UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF EXTERNAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF EXTRA-MURAL STUDIES

MASTERS IN ARTS PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

LDP 603

RESEARCH METHODS

L50/63050/2013

PAPER ON NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL

FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE IN PROJECT
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT.

LECTURER: DR. GAKUU

INTRODUCTION

Sampling is the use of a subset of the population to represent the whole population.
Probability sampling, or random sampling, is a sampling technique in which the probability
of getting any particular sample may be calculated. It is scientific and draws samples using
the law of chance where everybody in the population stands an equal chance of being
sampled. In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve. Most
researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these limitations, it is
almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is often necessary to
employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique.

Non-probability sampling represents a group of sampling techniques that help researchers to

select units from a population that they are interested in studying. Collectively, these units
form the sample that the researcher studies A core characteristic of non-probability sampling
techniques is that samples are selected based on the subjective judgement of the researcher,
rather than random selection (i.e., probabilistic methods), which is the cornerstone of
probability sampling techniques.

The difference between non probability and probability sampling is that non probability
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. In contrast with
probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized selection
processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of their
accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher. However, it does mean
that non probability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least
with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the
population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With non
probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be
hard for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or
random sampling methods over non probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more
accurate and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where
it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider
a wide range of non probabilistic alternatives.

TYPES OF NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

CONVINIENCE SAMPLING

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected

because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. The subjects are
selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the researcher did not
consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire population. In all forms of
research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most cases, the population is
just too large that it is impossible to include every individual. This is the reason why most
researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience sampling, the most common of all
sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique because it is fast,
inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.

An example is using subjects that are selected from a clinic, a class or an institution that is
easily accessible to the researcher. A more concrete example is choosing five people from a
class or choosing the first five names from the list of patients. Here the researcher
inadvertently excludes a great proportion of the population.

Convenience sampling is criticised as being biased because the sample is not representative
of the entire population. This may be the biggest disadvantage when using a convenience
sample because it leads to more problems and criticisms. Another criticism is that systematic
bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between the results from
the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is not rare that the results
from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with the results from the
entire population and this brings about skewed results. Since the sample is not representative
of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire population. This results
to a low external validity of the study.

CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING

Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include
ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling technique can
be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that
are available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.

SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING METHOD

Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a

single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results
then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on. This sampling technique gives the
researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research methods and gaining a vital insight
into the study that he is currently pursuing. This gives the researcher an advantage such that
the researcher does not have limited options [accepting the null hypothesis or disproving the
null hypothesis while accepting the alternative hypothesis] because the researcher can select
another pool of subjects and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that the
researcher can obtain limitless number of subjects before finally making a decision whether
to accept his null or alternative hypothesis.

QUOTA SAMPLING

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has
the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known
characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon. In quota sampling, the researcher ensures
equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as
basis of the quota. In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of
the final sample to be used in the study meets the research's quota criteria. The first step in
non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive subgroups. Then,
the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population; this same
proportion will be applied in the sampling process. Finally, the researcher selects subjects
from the various subgroups while taking into consideration the proportions noted in the
previous step. The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population.
It also allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each
subgroup.

An example of quota sampling is a study in which the researcher likes to compare the
academic performance of the different high school class levels, its relationship with gender
and socioeconomic status. Here the researcher first identifies the subgroups. Usually, the
subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher divides the entire
population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic status. Then, he takes
note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and then samples each
subgroup accordingly.

JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher selects

units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment. It is more
commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be
part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher
believes that some subjects are better fit for the research compared to other individuals. It is
used in cases where the specialty of an authority can select a more representative sample that
can bring more accurate results than by using other probability sampling techniques. The
process involves nothing but purposely handpicking individuals from the population based on
the authority's or the researcher's knowledge and judgment.

An example of judgemental sampling is where a researcher wants to find out for example
what it takes for a form four student to pass KCSE with an A. The only people who can give
the researcher first hand information on this are the high school leavers who passed with an A
in their KCSE. This can be considered judgemental because of the limited and specific pool
of individuals that can be considered as a subject.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to
identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate. It is usually done when
there is a very small population size. In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial
subject to identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research [chain
referral]. The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly representative of the
population. The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate
another person with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes the
nominated subjects and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient number of
subjects.

For example, if obtaining subjects for a study of a disease e.g. HIV/AIDS the researcher may
opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It is also possible
that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able to observe one of the
members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects for the study. Snow ball
sampling can be linear, exponential Non-Discriminative or exponential Discriminative
sampling.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

ADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

 The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and sampling
schedule. The sample size can be relatively small of excessively large depending on
the decision making of the researcher. Sampling schedule is also completely
dependent to the researcher since a second group of samples can only be obtained
after conducting the experiment to the initial group of samples.
 As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-tune his
research methods and results analysis. Due to the repetitive nature of this sampling
method, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the
study to correct and hone the research method.

 There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling
technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

 This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only hope
of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very large
sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population.
 The sampling technique is also hardly randomized. This contributes to the very little
degree representativeness of the sampling technique.

 Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot
be used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUOTA SAMPLES

It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the population.
In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population were taken
into account in forming the subgroups. In the process of sampling these subgroups, other
traits in the sample may be overrepresented. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic
status and religion as the basis of the subgroups, the final sample may have skewed
representation of age, race, educational attainment, marital status and a lot more.

DISADVANTAGES OF JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the
sampling process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that accompanies the
sampling technique. Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the
expert or the authority. The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to
choose the best and most experienced authority in the field of interest.

When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since no randomization was used
in obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the members of the population did not
have equal chances of being selected. The consequence of this is the misrepresentation of the
entire population which will then limit generalizations of the results of the study.

ADVANTAGES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 The chain referral process allows the researcher to reach populations that are difficult
to sample when using other sampling methods.
 The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient.

 This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to other
sampling techniques.

DISADVANTAGES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 The researcher has little control over the sampling method. The subjects that the
researcher can obtain rely mainly on the previous subjects that were observed.
 Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. The researcher has no idea of the
true distribution of the population and of the sample.

 Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique. Initial
subjects tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it is highly
possible that the subjects share the same traits and characteristics, thus, it is possible
that the sample that the researcher will obtain is only a small subgroup of the entire
population.

USES OF NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING IN RESEARCH

 Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it
also has other research advantages. In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually
used because it allows the researcher to obtain basic data and trends regarding his
study without the complications of using a randomized sample.
  This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a
substance or phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very
useful for detecting relationships among different phenomena.

 The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the
researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims
to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is
the ideal technique.

 Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between

subgroups. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of
another subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type
of sampling technique.

 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in
the population.

 It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory
study.

 It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost
limitless.

 It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to
create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.

 This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again
using a randomized, probability sampling.

 Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals

possess the trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining
information from a very specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental
sampling if the researcher knows a reliable professional or authority that he thinks is
capable of assembling a representative sample.

PRACTICABILITY OF NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING IN RESEARCH

Deciding whether non-probability sampling is appropriate

If you are considering whether to use non-probability sampling, it is important to consider

how your choice of research strategy will influence whether this is an appropriate decision.
Even if you know that non-probability sampling fits with the research strategy guiding your
dissertation, it is important to choose the appropriate type of non-probability sampling
techniques. These non-probability sampling techniques are briefly set out in the next section.
Non-probability sampling is often used because the procedures used to select units for
inclusion in a sample are much easier, quicker and cheaper when compared with probability
sampling. This is especially the case for convenience sampling. For students doing
dissertations at the undergraduate and master's level, such practicalities often lead to the use
of non-probability sampling techniques.

As mentioned, for researchers following a quantitative research design, non-probability

sampling techniques can often be viewed as an inferior alternative to probability sampling
techniques. However, where it is not possible to use probability sampling, non-probability
sampling at least provides a viable alternative that can be used. As such, it ensures that
research following a quantitative research design is not simply abandoned because (a) it
cannot meet the criteria of probability sampling and/or (b) meeting such criteria is
excessively costly or time consuming, such that it would not be sponsored. This could
significantly diminish the potential for researchers to study certain types of population, such
as those populations that are hidden or hard-to-reach (e.g., drug addicts, prostitutes), where a
list of the population simply does not exist. Here, snowball sampling, a type of non-
probability sampling technique, provides a solution.

Non-probability sampling can also be particularly useful in exploratory research where the
aim is to find out if a problem or issue even exists in a quick and inexpensive way. After all,
you may have a theory that such a problem or issue exists, but there is limited or no research
that currently supports such a theory. Where your main desire is to find out is if such a
problem or issue even exists, the potential sampling bias of certain non-probability sampling
techniques can be used as a tool to help you. For example, you may choose to select only
those units to be included in your sample that you feel will exhibit the problem or issue you
are interested in finding. If this problem or issue does not exist even in your biased sample, it
is unlikely to be present if you selected a relatively unbiased sample (whether using another
non-probability sampling technique; or even a probability sampling technique). This would
help you to avoid a potentially more time consuming and expensive piece of research looking
into a potential problem or issue that actually doesn't exist. It may also be considered an
ethical approach to finding out whether a problem or issue is worth examining in more depth,
since fewer participants are subjected to a research project unnecessarily.

When following a qualitative research design, non-probability sampling techniques, such as

purposive sampling, can provide researchers with strong theoretical reasons for their choice
of units (or cases) to be included in their sample. Rather than using probabilistic methods
(i.e., random selection) to generate a sample, non-probability sampling requires researchers to
use their subjective judgements, drawing on theory (i.e., the academic literature) and practice
(i.e., the experience of the researcher and the evolutionary nature of the research process).
Unlike probability sampling, the goal is not to achieve objectivity in the selection of samples,
or necessarily attempt to make generalisations (i.e., statistical inferences) from the sample
being studied to the wider population of interest. Instead, researchers following a qualitative
research design tend to be interested in the intricacies of the sample being studied. Whilst
making generalisations from the sample to the population under study may be desirable, it is
more often a secondary consideration. Even whether this is desired, there are additional
problems of bias and transferability (or validity) [see the section on Research Quality for
more information on research strategies, sampling techniques, and bias].

CONCLUSSION

Non-probability sampling represents a group of sampling techniques that help researchers to

select units from a population that they are interested in studying. It represents a valuable
group of sampling techniques that can be used in research that follows qualitative, mixed
methods, and even quantitative research designs. These techniques include, convenience
sampling, sequential sampling, quota sampling, judgemental sampling, snowball sampling
and consecutive sampling. Non probability sampling is used because of one among many
reasons the fact that in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not
feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. They are cheap and very
advantageous when it comes to a situation where the researcher is targeting to study a specific
group.

Non probability sampling techniques have their advantages and disadvantages. Some of the
advantages include having limitless options when it comes to sample size and sampling
schedule as is in the case of sequential sampling, they are cheap simple and cost efficient
among others as afore mentioned. Some of the disadvantages include lacking a true
representation of the whole population. This makes generalization difficult or sometimes
invalid.
REFERENCES

1. Berg, Sven. (2006). "Snowball Sampling–I," in Encyclopedia of Statistical

Sciences, edited by Samuel Kotz, Campbell Read, N. Balakrishnan, and Brani
Vidakovic. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
2. Lucas, Samuel R. (2012). "Beyond the Existence Proof: Ontological Conditions,
Epistemological Implications, and In-Depth Interview Research.", Quality &
Quantity,

3. Richard Valliant, Alan H. Dorfman, and Richard M. Royall (2000), Finite

Population Sampling and Inference: A Prediction Approach, Wiley, New York,

4. David S. Moore and George P. McCabe (2005). "Introduction to the practice of

statistics" (5th edition). W.H. Freeman & Company

5. Cochran, William G. (1977). Sampling techniques (Third ed.). Wiley