M1 – REVISION NOTES

Chapter 1 – Vectors
Recap of GCSE content
Vector quantities require direction and magnitude to be truly defined. Scalar quantities are
completely specified by their magnitude. Examples of each would be a car moving with a velocity
of 25ms-1 on a bearing of 045º and a second car travelling along a road with a speed of 15ms -1.

All vectors are represented by a directional line segment

uuur
PQ

Vectors can also be represented in bold type and the triangle law is written as:

a + b = c
c
b

a
uuur
The magnitude (length) of a vector is given as PQ .
Vectors can only be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
e.g.

uuur uuuu
r
Vectors parallel and same magnitude \ AB = MN
Remember that direction is important
S

uuur uuur
BS �SB
B

B
Vectors may have different magnitudes but still be parallel.
e.g.
K R
uuur uuur
KR = xBQ
B Q

Where x is a scalar quantity.

Adding Vectors
The ealier real world example introduced the triangle law by default. In more formal terms it can
uuu
r uuur
be said that for two vectors OA and OB :
B

uuu
r uuu
r uuur
OA + AB = OB
O A

This can be shown quite easily by using column vectors.

The triangle law can be applied to prove the parallelogram law.

C B

O A

uuur
The vector OB is said to be the resultant and is the diagonal of the parallelogram OABC

Cartesian unit vectors and components

A unit vector is a vector with magnitude of 1 unit.

i, j notation
The diagram above shows the two unit vectors i and j. By definition they are vectors of magnitude
one unit along the x and y coordinate axis respectively.
Adding vectors in i, j notation

When vectors are given in terms of unit vectors i and j, you can add them together by adding their
terms involving i and j separately.

Magnitude of a vector in i, j notation

When a vector R is given in terms of the unit vectors i and j you can find its magnitude by using
Pythagoras’ Theorem.

Equal Vectors

Two vectors are equal if and only if the i components are equal and the j components are equal.

Position Vectors

If a particle moving in a plane, where O is a fixed point, then the position of P is defined by:
uuur
OP = r
P

The vector r is known as the position vector of P relative to O.

Relative position vectors

As the name suggest we aim to find the vector of one particle relative to another.

uuur uuuu
r
Imagine two particles P and Q with position vectors OP and OQ respectively.

rp
Q

O rq
 uuur
The vector PQ gives the position vector of Q relative to P, it’s called the relative position vector
(ie how do you get from P to Q).

Velocity as a Vector

We discussed earlier that velocity is a vector quantity but defined more formally:

The velocity of a particle is a vector in the direction of motion whose magnitude is equal to the
speed of the particle (usually denoted by v)

Relative Velocity

We have discussed relative position vectors and seeing as velocity is a vector we should be able to
consider relative velocity vectors, but what do they mean?
Imagine that two trains are traveling at equal velocities in the same direction at 90kmh -1. As far as
passengers on the trains are concerned they will appear to be stationary. In this case we can say
that their relative velocity is zero. If on the other hand the two trains were traveling in the same
direction but at velocities of 90kmh-1 and 50kmh-1 then the relative velocity would be 40kmh-1.
This principle can be applied to vectors:

Consider two particles C and D if their velocities are vc and vd respectively then the velocity of D
relative to C is vd – vc.

vc vd – vc

vd

In real terms the vector vd – vc is velocity vector required to get from C to D. Unfortunately as time
passes the particles C and D will get further apart and the vector between them will be a multiple
of vd – vc. The only other property of the vector vd – vc is that if we imagine that C and D are
aeroplanes then it is the direction that a passenger on a plane C would look to see plane D. I
struggled to find a property of vd – vc and this is the best I could think of. This would only apply if
the two planes set off at the same time from the same point.

Acceleration as a Vector

Considering that velocity can be a vector and that acceleration is the rate of change velocity it
follows that acceleration can be a vector. Using the constant acceleration equations find final
velocities.
Example

A particle B moves with constant acceleration (3i + 7j)ms-2. At time t its velocity is v ms-1. When t =
0, v = (12i – 14j)ms-1.
a) find the time when B is moving parallel to the vector i.
b) find the speed of B when t = 8.
c) find the angle between the direction of motion of B and the vector i when t = 8.

a) The particle will be moving parallel to the vector i when it has no j component.

The velocity at any time is given by:

Velocity = initial velocity + ( acceleration × time )
= (12i – 14j) + t(3i + 7j) (1)

We are only interested in the j component and particularly when it is zero:

-14j + 7tj = 0

Therefore: t=2

b) By substituting t = 8 into equation (1) we can find the velocity of the particle. Speed is the
magnitude of the velocity.
Velocity = (12i – 14j) + t(3i + 7j)

When t = 8 Velocity = (12i – 14j) + 8 × (3i + 7j)

= (36i + 42j) ms-1

Speed = 362 + 422 = 55.3ms-1

c) The velocity at any time gives the direction of motion.

42j

θ
36i

Therefore the direction is given by:

 �42 �
θ = Tan -1 � �
�36 �

θ = 49.4�
Example

A command post O monitors the movement of two of its ships in the Gulf. At 1200 hrs a battleship
(B) has position (-2i + 10j) km relative to O and has constant velocity of (3i + 2j) kmh-1. A frigate (F)
is at the point with position vector (4i + 5j) km and has constant velocity (-3i + 7j) kmh-1, where i
and j are unit vectors directed due east and due north respectively.
a) The captain of one ship has been taken ill, show that the two ships will collide.
The command post contacts the battleship and orders it to reduce its speed to move with velocity
(2i + 2j) kmh-1.
uuur
b) Find an expression for the vector BF at time t hours after noon.
c) Find the distance between B and F at 1400 hrs.
d) Find the time at which F will be due north of B.

a) The position of each ship is given by it’s position vector:

position = initial position + (velocity × time)
So for the battleship:
rb = (-2i + 10j) + t(3i + 2j)
And for the frigate:
rf = (4i + 5j) + t(-3i + 7j)

If the two ships are to collide then for some value of t their respective i and j components must be
equal.
Therefore by equating i’s:
-2 + 3t = 4 -3t
t=1

Substituting the value of t = 1 into rb and rb gives the same position vector of (i + 12j). Therefore
the two ships will collide after one hour at the point with position vector (i + 12j).

b) The position vector for the battleship must change to take account of the new velocity:
rb = (-2i + 10j) + t(2i + 2j)

uuur
We have been asked to find the vector BF as shown in the diagram below.
 N

O E

By triangle law:

uur uur uuur

0B + BF = OF

uur uuur uur

BF = OF - 0B

uur uuur
Where 0B = rb and OF = rf

uuur
Therefore: BF = rf – rb

= (4i + 5j) + t(-3i + 7j) – ((-2i + 10j) + t(2i + 2j))

uuur
BF = (6i - 5j) + t(-5i + 5j)

uuur
c) The magnitude of BF gives the distance between the two ships, at 1400 hrs, t = 2

= (6i - 5j) + 2(-5i + 5j)

= (-4i + 5j)

Magnitude = 41Km

uuur
d) If F is due north of B, then BF will have no i component.

uuur
BF = (6i - 5j) + t(-5i + 5j)

6i -5ti = 0

t = 1hr 12mins
Example

At 1200 hrs the position vectors of two helicopters A and B are rA and rB as outlined below. Use the
velocity vectors vA and vB to give the position vectors of A and B at a time t hours after noon.

rA = (3i + 5j) rB = (5i + 2j) vA = (i + 2j) vB = (2i + 3j)

Find an expression at time t hours after noon for the position vector of B relative to A.
If d is the distance in Km between the two helicopters find the value of d2
in terms of t.
Find the time at which the helicopters are closest together. Give the value of the minimum
distance.

a) For Helicopters A and B the position vectors at time t hours after noon are:
rA = (3i + 5j) + t(i + 2j) rB = (5i + 2j) + t(2i + 3j)

b) The position vector of B relative to A is given by:

rB – rA = 2i – 3j + t(i + j)

= (2 + t)i + (t - 3)j

c) The magnitude of the vector in part (b) gives the distance between the two particles.
Therefore:

d2 = (2 + t)2 + (t – 3) 2

d2 = 2t2 - 2t + 13

By completing the square we can find the minimum value:

d2 = 2[t2 - t + 6.5]

Remembering to halve the t coefficient:

(-0.5)2 = 0.25 we need 6.5
 d2 = 2[(t – 0.5)2 + 6.25]

The minimum value occurs when t = 0.5. Therefore the minimum distance between the two
helicopters is √12.5 Km

Chapter 2 – Kinematics

Kinematics is the study of the motion of particles. In M1 all motion will have constant
acceleration. This leads to the development of the constant acceleration equations.
Definitions
a = acceleration (ms-2)
u = initial velocity (ms-1)
v = final velocity (ms-1)
t = time (second)
s = displacement (metres)
If we know any of the three we can find the other two.
From GCSE you should remember that:
change in velocity
acceleration =
time

v-u
\ a=
t

so v = u + at (1)

As mentioned above the acceleration is constant hence the average velocity is simply the average
of u and v.
u+v
average velocity =
2
Another definition is that:
displacement s
average velocity = =
time t
Therefore:
 u+v s
=
2 t

u+v�
\ s= �
� t (2)
�
�2 �
By using equation (1) we can eliminate v.
u + u + at �
\ s= �
� t
�
� 2 �

1
s = ut + at2 (3)
2
If equation (1) is rearranged to make t the subject:
v-u
t=
a
Then by substituting into equation (2):
u+v�
�v-u �
\ s= �
� �
� �
�2 ��a �

2as = v2 - u2

v2 = u2 + 2as (4)
You must learn all of the four equations above and remember that they only apply to constant
acceleration problems. Since velocity is a vector quantity getting the direction right in these
problems is vital.

Vertical Motion Under Gravity

A couple of assumptions need to be stated before continuing.
1. Objects will be treated as particles
2. Only motion will be in a straight line.
3. No evidence of spinning or turning of objects.
4. Particles will have constant acceleration of g (9.8ms-2)

If an object is project is projected vertically upwards and it falls 3m below the point of release then
the time taken can be calculated by setting s = -3m and a = -9.8 and substitute the values into
equation (3).
A lot of students work out the time the object takes to reach the top, then the time to return to
point of release and finally the -3m part. It is also worth noting at this point that time taken to
reach maximum height and fall back down to the point of release are the same. This type of
question regularly appears on exam papers and it is far quicker to use the first method.

Example
A bouncy ball B is projected vertically upwards from a point O with a
speed of 42ms-1. Find:
(a) the greatest height h above O reached by B
(b) the total time before B returns to O
(c) the total distance travelled by the particle.
With questions of this nature one has to be careful as to which direction is positive.

Max Height

Acceln = -9.8

42ms-1

Start/End

a) At the greatest height, v = 0,

u = 42, a = -9.8, s=?
Using equation (4):
v2 = u2 + 2as

0 = 422 - 2 �9.8 �s

422
s=
19.6

s = 90m
b) When the ball returns to B its displacement will be zero!
s = 0, a = -9.8, u = 42, t = ?
Using equation (3):
1
s = ut + at2
2

0 = 42t-4.9t2

Factorising gives:
7t( 0.7t - 6 ) = 0

Therefore t = 0, t = 8.57sec

c) In part (a) we found the distance to the top therefore we only need to double the answer.
Total distance = 180m

Example
A cricket ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15ms-1. Modelling the ball as a particle
moving under gravity alone, find for how long its height exceeds 10 m.

We need to find the times at which the ball has a displacement of 10m.
a = -9.8, u = 15, s = 10, t = ?
Using equation (3):
1
s = ut + at2
2

10 = 15t - 4.9t2

4.9t2 - 15t + 10 = 0

By using the quadratic formula we find the two values of t.

15 � 225 - 4 �10 �4.9

t=
9.8
t = 2.08 or 0.98.
Therefore the ball is above 10m for 1.1 second.

Speed Time Graphs

Definitions
For constant acceleration problems the speed time graph will be a straight line.
The gradient of the graph is the acceleration.
The area under the graph represents the distance travelled.

Example
A train is travelling along a straight track between the points P and Q. It starts from rest at P and
accelerates at 3ms-2 until it reaches a speed of 54ms-1. It continues at a constant speed of 54ms-1
for a further 180seconds and then decelerates at a constant deceleration of 6ms -2.
a) sketch a speed time graph for the train’s journey.
b) calculate the total time for the journey from P to Q.
c) calculate the distance between P and Q.

a) The train will take 54/3 seconds to reach the constant speed (18seconds). It will take 54/6
seconds to decelerate to rest (9 seconds). Hence the graph will have the following shape.

54ms-1

18 198 207

b) the total time for the journey is 207 seconds.

c) the total distance is once again equal to the area under the graph.
Area = (54 × 18)/2 + 54 × 180 + (54 × 9)/2
 Distance = 10449m = 10.4Km

Problems involving two vehicles

Example
Two particles A and B are traveling along a straight path PQ of length 20m. A leaves P, heading for
Q, from rest with acceleration of 2ms-2 and at the same time B leaves Q, in the direction of P, from
rest with a constant acceleration of 5ms-2. Find how far from A the two particles collide?
Let the point of collision be x metres from P and hence (20 – x)m from Q.
So for particle A: u=0 a=2 t=T s=x
Using:
1
s = ut + at2
2

x = t2 (i)
So for particle B: u=0 a=5 t=T s = 20 - x
Using
1
s = ut + at2
2

20 - x = 2.5t2
Substituting (i) gives:
20 - t2 = 2.5t2

t = 2.39sec
Using (i) again:
x = 2.392
x = 5.71m
Chapter 3 – Dynamics

Dynamics is the study of moving objects. In previous chapters we have considered the sum total of
forces on a body (resultant) and our next consideration is the movement that these forces bring
about. Forces of friction, thrust, gravity and tension will be considered and the subsequent motion
will be measured by the application of constant acceleration equations and the equation of
motion.

Newton’s First Law

A body will remain at rest, or will continue to move with constant velocity, unless external forces
force it to do otherwise.
A change in state of motion of a body is caused by a force. The unit of force is the Newton, (N).

Newton’s Second Law

The force F applied to a particle is proportional to the product of mass of the particle and the
acceleration produced.
A force of 1N produces an acceleration of 1ms-2 in a body of mass 1kg. Newton’s Second Law is
summarized by the equation:

F = ma

this is often termed the equation of motion.

It is vitally important to realise that F is the overall resultant and not Friction (F R).

Example
If the object in example 1 is slightly modified to take account of the fact that there is a pushing
force 600N, calculate the acceleration.
 a ms-2

350N 600N

S S
3500g

The resultant of the two horizontal forces is a 250N pushing the object to the right. So by setting
up an equation of motion:
F = ma
250 = 3500 × a
a = 0.07ms-2

Vertical Motion

If a particle is falling in the earth’s atmosphere then it will accelerate at 9.8ms -2. By Newton’s first
law the particle must be experiencing a force and the only force present is the weight so by
considering the equation of motion:

F = ma
Weight = mg

Example
A ball of mass 5kg falls from a height of 6m into a jar containing a viscous liquid. The upward force
exerted by the liquid is of magnitude 75N. How far will the ball sink into the liquid? Calculate the
total time that the ball is in motion.
Firstly we need to calculate the speed with which the ball hits the liquid.
Assuming that down is positive:
s = 6, a = 9.8, u = 0, v=?
v = u + 2as
2 2

v2 = 0 + 2 �9.8 �6

v = 10.84ms -1
Secondly we can set up an equation of motion for the ball to work out the deceleration.
 75N

5g

F = ma

5g – 75 = 5a

a = -5.2ms-2

Thirdly we need to calculate the distance that the ball travels through the liquid before coming to
rest.

u = 10.84, v = 0, a = -5.2 s=?

v2 = u2 + 2as

0 = 117.6 - 2 �5.2 �s

s = 11.31m

Finally the total time taken by the ball in motion must be done in two parts seeing as before the
ball hits the liquid it has an acceleration of 9.8ms-2 whereas, whilst falling through the liquid, it has
an acceleration of -5.2ms-2.

Time to meet the surface of the liquid:

a = 9.8,u = 0, v = 10.84, t=?

v = u + at

10.84 = 0 + 9.8t
 t = 1.1 sec

Time to come to rest:

a = -5.2, u = 10.84, v = 0, t=?

v = u + at

0 = 10.84 -5.2t

t = 2.1 sec

Therefore the total time in motion is 3.3 sec. The liquid is rather viscous, how realistic is the
resistance force? What about a ball falling in to a jar of syrup?
The next example introduces friction on a slope. The questions are beginning to get more
challenging but a good diagram is always the best place to start. Examiners regularly report that
the most successful candidates in mechanics M1 and M2 always draw diagrams.

Example
A ball of mass 2kg is projected up a line of greatest slope inclined at an angle of 30º to the
horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the plane and the ball is 0.4. The initial speed of
the ball is 5 ms-1. Find:
a) the frictional force acting whilst the ball moves up the plane.
b) the distance moved up the plane by the ball before it comes to instantaneous rest.

5ms-1

FR

30º 2g

a) Since the ball is moving then Friction must be at its maximum value.
Resolving perpendicular to the plane gives:
R = 2g cos 30º
R = 16.97N
Using FR = μR:
FR = 0.4 × 16.97
FR = 6.79N

b) The frictional force and the weight component of the ball are trying to slow the ball down.
By setting up an equation of motion for the ball we can calculate the deceleration.
Assuming that uphill is positive:
F = ma
- FR – weight comp down the plane = ma
-6.79 - 2g cos 30º = 2a
a = -8.295ms-2

At the point the ball comes to instantaneous rest it will have zero velocity and we can use constant
acceleration equations to calculate the distance traveled.

u = 5, v = 0, a = -8.295, s=?

v2 = u2 + 2as

0 = 25 - 2 �8.295 �s

s = 1.51m

Motion of Two Connected Particles

Before we can consider the motion of two connected particles we need to discuss Newton’s Third
Law. This law states that action and reaction are equal and opposite.
If two bodies A and B are in contact and exert forces on each other, then the force exerted by A on
B is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by B on A. This principle will
be applied to tow truck problems and pulleys to name but two.

Consider the situation below where the comical car is towing a racing car.

T T

Example
The AA man is towing a car along a straight horizontal road. The truck has a mass of 1500kg and
the car has a mass of 850kg. The truck is connected to the car by a bar which is to be modelled as
a light inextensible string. The truck’s engine produces a constant driving force of 2500N. The
resistance to motion of the truck and the car are constant and of magnitude 750N and 400N
respectively. Find:
a) the acceleration of the truck and the car
b) the tension in the rope
When the truck and the car are traveling at 22ms-1 the tow bar breaks. If the magnitude of the
resistance to motion of the truck remains at 750N calculate:
c) the time difference in achieving a speed of 30ms-1 with and without the car in tow.
2500N

750N
400N

850kg T T 1500kg

a) Setting up equations of motion for the car and truck separately gives:
Car T – 400 = 850a Truck 2500 – 750 – T = 1500a
Adding the two equations gives:
1350 = 2350a

a = 0.574ms-2

b) Finding the tension:

Substituting the value into the car’s equation of motion gives:

T – 400 = 850 × 0.574
T = 888N

c) If we assume that the bar doesn’t break then the time required to reach 30ms -1 is
calculated by using the constant acceleration equations.

u = 22, v = 30, a = 0.574, t=?

v = u + at
30 = 22 + 0.574t
t = 13.9 sec

At the point that the tow bar breaks, the tension in the bar is no longer acting against the truck.
Therefore the equation of motion of the truck becomes:
2500 – 750 = 1500a
a = 1.167ms-2
u = 22, v = 30, a = 1.167, t=?
v = u + at
30 = 22 + 1.167t
t = 6.9 sec

Therefore there is a time difference of 7 seconds.

Pulleys

In all questions in M1 the pulley system will be smooth. This implies that the motion of the
particles at the end of the string are unaffected by the string passing over the pulley. A further
assumption is that the string is light and inextensible. These modelling assumptions make the
problem simpler but we can still get pretty realistic answers. If two particles are connected by a
string where the string passes over a smooth pulley, then we can assume that the particles will
have equal accelerations but in opposite directions.

Example
Two particles P and Q of masses have masses 8m and Km, where K > 8. They are connected by a
light inextensible string which passes over a smooth fixed pulley. The system is released from rest
with the string taut and the hanging parts of the string vertical, as shown below. Initially P has an
3
acceleration of magnitude of g.
4

a) Find, in terms of m and g, the tension, T, in the string.

b) Find the value of K.

a) Adding forces to the system:

 T
T
Q

Kmg

8mg

Setting up an equation of motion for particle P :

F = ma

3
T – 8mg = 8m  g
4

T = 14mg (1)

b) Considering particle Q:

3
Kmg – T = km  g
4
Using (1):
1
Kmg = 14mg
4

K = 56

The next problem involves a pulley system where one of the particles is being dragged across a
horizontal table as the other particle is falling. The problem will be made more complex when the
horizontal table is considered to be rough. The questions are increasing in complexity but the
same basic principles apply.

Example
A particle A, of mass 0.9kg, rests on smooth horizontal table and is attached to one end of a light
inextensible string. The string passes over a smooth pulley P fixed at the edge of the table. The
other end of the string is attached to a particle B of mass 1.8kg which hangs freely below the
pulley. The system is released from rest with the string taut and B at a height of 3.2m above the
ground. In the subsequent motion A does not reach the pulley before B reaches the ground. Find:
a) the tension in the string before B reaches the ground.
b) the time taken by B to reach the ground.
To make the model more realistic assume that the coefficient of friction between the particle and
the table is 0.3.
Using the above modification find the time taken by B to reach the ground.

A T
P

0.9g T

3.2m
1.8g

a) Setting up equations of motion for the two particles gives:

A F = ma B F = ma

T = 0.9a 1.8g – T = 1.8a

Adding the two equations gives:

1.8g = 2.7a

a = 6.53ms-2
Therefore:
T = 0.9 × 6.53

T = 5.88N

b) The particle B is falling with acceleration 6.53ms-2. So by using constant acceleration

equation we can find the time it takes to reach the floor.

u = 0, a = 6.53, s = 3.2, t = ?
 1 2
s = ut + at
2

1
3.2 = �6.53 �t2
2

t = 1.01sec

Seeing as the particle is moving friction must be at its maximum value and hence F R = μR.
Setting up equations of motion for the two particles with friction included gives:

A F = ma B F = ma

T - FR = 0.9a (1) 1.8g – T = 1.8a (2)

Resolving vertically for A:

R = 0.9g

Using FR = μR FR = 0.27g

Adding equations (1) and (2) gives:

1.8g - 0.27g = 2.7a

a = 5.553ms-2

The new value of acceleration can now be used to calculate the new time:

u = 0, a = 5.553, s = 3.2, t = ?

1 2
s = ut + at
2

1
3.2 = �5.553 �t2
2

t = 1.07 sec

In the next problem a particle is being pulled up a rough inclined plane by the motion of another
particle falling towards a floor. This is very similar to an exam question and would be worth in
excess of 10 marks on an M1 paper.
Example
A particle, A of mass 6kg, rests on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 35º to the horizontal. The
particle is attached to one end of a light inextensible string which lies in a line of greatest slope of
the plane and passes over a light smooth pulley P fixed at the top of the plane. The other end of
the string is attached to a particle B of mass 16kg. The particles are released from rest with the
2
string taut. The particle B moves down with an acceleration of g.
5

R T P
A
F T
35º
6g B

x
16g

Find:
a) the tension, T, in the string.
b) the coefficient of friction between the plane and A.

a) Setting up equations of motion for A and B gives:

A F = ma B F = ma

2 2
T - 6g sin 35º - FR = 6 × g (1) 16g – T = 16× g (2)
5 5

Using (2) to find the tension :

48
T= g = 94.08N
5

Resolving vertically for A :

R = 6gcos35º = 48.166

Using FR = μR FR = 48.166μ

Therefore equation (1) becomes:

12
94.08 - 33.726 - 48.166μ = g
5
Rearranging for μ:

12
60.35 - g
μ= 5
48.166

μ = 0.765

Momentum

The momentum of a body of mass m, having a velocity v is mv. The units of momentum are
Newton seconds (Ns).

Momentum = mv

The momentum of a body is dependent upon its velocity therefore momentum is a vector
quantity. This implies that direction is very important and great care must be taken with signs.

Change in Momentum
If a particle experiences a change in velocity then, by definition, its momentum must change. Let
the initial velocity be u and the final velocity be v then the change in momentum is given by:

Change in Momentum = mv – mu = m( v - u )

Impulse

When a force F, is applied to a particle for a period of time t, then this quantity is defined as the
impulse of the force. Obviously an impulse will bring about a change in velocity and therefore
momentum will change.
Therefore:
Impulse = F × t = m(v- u )
The derivation of the formula comes from the equation of motion and constant acceleration
equations:

F = ma v = u + at
v -u
a=
t
�v - u �
F = m� �
�t �
Therefore Ft = m(v – u)
The Principle of the Conservation of Momentum

When a collision occurs between two bodies, A and B, then the force exerted on A by B will be
equal and opposite to the force exerted on B by A (by application of Newton’s third law). If no
other forces are present then the change in momentum in one particle will equate to the loss of
momentum in the other particle. Momentum is conserved and therefore the sum of the
momentum of the particles before collision must equal the sum of momentum after the collision.
This is referred to as the Principle of Conservation of Momentum.
If two particles of masses, m1 and m2, with initial velocities u1 and u2, collide then, given that their
final velocities are v1 and v2 we can say that:

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Example
Two small balls A and B have masses 1.2kg and 2.5kg respectively. They are moving in opposite
directions on a smooth horizontal surface when they collide directly. Immediately before the
collision, the speed of A is 4.5ms-1 and the speed of B is 0.9ms-1. The speed of A immediately after
the collision is 1.3ms-1. The direction of A remains unchanged after the collision. Find:
a) the speed of B immediately after the collision
b) the magnitude of the impulse exerted on B in the collision

Before After

4.5ms-1 0.9ms-1 1.3ms-1 v ms-1

1.2kg 2.5kg 1.2kg 2.5kg

A B A B

a) By conservation of momentum:

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

1.2 × 4.5 – 2.5 × 0.9 = 1.2 × 1.3 + 2.5v

v = 0.636ms-1

b) Impulse = Change in Momentum

= m( v – u )
 = 2.5 ( 0.636 - - 0.9 )

= 3.84Ns

Jerk in a String

If two particles are connected by a light inextensible string and one of the particles is projected
away from the other then at some point there will be a jerk in the string. At the instant before the
jerk one of the particles will have momentum. As soon as the string becomes taut the particles
will move onwards with the same velocity. The overall momentum must be conserved so
therefore the velocity after the jerk must be lower than the initial velocity. This idea is best
explained through an example.

Example
Two particles P and Q of masses 4kg and 7.5kg respectively are connected by a light inextensible
string which is initially slack. Q is projected away from P with velocity 5ms -1. When the string
becomes taught the two particles move on together with a common speed. Find the common
speed and the impulse exerted on P by the string.

Using the conservation of momentum where v1 = v2 :

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v1

4 × 0 + 7.5 × 5 = 4 × v1 + 7.5 × v1

37.5 = 11.5v1

v1 = 3.26ms-1

So the common speed is 3.26ms-1

Impulse is the change in momentum so considering particle P:

Impulse = m(v – u)

= 4(3.26 – 0)

= 13.0Ns

Chapter 4 – Statics
Statics is the study of stationary objects. We will consider a variety of situations where bodies are
acted upon by a number of forces. A few of the concepts introduced in our work on vectors will be
built upon in this unit.

Resolving Forces
In the vectors unit we were made aware of the fact that the resultant of two vectors is the diagonal
of a parallelogram as highlighted in the diagram below.

This idea can be applied to forces:

F2 R

F1

In a real world sense the path R is the direction that a particle would take if it were to be acted
upon by the forces F1 and F2. This principle can be applied to more than two forces.

Suppose that a particle is acted upon by the forces F1, F2 and F3.

F3 F2

F1

The diagrams below should explain the path that the particle will follow.
Firstly find the resultant of the forces F1, and F2 to give R.
 F3 F2 R

F1

Second find the resultant of R and F3 .

R2

F3 F2 R

F1

The path R2 shows the direction of motion of the particle as it is the resultant of the three forces F 1,
F2 and F3.

Resolving Forces into Components

This concept was introduced in earlier work on vectors as it is far easier to deal with a number of
forces if we can split them into their horizontal and vertical components.
The diagram below shows a 9N force acting at angle of 30◦to the horizontal. Find the components
of the force in the horizontal and vertical direction.

9N

30º
x
 9 3N
x component = 9 × Cos 30º =
2

9
y component = 9 × Sin 30º = N
2

Resolving Several Forces into Components

All we have to do is find all of the x components and add them together to give the x component of
the resultant force. This idea is applied to the y component and from this we can find the direction
of the resultant.

Example
The diagram below shows a number of forces. Find the resultant of the forces and its direction.

4N

3N 30º x
40º

6N

The best way to attack this problem is to use a table:

Force x component y component

3N -3 0
4N 4 × Cos 30º 4 × Sin 30º
6N 6 × Cos 40º -6 × Sin 40º
Total 5.06 -1.86

The resultant can be represented pictorially as:

5.06N

θ
-1.86N

The resultant has a magnitude of:

 = 5.06 2 + 1.86 2

= 5.39 N

In the direction of:

 - 1.86 
Tan -1   = -20.2
 5.06 

Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces

If a system is being acted upon by a series of forces that all lie in the same plane then it will be in
equilibrium if their resultant vector is zero.

Friction
Rough and Smooth surfaces

A block of mass M Kg on a horizontal table is acted upon by a force P Newtons. From Newton’s
Third Law, it is known that equal and opposite forces act on the block and on the plane at right
angles to the surfaces in contact.
R

F P

Mg

The force F acts to oppose the motion and this is called the frictional force. If the surface were to
be perfectly smooth then the block would accelerate across the surface. In general the surface is
unlikely to be smooth and the block would move if the force P was greater than the frictional force.
Limiting Equilibrium

The frictional force in the above situation is not constant, but increases as the force P increases
until if reaches a value Fmax. The block is then on the point of moving and the system is said to be
in a state of limiting equilibrium.

Coefficient of Friction (μ)

Friction is proportional to the normal reaction and in limiting equilibrium it is given by:
Fmax = μR
Where μ is the coefficient of friction for the two contact surfaces.
Friction can also be expressed as:
F ≤ μR

When friction is less than μR motion will not take place.

Consider the following points:

1. At the point where friction can’t increase any further, motion is about to take place.
2. Note that friction is only dependent upon the nature of the surfaces in contact and not
upon the contact area.
3. For perfectly smooth surfaces μ = 0.
4. Friction will never be larger than that necessary to prevent motion.
5. It can be assumed that friction will have a maximum value μR when motion occurs.
6. Friction always acts to oppose the motion of an object and great care must be taken with
objects on slopes as friction could be acting either up or down the plane
Non Horizontal Forces
When the force P acting on the block of mass M is inclined at
R
an angle to the horizontal, two effects must be considered.
(1) The vertical component of P alters the size of the P

normal reaction R. One needs to consider the F θ

direction of the applied force and its effect on the
value of R.
(2) Only the horizontal component of the force P will Mg
bring about motion in the block.
It is worth noting at this point that since R has altered there will also be a change in the frictional
force (F = μR).

Objects on Inclined Planes

When objects are on inclined planes it is easier to resolve the forces parallel to the plane and
perpendicular to the plane. This concept is best shown through an example.
Example
A particle of mass MKg rests in equilibrium on a rough plane inclined at an angle 20º to the
horizontal. Find the normal reaction R and the frictional force in terms of M and g.
 R

FR

20º Mg

The normal reaction by definition only reacts to the component of the weight force that acts
perpendicular to the plane (the orange line in the diagram below). Equally the frictional force is
only acting against the component of the weight that is acting parallel to the plane.

R
FR

20º

Mg
20º

This leads to the following two statements that will be used over and over again in M1.

R = Mg Cos 20º
FR = Mg Sin 20º

This is only valid if there are no other external forces.

Varying Values of Friction
In the introduction of the coefficient of friction we suggested that friction can vary. Now that we
know how to resolve forces parallel and perpendicular to the plane we can use this new skill to
explain the point.
Consider the case below with a 2kg mass on a rough surface inclined at an angle of 20º, where the
coefficient of friction between the object and the surface is 0.4.
R

FR

20º 2g

Resolving forces perpendicular to the plane gives:

R = 2g Cos 20º = 18.4N
Therefore:
μR = 7.37N
Resolving parallel to the plane gives:
FR = 2g Sin 20º = 6.70N
The condition FR ≤ μR is upheld and as a result there is no motion down the plane.
If the slope was raised to 30º
Resolving forces perpendicular to the plane gives:
R = 2g Cos 30º = 17.0N
Therefore:
μR = 6.79N
Resolving parallel to the plane gives:
FR = 2g Sin 30º = 9.8N
Friction is working against the parallel component of the weight (mg Sin θ). By definition Sin θ
increases as the angle increases therefore friction must increase to prevent motion, but it can only
increase to the point where F = μR. In the second part of the example the condition F ≤ μR is no
longer upheld and therefore the object would slide down the slope. The object in the example
above would be in a state of limiting equilibrium for an angle between 20º and 30º (calculate the
exact value).

Example
A building block of mass 1.25kg is placed on an incline plane at an angle of 30º to the horizontal.
The coefficient of friction between the box and the plane is 0.2. The box is kept in equilibrium by a
light inextensible string which lies in a vertical plane. The string makes an angle of 15º with the
plane. The box is in limiting equilibrium and is about to move up the plane. The tension in the
string is T Newtons. Modelling the box as a particle find the value of T.

T
R

15º

FR
30º 1.25g

Note that the frictional force is acting down the slope as the box is at the point of moving up the
plane.
Once again we need to resolve the forces into their components, but this time we must resolve
them parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
Resolving parallel to the plane:
( don’t forget to resolve the tension force)
1.25g × Sin 30 + FR = T × Cos 15
6.125 + FR = 0.966T
FR = 0.966T - 6.125 (1)
Resolving perpendicular to the plane:
1.25g × Cos 30 = R + T × Sin 15
10.61 = R + 0.259T
R = 10.61 – 0.259T
Using F = μR
0.966T - 6.125 = 0.2 × ( 10.61 – 0.259T )
1.0178T = 8.247
T = 8.10N

Chapter 5 – Moments

The moment of a force is the measure of its capacity to turn the body on which it is acting.

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance

x
P

The diagram above shows a force F, acting on an object P at a given angle θ and given distance d.
The force brings about a turning effect at P. The dotted line is the perpendicular distance. x = d ×
Sinθ.
Therefore the moment about P is given by:

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance from line of action of force to pivot point
Moment = FdSinθ

Equilibrium of a lamina under parallel forces

If a system is in equilibrium then the following must hold:

1. The component of the resultant force in any direction must be zero.

2. The algebraic sum of the moments about any point must be zero.

For uniform non light systems the weight acts through the centre of mass. A rod is said to be
uniform if it has even weight distribution and therefore the centre of mass acts at the centre of the
rod.

Uniform Beams
Example
A uniform beam AB of mass 40kg and length 12m is supported in a horizontal position at C and D,
where AC = 1.5m and DB = 1m. A man of mass 80Kg stands on the beam at the point E where EB =
2.5m. Find the reactions at C and D.
Examiners always suggest that a diagram is VITAL.

X Y
12m
A 1.5m E 1m B

C D

40g 80g

Resolving vertically gives:

X + Y = 120g (1)
Taking Moments about C gives:
The mass of the beam gives a clockwise moment of: 40g × 4.5 = 180gNm
The mass of the man gives a clockwise moment of: 80g × 8 = 640gNm
The reaction at D gives an anticlockwise moment of: 9.5YNm

Therefore:
9.5Y = 820g

1640
Y= g = 845.9N
19
Using equation (1) from above
X + Y = 120g
X + 845.9 = 120g
X= 330N

Non uniform beams

Example
A non uniform beam AB of mass 20kg and length 12m has an object of mass 40kg placed at a point
8m from A. The beam is in equilibrium in a horizontal position resting on a support C at the
midpoint of AB. Find the position of the centre of mass.

12m

X
A y E B

20g 40g

Taking moments about C gives:

40g × 2 = 20g × y

Y = 4m