting a T bar (a horizontal bar) in place of the
cone tip. This is useful in soft clays where it may give an enhanced indication of soil strength
and remoulded strength.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 37 OF 47

b) Advantages

The CPT/PCPT has many advantages over conventional coring techniques including :

i) Usually achieves greater penetration.

ii) Provides a complete stratigraphic profile (continuous measurement)

iii) Gives data in real time allowing almost immediate interpretation of ground conditions.

iv) Can reduce the amount of time-consuming laboratory testing.

v) Provides the only reliable method of determining the relative densities of cohesionless
soils.

vi) Testing is very rapid and, depending on test spacing, the seabed unit may be left
outboard between tests.

c) Disadvantages

The primary disadvantages have historically been :

i) Weight - typically 5 tonnes to 10 tonnes to ensure sufficient reaction force to achieve

the desired penetration in dense sands/stiff clays.

ii) Cost - the technical complexity and precision engineering involved in many of the
components inevitably makes it a more highly priced item of equipment and requires
several highly trained personnel to operate.

d) T bar Testing

A variation of the CPT is the T bar test. For this test, the cone is replaced by a horizontal bar, typically
of 40mm diameter and 200mm in length when used in conjuction with a 10cm2 cone. This test method
is appropriate in soft clay, and the clay flows around the bar as it is pushed into the ground.

The test has the advantage of providing a more accurate interpretation of undrained shear strength (as
the Nk factor, used to calculate undrained shear strength, is better defined) and it is possible to
estimate the remoulded strength of the soil as the T bar is retracted through the soil. A secondary
advantage of the T bar is that the output of the load cell within the cone is magnified.

SECONDARY METHODS

The systems described below generally represent an addition to the primary spread of equipment and
not a replacement for any of the main sampling and in situ testing techniques identified above.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 38 OF 47

However, they often have the advantage of providing more accurate and relevant data for the solution
of a specific problem, reduce conservatism in design and hence deliver significant long term cost
benefits.

Seabed rock corers

There are a variety of these available in the market place ranging in size from around 1 tonne to 13
tonnes and theoretically capable of taking cores with diameters ranging from 25mm to 150mm, to
penetrations of up to 9 metres. Most incorporate a rotary drive mechanism and diamond or tungsten
carbide impregnated drilling bits plus an inner core barrel. Their main advantage is to be able to take
cores of rock outcropping at or near seabed without recourse to a floating or fixed drilling platform.
Their primary disadvantage is the difficulty in obtaining high quality cores. Several systems allow
remote control of drilling variables such as bit pressures, flushing fluid flow rates, rotation speeds and
drive rates, however ‘feel’ is important in drilling, and this is reduced by remote operation.

Seabed drilling systems may also have difficulty drilling through and creating a stable hole through
sands, gravel and cobbles, which may be present over rock head. Weathered, and heavy fractured,
zones within the rock can also result in poor core recovery. The size and weight of some systems can
also be a disadvantage.

Box corer

This is a relatively lightweight sampling system originally developed for oceanographic research
purposes. It is designed to push a metal box about 0.5 metres into the seabed and, on retraction, seal
in the sample by means of a blade-like door that closes beneath the box. Sample volumes are
typically in the range 10 litres to 50 litres.

Its main application is in the retrieval of good quality block samples of soft clay in a manner that also
permits inspection of a relatively undisturbed section of the seabed surface. This is particularly useful
where the geotechnical parameters of seabed soils are required, for example, in deep water
development where pipelines are surface laid and pipeline / soil friction is an important parameter. Its
main disadvantage is its limited penetration capability.

In situ vane test

The in situ vane test is a very well established method, both onshore and offshore, for measuring the
undrained shear strength of cohesive soils in situ. The test basically comprises the insertion of a
cruciform vane into the soil (either directly from the seabed or within a borehole), and rotating it at a
constant speed, whilst measuring torque and deflection, until the soil shears. The undrained shear
strength of the soil can be directly back-figured since the area of the sheared cylindrical surface is
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 39 OF 47

known from the vane dimensions. Continued rotation can also provide a value for residual or
remoulded shear strength.

Units are usually lightweight (less than 1 tonne) and relatively easy to handle.

The major advantage of such systems is the ability to measure in situ the undrained shear strength of
soft to very soft soils at a high level of accuracy to penetrations of around 3m into the seabed. The
main disadvantages are currently the speed of the operation - separate deployments are necessary
for each penetration level at which tests are required - and that it is effectively a tool for investigating
one soil type only, i.e. soft to very soft clay.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 40 OF 47

In situ model tests

As the description implies in situ model tests comprise equipment that attempt to reproduce the
behaviour of a structure or component on or in the seabed by using a model of it and, by means of
instrumentation, measure desired parameters as it is placed on, pushed into or pulled along the
seabed. Examples include model instrumented pipeline ploughs which are designed to make a
trenchability assessment of a pipeline route and a Model Pipe Settlement Tester which is designed to
investigate the initial self embedment of surface laid pipelines with a view to improving the accuracy of
axial and lateral stability analyses.

A variation of the Model Pipe Test is the Plate Load Test that is regularly performed onshore but less
frequently offshore. It is essentially a bearing capacity test in which a circular or rectangular steel plate
is placed horizontally on the ground or seabed or within an excavated pit and is loaded vertically until
foundation "failure" occurs or deformation exceeds an acceptable limit. Load and deformation are
constantly measured throughout the test and the results extrapolated to predict full size foundation
behaviour.

The primary advantage of these tests is in providing direct indications of likely behaviour in situ and
thus enabling reductions in design conservatism. Disadvantages can include size and cost of
deployment for some systems and the fact that they are generally designed to provide information on
one or two specific design parameters only.

Specialist in situ probes

There is a wide variety of probes available, mostly designed for use with conventional CPT/PCPT
systems. Measurements that can be made include important design parameters such as thermal
conductivity and electrical resistivity. The additional cost of adding such probes to a spread is usually
insignificant.

The 'seismic' cone penetrometer incorporates one or more geophones within the cone and test rod.
An energy source, at seabed or within the water column, generates one or more shockwaves and the
sensors in the cone detect the arrival time of shear and/or compressional waves. From these
measurements shear and compressional wave velocities can be measured and various dynamic
moduli for the soil calculated. The additional equipment and time required for such testing is relatively
small, and where specific risks exist, such as those posed by earthquakes or severe storm conditions,
the data provided can be invaluable.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 41 OF 47

APPENDIX III

EXTRACTS FROM RELEVANT REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES

GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 42 OF 47

APPENDIX III

EXTRACTS FROM RELEVANT REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES

API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 1111, 3rd Ed. July 1999 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF OFFSHORE HYDROCARBON PIPELINES P.9

2.5 ROUTE SELECTION

2.5.1 Route of the Pipeline

The route of an offshore pipeline should be thoroughly analysed using the data from available
charts, maps, other sources of relevant information, and a field hazards survey as described
in 2.5.2. Whenever practical, the selected route should avoid anchorage areas; existing
underwater objects such as sunken vessels and pilings; active faults; rock outcrops: and mud
slide areas. The selection of route should take into account the installation methods
applicable and should minimise the resulting installation stresses. The route of the pipeline
should be shown on maps of an appropriate scale.

2.5.2 Preliminary Environmental, Bathymetric and Hydrographic Surveys

In selecting a satisfactory route for an offshore pipeline, a field hazards survey should be
performed to identify potential hazards such as sunken vessels, piling, wells, geologic and
manmade structures, and other pipelines. The bottom topographic and geologic features
and soil characteristics should be determined. Data on normal and storm winds, waves and
current, and marine activity in the area should be obtained where available. In areas where
soil characteristics will be a factor in design and where previous operations or studies have
not adequately defined the bottom soils, on-site samples should be acquired.

BRITISH STANDARD BS 8010 : PART 3 1993 SECTION 4

4.1.6 Routing

4.1.6.1 Survey

Data should be collected by hydrographic survey of the proposed route prior to final selection
of the pipeline corridor.

This survey should include investigation of the following:

a) seabed geology and features
b) bathymetry
c) environmental and oceanographic data
d) wellheads, wrecks and debris
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 43 OF 47

e) marine growth
f) landfall

4.1.6.2 Route selection

The following should be considered when selecting the route:

a) type and intensity of shipping and the presence of anchoring zones
b) type and intensity of fishing activity
c) presence of fishing grounds and other sensitive areas
d) presence of other pipelines, installations or wellheads
e) presence of wrecks or other obstructions
f) presence of regularly dredged areas and dumping grounds

B.1.9 Seabed soils

The following seabed soil information is typically required:
a) soil type;
b) grain size distribution;
c) presence and size of boulders;
d) shear strength, angle of internal friction and cohesion;
e) water content;
f) liquid and plastic limits;
g) bulk density;
h) oxygen content, salinity and organic content;
i) presence of hydrogen sulphide, producing bacteria;
j) electrical resistivity;
k) thermal conductivity;
l) historical records of bed movement and storm effects.

Seabed soil information is used to evaluate the following:

1) seabed friction;
2) seabed bearing capacity;
3) scour and spanning potential;
4) movement of sandwaves and other bedforms;
5) natural backfill potential;
6) self burial potential;
7) liquefaction;
8) flotation;
9) slope stability;
10) corrosion and cathodic protection;
11) heat loss from buried lines.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 44 OF 47

B.1.10 Seismic action

The possibility of seismic action on or near the pipeline system should be evaluated. The
amplitude, velocity and acceleration of ground movement should be determined.

Seismically-induced shock pressure waves in the surrounding seawater and the possibility of
soil liquefaction should also be evaluated.

DNV RULES FOR SUBMARINE PIPELINE SYSTEMS, DECEMBER 1996 Page 18 Sec. 3

E 400 Seabed properties

401 All the geotechnical properties which are necessary for evaluating the effects of relevant
loading conditions are to be determined for the sea-bed deposits, including possible unstable
deposits in the vicinity of the Pipeline, see Sec.5 D300. For guidance on soil investigation for
Pipelines, see Classification Note No. 30.4 “Foundations”.

402 The geotechnical properties may be obtained from any available geological surveys and
through a combination of seismic survey, coring, tests and borings with sampling.
Supplementary information may be obtained from geological surveys, sea bottom
topographical surveys, visual surveys, biological investigations, chemical examinations and
laboratory testing on samples from borings.

403 In areas where the sea-bed material is subject to erosion, special studies of the current and
wave conditions near the bottom including boundary layer effects may be required for the on-
bottom stability calculations of Pipelines and the assessment of Pipeline spans.

404 Special investigation of the sea-bed material may be required to evaluate specific problems,
as for example:
- problems with respect to excavation and burial operations
- possibilities of mud slides or liquefaction as the result of repeated loading
- implications on external corrosion
- possibilities of differences in frost heave due to different frost susceptibility from soil
types surrounding the Pipeline.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 45 OF 47

DNV CLASSIFICATION NOTES – No. 30.4 “FOUNDATIONS”

1.6 SOIL INVESTIGATION FOR PIPELINES

1.6.1 General

1.6.1.1 The site investigation for a pipeline typically consists of a shallow seismic profiling survey of
the wide lay barge anchoring corridor, a detailed bathymetric survey of the 100-150m wide
construction corridor and finally a geotechnical investigation comprising cone penetration
tests (CPT), push sampling, vibro coring, gravity coring etc. To define the various soil
deposits along a proposed pipeline route, the emphasis is put on the shallow seismic
profiling results. Testing and sampling should subsequently be performed for determination
of the soil properties in these deposits.

1.6.2 Geophysical surveys

1.6.2.1 Total water depth is needed to determine external water pressure on the pipe and wave
effects on the bottom sediments. The trenching, laying and burying methods will also be
dependent on water depth. The seabed topography will influence the support conditions of
the pipe, the formation of free spans and the stability of the seabed itself. Consequently,
surveys with precise echosounders and sidescan sonar are usually required. The accuracy
of such measurements will directly influence the degree of conservatism in the design of the
pipeline itself.

1.6.2.2 Especially in areas of highly variable seabed topography, the limitations of the echosounder
may necessitate more accurate mapping methods. Profiling with small submarines may
improve the accuracy compared with that of surface vessels.

Seismic profiling is necessary to define the extent and variations of the various soils
deposits along the pipeline route.

The equipment used should give good resolution for the shallow layers down to about 10m
depth for definition of erodable material, applicability of trenching methods and stability of
the pipeline itself. Deeper penetration should be recommended for identification of strata
out-cropping at other locations along the route.

1.6.3 Geotechnical surveys

1.6.3.1 A sufficient number of samples should be secured from each major surface deposit to
identify the soil or rock. Several types of shallow sampling techniques are now available for
this purpose, see 1.2.5. In addition CPTs and/or vane shear tests should be performed.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 46 OF 47

1.6.3.2 A laboratory should be available onboard for the necessary soil classification and index
testing, see 1.2.9.

1.6.3.3 In special cases the seabed conditions should be documented by use of TV or photos.

1.6.3.4 To complement the above surveys, measurements of seawater temperature and currents
should be taken.
GUIDANCE NOTES ON GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS REV: OSIG REV 03
FOR MARINE PIPELINES PAGE 47 OF 47

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document has been prepared by, or had input from, representatives of the following companies;
however, it should be noted that any opinions and recommendations given within this document do not
necessarily represent the views of those companies.

BP SEtech
Det Norske Veritas Shell
Fugro Statoil
Gardline Geosurvey Stolt Offshore
Geocean Subsea 7
Exxon Mobil Technip Offshore
Norsk Hydro Thales Geosolutions
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Total
RPS Hydrosearch

It is intended that this document will be regularly updated to reflect developments in the industry.
The latest version will always be available on the SUT website : WWW.SUT.ORG.UK ,
under Special Interest Groups / OSIG.
Comments and suggestions will be gratefully received and can be made to any of the following:

Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics Committee –

Pipeline Guidance Notes Sub-Committee Chairman
Peter Allan – SEtech
Tel: 44 (0) 191 2828000
Fax: 44 (0) 191 2828001
Email: peter.allan@setech-uk.com

Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics Committee – Chairman

Mick Cook – RPS Hydrosearch
Tel: 44 (0) 1483 746500
Fax: 44 (0) 1483 746505
Email: cookm@rpsplc.co.uk

Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics Committee – Secretary

Pat Power – Fugro Limited
Tel: 44 (0) 1442 240781
Fax: 44 (0) 1442 258961
Email: ptpower@fugro.co.uk