(SYBEX) Computer - Repair - CompTIA A+

A+ Complete
Study Guide
Second Edition
Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

A+® Complete
Study Guide
Second Edition
David Groth and Dan Newland

with
Jarret Buse, Lisa Donald, Joseph Dreissen,
Dan Haglund, Robert King,
Michelle Roudebush, Charles Strother
San Francisco • Paris • Düsseldorf • Soest • London

Associate Publisher: Neil Edde
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To Our Valued Readers:
In recent years, CompTIA’s A+ program has established itself as one of the most resepcted entry-level
IT certifications. Sybex is proud to have helped thousands of A+ candidates prepare for their exam,
and we are excited about the opportunity to continue to provide people with the skills they’ll need to
succeed in the highly competitive IT industry.
CompTIA recently revised the exams required for the A+ certification, updating the material to reflect
new developments in hardware and operating systems technologies. They have also expanded the
question pool in order to make the exams more challenging and prevent the dreaded paper-certification
syndrome, in which individuals obtain a certification without a thorough understanding of the tech-
nology. Sybex supports this philosophy, as we have always advocated a comprehensive instructional
approach to certification courseware. It has always been Sybex’s mission to teach exam candidates
how new technologies work in the real world, not to simply feed them answers to test questions. Sybex
was founded on the premise of providing technical skills to IT professionals, and we have continued
to build on that foundation, making significant improvements to this edition based on feedback from
readers, suggestions from instructors, and comments from industry leaders.
Our authors and editors have worked hard to ensure that this new edition of the A+ Study Guide is
comprehensive, in-depth, and pedagogically sound. We’re confident that this book will meet and
exceed the demanding standards of the certification marketplace and help you, the A+ exam candidate,
succeed in your endeavors.
Good luck in pursuit of your A+ certification!
Neil Edde
Associate Publisher—Certification
Sybex, Inc.
SYBEX Inc. 1151 Marina Village Parkway, Alameda, CA 94501

Tel: 510/523-8233 Fax: 510/523-2373 HTTP://www.sybex.com

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To those who thought I couldn’t do it, and for those who thought I could.
—David Groth
For Steph, who makes everything in my life better.
—Dan Newland

Acknowledgments
Thanks first of all to you, the reader, for buying this book. You could’ve
spent your money on any A+ book, but you chose mine. Thank you.
Thanks very much to all those who supported me while I was writing and
developing this book. Thanks first to my coauthors, Dan Newland and Bob
King. You can both be proud of your work here. These guys are at the top
of the field in their areas. I couldn’t ask for better people to work with.
A very special thanks to my wife, family, and friends for understanding
when I was under deadlines and didn’t have as much time as they wanted to
spend with them.
Also much thanks to the all the people at Sybex who published this book
under incredible time constraints: Elizabeth Hurley, Shannon Murphy,
Brianne Agatep, Judy Flynn, Sally Engelfried, Mark Kovach, Michelle A.
Roudebush, Jill Niles, Judy Fung, Jennifer Campbell, Nanette Duffy, Dennis
Fitzgerald, Leslie Higbee Light, Laurie O’Connell, Yariv Rabinovitch,
Nancy Riddiough, Kara Eve Schwartz, Keith McNeil, Duane Bibby, Tony
Jonick, and Rebecca R. Plunkett.
I hope all of you enjoy this book and it is useful to you. If you have
questions or comments, positive or negative, please e-mail me at
dgroth@chief-geek.com. I’m always striving to make my books better.
—David Groth
I would like to thank David for including me on this project, and the staff
at Sybex for all their help and encouragement. Writing is often referred to as
a lonely art, and while that is true to an extent, it is also very much a collab-
orative effort. Specifically, Elizabeth and Shannon did a great job of keeping
the project (and me) on track, and Brianne, Judy, and Sally were spectacular
at the difficult task of turning my initial drafts into a finished product.
—Dan Newland

Introduction
T he A+ certification tests are sponsored by the Computing Technology
Industry Association (CompTIA) and supported by several of the computer
industry’s biggest vendors (for example, Compaq, IBM, and Microsoft). This
book was written to provide you with the knowledge you need to pass the two
exams for A+ certification. A+ certification gives employers a benchmark for
evaluating their employees’ knowledge. When an applicant for a job says, “I’m
A+ certified,” the employer can be assured that the applicant knows the funda-
mental computer service concepts. For example, an A+ certified technician
should know the difference between the various types of hard disk subsystems
and how to configure them.
This book was written at an intermediate technical level; we assume that you
already know how to use a personal computer and its basic peripherals, such as
modems and printers, but recognize that you may be learning how to service
some of that computer equipment for the first time. The exam itself covers basic
computer service topics as well as some more advanced issues, and it covers some
topics that anyone already working as a technician, whether with computers or
not, should be familiar with. The exam is designed to test you on these topics in
order to certify that you have enough knowledge to fix and upgrade some of the
most widely used types of personal desktop computers.
We’ve included review questions at the end of each chapter to give you a
taste of what it’s like to take the exam. If you’re already working as a technical
service or support person, we recommend you check out these questions first
to gauge your level of knowledge. You can use the book mainly to fill in the
gaps in your current computer service knowledge. You may find, as many ser-
vice technicians have, that being well versed in all the technical aspects of the
equipment is not enough to provide a satisfactory level of support—you must
also have customer relations skills. We include helpful hints to get the customer
to help you help them.
If you can answer 80 percent or more of the review questions correctly for a
given chapter, you can probably feel safe moving on to the next chapter. If you’re
unable to answer that many correctly, reread the chapter and try the questions
again. Your score should improve.
DON’T just study the questions and answers—the questions on the actual exam
will be different from the practice ones included in this book and on the CD. The
exam is designed to test your knowledge of a concept or objective, so use this
book to learn the objective behind the question.

xxiv Introduction
What Is A+ Certification?
The A+ certification program was developed by the Computer Technology Indus-
try Association (CompTIA) to provide an industry-wide means of certifying the
competency of computer service technicians. The A+ certified “diploma,” which is
granted to those who have attained the level of knowledge and troubleshooting
skills that are needed to provide capable support in the field of personal computers,
is similar to other certifications in the computer industry. For example, Novell
offers the Certified Novell Engineer (CNE) program to provide the same recogni-
tion for network professionals who deal with its NetWare products, and Microsoft
has its Microsoft Certified Service Engineer (MCSE) program. The theory behind
these certifications is that if you need to have service performed on any of their
products, you would sooner call a technician who has been certified in one of the
appropriate certification programs than you would just call the first “expert” in
the phone book.
The A+ certification program was created to offer a wide-ranging certifica-
tion, in the sense that it is intended to certify competence with personal computers
from many different makers/vendors. There are two tests required to become A+
certified. You must pass the A+ Core Hardware Service Technician exam, which
covers basic computer concepts, hardware troubleshooting, customer service,
and hardware upgrading. You must also pass the A+ Operating System Technol-
ogies exam (formerly known as the A+ Dos/Windows exam), which covers the
DOS and Windows operating environments. You don’t have to take the Core
Hardware and the Operating System Technologies exams at the same time; you
have 90 days from the time you pass one test to pass the second test. The A+ cer-
tified “diploma” is not awarded until you’ve passed both tests.
Why Become A+ Certified?

There are several good reasons to get your A+ certification. The CompTIA
Candidate’s Information packet lists five major benefits:
It demonstrates proof of professional achievement.
It increases your marketability.
It provides greater opportunity for advancement in your field.
It is increasingly found as a requirement for some types of advanced
training.
It raises customer confidence in you and your company’s services.
Provides Proof of Professional Achievement

The A+ certification is quickly becoming a status symbol in the computer service
industry. Organizations that contain members of the computer service industry
are recognizing the benefits of A+ certification and are pushing for their members

Introduction xxv
to become certified. And more people every day are putting the “A+ Certified
Technician” emblem on their business cards.
Increases Your Marketability

A+ certification makes individuals more marketable to potential employers.
Also, A+ certified employees may receive a higher base salary, because employers
won’t have to spend as much money on vendor-specific training.
What Is an AASC?
More service companies are becoming A+ Authorized Service Centers (AASCs).

This means that over 50 percent of the technicians employed by that service
center are A+ certified. At the time of the writing of this book, there are over
1,400 A+ Authorized Service Centers in the world. Customers and vendors alike
recognize that AASCs employ the most qualified service technicians. Because
of this, an AASC will get more business than a non-authorized service center.
Also, because more service centers want to reach the AASC level, they will give
preference in hiring to a candidate who is A+ certified over one who is not.
Provides Opportunity for Advancement

Most raises and advancements are based on performance. A+ certified employees
work faster and more efficiently, thus making them more productive. The more
productive an employee is, the more money they will make for their company.
And, of course, the more money they make for the company, the more valuable
they will be to the company. So if an employee is A+ certified, their chances of
getting promoted will be greater.
Fulfills Training Requirements

A+ certification is recognized by most major computer hardware vendors,
including (but not limited to) IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Apple, and Compaq. Some
of these vendors will apply A+ certification toward prerequisites in their own
respective certification programs. For example, an A+ certified technician is
automatically given credit towards HP laser printer certification without having
to take prerequisite classes and tests. This has the side benefit of reducing train-
ing costs for employers.
Raises Customer Confidence

As the A+ certified technician moniker becomes more well known among com-
puter owners, more of them will realize that the A+ technician is more qualified
to work on their computer equipment than a non-certified technician is.

xxvi Introduction
How to Become A+ Certified

A+ certification is available to anyone who passes the tests. You don’t have to
work for any particular company. It’s not a secret society. It is, however, an elite
group. In order to become A+ certified, you must do two things:
Pass the A+ Core Hardware Service Technician exam
Pass the A+ Operating System Technologies exam (formerly the DOS/
Windows)
As mentioned earlier, you don’t have to take both exams at the same time; you
have 90 days from the time you pass one test to pass the second test.
The exams are administered by Prometric and can be taken at any Prometric
Testing Center. If you pass both exams, you will get a certificate in the mail from
CompTIA saying that you have passed, and you will also receive a lapel pin and
business card. To find the Prometric training center nearest you, call (800) 755-
EXAM (755-3926).
To register for the tests, call Prometric at (800) 77-MICRO (776-4276) or
register online at www.2test.com. You’ll be asked for your name, Social Secu-
rity number (an optional number may be assigned if you don’t wish to provide
your Social Security number), mailing address, phone number, employer, when
and where (i.e., which Prometric testing center) you want to take the test, and
your credit card number (arrangement for payment must be made at the time
of registration).
Although you can save money by arranging to take more than one test at the same
seating, there are no other discounts. If you have to take a test more than once in
order to get a passing grade, you have to pay both times.
It is possible to pass these tests without any reference materials, but only if
you already have the knowledge and experience that come from reading about
and working with personal computers. But even experienced service people tend
to have what you might call a 20/80 situation with their computer knowledge—
they may use 20 percent of their knowledge and skills 80 percent of the time,
and they have to rely on manuals, guesswork, the Internet, or phone calls for the
rest. By covering all the topics that are tested by the exams, this book can help
you to refresh your memory concerning topics that, until now, you might have
only seldom used. (It can also serve to fill in gaps that, let’s admit, you may
have tried to cover up for quite some time.) Further, by treating all the issues that
the exam covers (i.e., problems you may run into in the arenas of PC service and
support), this book can serve as a general field guide, one that you may want to
keep with you as you go about your work.

Introduction xxvii
In addition to reading the book, you might consider practicing these objectives
through an internship program. (After all, all theory and no practice make for a
poor technician.)
Who Should Buy This Book?

If you are one of the many people who want to pass the A+ exam, and pass it con-
fidently, then you should buy this book and use it to study for the exam. The A+
Core Hardware Service Technician exam is designed to measure essential compe-
tencies for an entry-level PC technician. The Operating System Technologies exam
is intended to certify that the exam candidate has the necessary skills to work on
microcomputer hardware and typically will have at least 6 months of on-the-job
experience. This book was written with one goal in mind: to prepare you for the
challenges of the real IT world, not just to pass the A+ exams. This study guide will
do that by describing in detail the concepts on which you’ll be tested.
How to Use This Book and CD

This book includes several features that will make studying for the A+ exam easier.
At the beginning of the book (right after this introduction, in fact) is an assessment
test for each A+ module that you can use to check your readiness for the actual
exam. Take both of these exams before you start reading the book. It will help you
determine the areas you may need to brush up on. You can then focus on these
areas while reading the book. The answers to each assessment test appear on a sep-
arate page after the last question of the test. Each answer also includes an expla-
nation and a note telling you in which chapter this material appears.
To test your knowledge as you progress through the book, there are review
questions at the end of each chapter. As you finish each chapter, answer the
review questions and then check to see if your answers are right—the correct
answers appear on the page following the last review question. You can go back
to reread the section that deals with each question you got wrong to ensure that
you get the answer correctly the next time you are tested on the material.
On the CD-ROM you’ll find four sample exams. You should test your
knowledge by taking both the Core Hardware and Operating System Technol-
ogies practice exams when you have completed the book and feel you are ready
for the A+ exams. Take these practice exams just as if you were actually taking
the A+ exams (i.e., without any reference material). When you have finished
the practice exams, move onto the two bonus exams to solidify your test-taking
skills. If you get more than 90 percent of the answers correct, you’re ready to
go ahead and take the real exam.

xxviii Introduction
On the CD-ROM that is included with this book, there are several “extras”
you can use to bolster your exam readiness:
Electronic “flashcards” You can use these 150 flashcard-style questions to
review your knowledge of A+ concepts. They are available for PCs and hand-
held devices. You can download the questions right into your Palm device for
quick and convenient reviewing anytime, anywhere—without your PC!
Test engines The CD-ROM includes all of the questions that appear in this
book: the assessment questions at the end of this introduction and all of the
chapter review questions. Additionally, it includes two practice exams and
two bonus exams for each A+ module. The book questions appear much like
they did in the book, but they will be randomized. The randomized test will
allow you to pick a certain number of questions to be tested on, and it will
simulate the actual exam. Combined, these test engine elements will allow you
to test your readiness for the real A+ exam.
Full text of the book in PDF If you are going to travel but still need to study
for the A+ exam and you have a laptop with a CD-ROM drive, you can take
this entire book with you just by taking the CD-ROM. This book is in PDF
(Adobe Acrobat) format so it can be easily read on any computer.
The Exam Objectives

Behind every computer industry exam you can be sure to find exam objectives—
the broad topics in which the exam developers want to ensure your competency.
The official CompTIA exam objectives are listed here.
Exam objectives are subject to change at any time without prior notice and at
CompTIA’s sole discretion. Please visit the A+ Certification page of CompTIA’s
Web site (www.comptia.org/certification/aplus/index.htm) for the most
current listing of exam objectives.
The A+ Core Hardware Service Technician Exam Objectives

As mentioned previously, there are two tests required to become A+ certified: the
Core Hardware Service Technician exam and the Operating System Technologies
exam. The following are the areas (or “domains” according to CompTIA) in
which you must be proficient in order to pass the A+ Core Module exam.
Domain 1.0: Installation, Configuration, and Upgrading

This content area deals with the installation, configuration, and upgrading of
common computer Field Replaceable Units (FRUs). Most technicians spend a lot
of time performing these operations. To that end, CompTIA has made sure that
questions from this content area will make up 30 percent of the exam.

Introduction xxix
1.1 Identify basic terms, concepts, and functions of system modules, includ-
ing how each module should work during normal operation and during
the boot process.
1.2 Identify basic procedures for adding and removing field replaceable
modules for both desktop and portable systems.
1.3 Identify available IRQs, DMAs, and I/O addresses and procedures for
configuring them for device installation and configuration.
1.4 Identify common peripheral ports, associated cabling, and their
connectors.
1.5 Identify proper procedures for installing and configuring IDE/EIDE
devices.
1.6 Identify proper procedures for installing and configuring SCSI devices.
1.7 Identify proper procedures for installing and configuring peripheral
devices.
1.8 Identify hardware methods of upgrading system performance, proce-
dures for replacing basic subsystem components, unique components
and when to use them.
Domain 2.0: Diagnosing and Troubleshooting

Before a technician can install or upgrade a component, he or she must determine
which component needs to be replaced. A technician will normally use the skills
addressed by the diagnosing and troubleshooting content areas to make that
determination. Questions about these two topics together make up 30 percent of
the exam.
2.1 Identify common symptoms and problems associated with each module
and how to troubleshoot and isolate the problems.
2.2 Identify basic troubleshooting procedures and how to elicit problem
symptoms from customers.
Domain 3.0: Preventive Maintenance

Most people don’t think of computer service as a dangerous job. Most often,
safety precautions are taken to prevent damage to the components. In actual-
ity, there are a few components that can cause severe injury. This topic also
covers maintenance and cleaning of computer components. Questions about
these topics constitute 5 percent of the exam.
3.1 Identify the purpose of various types of preventive maintenance prod-
ucts and procedures and when to use and perform them.
3.2 Identify issues, procedures, and devices for protection within the com-
puting environment, including people, hardware, and the surrounding
workspace.

xxx Introduction
Domain 4.0: Motherboards, Processors, and Memory

Several of the items in these content areas give people the most problems (for
example, learning the differences between all the various types of processors).
This content area makes up 15 percent of the exam.
4.1 Distinguish between the popular CPU chips in terms of their basic
characteristics.
4.2 Identify the categories of RAM (Random Access Memory) terminology,
their locations, and physical characteristics.
4.3 Identify the most popular type of motherboards, their components, and
their architecture (bus structures and power supplies).
4.4 Identify the purpose of CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semicon-
ductor), what it contains, and how to change its basic parameters.
Domain 5.0: Printers

As we were writing this book, we asked A+ certified technicians what they
thought was the hardest part of the Core Hardware exam. With a single,
resounding voice they all said, “Printers!” For this reason, we have tried to make
the printer section as comprehensive as possible. Although there are only two
objectives here and the questions on printers make up 10 percent of the test, we
have dedicated an entire chapter to printer components and operation to make
sure that this area won’t give you any problems.
5.1 Identify basic concepts, printer operations, and printer components.
5.2 Identify care and service techniques and common problems with pri-
mary printer types.
Domain 6.0: Basic Networking

With the explosion of the Internet into the service world, the line between a ser-
vice technician and networking technician has blurred. Frequently, computers
that come in for service have problems that are related to their networking hard-
ware. An A+ certified technician should know how both the hardware and soft-
ware components of networking can affect the operation of the computer.
CompTIA has put basic networking concepts on the A+ Core Hardware exam,
and they make up 10 percent of the total exam questions.
6.1 Identify basic networking concepts, including how a network works
and the ramifications of repairs on the network.
Operating System Technologies Exam Objectives

The following are the areas in which you must be proficient in order to pass the
A+ Operating System Technologies exam.

Introduction xxxi
Domain 1.0: Operating System Fundamentals

This domain requires knowledge of DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95/98, Win-
dows NT, and Windows 2000 operating systems. You will need to know the way
they work, as well as the components that compose them. You will also need to
know topics relating to navigating the operating systems and, in general, how
to use them. Operating system fundamentals make up 30 percent of the exam.
1.1 Identify the operating system’s functions, structure, and major system
files to navigate the operating system and how to get to needed technical
information.
1.2 Identify basic concepts and procedures for creating, viewing, and man-
aging files, directories, and disks. This includes procedures for changing
file attributes and the ramifications of those changes (for example, secu-
rity issues).
Domain 2.0: Installation, Configuration, and Upgrading

This domain basically tests your knowledge of the day-to-day servicing of oper-
ating systems. This includes topics such as installing, configuring, and upgrading
the various operating systems (DOS, Windows 9x, NT, and 2000). You will also
be expected to know system boot sequences. These topics make up 15 percent of
the exam.
2.1 Identify the procedures for installing Windows 9x and Windows 2000
for bringing the software to a basic operational level.
2.2 Identify steps to perform an operating system upgrade.
2.3 Identify the basic system boot sequences and boot methods, including
the steps to create an emergency boot disk with utilities installed for
Windows 9x, Windows NT, and Windows 2000.
2.4 Identify procedures for loading/adding and configuring device drivers
and the necessary software for certain devices.
Domain 3.0: Diagnosing and Troubleshooting

Questions in this domain will test your ability to diagnose and troubleshoot
Windows 9x, NT, and 2000 systems and will make up a whopping 40 percent
of the test.
3.1 Recognize and interpret the meaning of common error codes and
startup messages from the boot sequence, and identify steps to correct
the problems.
3.2 Recognize common problems and determine how to resolve them.
Domain 4.0: Networks

This domain requires knowledge of network capabilities of DOS and Windows
and how to connect to networks. It includes what the Internet is, its capabilities,

xxxii Introduction
basic concepts relating to Internet access, and generic procedures for system
setup. Network questions make up 15 percent of the exam.
4.1 Identify the networking capabilities of Windows including procedures
for connecting to the network.
4.2 Identify concepts and capabilities relating to the Internet and basic pro-
cedures for setting up a system for Internet access.
Tips for Taking the A+ Exams

Here are some general tips for taking your exam successfully:
Bring two forms of ID with you. One must be a photo ID, such as a
driver’s license. The other can be a major credit card or a passport. Both
forms must have a signature.
Arrive early at the exam center so you can relax and review your study
materials, particularly tables and lists of exam-related information.
Read the questions carefully. Don’t be tempted to jump to an early con-
clusion. Make sure you know exactly what the question is asking.
Don’t leave any unanswered questions. Unanswered questions are scored
against you.
There will be questions with multiple correct responses. When there is more
than one correct answer, a message at the bottom of the screen will prompt
you to “Choose all that apply.” Be sure to read the messages displayed.
When answering multiple-choice questions you’re not sure about, use a
process of elimination to get rid of the obviously incorrect questions first.
This will improve your odds if you need to make an educated guess.
On form-based tests, because the hard questions will eat up the most time,
save them for last. You can move forward and backward through the
exam. (When the exam becomes adaptive, this tip will not work.)
For the latest pricing on the exams and updates to the registration proce-
dures, call Prometric at (800) 755-EXAM (755-3926) or (800) 77-
MICRO (776-4276). If you have further questions about the scope of the
exams or related CompTIA programs, refer to the CompTIA site at
www.comptia.org/.

Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service
Technician Exam
1. Which of the following computer components can be safely disposed of in
regular trash?
A. Monitors
B. Printer toner
C. Laptop batteries
D. None of the above
2. Which of the following components is especially dangerous to repair and

should only be opened by specially trained professionals?
A. Printer
B. Mouse
C. Monitor
D. Computer
3. Which of the following information is not stored on a computer’s CMOS chip?

A. Hard drive configuration
B. Printer configuration
C. Memory information
D. Date and time
4. Which type of memory is typically upgraded on a computer when you are

adding memory?
A. DRAM
B. SRAM
C. VRAM
D. QRAM
5. Which of the following interfaces are considered serial interfaces? (Select all
that apply.)
A. IEEE 1294
B. FireWire
C. USB
D. ECP

xxxiv Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam
6. Which of the following standards is commonly referred to as a FireWire port?

A. IEEE 1294
B. IEEE 1394
C. ISO 1294
D. IEEE 1666
7. Which of the following memory types offers the highest transfer rate and
bandwidth rate?
A. FPM DRAM
B. EDO RAM
C. DDR SDRAM
D. RIMM
8. What is the main purpose of WRAM?

A. It is a special type of memory designed for laptop computers.
B. It is a specialized type of memory for video accelerators.
C. It is a specialized type of memory for Windows accelerator cards.
D. It is a specialized type of memory for sound accelerator cards.
9. What type of cable is used by floppy drives?

A. 18-pin ribbon cable
B. 21-pin ribbon cable
C. 34-pin ribbon cable
D. 40-pin ribbon cable
10. How much disk capacity is supported by the original IDE specification?
A. 528MB
B. 640MB
C. 628MB
D. 1.2GB
11. What type of cable is used by internal SCSI devices?

A. 21-pin ribbon cable
B. 34-pin ribbon cable
C. 40-pin ribbon cable
D. 50-pin ribbon cable

Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam xxxv
12. Which ends of a SCSI bus should be terminated?

A. Neither end should be terminated; termination is for IDE buses.
B. The beginning of the chain should be terminated.
C. The end of the chain should be terminated.
D. Both ends of the chain should be terminated.
13. Which bus feature allows devices to bypass the processor and write their
information directly to main memory?
A. DMA channels
B. IRQs
C. I/O addresses
D. Bus mastering
14. Which IRQ is typically assigned to LPT2?

A. IRQ3
B. IRQ5
C. IRQ10
D. IRQ15
15. Which bus architecture is typically associated with IBM PS/2 computers?
A. ISA
B. EISA
C. MCA
D. VESA
16. What type of bus architecture is used commonly with Pentium class computers
and supports 64- and 32-bit data paths?
A. ISA
B. EISA
C. PCI
D. VESA
17. What type of PCMCIA card is 5mm thick and is commonly used with modem
and LAN adapters?
A. Type I
B. Type II
C. Type III
D. Type IV

xxxvi Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam
18. Which of the following connector types are not typically associated with mice?
A. Serial connector
B. Parallel connector
C. Bus mouse interface
D. PS/2 interface
19. What is the maximum resolution supported by the VGA standard?

A. 320 × 480
B. 480 × 600
C. 640 × 480
D. 800 × 600
20. Which type of cable is commonly associated with parallel printers?

A. DB-25F on the first connector and Male Centronics 36 on the second
connector
B. DB-25F on the first connector and Male Centronics 50 on the second
connector
C. DB-25M on the first connector and Male Centronics 36 on the second
connector
D. DB-25M on the first connector and Male Centronics 50 on the second
connector
21. What is the primary purpose of the transfer corona assembly in a laser printer?
A. It charges the paper so that the toner sticks to the paper.
B. It fuses the toner to the paper.
C. It moves the paper through the printer.
D. It is a laser that scans the image to the printer.
22. Which of the following options offers the slowest transfer speed between a
printer and a computer?
A. Serial
B. Parallel
C. USB
D. Network connection

Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam xxxvii
23. Which of the following physical network topologies offers the most fault
tolerance in terms of cable interruption, while balancing requirements for
amount of cable required?
A. Bus
B. Ring
C. Mesh
D. Star
24. Which IEEE specification is responsible for defining fiber optic standards?
A. 802.1
B. 802.4
C. 802.6
D. 802.8
25. What is the maximum data rate that can be transmitted over UTP Category
3 cable?
A. 4Mbps
B. 10Mbps
C. 16Mbps
D. 100Mbps
26. Which DMA channel is typically assigned to the hard disk controller?
A. DMA 1
B. DMA 2
C. DMA 3
D. DMA 4
27. What will most likely happen if you leave the blank (the piece of metal
or plastic that covers the space where expansion cards are placed) off the
computer when an expansion card is removed?
A. More airflow will be added.
B. Less airflow will be added.
C. More static will be present in the computer.
D. Less static will be present in the computer.

xxxviii Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam
28. Which universal command is used to access a computer’s CMOS settings?

A. During the computer’s startup, press F1.
B. During the computer’s startup, press the Delete key.
C. During the computer’s startup, press Control + Shift + Escape.
D. There is no universal way of accessing CMOS.
29. Which DOS command is used to create a bootable diskette that can be used for
troubleshooting?
A. FORMAT A: /S
B. FORMAT A: /B
C. FORMAT A: /Q
D. FORMAT A: /T
30. Which DOS configuration file would you check if a device driver was not
properly loading?
A. AUTOEXEC.BAT
B. SYSTEM.INI
C. CONFIG.SYS
D. BOOT.INI

Answers to Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam xxxix
Answers to Assessment Test: Core Hardware

Service Technician Exam
1. D. Many consumer electronic components including monitors, printer toner,
and batteries are considered hazardous material and should be disposed of
properly. Check your local waste disposal service for more detailed disposal
instructions. See Chapter 1 for more information.
2. C. The monitor is one of the most dangerous components to repair. It can

retain a high-voltage charge even when it is not turned on. Monitors should
only be opened by specially trained professionals. See Chapter 1 for more
information.
3. B. The computer has a special chip called CMOS (Complimentary Metal

Oxide Semiconductor) that saves important configuration information when
the computer is turned off. This includes date and time, hard drive configura-
tion, and memory settings as well as other options. See Chapter 2 for more
information.
4. A. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) is the type of memory that is

expanded when you add memory. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
is often used for cache memory. See Chapter 2 for more information.
5. B, C. The three main types of serial interfaces are Standard serial, Universal
Serial Bus (USB), and FireWire. IEEE 1294 and Enhanced Capabilities Port
(ECP) are considered parallel standards. See Chapter 2 for more information.
6. B. The FireWire standard was adopted by the Institute of Electronic and

Electrical Engineers in 1995 as IEEE 1394. See Chapter 2 for more information.
7. D. Direct Rambus (RIMM) is a relatively new technology that uses a fast (up
to 800MHz) technology. See Chapter 3 for more information.
8. C. Windows RAM (WRAM) is a specialized memory for Windows accelerator

cards. It is similar to video RAM, but it is much faster. See Chapter 3 for more
information.
9. C. Floppy drive cables use a 34-wire ribbon cable with three connectors. See
Chapter 4 for more information.
10. A. The original IDE specification only supported drives up to 528MB and
speeds to 3.3MBps. See Chapter 4 for more information.
11. D. SCSI internal devices use a 50-pin ribbon cable. IDE devices use a 40-pin
ribbon cable. See Chapter 4 for more information.
12. D. Both ends of a SCSI bus must be terminated for signals to be properly main-
tained. See Chapter 4 for more information.

xl Answers to Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam
13. A. Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels allow a device to write directly to
memory. Bus mastering allows devices to write directly to each other. See
14. B. IRQ5 is assigned to LPT2. Since most computers do not use LPT2, this
IRQ is typically available for use with other devices. See Chapter 5 for more
information.
15. C. The Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus was developed by IBM for
their PS/2 computers as an upgrade to the ISA architecture. See Chapter 5 for
more information.
16. C. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is a bus type commonly used

with Pentium class computers. This bus type supports 64- and 32-bit data
paths and can be used in 486 and Pentium-class computers. See Chapter 5 for
more information.
17. B. Type I cards are 3.3mm thick and are commonly used for memory cards.
Type II cards are 5mm thick and are used for modems and LAN adapters; they
are the most commonly used cards. Type III cards are 10.5mm thick and are
commonly used as PC hard disks. See Chapter 5 for more information.
18. B. Common mouse interface standards include serial connectors, bus mouse
interfaces, and PS/2 interfaces. See Chapter 6 for more information.
19. C. The maximum resolution supported by VGA is 640 × 480. The SVGA
standard supports up to 1024 × 768 resolution. See Chapter 6 for more
information.
20. C. Parallel printer cables use a DB-25M connector to connect to the parallel
port on the computer and a Male Centronics 36 connector to connect to the
printer. See Chapter 6 for more information.
21. A. After the laser writes the image to a photosensitive drum, the transfer corona
wire charges the paper so that the toner is pulled from the drum to the paper. See
22. A. Serial is the slowest option for printer communication type. With serial
connection, data is sent one bit at a time with the overhead of communication
parameters. See Chapter 7 for more information.
23. D. With a physical star topology, each network device connects to a central
hub. This prevents the entire network from failing in the event of a single cable
segment failure. The mesh topology is technically more fault tolerant, but is
not practical due to the amount of cable that would be required. See Chapter 8
for more information.
24. D. The IEEE 802 workgroup has designated 802.8 as the Fiber Optic Technical
Advisory Group. See Chapter 8 for more information.

Answers to Assessment Test: Core Hardware Service Technician Exam xli
25. B. Category 3 UTP cable contains four twisted pairs of wires and has three
twists per foot. It is only capable of transmitting data at 10Mbps. See
26. A. DMA 1 is the default assignment for the hard disk controller. See Chapter 9
27. B. Blanks are used to promote proper airflow to the internal components of a
computer. Introducing a new hole will often result in less airflow, which could
cause your computer to overheat and burn out components. See Chapter 9 for
more information.
28. D. Each computer manufacturer has a specific way of accessing the com-
puter’s CMOS settings. This will vary from computer to computer. See
29. A. The FORMAT A: /S command is used to create a floppy disk that has the
system files installed so that the disk is considered bootable. See Chapter 10
30. C. In a DOS environment, the CONFIG.SYS file is the main configuration

file for memory management and device configuration. See Chapter 10 for
more information.

Assessment Test: Operating System
Technologies Exam
1. Which Windows 98 command-line utility is used to delete files and directories,
even if the subdirectories contain additional files?
A. DEL
B. REMOVE
C. DELTREE
D. REMTREE
2. Which key would you use in Windows 98 to select non-contiguous files for a
file action such as a copy?
A. CTRL
B. SHIFT
C. ALT
D. F5
3. Which Windows 98 utility would you use to check a disk drive for disk-related
errors?
A. Disk Cleanup
B. Disk Manager
C. Disk Defragmenter
D. SCANDISK
4. What is the minimum amount of RAM a computer must have to run

Windows 98?
A. 8MB
B. 12MB
C. 16MB
D. 32MB
5. Which of the following commands would you use to partition your disk drives
prior to a Windows 98 installation?
A. PARTDISK
B. FDISK
C. MAKEPART
D. FORMAT

Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam xliii
6. What is the purpose of the MSCDEX.EXE file on the Windows 98 startup disk?
A. Memory manager
B. Video manager
C. Provides hard drive support
D. Provides CD-ROM support
7. Which Windows 95 option would you use if you did not want your system
checked for Plug-and-Play devices?
A. SETUP /pi
B. SETUP /np
C. SETUP /-np
D. SETUP /-npnp
8. Which of the following options best describes what happens when you install
Windows 95 with the portable configuration?
A. No networking is installed.
B. PCMCIA support and APM support is installed.
C. The minimum Windows 95 files are installed.
D. The GNP components are installed.
9. Which of the following options is not an upgrade enhancement when

upgrading from Windows 95 (original version, not OSR2) to Windows 98?
A. Better Internet support through the integration of Internet Explorer
B. Support for newer hardware such as USB, AGP, and DVD
C. Support for the FAT32 file system
D. DOS 6 replaced by DOS 7
10. Which Windows 98 startup file allows the rest of the operating system and its
programs to interact directly with the system hardware and the system BIOS?
A. MSDOS.SYS
B. BIOS.SYS
C. IO.SYS
D. OSIO.SYS

xliv Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam
11. Which Windows 98 utility is used to easily edit configuration files such as
CONFIG.SYS and WIN.INI?
A. MSCONFIG
B. WINCONFIG
C. W98CONFIG
D. REGEDIT
12. Which Windows 98 utility would you use if you wanted to upgrade a FAT16
partition to a FAT32 partition?
A. Disk Converter
B. FDISK
C. Disk Manager
D. Disk Administrator
13. How much free disk space is required on a computer that will have
Windows 2000 Professional installed?
A. 650MB
B. 1.2GB
C. 1.6GB
D. 2GB
14. You want to install Windows 2000 on a computer that has just had its hard
drive formatted. What command would you use on a Windows 98 com-
puter that had the Windows 2000 Professional CD to make Windows 2000
Startup Disks?
A. BOOTDISK
B. MAKEBOOT
C. MAKEBT16
D. MAKEBT32
15. What command would you use to install Windows 2000 Professional on a
computer that needs to have the accessibility options installed?
A. SETUP /A
B. SETUP /H
C. WINNT /A
D. WINNT /H

Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam xlv
16. Which of the following operating systems can be upgraded directly to

Windows 2000 Professional? (Select all that apply.)
A. Windows 3.1
B. Windows 95
C. Windows 98
D. Windows NT Workstation 4.0
17. Which Windows 2000 boot file is used in a dual-boot configuration to keep
a copy of the DOS or Windows 9x boot sector?
A. NTBOOT.SYS
B. NTBOOT.DOS
C. BOOTSECT.SYS
D. BOOTSECT.DOS
18. What file extension is associated with Microsoft Installer files?

A. .APP
B. .MSI
C. .INS
D. .DAT
19. Which of the following options provides the most reliable way to uninstall a
Windows 98 application?
A. Control Panel Windows Configuration
B. Control Panel System Configuration
C. Control Panel Add/ Remove Programs
D. Delete the application files with Windows Explorer and remove any
Registry entries
20. Which printer option is used to bypass printer spooling?

A. Print Directly to Printer.
B. Bypass Print Spooling.
C. Disable Spooling.
D. This option can only be set by directly editing the Registry.

xlvi Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam
21. Which of the following backup options backs up the files on a disk that have
changed since the last Full backup and does not mark the files that are backed
up during the session as archived?
A. Full
B. Differential
C. Incremental
D. Partial
22. Which of the following commands is not located on a Windows 98 startup disk?
A. FDISK
B. FORMAT
C. SYS
D. DELTREE
23. What command-line utility would you use to create a Windows NT Emergency
Repair Disk?
A. ERD
B. MAKEERD
C. RDISK
D. MAKEDISK
24. Which of the following network protocols is not a default protocol that can be
loaded with Windows 98?
A. NetBEUI
B. DLP
C. NWLink
D. TCP/IP
25. What software must be loaded on a Windows 98 client so that the computer
can access other Microsoft network clients?
A. Microsoft Client for Microsoft Networks
B. Client Connect
C. TCP Connect
D. File and Print Sharing Manager

Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam xlvii
26. What UNC path would you use to connect to a folder called DATA and a
share called ACCT on a computer called WS1 on a domain called ACME?
A. \\ACME\WS1\ACCT\DATA
B. \\ACME\WS1\ACCT
C. \\WS1\ACCT\DATA
D. \\DATA\ACCT\WS1\ACME
27. Which service is responsible for managing Internet host names and domain
names as well as resolving the names to IP addresses?
A. DHCP
B. WINS
C. DNS
D. SMS
28. What key do you press to access Safe Mode when Windows 98 is booting?
A. F1
B. F2
C. F6
D. F8
29. Which utility would you use to troubleshoot hardware problems on a

Windows 98 computer?
A. Task Manager
B. Device Manager
C. SCANDISK
D. System Services Manager
30. What command is used on Windows 98 computers to check the consistency of

the Registry and to back up the Registry?
A. REGEDIT
B. REGEDT32
C. SYSREG
D. SCANREG

xlviii Answers to Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam
Answers to Assessment Test: Operating

System Technologies Exam
1. C. The DEL command is used to delete files. RD is used to remove empty
directories or subdirectories. DELTREE is used to delete files and directories,
even if they contain files. See Chapter 12 for more information.
2. A. The CTRL key is used to select non-contiguous files, while the SHIFT key is
used to select contiguous files. See Chapter 12 for more information.
3. D. SCANDISK is used to check a disk drive for errors or problems. Disk

Cleanup is used to delete unneeded files. Disk Defragmenter is used to arrange
data so that it is more easily accessed. See Chapter 12 for more information.
4. B. While 12MB is the bare minimum to load the operating system, Microsoft
actually recommends at least 16–32MB of memory. See Chapter 13 for more
information.
5. B. The FDISK utility is used to manage disk partitions. With FDISK you
can create, delete, and mark the active partition. See Chapter 13 for more
information.
6. D. The MSCDEX.EXE file is used to provide CD-ROM drive support prior

to Windows 98 being loaded. You also need to load the proper CD-ROM
driver. See Chapter 13 for more information.
7. A. The SETUP /pi switch skips the check for any Plug-and-Play devices. See
8. B. When you install a portable or laptop computer and use the portable con-
figuration, the PCMCIA support is added as well as Advanced Power Man-
agement for when the laptop is running from battery power. See Chapter 13
9. D. When you upgrade from Windows 95 to Windows 98, DOS 7 (16-bit) is

replaced by DOS32 (32-bit). See Chapter 13 for more information.
10. C. The IO.SYS file allows the rest of the operating system and its programs to
interact directly with the system hardware and the system BIOS. A part of this
file’s code is hardware drivers for common devices (such as serial and commu-
nication ports and disk drives). See Chapter 13 for more information.
11. A. The MSCONFIG utility is used to edit configuration files easily and graph-
ically. See Chapter 13 for more information.
12. A. The FAT32 file system offers several enhancements to the FAT16 file sys-
tem. You can convert existing FAT16 partitions to FAT32 partitions through
System Tools Disk Converter utility. See Chapter 13 for more information.

Answers to Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam xlix
13. D. Windows 2000 installations require a minimum of 2GB of free disk space
for the installation process. See Chapter 14 for more information.
14. B. The MAKEBOOT command is used from Windows 9x computers while

the MAKEBT32 command is used from Windows NT or Windows 2000
computers. See Chapter 14 for more information.
15. D. Windows 2000 uses the WINNT command to start the installation pro-
cess. The /H switch specifies that the accessibility options should be installed.
See Chapter 14 for more information.
16. B, C, D. If the hardware requirements for a Windows 3.1 computer meet the
Windows 2000 requirements you can install Windows 2000, but there is no
supported upgrade path for this operating system. See Chapter 14 for more
information.
17. D. If your computer has an operating system installed and you install Win-
dows 2000 (as opposed to an upgrade), your computer will be capable of dual-
booting. The previous operating system’s boot information will be stored in a
file called BOOTSECT.DOS. See Chapter 14 for more information.
18. B. Files used to install applications are .MSI files. Microsoft Installer files have
many advantages over traditional installation processes. See Chapter 15 for
more information.
19. C. The best and safest way to remove Windows applications is through the
Add/Remove Programs applet within the Control Panel. See Chapter 15 for
more information.
20. A. When you access a printer’s properties, you can bypass printer spooling
by selecting the Print Directly to Printer option. See Chapter 16 for more
information.
21. B. A Differential backup does not mark the files that are backed up as
archived. An Incremental backup would mark the files that are backed up
as archived. See Chapter 17 for more information.
22. D. The Windows 98 startup disk is a bootable disk that contains most of the
commands needed to set up the computer prior to the Windows 98 installa-
tion. However, this disk does not contain the DELTREE command by default.
23. C. The RDISK command is used in Windows NT computers to create the

ERD. This disk is not bootable and is specific to the computer that it was
created on. See Chapter 17 for more information.
24. B. Windows 98 does not support a protocol called DLP. See Chapter 18 for
more information.

l Answers to Assessment Test: Operating System Technologies Exam
25. A. The Microsoft Client for Microsoft Networks software is used to allow the
computer to access network resources located on other Microsoft computers.
26. C. Universal Naming Convention (UNC) paths specify the computer name,
followed by the share name, followed by the path. See Chapter 18 for more
information.
27. C. The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve Internet host names or
domain names to IP addresses. See Chapter 18 for more information.
28. D. When prompted during the Windows 98 boot process, press the F8 key to
access Windows Safe Mode. This is useful for troubleshooting purposes. See
29. B. The Device Manager utility can be used to see all of the devices and their
status that are recognized by the Windows 98 operating system. See Chapter 19
30. D. The SCANREG command is used to check and back up the Registry. It will
also attempt to fix any problems it diagnoses with the Registry structure. See

A+: Core PART
Hardware Service
Technician Exam I

Chapter Basic Computer Service
Concepts
1 THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVES ARE COVERED IN
THIS CHAPTER:
1.3 Identify available IRQs, DMAs, and I/O addresses and
procedures for configuring them for device installation and
configuration.
Content may include the following:
Standard IRQ settings
Modems
Floppy drive controllers
Hard drive controllers
USB ports
Infrared ports
Hexidecimal/Addresses
2.1 Identify common symptoms and problems associated with
each module and how to troubleshoot and isolate the problems.
Processor/memory symptoms
Mouse
Floppy drive
Parallel ports
Hard drives
CD-ROM
DVD
Sound card/audio
Monitor/video
Motherboards
Modems
BIOS

USB
NIC
CMOS
Power supply
Slot covers
POST audible/visual error codes
Troubleshooting tools, e.g., multimeter
Large LBA, LBA
Cables
Keyboard
Peripherals
3.1 Identify the purpose of various types of preventive
maintenance products and procedures and when to use and
perform them.
Liquid cleaning compounds
Types of materials to clean contacts and connections
Non-static vacuums (chassis, power supplies, fans)
3.2 Identify issues, procedures, and devices for protection
within the computing environment, including people,
hardware, and the surrounding workspace.
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and suppressors
Determining the signs of power issues
Proper methods of storage of components for future use
Potential hazards and proper safety procedures
relating to:
Lasers
High-voltage equipment
Power supply
CRT

Special disposal procedures that comply with
environmental guidelines.
Batteries
CRTs
Toner kits/cartridges
Chemical solvents and cans
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) precautions and
procedures
What ESD can do, how it may be apparent, or hidden
Common ESD protection devices
Situations that could present a danger or hazard

T he computers of today are complex devices. Each computer
contains hundreds of individual components, and these components work
together to perform specific functions inside the computer. In this chapter,
we’ll discuss the most common components and their functions. We’ll also
explain a few of the basic electronics concepts needed to service the microcom-
puter hardware of today. The topics are categorized as follows:
Microcomputer electronic components
The physics of electronics
Tools of the trade
Electrostatic discharge
Safety
Environmental concerns
The material in this chapter is introductory and is included to make sure we
have all our bases covered. If you are already familiar with this material, we sug-
gest you just skim through the chapter and answer the review questions at the end.
For complete coverage of objective 2.1, please also see Chapters 4, 6, 8, and 10. For
complete coverage of objective 3.2, please see Chapter 2.
Microcomputer Electronic Components

M any of the components found in computers today are basically the
same components you’d find in almost every major household appliance. Most
of these components have been used since the late 1960s. For example, every tele-
vision set contains resistors and transistors. Automobiles today actually contain
small computers that monitor the speed of the car and make adjustments to the
fuel mixture accordingly.

Microcomputer Electronic Components 7
Analog vs. Digital

Before we discuss electronic components, we must define the words analog and
digital because we will be using them throughout our discussions of computer
technology.
Today’s computer components use digital signals, which are signals that con-
tain values that are discrete. Analog signals, on the other hand, change values
over time. Consider the difference between two common types of light switches:
a standard light switch and a dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only
two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time the switch will be in either one
position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which have dis-
crete values (like on and off). By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at
off, but can be changed gradually to stronger and stronger intensities, up to the
full on setting. At any one instant, a dimmer switch can have a setting almost
anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog electrical signal, which
may be on or off or somewhere in between.
Vacuum Tubes—The Old Days…

Today’s computer components are the products of previous generations of trial
and error. Each generation improves upon the previous era. The grandfather of
today’s computer components is the vacuum tube (Figure 1.1).
FIGURE 1.1 A vacuum tube
The vacuum tube is really nothing more than a switch. A small voltage at one
pole switches a larger voltage at the other poles on or off. Because information
in a computer is represented as binary (1s and 0s), switches are ideal—because
they too have only two positions, 1 or 0.
The first electronic computers contained cabinets full of vacuum tubes. There
were several problems with this. First, the tubes utilized a heating element in order
to facilitate the flow of electrons between the poles. These heating elements had to
be “warmed up” in order to function properly. Thus, it took several minutes to
turn the computer on. Also, with several tubes in the same cabinet, the elements
would generate quite a bit of heat. Unfortunately, heat shortens the life of elec-
tronic components—so each computer usually had a room full of air conditioning

8 Chapter 1 Basic Computer Service Concepts
equipment just for keeping the tubes cool! Even so, the average temperature in
these computers was greater than 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
Second, the vacuum tubes were very bulky. Computers like the first computer,
ENIAC, often took up enough cabinets to fill an entire floor of a building, with the
computer in one room and the air conditioning equipment in the one next to it.
Transistors—Turn Them On
If the vacuum tube is the grandfather, then the transistor is the parent of today’s
electronic components. Transistors (Figure 1.2) work in basically the same man-
ner as vacuum tubes. A small voltage applied to one pole controls a larger voltage
on the other poles. The difference between a transistor and a vacuum tube is that
a transistor uses a sandwich of silicon instead of tube filled with gas to do the
switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither conductor nor
insulator; they’re called semiconductors. This type of element will be either a
conductor or an insulator depending on some condition. In the case of transis-
tors, an electrical current will cause the silicon to be a conductor.
FIGURE 1.2 A transistor
Transistors overcame most of the limitations of vacuum tubes. They generate

very little heat, and they are much smaller than vacuum tubes. With transistors,
computers that fit into a single room could be made. As manufacturing tech-
niques have become more precise, transistors have gotten smaller and smaller.
Today, five million transistors can fit into an area smaller than a thumbnail.
Resistors—Keeping Electricity at Bay

Another component that is commonly used in computers is the resistor. As its
name suggests, it resists the flow of electricity. The electricity is dissipated in the
form of heat. There are two types of resistors: fixed and variable.
Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors are used when you need to reduce the current by a certain
amount. They are easily identified by their size and shape (see Figure 1.3). Their
resistance level is indicated by means of colored bands painted on the resistor.

FIGURE 1.3 A fixed resistor
Fixed resistors are color coded to identify their resistance values. They are color
coded rather than having their values printed right on their bodies for two rea-
sons. First, the resistors are only 3 ⁄4 inch long. Second, they’re cylindrical. In
other words, it is rather difficult to print on them (and the print would be difficult
to read at that size anyway).
If you ever need to replace a resistor, you must replace it with a resistor of the
same resistance level. The resistance level can be determined by reading the val-
ues of the colored bands. Each colored band stands for a number:
The first two bands represent the digits of a two-digit number.
The third band represents a multiplier.
The presence or absence of a fourth band represents a margin-of-error
factor (commonly called the resistor’s tolerance range).
For example, say you have a resistor with the following colors (reading from
left to right): red, orange, and brown. Checking the values as listed in Table 1.1,
you can see that red represents the number 2, orange represents the number 3,
and brown represents a multiplier of 10. The resistance is 23 times 10, which
equals 230. Resistance is expressed in ohms, so you could express the value as
230Ω. But don’t forget the tolerance value for the resistor. Because there is no
fourth band in this example, the tolerance range for this value is plus or minus
20% (as noted at the bottom of Table 1.1); the true resistance of the resistor is
thus somewhere between 184Ω and 276Ω.
Table 1.1 lists the colors and their associated values. Remember to always
read the colors from left to right (“left” on a resistor is the side that has the three
colored bands on it).
TABLE 1.1 Standard Color Codes for Resistors
Color 1st Band (Left Digit) 2nd Band (Right Digit) 3rd Band (Multiplier)
Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 10
Red 2 2 100
Orange 3 3 1,000

TABLE 1.1 Standard Color Codes for Resistors (continued)
Color 1st Band (Left Digit) 2nd Band (Right Digit) 3rd Band (Multiplier)
Yellow 4 4 10,000
Green 5 5 100,000
Blue 6 6 1,000,000
Violet 7 7 10,000,000
Gray 8 8 100,000,000
White 9 9 N/A
Note: Be sure to look for a fourth band. If there is no fourth band, it means the tolerance level of
the resistor is not very good—it’s between plus or minus 20% of the value indicated by the other
bands. If there is a fourth band, it will be either silver or gold. Silver represents a tolerance of ±10%.
Gold represents a tolerance of ±5%.
Pay special attention to the note at the bottom of the table. Tolerance bands
indicate how well the resistor holds to its rated value. As we mentioned in the
preceding example, if there is no fourth band, the resistor has a tolerance of plus
or minus 20%. That’s pretty bad. In electronics, you usually need things to be
very close (like a tolerance of less than 5%). A silver band indicates a 10% vari-
ation, and a gold band indicates a 5% variation. Remember, though, this range
indicates the maximum variation—it’s possible that the resistor might be right
on with its resistance value. For example, say you have the color sequence
brown, green, orange, silver. The resistance would be indicated as 15 × 1,000, or
15,000Ω (you can also express it as 15kΩ)—and it may very well be that this par-
ticular resistor is able to resist currents up to precisely that strength. However, to
be safe, you need to take into account the maximum deviation from this value,
which would be indicated by the fourth band color (silver in this example, which
represents a ±10% variation), so this resistor might have a value of as little as
13,500Ω (13.5kΩ) or as much as 16,500 (16.5kΩ).
Variable Resistors
The variable resistor is also called a rheostat or potentiometer. The most com-
mon use in a computer for a variable resistor is for a volume control or bright-
ness control. The resistance is varied between the center pole and either of the
end poles (see Figure 1.4). It can be used to vary resistance directly from zero to
infinity by hooking the target to one pole and the source to the center pole. Or,

you can use a variable resistor to slowly vary from one source to another by
hooking each source to a pole and the target to the center pole.
FIGURE 1.4 A variable resistor
Sometimes resistors are placed together into an assembly that is commonly

referred to as a resistor pack. These resistor packs are used in some drive systems
to terminate (stop) the signals being sent on the drive cable. When they perform
this function, they are called terminators. We will discuss this type of resistor
more in later chapters.
Capacitors—Storing a Charge for Later

Another commonly used component is the capacitor. A capacitor is used to store
electrical charge. Typically used in power supplies and in timing circuits, these
items are rarely the cause of failure in a system because all they do is store a charge
and release it. Capacitors in a computer can be easily identified because they usu-
ally look like small metal cans or small disks with two connectors (Figure 1.5).
FIGURE 1.5 A capacitor
Do not touch a charged capacitor! They can hold charges of thousands of volts
and can cause serious injury. Stay away from them even when power has been
removed. They can retain a charge for hours after power has been removed.
Integrated Circuits (ICs)—Welcome to the 1980s

With today’s manufacturing techniques, it is possible to put all of these compo-
nents together into circuits that perform certain functions. In the 1970s, you
might have hooked up several components on boards called circuit boards. Start-
ing in the 80s, components were etched into pieces of silicon no larger than a
dime. In order to get this small item onto a circuit board, the silicon wafer is
placed into a package that has pins coming out of it. These pins are wired with

tiny copper or gold wiring directly to the silicon chip. This package comes in sev-
eral forms, but is generally called an integrated circuit chip or IC chip.
When we say “chip” in the computer business today, we often mean the package
that the silicon wafer is housed in, not the wafer itself. From now on, when we use
the word chip, we are referring to the IC.
There are several types of ICs, but we will cover only the most commonly
used types.
Dual Inline Package

The most common package for an IC is the Dual Inline Package, or DIP. DIPs
contain two rows of pins and are usually black with markings on top indicating
their manufacturer and purpose. Figure 1.6 shows a Dual Inline Package IC.
DIPs are commonly seen being used as memory chips, although this design is
being used less and less.
FIGURE 1.6 A Dual Inline Package IC
Quad Small Outline Package

The Quad Small Outline Package (QSOP—also called a surface mount) is among
the most commonly used types of chips today. Figure 1.7 shows an example of a
QSOP package. This design has the advantage of being very compact.
FIGURE 1.7 A Quad Small Outline Package IC
Most chip manufacturers use a technology called VLSI, or Very Large Scale Inte-
gration. The idea is to integrate the functions of several small chips into one, usu-
ally larger, chip. Most often, these VLSI chips are of the QSOP type.

Single Inline Package

When a circuit needs to be removable, there are several ways of designing it. One
of the first ways was with the Single Inline Package (SIP). SIPs are characterized
by a small circuit board with several small pins coming out of it (see Figure 1.8);
the SIPs are plugged into corresponding holes or mounts in a circuit board. SIPs
are not used much anymore, primarily because of the tendency of the pins to
break. SIPs were often used for memory modules.
FIGURE 1.8 A Single Inline Package IC
Pin Grid Array Package

Finally, when a circuit or component doesn’t have to be removed often and it con-
tains a large number of transistors, typically you use a PGA and a ZIF (Figure 1.9).
PGA stands for Pin Grid Array, describing the array of pins used to connect the
chip to the circuit board. ZIF stands for zero insertion force, which describes how
easy it is to place a chip in this kind of socket. It is a type of socket that works with
PGA chips to allow them to be mounted on a circuit board.
FIGURE 1.9 PGA Package and a ZIF socket
Miscellaneous Components
There are a few types of hardware components that don’t fit well into any of
the categories we’ve already defined. These include jumpers, DIP switches, and
connectors.

And Now for the Real World…
In the past, computer service required an electronics degree, or at the very least
a working knowledge of every component. Today, it is very labor intensive to
troubleshoot an individual resistor or capacitor. Typically, the technician will trou-
bleshoot a particular module or FRU (Field Replaceable Unit). Troubleshooting
the logic board, hard disk, power supply, or monitor is easier than finding out
which particular IC or resistor is causing the problem. This makes repair easier,
faster, and cheaper. Also, it makes it easier for people to become technicians
because they don’t need to have electronics degrees.
It should be noted, however, that electronics experience makes troubleshooting

a particular FRU easier.
Jumpers
Jumpers were developed as a way of allowing a particular device option (such as
which interrupt is being used) to be both user settable and semipermanent without
requiring the user to own a chip “burner.” Jumpers consist of a row of pins and a
small plastic cap with metal inserts. The cap can be moved by the user to cover dif-
ferent pairs of pins. The cap completes a circuit between those two pins, thus
selecting one of the possible configuration options for that device (see Figure 1.10).
FIGURE 1.10 Jumpers and their use

Some cards or circuit boards have several jumpers—so when you go to con-
figure the device, you will need to select the appropriate jumpering option. To
find out which pins have to be jumpered in order to select different configuration
options, consult the documentation of the device.
If you don’t have the documentation, you may have to try all the different
jumpering combinations to see if you can get the device configured properly:
With a six-pin device (as shown in the top part of Figure 1.10), you have
eight possible settings: all unjumpered, left pair jumpered, middle pair
jumpered, right pair jumpered, left and middle pairs jumpered, left and
right pairs jumpered, middle and right pairs jumpered, and all jumpered.
This arrangement is common for setting the ID number or other configu-
ration setting of a SCSI device.
With a three-pin device (as shown in the bottom part of the figure), you
are usually only concerned with setting the device to an active or inactive
status. Any one of the options shown in the bottom of Figure 1.10 may
mean “on”; one of the others would then be the “off” setting. (The third,
perhaps in this case represented by the all-unjumpered configuration on
the left, may mean “let Plug and Play determine the setting.”)
Dual Inline Package (DIP) Switches

Jumpers are fine for single settings, but what if you have a number of settings that
have to be user settable and semipermanent? You could use several jumpers, but
in larger numbers, they were difficult to work with. Someone came up with the
idea of using several really small switches and having the pattern of their ons and
offs represent the different settings. These switches are known as DIP switches,
and they can be either rocker type or slide type (see Figure 1.11).
FIGURE 1.11 DIP switches
If you look carefully at Figure 1.11, you will notice that there is a little “1”
imprinted on one side of the switches. When a rocker switch is depressed on that
side, it is considered on. By comparison, when the nub of a sliding switch is sticking
up on the side with the “1” marking, that indicates on. (Some DIP switches, by the
way, are marked with a “0” to indicate the side that is the off position for the switch.)
Because these switches are so small, it is often easier to set them with a pen,
probe, or small screwdriver than it is to set them with your fingers. If you do use
your fingers, you may notice that you move more than just the switch you were
intending to move.

Connectors
The last category of component that we’ll discuss includes the numerous types of
connectors found outside the computer. The most common type, the DB connec-
tors, are typically designated with “DB-n,” with the letter n replaced by the num-
ber of connectors. DB connectors are usually shaped like a trapezoid, as you can
see in the various end-on views in Figure 1.12. The nice part about these connec-
tors is that there is only one orientation possible. If you try to connect them upside
down or try to connect a male connector to another male connector, they just
won’t go together and the connection can’t be made.
FIGURE 1.12 DIP switches

Another type, the DIN-n connectors (again, the n is replaced by the number
of connectors), are usually circular. DIN connectors were developed in Germany
and became popular in the U.S. because of their small size.
For communications, there is another type, following the RJ-n specifications.
It’s a rather strange-looking connector, with a tab on the bottom and small brass
connectors on top. These connectors are easy to identify—just look at the con-
nectors on your telephone. The connector on the end of the cord that runs from
the phone to the wall is an RJ-11 connector. The connector on the end of the
cable that runs from your handset to your phone is the smaller, RJ-12 connector.
You may have seen the type of network cable that uses an RJ-45 connector,
which looks about twice as big as an RJ-11 connector.
Finally, the most unique type of connector is the Centronics connector. The
36-pin Centronics connector is used on your parallel printer cable (one end has
a DB-25 connector, the other a 36-pin Centronics connector).
DB-n connectors are also known as D-Shell or D-Sub connectors. The terms may
be used interchangeably.
Connector identifications are often given with male or female designations—

DB-9 male, for example. Table 1.2 indicates the common uses of various
connectors.
TABLE 1.2 PC Connectors
Number of
Pins or Male or
Connector Sockets Female Common Applications
DB-9 9 pins Male Serial port.
DB-9 9 sockets Female EGA/CGA video port.

(Might also be a Token Ring
adapter port.)
DB-15 15 sockets Female If there are three rows of five,

it’s probably a VGA/SVGA
video adapter. If it’s one row of
eight and one row of seven, it
might be a network transceiver
port or, more commonly, a
joystick port.
DB-25 25 pins Male Serial port.

TABLE 1.2 PC Connectors (continued)
Number of
Pins or Male or
Connector Sockets Female Common Applications
DB-25 25 sockets Female Most often a parallel port. On

Macintoshes, however, this
type of connector is used for the
external SCSI bus.
RJ-11 4 pins Male Telephone wall jack phone

cord.
RJ-12 4 pins Male Telephone handset cord.
RJ-45 8 pins Male 10BaseT Ethernet cable.
Centronics 36 36 pins Male Parallel cable.
Centronics 50 50 pins Male SCSI connector.
PS/2 6 sockets Female PS/2 mouse port.
DIN-8 8 sockets Female Macintosh printer

connector.
DIN-9 9 sockets Female Bus mouse port.
The Physics of Electronics

E very technician should have a basic understanding of certain physics
concepts. We’re sure some of you are saying, “Oh, no—not physics!” Before you
get upset, however, there are only four main concepts that we have to discuss.
Also, this material is not on the test, so if you don’t want to read it, or if you
already know it, feel free to skip ahead to the next section in this chapter.
Electricity Defined
Let’s start by defining electricity. Electricity is the flow of electrons from one
molecule of a substance to another. In order for electrons to flow, an element
must have free electrons. Elements such as copper, iron, and zinc have free elec-
trons, thus making them good conductors of electricity. All computer compo-
nents use electricity to function.

The Physics of Electronics 19
Conductors vs. Nonconductors

We’ll start with the question “Does water conduct electricity?” The standard
answer is “Yes”—but technically that’s an incorrect answer. We’re setting you up,
we admit, but it should get you thinking. Here’s the scoop. If you use a multimeter
(a device used to measure voltages and resistances in electronic components) to test
the resistance in a bowl of pure (meaning distilled and deionized) water, you will
get a reading of infinite resistance (meaning very little, if any, electricity is flowing
through that bowl of water). When we follow up, then, with the question “If water
doesn’t conduct electricity, can you take a bath with your radio?” the answer is
“Not if you don’t want to get a permanent 1970s hairdo!” Why? Because the
water you take a bath in does conduct electricity. What’s happening here?
The answer is that the water you take a bath in, wash dishes in, even drink, con-
tains impurities. It is these impurities that conduct electricity. The electrons hop
from each molecule of impurity to another. The bottom line is that most metals
conduct electricity, and this includes salts of metals that dissolve in water—for
example, sodium chloride (table salt). Therefore, water in its naturally occurring
state (i.e., with the impurities) is a conductor.
A conductor is any material that conducts electricity (allows it to flow
readily). Copper metal is an example of a great conductor. Conversely, a non-
conductor is a material that inhibits the flow of electricity. Paper, rubber, and
most organic materials are generally considered to be nonconductors.
Dynamic vs. Static Electricity

The electricity that comes from the wall is one of two types of electricity. That
kind of electricity is usually just called electricity. For the purposes of our dis-
cussion, we’ll call it dynamic electricity because it is constantly moving. The
other type is static electricity. This is the type of electricity that exists when elec-
trons build up on a surface. For example, if you walk across a shag carpet with
smooth-soled shoes in the winter, a lot of electrons are picked up from the carpet
and transferred to your body—and they remain there and collect to build up a
sizable charge. This charge is a static charge, meaning it doesn’t move or flow
like dynamic electricity. You’ll know you’re carrying this charge when you go to
touch a metal doorknob because you’ll feel a jolt or a “zap.” This happens
because, when you come into contact with a surface that has a different charge
than the one you’re carrying, electrons will be transferred from your body (or to
it, depending on which surface has fewer electrons). The surface with fewer elec-
trons will receive electrons in a burst that evens out the charge between the two
objects. This burst is the “zap” you feel when you touch a metal doorknob.
This is important because one of these types of electricity will operate the
components of an electronic circuit and the other will destroy it. Even though the
amperage of static electricity is low compared to the amperage of dynamic elec-
tricity, static electricity destroys electronic components.

Electromagnetic Theory
Finally, electricity and magnetism have been proven to be directly related. If you
run an electric current through a wire, it will produce a magnetic field around
that wire. The direction of the current flow determines the direction of the mag-
netic field.
There is a common trick you can use to remember the relationship between
the directions. It’s called the “left hand rule.” If you make a thumbs-up sign with
your left hand and point your thumb in the direction of the current flow in the
wire, the other fingers will curl in the direction of the magnetic field. Figure 1.13
illustrates this trick.
FIGURE 1.13 The “left hand rule”
Electromagnetic theory also says that if you intersect a magnetic field with a
conductor, you will induce an electric current in the wire. Using the “left hand
rule,” you can see that if the magnetic field is in the direction of the fingers, then
a current will be induced in the direction of the thumb. This is important because
in electronics, you often have signals traveling in wires next to each other. As sig-
nals travel on the wire, they will induce spurious signals in the wires next to it.
After a distance, these signals can overcome the actual signals in the adjoining
wires. This is called cross talk, and it can be a real problem in data communica-
tions over distances longer than 3 meters (10 feet).
Another physics-related concept is the transfer of heat. Heat is the enemy of
electronic components. As the temperature increases, the longevity and reliabil-
ity of the component decreases. Some processors (most notably the Pentium fam-
ily of processors) produce temperatures in excess of 100 degrees F. To reduce the
heat, you use a very specialized device known as a heat sink (Figure 1.14). This
device works by a process known as conduction. It works a lot like the way the
fins on an air-cooled engine work. The device is made out of a heat-conducting
metal, such as aluminum. As air moves throughout the inside of the computer,
it will pass over the fins of the heat sink, cooling them. The heat will move
toward the cooler area of the metal, thus drawing it away from the components.

Numbering Systems 21
FIGURE 1.14 A heat sink
Numbering Systems
C omputers have often been called “number crunchers.” But what num-
bers do they actually “crunch”? There are several different types of numbering
systems in use in the computer industry today. The three major ones used by
computers are decimal (base 10), binary (base 2), and hexadecimal (base 16).
Decimal Numbers
We’ve all used decimal numbers before. Decimal numbers are the numbers you
learned to count with when you were young. The word decimal comes from the
Latin word decem, meaning 10. There are 10 digits in this counting system—0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
The only time you use decimal numbers with respect to computers is when
you are trying to explain things in real-world terms. Because we have used this
counting system all our lives, we won’t devote a lot of space to it here. Everyone
knows how big 5,690 is, but do many people understand how large 5FA3 is?
Binary Numbers
Why do we need more than one numbering system? Wouldn’t it be easier if com-
puters operated in decimal mode like we do? The truth is that it is easier to store
numbers as combinations of two digits, or binary numbers, than it is to store
them as decimal digits. This is because every computer contains hundreds of
thousands of transistors that are nothing more than simple switches, and these
switches have only two positions: on and off. Computers are designed to store
information as patterns of ons and offs, which are represented in binary as 1s and
0s, respectively.

Before we can discuss the details of the binary numbering system, you must
understand a couple of things. First of all, the binary numbers 0 and 1 are not the
same as they are in the decimal number systems. Instead, they are just placehold-
ers. They could just have easily been called A and B. Second, we use a few special
words to categorize binary numbers:
A single digit—an individual 0 or 1—is called a bit.
Eight bits associated together are called a byte.
Multiple bytes associated together are usually called a word.
Binary numbers can have any number of digits, but because we’re using
binary, the number of digits will typically be a multiple of 2.
The Magic Number…
If there were such a thing as a magic number in computer science, that number
would surely be the number 8, which is the number of bits in a byte. Because
bytes are the real building blocks of computer information, most numbers and
sizes reported by the computer are evenly divisible by 8. Notice that hexadecimal
has 16 characters (16 characters = 2 times the magic number of 8).
Counting in Binary
Let’s talk a little about how to count in binary.
You should recall that in a base 10 number system, each position signifies a
power of 10. Because binary is base 2, all the number positions signify powers of
2. In all modern numbering systems, however, the first position is always
reserved for numbers to the power of 0. This means you have to remember that
when we talk about an 8-bit (binary) number, the highest position in the number
is for values to the 7th power of 2, not the 8th power of 2. Table 1.3 shows the
positions used in an 8-bit counting system.
TABLE 1.3 8-Bit Binary Positions
Position 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Power of 2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Decimal value of a 1 in this 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

position

The rightmost bit in a binary number (the digit in the 20 position) is called the
Least Significant Bit, or LSB. The leftmost bit in a binary number (its actual
power of 2 depends, of course, on how many bits are in the word) is called the
Most Significant Bit, or MSB. So, in the binary number 10001000, the LSB is 0
and the MSB is 1.
Converting Binary to Decimal

Because binary numbers contain only 1s and 0s, and the 0s equal 0 no matter what
position they’re in, you really only have to worry about the 1s. When trying to con-
vert a binary number, such as 10001001, to a decimal number, all you need to do
is look at the positions of the 1s. As in base 10, you read the digits from MSB (left)
to LSB (right). In this number, you have 1s in the 27, 23, and 20 positions, which
means you have decimal values of 1×128, 1×8, and 1×1, respectively. When you
add these numbers together, you get the decimal equivalent: 137.
A number that is all 1s would be the highest value you could have in a binary
number; in an 8-bit binary word it equals the decimal number 255. It would be
calculated like so:
(1×128) + (1×64) + (1×32) + (1×16) + (1×8) + (1×4) + (1×2) +

(1×1) = 255
You could use the technique above to determine the decimal value of any 8-bit
binary number, by substituting 0s for 1s wherever appropriate. For example, the
decimal value of the binary word 01101010 is calculated as follows:
(0×128) + (1×64) + (1×32) + (0×16) + (1×8) + (0×4) + (1×2) +

(0×1) = 106
Hexadecimal Numbers
Binary numbering systems are very easy to understand. However, it is very inef-
ficient to represent large numbers with strings of 1s and 0s. It is more efficient to
use the hexadecimal (often simply called hex) numbering system. Hexadecimal is
base 16; it uses the decimal numbers 0 through 9 and the letters A through F to
represent the 16 numbers. When counting in hex, you count from 0 to 9 the reg-
ular way, but instead of 10, which we’re used to expressing with two digits in our
common decimal number system, you use A. For the value of 11 you use B, for
12 you use C, and so on through F for the value of 15 (see Table 1.4). Although
hex numbers are easily recognized by the fact that they combine letters and num-
bers, it is also common to see a subscript 16 or an h after the number to designate
it as a hex number.

TABLE 1.4 Decimal, Binary, and Hex Equivalents
Decimal Number Binary Number Hex Number
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
The hexadecimal system works as follows: A binary number is broken up

into groups of 4 bits. If the number of bits in the binary number is not an even
multiple of 4—that is, if there aren’t enough bits to make complete groups of
4 each—enough 0s are added to the left of the MSB to make a complete 4-bit
group. Why break the binary number into 4-bit elements? Because a single
hexadecimal digit can stand for any 1 of the 16 values that could possibly be
represented by any 4-bit binary number. Each group of 4 bits is then converted
from its binary value to its equivalent hexadecimal digit.

When you were a kid, the teacher first showed you how to do math the long
way. Later, you found out how to use a calculator to figure out the problems
faster. As with so many things, in computer service, anything you can do to
make the service call go faster will save the customer money. (Still, you should
know how to do it the old-fashioned way, because you may not always have
access to a calculator.)
Windows comes with a tool that can help you convert decimal numbers to hex
or binary numbers and back again. That tool is the Windows Calculator. When
set to scientific mode, it is a great tool for doing the conversions.
To convert a decimal number to binary, start by running Calculator; in Windows

9x you can find it on the Start menu’s Accessories folder. Set it to scientific
mode by going to the View menu and selecting Scientific. Then, in the Calcula-
tor’s display box, type in the decimal number you want to convert. To convert
the number to binary, click the button next to the word Binary. To convert it to
hex, just click the button next to Hex.
For example, if you have the binary number 01001101 (decimal number 77),
you would break this 8-bit word into two groups. The first group (0100) would
translate to 4 in hex, and the second group (1101) translates to D. So, this 8-bit
binary number would convert to the two-digit hex number 4D. A 32-bit binary
number like 01001010010010100001110000101101 converts to 4A4A1C2D
(a much shorter number, in terms of the number of digits used to represent it).
Converting from hex to decimal works in reverse. For example, if you have a
hexadecimal number like 4AC9, you start the conversion by converting each
digit of the number into its 4-digit binary equivalent, like so:
4=0100
A=1010
C=1100
9=1001
So, running them together in the right order, you get 0100101011001001 as
the binary conversion. To convert to decimal, you convert that 16-bit binary
number into decimal as described earlier and you will come up with the decimal
number 19145.

Tools of the Trade

B ehind every great technician is an even greater set of tools. Your
troubleshooting skills alone can get you only so far in diagnosing a problem;
you also need some troubleshooting tools. And once the problem has been
identified, yet a different set of tools needs to be used—to fix the problem.
There are two major types of tools: hardware and software. We’ll cover the
hardware category first. (We should note here that there are very few questions
on the test about this material; it is only being included for background and ref-
erence information.)
Hardware Tools
Hardware tools are those tools that are “hard,” meaning you can touch them, as
opposed to software tools, which cannot be touched. There are several different
kinds of hardware tools used in PC service today. We will discuss the most com-
monly used ones in this section.
Screwdrivers
The tool that can most often be found in a technician’s toolkit is a set of screw-
drivers. Most of the larger components in today’s computers are mounted in the
case with screws. If these components need to be removed, you must have the
correct type of screwdriver available. There are three major types: flat blade,
Phillips, and Torx.
Flat-Blade Screwdrivers
The first type is often called a flat-blade or flathead screwdriver, though most
people simply refer to it as a “standard” screwdriver (Figure 1.15). The type of
screw that this screwdriver removes is not used much anymore (primarily
because the screw head was easily damaged).
FIGURE 1.15 A flat-blade screwdriver and screw

Tools of the Trade 27
We strongly advise against using a flathead screwdriver to pry anything open on

a computer. Computers are usually put together very well, and if it seems that you
need to pry something apart, it’s probably because there’s still a screw or fastener
holding it together somewhere.
Phillips Screwdrivers
The most commonly used type of screwdriver for computers today is the Phillips
driver (Figure 1.16). Phillips-head screws are used because they have more surfaces
to turn against, reducing the risk of damaging the head of the screw. More than 90
percent of the screws in most computers today will be Phillips-head screws.
FIGURE 1.16 A Phillips screwdriver and screws
Phillips screwdrivers come in different sizes, identified by numbers. The most

common size is a #2 Phillips. It is important to have a few different-sized screw-
drivers available. If the wrong size is used (for example, a Phillips driver that is too
pointed or too small), it can damage the head of the screw.
The Torx Screwdriver

Finally, there is the type of screwdriver you use when you’re working with those
maddening little screws that are found on Compaq and Apple computers (as well
as on dashboards of later-model GM cars). Of course, we’re referring to the Torx
screwdriver (Figure 1.17). The Torx type of screw has the most surfaces to turn
against and therefore has the greatest resistance to screw head damage. It is
becoming more popular because people like its clean, technical look.

FIGURE 1.17 A Torx screwdriver and screw
The sizes of Torx drivers are given with the designation T-xx, where the xx is
replaced with a number from 1 through 20. The most common sizes are T-10
and T-15, though for some notebook computers, you will need to have much
smaller Torx drivers on hand.
Several screwdrivers are available with changeable tips, like bits for a drill. The
advantage is that you can easily change these screwdrivers from a flat blade to a
Phillips to a Torx just by changing the bits in the driver. The bits are usually stored
in the handle of this type of screwdriver.
Although it may seem convenient, don’t use a multiple-bit driver that is magne-
tized. Magnetism and computers don’t make good friends. The magnetism can
induce currents in conductors and burn out components without the technician’s
knowledge. It could also erase magnetic disk storage media.
Needle-Nose Pliers
Another great tool to have in your toolkit is a set or two of needle-nose pliers
(Figure 1.18). They are great for grasping connectors or small screws when your
hands are too big. If a needle-nose is still too big for the job, a standard pair of
tweezers will work as well.
FIGURE 1.18 A pair of needle-nose pliers

IC Pullers
When removing ICs from their mounting sockets, it is inadvisable to use your fin-
gers. First of all, a static discharge could damage the pins. Also, if you pull the
chip out unevenly, you may bend or break some of the pins. A pair of pliers
would be even worse for this task because they multiply the force exerted by your
hands into a force that can easily crush a component. It is better to use a special-
ized tool called a chip puller (Figure 1.19). This tool is usually made of spring
steel and is shaped like the letter U. At the ends of the U, it has fingers that are
designed to be slipped between the chip and socket. All the technician has to do
is pull up on the tool and it will exert equal force on the different sides of the IC,
thus safely removing the chip.
FIGURE 1.19 An IC puller
Be careful when using an IC puller. It is possible to remove the socket as well as the
chip if you pull hard enough. You may also damage the motherboard permanently.
Flashlight
Another handy tool to have is a small flashlight. You’ll know how especially
handy it is when you’re crawling around under a desk looking for a dropped
screw or trying to find a particular component in a dark computer case. Maglite
makes a powerful small flashlight that runs on two AA batteries. It also fits well
into a toolkit. Also, Polaroid came out with a very bright pocket flashlight to
show off its five-year batteries.
Compressed Air
When you work on a computer, typically you’ll first remove the case. While the
cover is off, it is a good idea to clean the computer and remove the accumulated
“dust bunnies.” These clumps of dust and loose fibers obstruct airflow and cause
the computer to run hotter, thus shortening its life. The best way to clean out the
dust is with clean, dry, compressed air. If you work for a large company, it will
probably have a central air compressor as a source for compressed air. If an air

compressor is not available, you can use cans of compressed air, but they can be
expensive—especially if several are needed. In any case, be sure to bring the com-
puter outside before squirting it with compressed air.
Soldering Iron
One tool that is used less and less in the computer service industry is the soldering
iron. You might use one occasionally to splice a broken wire; otherwise you
won’t have much need for it.
The soldering iron isn’t used much any more because most components have been
designed to use “quick disconnect” connectors to facilitate easy replacement.
Traditionally, the soldering iron was used to connect electronic components

to circuit boards. The most common iron used in electronic applications is one
with a narrow tip rated at 15 to 20 watts. Generally, the component was heated
with the iron, then rosin-core solder (not acid-core) was applied to the compo-
nent. The solder melted and, flowing into the joint, joined the component to the
circuit board.
Wire Strippers
When soldering, it is a good idea to have a combination wire cutter/stripper avail-
able to prepare wires for connection. Stripping a wire simply means to remove the
insulation from the portion that will be involved in the connection. The tool shown
in Figure 1.20 is a good example of one that does both. However, the technician
must be careful not to cut the wire when stripping it.
FIGURE 1.20 A combination wire cutter/stripper
Multimeters
The final hardware device we will discuss is the multimeter (see Figure 1.21). It
gets its name from the fact that it is a combination of several different kinds of
testing meters, including an ohmmeter, ammeter, and voltmeter. In trained
hands, it can help detect the correct operation or failure of several different types
of components.

FIGURE 1.21 A common multimeter
The multimeter consists of a digital or analog display, two probes, and a func-
tion selector switch. This rotary switch not only selects the function being tested,
it also selects the range that the meter is set to. If you’re measuring a battery using
an older meter, you may have to set the range selector manually (to a range close
to, but greater than, 1.5 volts). Newer meters, especially the digital ones, will
automatically set their ranges appropriately.
Never connect a non-auto-ranging meter to an AC power outlet to measure volt-

age. This action will most surely result in permanent damage to the meter mech-
anism, the meter itself, or both.
When measuring circuits, it is very important to have the meter hooked up

correctly so that the readings are accurate. Each type of measurement may
require that the meter be connected in a different way. In the following para-
graphs, we will detail the most commonly used functions of the multimeter and
how to make measurements correctly with them.
Measuring Resistance with a Multimeter

Resistance is the electrical property most commonly measured in troubleshooting
components. Measured in ohms, resistance is most often represented by the Greek
symbol omega (Ω). A measurement of infinite resistance indicates that electricity
cannot flow from one probe to the other. If a multimeter is used to measure the
resistance in a segment of wire and the result is an infinite reading, there is a very
good chance that the wire has a break in it somewhere between the probes.

To measure resistance, the multimeter must first be set to measure ohms. This
is done either through a button on the front or through the selector dial. (Assume
for the rest of this book that we are using newer auto-ranging multimeters.) Then
the component to be measured must be connected properly between the probes
(see the warning and Figure 1.22). The meter will then display the resistance
value of the component being measured.
Do not test resistance on components while they are mounted on a circuit board!
The multimeter applies a current to the component being tested. That current may
also flow to other components on that board, thus damaging them.
FIGURE 1.22 Connecting a multimeter to measure resistance
Measuring Voltage with a Multimeter

There is a similar procedure to follow when measuring voltage, but with two
major differences. First, when measuring voltage, you must be sure you con-
nect the probes to the power source correctly: With DC voltage, the + must
connect to the positive side and the – to the negative. (The position doesn’t
matter with AC voltage.) Second, you must change the selector to VDC (Volts
DC) or VAC (Volts AC), whichever is appropriate, to tell the meter what you
are measuring (see Figure 1.23). It should be noted that these settings protect
the meter from overload. If you plug a meter into a power supply while it’s still
set to measure resistance, you may blow the meter.

FIGURE 1.23 Connecting a multimeter to measure voltage
Measuring Current with a Multimeter

The final measurement that is commonly made is that of current, in amperes
(amps). Again, the procedure is similar to those used for the other measurements.
A major difference here is that when you connect an ammeter to measure the cur-
rent that a circuit is drawing, you must connect the ammeter in series with the cir-
cuit being measured. Figure 1.24 illustrates the proper connection of a
multimeter to measure current.
FIGURE 1.24 Connecting a multimeter to measure current

If you ask farmers what is the most valuable tool in their toolbox, the answer is
almost always “Duct tape.” It is said that anything can be fixed with enough duct
tape. Unfortunately, computers generally are not easily fixed with duct tape.
There is a tool that is invaluable when working on a computer. It can be bought

from different tool vendors and is often given away at trade shows. That tool is
known as a tweaker (pictured below). It is a screwdriver that is shaped like a pen
and is about the same size. It has a Phillips screwdriver on one end and a flat-
blade screwdriver on the other and will clip easily into a shirt pocket.
We have been able to fix several computers in a pinch with nothing more than
a tweaker. We recommend that each technician run out and buy or find one
immediately.
Software Tools
Hardware tools are used when major failures have occurred. However, a great
portion of problems aren’t related to a failing component but are due to mal-
functioning or incorrectly configured hardware. You can use software diagnos-
tics programs to troubleshoot some hardware problems. There are also
programs available (usually from the component manufacturers) for configur-
ing hardware, which relieves some or all of the task of setting jumpers or DIP
switches. Finally, there are programs for testing the operation of other pro-
grams. In this section we’ll look briefly at two of the most important types of
software tools.
Bootable Disks
The very best software diagnostic tool for DOS machines is a bootable floppy
disk: a disk that has been formatted with a version of DOS and made bootable.
It belongs in every technician’s bag of essentials. You create a bootable disk by
typing FORMAT A: /S with a blank floppy in the A: drive. Diagnostic and con-
figuration programs can also be copied onto this disk and run without the pos-
sibility of software conflicts. The advantage to this approach is that when the
computer boots from a DOS bootable floppy disk, it doesn’t have any drivers
loaded that might conflict with your diagnostics. You can thus get real informa-
tion. Also, if the machine boots successfully with a bootable disk but won’t boot
normally without it, this tells you that the motherboard, RAM, and major com-
ponents are probably okay—which means that the problem may be the hard

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 35
disk, a corrupt OS (operating system), or a device driver conflict. From this

point, you can narrow the problem down.
Software Diagnostics
On the one hand are several software tools that examine the hardware, report its
configuration, and identify any errors it finds. Programs like CheckIt Pro, QAPlus,
and Microsoft’s MSD (Microsoft Diagnostics) work in this manner. On the other
hand are programs that serve mainly as reference materials. For example, some
manufacturers distribute CD-ROMs that contain all of the reference material con-
cerning their brand of computer equipment. (Toshiba, for instance, distributes a
set of CD-ROMs to authorized service centers on a quarterly basis, with parts
ordering information, troubleshooting flowcharts, exploded diagrams, and FRU
replacement information. All of it is searchable. A very handy tool, indeed.)
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

E SD stands for electrostatic discharge. ESD happens when two objects of
dissimilar charge come in contact with one another. The two objects exchange
electrons in order to standardize the electrostatic charge between them. This
charge can, and often does, damage electronic components.
The likelihood that a component will be damaged increases with the increas-
ing use of Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) chips, because
these chips contain a thin metal oxide layer that is hypersensitive to ESD. The
previous generation’s Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) chips are actually more
robust than the newer CMOS chips because they don’t contain this metal oxide
layer. Most of today’s ICs are CMOS chips, so there is more of a concern with
ESD lately.
When you shuffle your feet across the floor and shock your best friend on the
ear, you are discharging static electricity into the ear of your friend. The lowest
static voltage transfer that you can feel is around 3,000 volts (it doesn’t electro-
cute you because there is extremely little current). A static transfer that you can
see is at least 10,000 volts! Just by sitting in a chair, you can generate around 100
volts of static electricity. Walking around wearing synthetic materials can gen-
erate around 1,000 volts. You can easily generate around 20,000 volts (!) simply
by dragging your smooth-soled shoes across a shag carpet in the winter. (Actu-
ally, it doesn’t have to be winter to run this danger. It can occur in any room with
very low humidity. It’s just that heated rooms in wintertime are generally of very
low humidity.)
It would make sense that these thousands of volts would damage computer
components. However, a component can be damaged with as little as 80 volts!
That means, if your body has a small charge built up in it, you could damage a
component without even realizing it.

Symptoms of ESD damage may be subtle, but they can be detected. One of the
authors, David Groth, relates this experience:
“When I think of ESD, I always think of the same instance. A few years ago,
I was working on an Apple Macintosh. This computer seemed to have a mind of
its own. I would troubleshoot it, find the defective component, and replace it.
The problem was that as soon as I replaced the component, it failed. I thought
maybe the power supply was frying the boards, so I replaced both at the same
time, but to no avail.
“I was about to send the computer off to Apple when I realized that it was
winter. Normally this would not be a factor, but winters where I live (North
Dakota) are extremely dry. Dry air promotes static electricity. At first I thought
that my problem couldn’t be that simple, but I was at the end of my rope. So,
when I received my next set of new parts, I grounded myself with an antistatic
strap for the time it took to install the components, and prayed while I turned on
the power. Success!! The components worked as they should, and a new advo-
cate of ESD prevention was born.”
Antistatic Wrist Strap

The silver lining to the cloud described in David’s story is that there are measures
you can implement to help contain the effects of ESD. The first, and easiest, one
to implement is the antistatic wrist strap, also referred to as an ESD strap. The
ESD strap works by attaching one end to an earth ground (typically the ground
pin on an extension cord) and wrapping the other end around your wrist. This
strap grounds your body and keeps it at a zero charge. Figure 1.25 shows the
proper way to attach an antistatic strap.
FIGURE 1.25 Proper ESD strap connection
An ESD strap is a specially designed device to bleed electrical charges away

safely. It uses a 1-megaohm resistor to bleed the charge away slowly. A simple
wire wrapped around your wrist will not work correctly and could electrocute you!

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 37
There is only one situation in which you should not wear an ESD strap. If you wear
one while working on the inside of a monitor, you increase the chance of getting
a lethal shock.
Antistatic Bags for Parts

Antistatic bags are important tools to have at your disposal when servicing elec-
tronic components because they protect the sensitive electronic devices from
stray static charges. The bags are designed so that the static charges collect on the
outside of the bags rather than on the electronic components. These bags can be
obtained from several sources. The most direct way to acquire antistatic bags is
to simply go to an electronics supply store and purchase them in bulk. Most sup-
ply stores will have several sizes available. Perhaps the easiest way to obtain
them, however, is simply to hold on to the ones that come your way. That is,
when you purchase any new component, it usually comes in an antistatic bag.
Once you have installed the component, keep the bag. It may take you a while
to gather a sizable collection of bags if you take this approach, but eventually you
will have a fairly large assortment.
ESD Static Mats

It is possible for a device to be damaged by simply laying it on a bench top. For this
reason, you should have an ESD mat in addition to an ESD strap. This mat drains
excess charge away from any item coming in contact with it (see Figure 1.26). ESD
mats are also sold as mouse/keyboard pads to prevent ESD charges from interfer-
ing with the operation of the computer. ESD charges can cause problems such as
making a computer hang or reboot.
FIGURE 1.26 Proper use of an ESD static mat

Modifying the Relative Humidity

Another preventive measure that can be taken is to maintain the relative humid-
ity at around 50 percent. Be careful not to increase the humidity too far—to the
point where moisture starts to condense on the equipment! Also, make use of
antistatic spray, which is available commercially, to reduce static buildup on
clothing and carpets. In a pinch, a solution of dilute fabric softener sprayed on
these items will do the same.
With regard to the components, vendors have methods of protecting them in
transit from manufacture to installation. Vendors press the pins of ICs into anti-
static foam to keep all the pins at the same potential. Also, circuit boards are
shipped in antistatic bags, discussed earlier. However, keep in mind that unlike
antistatic mats, antistatic bags do not “drain” the charges away, and they should
never be used in place of an antistatic mat.
At the very least, you can be mindful of the dangers of ESD and take steps to
reduce its effects. Beyond that, you should educate yourself about those effects so
you know when ESD is becoming a major problem.
If an ESD strap or mat is not available, it is possible to discharge excess static

voltage by touching the metal case of the power supply. However, the power
supply must be plugged into a properly grounded outlet for this to work as
intended. Because it’s plugged in, extra caution should be taken so that you
don’t get electrocuted. Also, continuous contact should be maintained to con-
tinuously drain excess charge away. As you can see, it would be easier to have
an antistatic wrist strap.
Safety
A s a provider of a hands-on service (repairing, maintaining, or upgrading
someone’s computer), you need to be aware of some general safety tips, because
if you are not careful, you could harm yourself or the equipment. First, let’s talk
about playing it safe. Computers, display monitors, and printers can be danger-
ous if not handled properly.
Perhaps the most important aspect of computers that you should be aware of
is the fact that they not only use electricity, they store electrical charge after
they’re turned off. This makes the power supply and the monitor pretty much
off-limits to anyone but a trained electrical repair person. Also, the computer’s
processor and various parts of the printer run at extremely high temperatures,
and you can get burned if you try to handle them immediately after they’ve been
in operation. Those are just two general safety measures that should concern

Safety 39
you. There are plenty more. When discussing safety issues with regard to repair-
ing and upgrading PCs, it is best to break them down into five general areas:
The computer
The power supply
The printer
The monitor
The keyboard and mouse
The Computer
If you have to open the computer to inspect or replace parts (as you will with
most repairs), be sure to turn off the machine before you begin, and be sure to
read the next section, which covers safety issues with the power supply.
The computer case is metal with sharp edges, so be careful when handling it.
You can, for example, cut yourself by jamming your fingers between the case and
the frame when you try to force the case back on.
The Power Supply

Do not take the issue of safety and electricity lightly. If you were to remove the
power supply from its case (and we don’t recommend it), you would be taking
a great risk. The current flowing through the power supply normally follows a
complete circuit; when your body breaks that circuit, your body becomes a part
of the circuit.
The two biggest dangers with power supplies are burning yourself and elec-
trocuting yourself. These usually go hand in hand. If you touch a bare wire that
is carrying current, you may get electrocuted. A large enough current passing
through the wire (and you) can cause severe burns. (It can also cause your heart
to stop, your muscles to seize, and your brain to stop functioning. In short, it can
kill you.) Electricity always finds the best path to ground. And because we are
basically bags of salt water (an excellent conductor of electricity), electricity will
use us as a conductor if we are grounded. Because of the way electricity conducts
itself (get it?), electrical burn victims usually have two kinds of wounds: the entry
wound and exit wound.
The entry wound happens at the point of contact between the conductor and
the person. It’s rather gruesome. The current flowing through you has enough
power to boil the water in the tissues it comes in contact with, essentially cooking
you from the inside out. It isn’t fun. The electricity sears the tissue on its way
toward whatever part of the body is closest to a ground. Then, at the point clos-
est to a ground, the electricity bolts from the body, producing an exit wound. We
hope this description will encourage you to learn proper electrical safety so you
may never have to experience the pain of electrical burns.

Fire Safety
It’s not often that repairing a computer is the cause of an electrical fire. You
should, however, know how to extinguish one properly. There are three major
classes of fire extinguishers available, one for each type of flammable sub-
stance: A for wood and paper fires, B for flammable liquids, and C for electrical
fires. The most popular type of fire extinguisher today is the multipurpose, or
“ABC-rated,” extinguisher. It contains a dry chemical powder that will smother
the fire and cool it at the same time. For electrical fires (which may be related to
a shorted-out wire in a power supply), make sure the fire extinguisher will work
for Class C fires. If you don’t have an extinguisher that is specifically rated for
electrical fires (type C), you can use an ABC-rated extinguisher.
Although it is possible to work on a power supply, it is not recommended.

Power supplies contain several capacitors that can hold lethal charges long after
they have been unplugged! It is extremely dangerous to open the case of a power
supply. Besides, power supplies are inexpensive, so it would probably cost less to
replace them than to try to fix them, and it would be much safer.
Current vs. Voltage—Which Is More Dangerous?
When talking about power and safety, you will almost always hear the saying
“It’s not the volts that kill you, it’s the amps.” That’s mostly true. However, an
explanation is in order.
The number of volts in a power source represents its potential to do work. But
volts don’t do anything by themselves. Current (amperage, or amps) is the
actual force behind the work being done by electricity. Here’s an analogy to help
explain this concept. Say you have two boulders; one is 10lbs, the other 100lbs,
and each is 100 feet off the ground. If you drop them, which one would do more
work? The obvious answer is the 100lb boulder. They both have the same
potential to do work (100 feet of travel), but the 100lb boulder has more mass,
thus more force. Voltage is analogous to the distance the boulder is from the
ground, and amperage is analogous to the mass of the boulder.
This is why we can produce static electricity on the order of 50,000 volts and not
electrocute ourselves. Even though this electricity has a great potential for work,
it actually does very little work because the amperage is so low. This also
explains why you can weld metal with only 110 volts. Welders use only 110
(sometimes 220) volts, but they also use anywhere from 50 to 200 amps!

Safety 41
If you ever have to work on a power supply, for safety’s sake you should dis-
charge all capacitors within it. To do this, connect a resistor across the leads of
the capacitor with a rating of three watts or more and a resistance of 100 ohms
(Ω) per volt. For example, to discharge a 225-volt capacitor, you would use a
22.5kΩ resistor (225 volts times 100Ω = 22500Ω or 22.5 kΩ).
The Printer
When you attempt to repair a printer, do you sometimes think that there is a little
monster in there hiding all the screws from you? Besides missing screws, here are
some things to watch out for when repairing printers:
When handling a toner cartridge from a laser printer or page printer, do
not shake or turn the cartridge upside down. You will find yourself spend-
ing more time cleaning the printer and the surrounding area than you
would have spent to fix the printer.
Do not put any objects into the feeding system (in an attempt to clear the
path) as the printer is running.
Laser printers generate a laser that is hazardous to your eyes. Do not look
directly into the source of the laser.
If it’s an ink-jet printer, do not try to blow in the ink cartridge to clear a
clogged opening—that is, unless you like the taste of ink.
Some parts of a laser printer (like the EP cartridge) will be damaged if
touched. Your skin produces oils and has a small surface layer of dead
skin cells. These substances can collect on the delicate surface of the EP
cartridge and cause malfunctions. Bottom line: Keep your fingers out of
where they don’t belong!
The Monitor
Other than the power supply, one of the most dangerous components to try to
repair is the monitor, or Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). In fact, we recommend that
you do not try to repair monitors. To avoid the extremely hazardous environ-
ment contained inside the monitor—it can retain a high-voltage charge for hours
after it’s been turned off—take it to a certified monitor technician or television
repair shop. The repair shop or certified technician will know and understand
the proper procedures to discharge the monitor, which involve attaching a resis-
tor to the flyback transformer’s charging capacitor to release the high-voltage
electrical charge that builds up during use. They will also be able to determine
whether the monitor can be repaired or needs to be replaced. Remember, the
monitor works in its own extremely protective environment (the monitor case)
and may not respond well to your desire to try to open it.

The CRT is vacuum sealed. Be extremely careful when handling the CRT. If you
break the glass, it will implode, which can send glass in any direction.
Even though we recommend not repairing monitors, the A+ exam does test
your knowledge of the safety practices to use when you need to do so. If you have
to open a monitor, you must first discharge the high-voltage charge on it using a
high-voltage probe. This probe has a very large needle, a gauge that indicates volts,
and a wire with an alligator clip. Attach the alligator clip to a ground (usually the
round pin on the power cord). Slip the probe needle underneath the high-voltage
cup on the monitor. You will see the gauge spike to around 15,000 volts and
slowly reduce to zero. When it reaches zero, you may remove the high-voltage
probe and service the high-voltage components of the monitor.
The Keyboard and Mouse

Okay, we know you are thinking, “What danger could a keyboard or mouse
cause?” We admit that there is not much danger associated with them, but there
are a couple of safety concerns you should always keep in mind.
First, the mouse usually has a cord, and you can trip over it, so make sure it’s
safely out of the way. Second, you could short-circuit your keyboard if you acci-
dentally spill liquid on it. Keyboards don’t function very well with half a can of
cola in their innards!
Play It Safe with Common Sense
When you’re repairing a PC, do not leave it unattended. Someone could walk
into the room and inadvertently bump the machine, causing failure. Worse, they
could step on pieces that may be lying around and get hurt. It is also not a good
idea to work on the PC alone. If you should become injured, there should be
someone around to help if you need it. Finally, if you’re fatigued, you may find
it difficult to concentrate and focus on what you are doing. There are real safety
measures related to repairing PCs, so the most important thing to remember is
to pay close attention to what you are doing.
Environmental Concerns
It is estimated that more than 25 percent of all the lead (a poisonous sub-
stance) in landfills today is a result of consumer electronics components. Because
they contain hazardous substances, many states require that consumer electronics

Environmental Concerns 43
(televisions, VCRs, stereos) be disposed of as hazardous waste. Computers are

no exception. Monitors contain several carcinogens and phosphors, as well as
mercury and lead. The computer itself may contain several lubricants and chem-
icals as well as lead. Printers contain plastics and chemicals like toners and inks
that are also hazardous. All of these items should be disposed of properly.
Remember all of those 386 and 486 computers that came out in the late 1980s
and are now considered antiques? Where did they all go? Is there an “Old Com-
puters Home” somewhere that is using these older computer systems for good
purposes, or are they lying in a junkyard somewhere? Or could it be that there
are folks who just cannot let go, with a stash of old computer systems and com-
puter parts that lie in the deep dark depths of their basements.
Although it is relatively easy to put old machines away, thinking that you
might be able to put them to good use again someday, it’s really not realistic.
Most computers are obsolete as soon as you buy them. And if you have not used
them recently, your old computer components will more than likely never be
used again.
We recycle cans, plastic, and newspaper so why not recycle computer equip-
ment? Well, the problem is that most computers contain small amounts of haz-
ardous substances (chemicals from monitor screens, chemicals from batteries,
and noxious chemicals in the wiring). Some countries are exploring the option of
recycling electrical machines, but most have still not enacted appropriate mea-
sures to enforce their proper disposal. However, there are a few things that we
can do as consumers and environmentalists that can promote the proper disposal
of computer equipment:
Check with the manufacturer. Some manufacturers will take back out-
dated equipment for parts (and may even pay you for them).
Properly dispose of solvents or cleaners used with computers, as well as
their containers, at a local hazardous waste disposal facility.
Disassemble the machine and reuse the “parts” that are good.
Check out businesses that can melt the components down for the lead or
gold plating.
Contact the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for a list of local or
regional waste disposal sites that will accept used computer equipment.
The EPA’s Web address is www.epa.gov.
Check with local nonprofit or education organizations interested in using
the equipment.
Check out the Internet for possible waste disposal sites. Table 1.5 gives a
few Web sites we came across that deal with disposal of used computer
equipment.
Check with the EPA to see if what you are disposing has an MSDS
(Material Safety Data Sheet). These sheets contain information about

the toxicity of a product and whether or not it can be disposed of in the

trash. They also contain “lethal dose” information.
TABLE 1.5 Computer Recycling Web Sites
Site Name Web Address
Computer Recycle Center www.recycles.com/
Re-Compute www.recompute.co.uk
Re-PC www.repc.com/
In addition to hardware recycling, there are businesses that offer to recycle

consumables, like ink cartridges or printer ribbons. However, although these
businesses are doing us a favor in our quest to recycle, it might not be the best
way to keep up with the recycle agenda. Why? Well, we don’t recommend the use
of recycled ink cartridges; they may clog, the ink quality is not as good, and the
small circuit board on the cartridge may be damaged. Similarly, recycled printer
ribbons will lose their ability to hold ink after a while and don’t last as long as a
new ribbon. And, recycled toner cartridges don’t operate properly after refilling.
However, when you are through with the old cartridges, give them to organiza-
tions that do recycle so they can have some fresh “cores.” That way, you can safely
dispose of your cartridge and benefit the environment at the same time.
Remember that recycling is a way to keep our environment clean and our
landfills empty. If we can take one step to recycle or redistribute outdated com-
puter equipment, we are one step closer to having a healthier environment. How-
ever, we should not have to sacrifice quality in the process.
In particular, you should make a special effort to recycle batteries. Batteries
contain several chemicals that are harmful to our environment and won’t
degrade safely. Batteries should not be thrown away; they should be recycled
according to your local laws. Check with your local authorities to find out how
batteries should be recycled.
Cleaning Systems
T he cleanliness of a computer is extremely important. Buildup of dust,
dirt, and oils can prevent various mechanical parts of a computer from operat-
ing. Because it is important, the A+ exam is going to test your knowledge of the
proper way to use various cleaning products on computer systems.

Summary 45
Computer components get dirty. Dirt reduces their operating efficiency and,
ultimately, their life. Cleaning them is definitely important. But cleaning them
with the right cleaning compounds is equally important. Using the wrong com-
pounds can leave residue behind that is more harmful than the dirt you are trying
to remove!
First of all, most computer cases and monitor cases can be cleaned using
mildly soapy water on a clean, lint-free cloth. Make sure that the power is off
before putting anything wet near a computer. Dampen (not soak) a cloth in mild
soap solution and wipe the dirt and dust from the case. Then wipe the moisture
from the case with a dry, lint-free cloth. Anything with a plastic or metal case can
be cleaned in this manner.
Additionally, if you spill anything on a keyboard, you can clean it by soaking
it in distilled, demineralized water. In this type of water, the extra minerals and
impurities have been removed and so it will not leave any traces of residue that
might interfere with the proper operation of the keyboard after cleaning.
The electronic connectors of computer equipment, on the other hand, should
never touch water. Instead, use a swab moistened in distilled, denatured isopro-
pyl alcohol (also known as electronics cleaner and found in electronics stores) to
clean contacts. This will take oxidation off of the copper contacts.
Finally, the best way to remove dust and dirt from the inside of the computer
is to use compressed air instead of vacuuming. Compressed air can be more
easily directed and doesn’t easily produce ESD damage (like vacuuming could).
Simply blow the dust from inside the computer using a stream of compressed
air. However, make sure to do this outside so that you don’t blow dust all over
your work area or over yourself.
One unique challenge when cleaning computers is when you spill toner. It sticks
to everything. There are two methods to deal with this. First of all, blow all the
loose toner out of the printer using compressed air, being careful not to blow the
toner into any of the printing mechanisms. Then, using a cool, damp cloth, wipe
any remaining particles out of the printer.
Summary
I n this chapter, you learned the basic computer service concepts that you
will be tested for in the A+ exam. These fundamental concepts lay the foundation
for the concepts throughout the rest of this book.
In the section on microcomputer components, we discussed the most common
basic elements of microcomputers: resistors, capacitors, vacuum tubes, transis-
tors, and integrated circuits. All of these components can commonly be found on

the circuit boards of today’s microcomputers (except maybe vacuum tubes,

which are very outdated).
In addition, you learned some of science behind how certain electronics work.
You learned that electricity is the flow of electrons, the difference between a
conductor and nonconductor, the definition of static electricity, and the basic
concepts of electromagnetic theory.
Computers use various types of numbers, including decimal, hexadecimal,
and binary. We covered how to use each numbering system to count as well as
how to convert between the different types.
We also discussed the different tools used to service computers as well as the
proper way to use them. You learned about the types of hardware tools, includ-
ing screwdrivers, multimeters, and so forth, and the different types of software
tools and diagnostics, like bootable disks, used to aid a technician in servicing a
computer.
Probably the most important topic in this chapter is electrostatic discharge
(ESD). Electrostatic discharge is what happens when two objects of unlike
charges are brought together. The charges equal themselves out by transferring
electrons between the objects. The transfer of electrons from a person to an elec-
tronic component can damage sensitive electronic components during their
installation. The voltage can be low enough that the person installing the com-
ponent may not feel the transfer, but the damage can still occur. Symptoms of
ESD include a large increase in DOA components as well as an increase in mal-
functioning components.
It would not be proper to talk about servicing anything without introducing
at least basic safety concepts. This chapter included a discussion of the safety pre-
cautions that must be taken when servicing computers, as well as the proper way
of executing them to ensure that technicians don’t inflict damage to either them-
selves or the computer.
The A+ exam will test your knowledge of the impact of computer service on
the environment. Many chemicals used in the cleaning of computers are toxic
to the environment as well as to human beings. Some of the chemicals (like lead)
found in circuit boards are also toxic. These items should be treated and disposed
of properly.
This chapter ended with a discussion of how to properly clean the various
components of a computers system. It’s important to keep in mind that dirty elec-
tronic components don't function properly, nor do they last as long as they nor-
mally would. You learned which cleaning products to use on which components;
if you use the wrong one, you can actually cause more harm than good.

Summary 47
Key Terms
Before you take the exam, be certain you are familiar with the following terms:
analog nonconductor
auto-ranging multimeters ohms
binary Pin Grid Array
bit potentiometer
byte Quad Small Outline Package (QSOP)
capacitor resistor
chip puller resistor pack
conductor rheostat
cross talk semiconductors
DIP switches Single Inline Package (SIP)
Dual Inline Package (DIP) surface mount
dynamic electricity terminators
heat sink tolerance range
high-voltage probe transistor
integrated circuit (IC) chip vacuum tube
jumpers word
Least Significant Bit (LSB) zero insertion force
Most Significant Bit (MSB)

Review Questions
1. What is the resistance rating of a resistor with the markings (from left to right)
red, brown, yellow, gold?
A. 2,100 Ω ±5%
B. 21,000 Ω ±5%
C. 210,000 Ω ±5%
D. 2,100,000 Ω ±5%
2. Computers and component parts use what type of signals to transmit

information?
A. Analog
B. Digital
C. Discrete
D. Continuous
E. Both B and C
F. None of the above
3. Which electrical component resists the flow of electricity?

A. Resistors
B. Transistors
C. Semiconductors
D. Capacitors
4. Convert the following binary number to decimal: 10110101.

A. 10110101
B. 181
C. 192
5. Convert this hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent: A73F.

A. 1010011100111111
B. 1010
C. 1010001010010101
D. 0100001001001100
E. 10101011

Review Questions 49
6. What does ESD stand for?

A. Every Single Day
B. Electric System Degradation
C. Electrosilicon Diode
D. Electrostatic discharge
E. None of the above
7. When connecting an ESD strap to an extension cord, you must connect it

to ___________________ .
A. The hot pin
B. The negative pin
C. The ground pin
D. All of the above
8. The following components are found in today’s microcomputers. (Select all

that apply.)
A. Vacuum tubes
B. Resistors
C. Transistors
D. Dilithium crystals
E. Capacitors
9. Convert the following decimal number to binary: 219.

A. 11011011
B. 11101101
C. 11111111
D. 00101001
10. How many bits are represented by a single hexadecimal digit?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
D. 8

11. Which type of IC package has two rows of pins, one on each side of the package?
A. QSOP
B. DIP
C. SIP
D. PGA
E. ZIF
12. Which type of IC package is usually surface mounted and used for VLSI
applications?
A. QSOP
B. DIP
C. SIP
D. PGA
E. ZIF
13. What is the best method for preventing ESD damage?

A. Antistatic mat
B. Antistatic spray
C. Antistatic wrist strap
D. Antistatic thinking
14. Which type of screw was chosen because of its relative immunity to head
damage and for its “high-tech” look?
A. Phillips-head
B. Flathead
C. Normal
D. Torx
15. How many volts does it take to damage a CMOS-based IC?

A. 1
B. 100
C. 1,000
D. 10,000
16. What is the Least Significant Bit (LSB) of the number 10100010?
A. 0
B. 1

Review Questions 51
17. What are two ways to configure an interrupt for a device on the motherboard?
A. Jumpers
B. Quads
C. DIP switches
D. Pin Grid Arrays
E. Both A and C
18. What is the maximum resistance of a resistor with the following markings:
red, brown, red?
A. 2100W
B. 2020W
C. 2520W
D. 420W
19. A male DB-25 port is most likely a ___________________ .

A. Parallel port
B. Serial port
C. Joystick/game port
D. Network port
20. Which of the following components can be used to configure an adapter card?
(Select all that apply.)
A. Software
B. Male DB-25 port
C. Jumpers
D. Transistors
21. Does pure water conduct electricity?

A. Yes
B. No
22. Which port(s) are used for serial ports? (Select all that apply.)
A. RJ-11
B. DB-9
C. Centronics 36
D. DB-25

Answers to Review Questions

1. C. Each colored band stands for a number. The first two bands represent the
digits of a two-digit number. The third band represents a multiplier. The pres-
ence or absence of a fourth band represents a margin-of-error factor com-
monly referred to as the tolerance range. So red would equal 2, brown equals
1, yellow equals 10,000, and gold equals ±5%. Putting this all together, take
the 21 (from the first two bands) and multiply by the 10,000 of the third band.
This gives you 210,000 and the tolerance is the last band, or ±5%.
2. E. Computers and component parts use signals that are both digital and dis-
crete to transmit information.
3. A. A component that is commonly used in computers is the resistor. As its

name suggests, it resists the flow of electricity.
4. B. When trying to convert a binary number to decimal, you need to look at the
positions of the 1s. You read the digits from left to right. When the digits are
added together, you get the decimal equivalent 181.
5. A. To arrive at this answer, convert each of the individual numerals in the

hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent. A, for instance, is 1010, 7 is
0111, 3 is 0011, and F equals 1111.
6. D. ESD is a very common computer acronym. It stands for electrostatic

discharge.
7. C. When connecting an ESD strap to an extension cord, you must connect it

to the ground pin to ensure both your safety and the proper discharge of ESD.
8. B, C, E. Resistors, transistors, and capacitors are all very common compo-

nents found in today’s computers.
9. A. To arrive at the correct answer, you must start with the MSB and place a
1 in each placeholder until, added up, the placeholders equal 219.
10. C. Each hexadecimal digit is represented with 4 bits.
11. B. The DIP, or Dual Inline Package, is a type of IC package that has two rows
of pins, one on each side of the package.
12. A. QSOP, or Quad Small Outline Package, is a type of IC package that is usu-
ally surface mounted and used for VLSI applications.
13. C. Of all the options listed, an antistatic wrist strap will provide you with the
most ESD protection.
14. D. The Torx screw has many angles, or surfaces, in the bit head and is
therefore relatively immune to head damage. This shape also gives it a very
“high-tech” look.

Answers to Review Questions 53
15. B. Because CMOS chips use a thin metal oxide layer that is hypersensitive to
ESD, it takes only 100 volts to damage them.
16. A. The Least Significant Bit (LSB) is always the bit on the far right. So for the
number 10100010, it is 0.
17. E. An interrupt request for a device can be configured manually by either using
DIP switches, which are usually much easier to set, or by or using jumpers.
18. C. Each colored band stands for a number. The first two bands represent the
digits of a two-digit number. The third band represents a multiplier. The
presence or absence of a fourth band represents a margin-of-error factor
commonly referred to as the tolerance range. So red equals 2, brown equals
1, and red equals 100. Putting this together, take the 21 from the first 2
bands and multiply by the third, 100, to equal 2100. The tolerance range,
because no fourth band is present, would be ±20%, adding another 420 for
a grand total of 2520W.
19. B. In most cases, a male DB-25 port will be a serial port. In some cases, you
could find some specialized cards that differ, but they are rare.
20. A, C. Most adapter cards can be configured with software, which is the easiest
option, or jumpers, the manual option. However, if they are software config-
urable, just don’t lose those configuration disk. The disk are usually very spe-
cific to the manufacturer, make, and model of the card.
21. B. Pure water does not conduct electricity. This is because it contains no
impurities that would actually do the conducting of electricity.
22. B, D. Most commonly, you will use DB-9 and DB-25 connectors for serial ports.

Chapter PC Architecture

THIS CHAPTER:
1.1 Identify basic terms, concepts, and functions of system

modules, including how each module should work during normal
operation and during the boot process.
Examples of concepts and modules are:
System board
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Storage devices
Monitor
Modem
Firmware
BIOS
CMOS
LCD (portable systems)
Ports
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
1.2 Identify basic procedures for adding and removing field
replaceable modules for both desktop and portable systems.
Examples of modules:
System board
Storage device
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Input devices
Hard drive

Keyboard
Video board
Mouse
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Portable system components:
AC adapters
DC controllers
LCD panel
PC card
Pointing devices
1.4 Identify common peripheral ports, associated cabling,
and their connectors.
Cable types
Cable orientation
Serial versus parallel
Pin connections
Examples of types of connectors:
DB-9
DB-25
RJ-11
RJ-45
BNC
PS2/MINI-DIN
USB
IEEE-1394
3.2 Identify issues, procedures, and devices for protection
within the computing environment, including people,
hardware, and the surrounding workspace.
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and suppressors
Proper methods of storage of components for future use

Potential hazards and proper safety procedures
relating to:
Lasers
High-voltage equipment
Power supply
CRT
Special disposal procedures that comply with
environmental guidelines.
Batteries
CRTs
Toner kits/cartridges
Chemical solvents and cans
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) precautions and
procedures
What ESD can do, how it may be apparent, or hidden
Common ESD protection devices
Situations that could present a danger or hazard
4.1 Distinguish between the popular CPU chips in terms of
their basic characteristics.
Popular CPU chips (Intel, AMD, Cyrix)
Characteristics
Physical size
Voltage
Speeds
On-board cache or not
Sockets
SEC (Single Edge Contact)

4.3 Identify the most popular type of motherboards, their
components, and their architecture (bus structures and
power supplies).
Types of motherboards:
AT (Full and Baby)
ATX
Components:
Communication ports
SIMM and DIMM
Processor sockets
External cache memory (Level 2)
Bus Architecture
ISA
PCI
AGP
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
VESA local bus (VL-Bus)
Basic compatibility guidelines
IDE (ATA, ATAPI, ULTRA-DMA, EIDE)
SCSI (Wide, Fast, Ultra, LVD [Low Voltage Differential])

F undamentally, a computer is a lot like the human body. The human
body contains a brain, organs to help the body function properly, and skin to pro-
tect the internal organs. All of the various parts of your body’s internal structure
work together to create a fully functional human being. Well, the microcomputer
has analogous components to create a fully functional machine.
For complete coverage of objective 1.1, please also see Chapters 4 and 6. For com-
plete coverage of objective 1.2, please also see Chapters 5, 8, and 9. For complete
coverage of objective 1.4, please also see Chapter 6. For complete coverage of
objective 4.3, please also see Chapters 4 and 5. For complete coverage of objective
3.2, please also see Chapter 1.
The aim of this chapter is simply to take a quick look inside the computer,
identify the main components, give a little historical background, and discover
how everything works together. We’ll cover each of the topics again in more
detail in later chapters in this book, but our first chapter will serve as a useful
overview. You’ll be introduced to the following components:
System boards
CPUs
BIOS
Memory
Storage
Input/output devices
Interfaces
Display systems
Power systems
Portable systems
If you were to open any computer, you should be able to identify the compo-
nents inside. As a matter of fact, the A+ exam will test your knowledge of these
components and their relation to each other. Figure 2.1 shows a view of a typical

60 Chapter 2 PC Architecture
PC, its components, and their locations. We will refer back to this diagram
throughout this chapter as we discuss the inner workings of the PC.
FIGURE 2.1 Typical PC components
The System Board

T he spine of the computer is the system board, otherwise known as the
motherboard (and less commonly referred to as the planar board). This is the
olive green or brown fiberglass sheet that lines the bottom of the computer. It is
the most important component in the computer because it is the component that
connects all the other components of a PC together. Figure 2.2 shows a typical
PC system board, as seen from above. It is on this sheet that all other components
are attached. On the system board you will find the CPU, underlying circuitry,
expansion slots, video components, RAM slots, and a variety of other chips.
FIGURE 2.2 A typical system board

The System Board 61
Types of System Boards

There are two major types of system boards: integrated and nonintegrated. Let’s
discuss the nonintegrated system boards first.
Nonintegrated system boards have each major assembly installed in the com-
puter as expansion cards. The major assemblies we’re talking about here are
items like the video circuitry, disk controllers, and accessories. Nonintegrated
boards can be easily identified because each expansion slot is usually occupied by
one of the components we just mentioned.
Integrated system boards are called that because most of the components that
would otherwise be installed as expansion cards are integrated into the mother-
board circuitry. Integrated system boards were designed for their simplicity. Of
course, there’s a drawback to this simplicity. When one component breaks, you
can’t just replace the component that’s broken; the whole motherboard must be
replaced. Although they are cheaper to produce, they are more expensive to repair.
System Board Form Factors

Nonintegrated system boards are also classified by their form factor (design):
AT, ATX, or NLX (and variants of these). The AT system boards are the same
as the motherboards found in the original IBM AT. The processor, memory, and
expansion slots are all in line with each other. Because of advances in technology,
the same number of components that were on the original AT motherboard (now
called a “full” AT board) were later compressed into a smaller area. This con-
figuration is known as the “baby” AT configuration.
The “baby” AT is used to be the most commonly used design, but it has some
fundamental problems. Because the processor and memory were in line with the
expansion slots, only one or two full-length cards could be used. Also, the pro-
cessor was far from the power supply’s cooling fan and would therefore tend to
overheat unless a heat sink or processor fan was directly attached to it. To over-
come the limitations of the “baby” AT design, the ATX motherboard was
designed. The ATX has the processor and memory slots at right angles to the
expansion cards. This puts the processor and memory in line with the fan output
of the power supply, allowing the processor to run cooler. And, because those
components are not in line with the expansion cards, you can install full-length
expansion cards in an ATX motherboard machine. Sales of ATX form factor
boards are currently outpacing sales of the AT motherboards.
The line between integrated and nonintegrated system boards is quickly becom-
ing blurred. Many of what would normally be called “nonintegrated” system
boards now incorporate the most commonly used circuitry (e.g. IDE and floppy
controllers, serial controllers, and sound cards) onto the motherboard itself.

A fairly new motherboard form factor that has been gaining popularity in the
last couple of years is NLX. This form factor is used in “low profile” case types.
What makes them unique is that the expansion slots are placed sideways on a
special riser card (as shown in Figure 2.3) to optimally use the space.
FIGURE 2.3 An NLX motherboard
These motherboard form factors are usually found in what are known as
“clone” computers (those not manufactured by a Fortune 500 PC company).
Some manufacturers (e.g. Compaq and IBM) design and manufacture their
own motherboard designs, which really don’t conform to either standard. This
style of motherboard is known as a proprietary design motherboard. Basically,
the components are laid out differently than an AT or ATX, but it will work
as a PC. The components are laid out differently than the motherboards
previously discussed.
System Board Components

Now that you understand the basic types of motherboards and their form factors,
it’s time to take a quick look at the components found on the motherboard and
their locations relative to each other. Figure 2.4 illustrates many of the following
components found on a typical motherboard:
Expansion slots
Memory slots
Processor slots or sockets
Power connectors
On-board disk drive connectors
Keyboard connector
Peripheral port connectors
BIOS chip
CMOS battery
Jumpers and DIP switches

The System Board 63
FIGURE 2.4 Components on a motherboard
In this subsection, you will learn about the most often used components of
a motherboard, what they do, and where they are located on the motherboard.
For each component, there will be a picture of what it looks like so that you can
identify it on any motherboard you run across. Note, however, that this is just
a brief introduction to the insides of a computer. The details of the various
devices in the computer and their impact on computer service practices will be
covered in later chapters.
Expansion Slots
The most visible part of any motherboard is the expansion slots. These look like
small plastic “slots”, usually anywhere from 3" to 11" long and approximately
1
⁄2" wide. As their name suggests, they are used to install various devices in the
computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be
installed in these slots include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards.
If you look at the motherboard in your computer, you will more than likely
see one of three main types of expansion slots:
ISA
PCI
AGP
Each type differs in its appearance and function, which you learn more about
in Chapter 5, “PC Bus Architectures.” In this chapter we will cover how to visu-
ally identify the different expansion slots on the motherboard.

ISA Expansion Slots

If you have a computer made before 1997, chances are the motherboard in your
computer has a few Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots. They’re easily
recognizable as they are usually brown and have two parts, a shorter part and a
longer part. Computers made after 1997 generally include a few ISA slots for
backward compatibility with old expansion cards.
VL-Bus, an expansion of ISA, was designed to provide 32-bit, processor direct

capabilities to ISA. You will learn more about ISA and VL-Bus in Chapter 5, “PC
Bus Architectures.”
PCI Expansion Slots

Most computers made today contain primarily Peripheral Component Inter-
connect (PCI) slots. They are easily recognizable as they are short (around 3"
long) and usually white. PCI slots can usually be found in any computer that
has a Pentium-class processor or higher.
AGP Expansion Slots

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slots are becoming more popular. In the past,
if you wanted to use high speed, accelerated 3D graphics video cards, you had to
install the card into an existing PCI or ISA slot. AGP slots were designed to be a
direct connection between the video circuitry and the PC’s memory. They are
also easily recognizable because they are usually brown, located right next to the
PCI slots on the motherboard and are shorter than the PCI slots. Figure 2.5
shows an example of an AGP slot, along with a PCI slot, for comparison. Notice
the difference in length between the two.
FIGURE 2.5 An AGP slot compared to a PCI slot

The System Board 65
You will learn more about the details of the various expansion bus types and the
expansion cards that go in them in Chapter 5.
Memory Slots
Memory or random access memory (RAM) slots are the next most prolific slots
on a motherboard, and they contain the actual memory chips. There are many
and varied types of memory for PCs today. In this chapter, you will learn the
appearance of the slots on the motherboard, so you can identify them. You will
learn more about the details of the different types of PC memory in Chapter 3,
“PC Memory Architecture.”
For the most part, PCs today use memory chips arranged on a small circuit
board. These circuit boards are called Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs)
or Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs), depending on if there are chips on
one side of the circuit board or on both sides, respectively. Aside from the dif-
ference in chip placement, memory modules also differ on the number of con-
ductors, or pins, that the particular memory module uses. Some common
examples include 30-pin, 72-pin and168-pin (the latter two are most often
DIMMs). Additionally, laptop memory comes in smaller form factors known as
Small Outline DIMMs (SODIMMs). Figure 2.6 shows the popular form factors
for the most popular memory chips. Notice how they basically look the same,
but the memory module sizes are different.
FIGURE 2.6 Different memory module form factor

Memory slots are easy to identify on a motherboard. They are usually white,
around 3" long, and placed very close together. The number of memory slots
varies from motherboard to motherboard, but the appearance of the different
slots is very similar. There are metal pins in the bottom to make contact with
the soldered tabs on each memory module. There are also small metal or plastic
tabs on each side of the slot that are used to keep the memory module securely
in its slot.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Processor Slot

The “brain” of any computer is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). This com-
ponent does all of the calculations and performs 90 percent of all the functions
of a computer. There are many different types of processors for computers. So
many, in fact, that you will learn about them later in this chapter in “The CPU”
section. Typically, in today’s computers, the processor is the easiest component
to identify on the motherboard. It is usually the component that has either a fan
or a heat sink (or sometimes both) attached to it (as shown in Figure 2.7). These
devices are used to draw away the heat a processor generates. This is done
because heat is the enemy of microelectronics. Theoretically, a Pentium (or
higher) processor generates enough heat that, without the heat sink, it would
self-destruct in a matter of hours.
FIGURE 2.7 A processor with a fan and a processor with a heat sink
Sockets and slots on the motherboard are as plentiful and varied as processors.
The three most popular are the Socket 5, Socket 7, and the Single Edge Contact
Card (SECC). Socket 5 and Socket 7 CPU sockets are basically flat and have sev-
eral rows of holes arranged in a square. The SECC connector is just another type
of slot, but one that an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III–class processor can be
inserted into (as shown in Figure 2.8). To illustrate which socket type is used for
which processors, examine Table 2.1.

The System Board 67
FIGURE 2.8 An SECC connector CPU socket
TABLE 2.1 Socket Types and the Processors They Support
Connector Type Processor
Socket 1 486 SX/SX2, 486 DX/DX2, 486 DX4 OverDrive
Socket 2 486 SX/SX2, 486 DX/DX2, 486 DX4, OverDrive, 486 Pentium
OverDrive
Socket 3 486 SX/SX2, 486 DX/DX2, 486 DX4, 486 Pentium OverDrive
Socket 4 Pentium 60/66, Pentium 60/66, OverDrive
Socket 5 Pentium 75-133, Pentium 75+ OverDrive
Socket 6* DX4, 486 Pentium OverDrive
Socket 7 Pentium 75-200, Pentium 75+ OverDrive
Socket 8 Pentium Pro
SECC (Type I) Pentium II
SECC (Type II Pentium III
*Socket 6 was a paper standard only and was never actually implemented in any systems.

Power Connectors
In addition to these sockets and slots on the motherboard, there is a special con-
nector (shown in Figure 2.9) that allows the motherboard to be connected to the
power supply to receive power. Typically, there are either one or two plugs that
connect into this motherboard connector. If there are two connectors, they are
usually labeled P8 and P9 (as shown in Figure 2.10).
FIGURE 2.9 A power connector on a motherboard
FIGURE 2.10 Power plugs that plug into the motherboard power connector

The System Board 69
“On-Board” Floppy and Hard Disk Connectors

Almost every computer made today uses some type of disk drive to store data
and programs until they are needed. You’ll learn the exact details of how they
work later in Chapter 4, “Disk System Architecture.” Most drives need some
kind of connection to the motherboard for the computer to “talk” to the disk
drive. These connections are known as drive interfaces and there are two main
types: floppy drive interfaces and hard disk interfaces. Floppy disk interfaces
allow floppy disk drives to be connected to the motherboard and, similarly, hard
disk interfaces do the same for hard disks. When you see them on the mother-
board, these interfaces are said to be “on board,” as opposed to being on an
expansion card, known as “off board.” The interfaces consist of circuitry and a
port. Most motherboards produced today include both the floppy disk and hard
disk interfaces on the motherboard.
The differences and compatibility between the different types of hard disk inter-
faces will be covered in Chapter 3, “PC Memory Architecture.”
Keyboard Connectors
The most important input device for a PC is the keyboard. All PC motherboards
contain a connector (as shown in Figure 2.11) that allows a keyboard to be con-
nected directly to the motherboard through the case. There are two main types
of keyboard connectors: AT and PS/2. The AT connector is round, about 1/2" in
diameter, and has 5 sockets in the DIN-5 configuration.
FIGURE 2.11 An AT connector on a motherboard
The second style, the PS/2 connector (as shown in Figure 2.12), is smaller and
is more ubiquitous than the AT connector. Most new PCs that you can purchase
today contain a PS/2 keyboard connector on the motherboard. Compare your
PC’s keyboard connector with Figures 2.11 and 2.12.

FIGURE 2.12 A PS/2 style keyboard connector on a motherboard
Peripheral Ports and Connectors

In order to be useful and have the most functionality, there must be a way of get-
ting the data into and out of the computer. For this purpose, there are many dif-
ferent ports available. We will discuss the different types of ports and how they
work later in Chapter 6, “Peripheral Devices.” The four most common types of
ports that you will see on a computer are the serial, parallel, Universal Serial Bus
(USB), and game ports. Figure 2.13 shows an example of the two different types
of serial ports: 9-pin and 25-pin. Figure 2.14 shows a typical parallel port (also
called a printer port, because the most common peripheral connected to it is a
printer). Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports look slightly different, as shown in Fig-
ure 2.15. Finally, Figure 2.16 shows an example of a game port (also called a joy-
stick port because that’s the most common device connected to it). Game ports
are used to connect peripheral devices to the computer.
FIGURE 2.13 Typical 9-pin and 25-pin serial ports

The System Board 71
FIGURE 2.14 A typical parallel port
FIGURE 2.15 A typical Universal Serial Bus (USB) port
FIGURE 2.16 A typical game port

There are two ways of connecting these ports to the motherboard. The first,
called a dongle connection, allows the ports to mounted into the computer’s case
with a special cable (called a dongle). The dongle for each port connects to the
respective pins on the motherboard for that port (as shown in Figure 2.17).
FIGURE 2.17 Connecting a port to the motherboard with the dongle method
The second method of connecting a peripheral port is known as the direct-

solder method. With this method the individual ports are soldered directly to the
motherboard. This method is used mostly in integrated motherboards in non-
clone machines. Figure 2.18 shows peripheral ports connected to a motherboard
with the direct solder method. Notice how there is no cable between the port and
the motherboard and that the port is part of the motherboard.
FIGURE 2.18 Peripheral ports directly soldered to a motherboard

The System Board 73
BIOS Chip
Aside from the processor, the most important chip on the motherboard is the
basic input/output system (BIOS) chip. This chip is a special memory chip that
contains the BIOS software that tells the processor how to interact with the rest
of the hardware in the computer. The BIOS chip is easily identified: if you have
a “non-clone” computer (e.g. Compaq, IBM, HP, etc.), this chip will have the
name of the manufacturer and usually the word BIOS. For example, the BIOS
chip for a Compaq will say something like “Compaq BIOS” on it. For clones, the
chip will usually have a sticker or printing on it from the three major BIOS man-
ufacturers (AMI, Phoenix, and Award).
If you can’t find the BIOS chip with these guidelines, look for a fairly large chip
close to the CPU.
CMOS Battery
Your PC has to keep certain settings when it’s turned off and its power cord
unplugged. Some of these settings include:
Date
Time
Hard drive configuration
Memory
Your PC keeps these settings in a special memory chip called the Complimentary
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) chip. Actually, CMOS (usually pronounced
see-moss) is a type of memory chip. It is actually the parameter memory for the
BIOS. But that doesn’t translate into an easy-to-say acronym. So, because it’s the
most important CMOS chip in the computer, it has come to be called the CMOS.
To keep its settings, the memory has to have power constantly. When you shut
off a computer, anything that is in main memory when you shut the computer off
is lost forever. To prevent CMOS from losing its information (and it’s rather
important that it doesn’t, actually), motherboard manufacturers include a small
battery, called the CMOS battery, to power the CMOS memory. The battery
makes comes in different shapes and sizes, but they all perform the same function.
Jumpers and DIP Switches

The last components of the motherboard we will discuss in this section are jump-
ers and DIP switches. These two devices are used to configure various hardware
options on the motherboard. For example, some processors use different volt-
ages (either 3.3 volts or 5 volts). You must set the motherboard to provide the
correct voltage for the processor it is using. This is accomplished by changing a

setting on the motherboard with either a jumper or a DIP switch. Figure 2.19
shows both a jumper set and a DIP switch. Motherboards will often have either
several jumpers or one bank of DIP switches. Individual jumpers are often
labeled with the moniker “JPx” (where x is the number of the jumper).
FIGURE 2.19 Jumpers and DIP switches
The CPU
N ow that you’ve learned the basics of the motherboard, you need to learn
about the most important component on the motherboard: the CPU.
The role of the CPU, or central processing unit, is to control and direct all
the activities of the computer using both external and internal buses (see the
subsection titled “The Bus” later in this topic). It is a processor chip consisting
of an array of millions of transistors.
Older CPUs are generally square, with transistors arranged in a Pin Grid
Array (PGA). Prior to 1981, chips were found in a rectangle with two rows of 20
pins known as a Dual Inline Package (DIP). See Figure 2.20. There are still inte-
grated circuits that use the DIP form factor. However, the DIP form factor isn’t
used for PC CPUs anymore. Most CPUs use either the PGA or the SECC form
factor (discussed earlier).
FIGURE 2.20 DIP and PGA
CPU Manufacturers
With the computer industry being as profitable as it is, there are many compa-
nies making CPUs for PCs today. The market leader in the manufacture of
chips is Intel Corporation. Intel’s competition includes Motorola, Advanced

The CPU 75
Micro Devices (AMD), Cyrix, and IBM. When it first started making CPUs for
the IBM PC, Intel shared its designs with other manufacturers, but with the
introduction of the 80386 model in 1985, Intel ceased licensing its designs to
other manufacturers.
Together, the Intel processors (and their compatibles) make up the bulk of the
IBM-compatible personal computer processor market.
Intel Processors
When the first PC was introduced, IBM decided to go to the chip manufacturer
Intel for a CPU. Since then, Intel has been the CPU supplier for almost all IBM-
compatible computers.
The Intel family of PC processors started with the 8080, which found only
limited use in the computer industry. The 8088 was rectangular, using a DIP
array of its 40 pins. It originally ran at 4.77MHz with 29,000 transistors. It was
used primarily in the IBM PC.
Next to be released was the 8086 (it was actually developed before the 8088)
with a 16-bit external data bus; however, the processor used an 8-bit bus for
compatibility with older systems.
After the 808x series came the 80x86 series, otherwise known simply as
Intel’s x86 series. The 80286 was the first to implement the PGA (Pin Grid
Array) as described earlier in this section. It ran hotter than the 8088, with speeds
from 6MHz to 20MHz. Both internal and external bus structures were 16 bits
wide, and it could physically address up to 16MB of RAM.
80386
Intel introduced the 80386 in 1985. With 275,000 transistors, the 80386 repre-
sented a new generation for processors, because it was the first Intel x86 proces-
sor that used both a 32-bit data bus and a 32-bit address bus. The situation with
the 386 was unique because up until this point Intel would license its technology
to other manufacturers. As we mentioned earlier, with the 386 Intel decided to
stop licensing. Not to be outdone, the other manufacturers like AMD and Cyrix
came up with a chip they called the 386SX. This chip still operated internally at
32 bits (just like the full-blown 386) but had only a 16-bit external data path and
a 16-bit address bus. In order to compete on the same ground, Intel then renamed
its 386 to the 386DX and introduced its own version of the 386SX with similar
specifications.
The 386SX had a 16-bit data path, while the 386DX had a 32-bit data path.
Overall the 386 ranged in speed from 16MHz to 33MHz, used up to 4GB of
memory (except the SX, which could only support 16MB of memory), supported
multitasking, and was significantly faster than the 286.
80486
Intel introduced the 486DX in 1989. This processor boasted 1.25 million tran-
sistors, 32-bit internal and external data path, 32-bit address bus, an 8K on-chip

cache, and an integrated math coprocessor. In 1991 Intel introduced the 486SX,
as a cheaper version of the 486 processor. The only difference between the
486DX and the 486SX was that the internal math coprocessor is disabled on the
SX. To add the math coprocessor to the chip, it was necessary to purchase a
487SX chip and insert it into the math coprocessor slot. Interestingly enough,
this was basically a 486DX chip that, once installed, would simply disable the
on-board 486SX chip and take over all processing functions from the SX chip.
Figure 2.21 shows a 486 processor.
FIGURE 2.21 An Intel 486 processor
The 80486 operated at a maximum speed of 33MHz. To overcome this lim-

itation, Intel came up with a technology known as clock doubling. This worked
by allowing a chip to run at the bus’s rated speed externally, but running the pro-
cessor’s internal clock at twice the speed of the bus. For example, they designed
a chip that ran at 33MHz externally and 66MHz internally. This chip was
known as the 486DX2.
Then someone came up with idea that if you can double the clock speed, why
not triple it? And so you were handed the clock-tripled 486DX not long after the
486DX2 came into production. These chips were called DX4 chips (don’t ask me
why they used the number 4 to indicate a clock tripled chip; they just did).
The Pentium and Pentium Pro

Intel introduced the Pentium processor (Figure 2.22) in 1993. This processor has
3.1 million transistors using a 64-bit data path, 32-bit address bus, 16K on-chip
cache, and comes in speeds from 60MHz to 200MHz. It is basically a combina-
tion of two 486DX chips in one larger chip. The benefit to this two-chips-in-one
architecture is that each chip can execute instructions independently of the other.
This is a form of parallel processing that Intel calls superscalar. Pentiums require
special motherboards, because they run significantly hotter than previous pro-
cessors. They also require the use of a heat sink on top of the processor to absorb

The CPU 77
and ventilate the heat. (The designers said that the processor would typically gen-
erate heat to the tune of 185° Fahrenheit!)
FIGURE 2.22 An Intel Pentium processor
Interestingly enough, when Intel first introduced the Pentium, it came in two
versions: 60MHz and 66MHz. They were essentially the same chip; the only dif-
ference being that the 60MHz version didn’t quite pass the 66MHz quality-control
cut. Although they were not rated for 66MHz, the designers found that if they
could slow them down a bit (to 60MHz), they ran just fine.
After the initial introduction of the Pentium came the Pentium Pro, designed
to meet the needs of today’s server. Released in 1995, it runs at speeds around
200MHz, in a 32-bit operating system environment using “dynamic execution.”
Dynamic execution performs out-of-order guesses to execute program codes.
Overdrive and MMX—The Need for Speed

Intel’s 486 Overdrive processor was designed for 486 users who wanted to give
their machines Pentium performance without having to pay the price for a full Pen-
tium chip. Installing an Overdrive chip is simply a matter of replacing the existing
CPU with the Overdrive CPU. Once installed, the Overdrive runs at approximately
two and a half times the motherboard’s bus speed. For example, if you have a
motherboard with a bus speed of 33MHz, the Overdrive processor will run at
approximately 83MHz. Of course, there are trade-offs to taking the Overdrive
approach as opposed to making the step up to a conventional Pentium chip. First,
Overdrive processors are only 32-bit processors, whereas Pentiums are completely
64-bit. Second, the Overdrive ran at least as hot as a conventional Pentium, so you
had to make sure the system’s ventilation could withstand the additional heat.
Another major change was the introduction of MMX technology. This ver-
sion of the Pentium processor added three new features:
It includes 57 new instructions for better video, audio, and graphic
capabilities.

It features Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) technology, which

enables one instruction to give instructions to several pieces of data rather
than a single instruction per piece of data.
Its cache was doubled to 32KB.
For more information on MMX technology, check out Intel’s Web site,
www.intel.com.
Pentium II
After the Pentium, the fastest Intel processor available was the Pentium II. The
Pentium II was formerly code-named “Klamath” during its development. Speeds
for this processor range from 233MHz to over 400MHz. It was introduced in
1997 amid much hoopla and some rather annoying commercials from Intel
(remember the dancing clean-room technicians in their multicolored outfits?). It
was designed to be a multimedia chip with special on-chip multimedia instruc-
tions and high-speed cache memory.
The most unique thing about the Pentium II compared to earlier Intel proces-
sors is that it uses a Single Edge Connector (SEC) to attach to the motherboard
instead of the standard PGA package that was used with the earlier processor
types. The processor is on a card that can be easily replaced. Simply shut off the
computer, pull out the old processor card and insert a new one.
When released, the Pentium II was designed to be used by itself in a computer.
For multiprocessor servers and workstations, Intel also released a separate pro-
cessor, known as the Pentium II Xeon, based on the same Pentium II circuitry.
Generally speaking, multiprocessor Pentium II servers with between four and
eight processors use the Pentium II Xeon.
Celeron
When the Pentium II came out, consumers loved it. The only problem was that
it was a bit too expensive for use in “low-buck” machines. To meet that market
need, Intel came out with the Celeron processor. It had the computing power
roughly equivalent to the Pentium II but cost less.
Pentium III
At the time this book is being written, the most current Intel processor is the Pen-
tium III. It was released in 1999 and uses the same SECC connector as its prede-
cessor, the Pentium II. It included 70 new instructions and was optimized for
voice recognition and multimedia. Aside from faster speeds, one of the more sig-
nificant features of the Pentium III was the processor serial number (PSN), a
unique number electronically encoded into the processor. This number can be
used to uniquely identify a system during Internet transactions. As you can imag-
ine, Internet privacy advocates had a field day with this feature.

The CPU 79
As with the Pentium II, the Pentium III has a multiprocessor Xeon version as well.
The Future of Intel Processors

Intel is constantly innovating. They always have at least two processors in devel-
opment. These processors are given code names until the official marketing name
is released. No one really knows all the features of an Intel processor until it’s
released (except, of course, Intel). Table 2.2 lists the code names of some of the
upcoming processors in development as this book is being written.
TABLE 2.2 Upcoming Intel Processor Code Names and Descriptions
Code Name Description
Merced The next-generation Intel architecture. Expected in the 2000–

2001 time frame, it introduces the 64-bit IA-64 instruction set
jointly designed by Intel and HP, which runs x86 and PA-RISC
software natively. Clock speeds are expected to go to 600MHz
and beyond.
Willamette Expected Late 2000–Early 2001.
Timna Expected Late 2000–Early 2001.
Camino 2 Expected Late 2000–Early 2001.
Solano 2 Expected Late 2000–Early 2001.
Flagstaff Expected in 2002, using two chips for the processor.
Summary of Intel Processors

Table 2.3 provides a summary of the history of the Intel processors. Table 2.4
shows the physical characteristics of Pentium (and higher) class processors.
TABLE 2.3 The Intel Family of Processors
Data Bus Address

Year Width Bus Width Speed Other
Chip Added (in bits) (in bits) (inMHz) Transistors Specifications
8080 1974 8 8 2 6,000 Used only in

appliances

TABLE 2.3 The Intel Family of Processors (continued)
Data Bus Address

8086 1978 16 20 5–10 29,000 Internal bus ran

at 8 bits
8088 1979 8 20 4.77 29,000
80286 1982 16 24 8–12 134,000 First to use PGA
386DX 1985 32 32 16–33 275,000
386SX 1988 32 24 16–20 275,000
486DX 1989 32 32 25–50 1.2 million 8KB of level 1

cache
486SX 1991 32 32 16–33 1.185 million Math

coprocessor
disabled
487SX 1991 32 32 16–33 1.2 million Math

coprocessor
for 486SX
computers
486DX2 1991 32 32 33–66 2.0 million
486DX4 1992 32 32 75–100 2.5 million
Pentium 1993 32 32 60–166 3.3 million Superscalar
Pentium 1995 64 32 150–200 5.5 million Dynamic

Pro execution
Pentium II 1997 64 64 233–300 7.5 million 32KB of level 1

cache, dynamic
execution,
and MMX
technology

The CPU 81
TABLE 2.3 The Intel Family of Processors (continued)
Data Bus Address

Pentium II 1998 64 64 400–600 7.5 million Multiprocessor

Xeon version of
Pentium II
Celeron 1999 64 64 400–600 7.5 million “Value” version

of Pentium II
Pentium III 1999 64 64 350–1000 9.5 million
Pentium III 1999 64 64 350–1000 9.5 million Multiprocessor

Xeon version of
Pentium III
TABLE 2.4 Physical Characteristics of Pentium-Class Processors
Speeds
Processor (MHz) Socket pins Voltage Cache
Pentium-P5 60–66 4 273 5V 16K
Pentium-P54C 75–200 5 or 7 320 or 321 3.3V 16K
Pentium-P55C 166–333 7 321 3.3V 32K
Pentium Pro 150–200 8 387 2.5V 32K
Pentium II 233–450 SECC N/A 3.3V 32K
Pentium III 450–1130 SECCII N/A 3.3V 32K
Intel “Clones” and Others

There are more than just Intel and Motorola processors out there. Among the so-
called Intel “clones” were chips made by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and
Cyrix. Table 2.5 shows some of the common processors made by AMD. Similarly,
Table 2.6 shows some of the most popular Intel clone processors made by Cyrix.

TABLE 2.5 AMD Processors and Their Intel Equivalents
CPU Clock Speed (MHz) Intel Equivalent Socket/Slot Type
Am486DX4-100 100 486DX4 Socket 5
Am486DX4-120 120 486DX4 Socket 5
Am5x86 75 Pentium Over- Socket 5

drive
K5 PR75 75 Pentium Socket 5
K5 PR166 116.66 Pentium Socket 5
K6-166 166 Pentium Socket 7
K6-200 200 Pentium II Socket 7
K6-233 233 Pentium II Socket 7
K6-II 500-550 Pentium II Socket 7
K6-III 400-450 Pentium II Socket 7
TABLE 2.6 Cyrix Processors and Their Intel Equivalents
6x86-PR120 100 Pentium Socket 7

The CPU 83
TABLE 2.6 Cyrix Processors and Their Intel Equivalents (continued)
6x86MX-PR166 150 Pentium II Socket 7
The surest way to determine which CPU your computer is using is to open the
case and view the numbers stamped on the CPU. However, you may be able to
get an idea without opening the case, because many manufacturers indicate the
type of processor by using a model number that contains some combination of
numbers for the processor type and speed. For example, a Whizbang 466 could
be a 486 DX 66MHz computer. Similarly, a 75MHz Pentium computer might be
labeled Whizbang 575.
Another way to determine a computer’s CPU is to save your work, exit any open
programs, and restart the computer. Watch closely as the computer returns to
its normal state. You should see a notation that tells you what chip you are
using. If you are using MS-DOS, you can also run Microsoft Diagnostics to view
the processor type (that is, unless your computer has a Pentium, in which case
it will report a very fast 486).
Processor Performance Issues

Don’t forget, there’s more to a chip than what meets the eye. There are several fac-
tors that affect the performance of a processor. Among them are availability of a
math coprocessor, clock speed, internal cache memory, and supporting circuitry.
Math Coprocessor
The math coprocessor is used to improve the processor’s number-crunching speed.
It does not, however, increase the speed of simple additions and subtractions.
What it does is increase the speed of calculations that involve floating decimal
point operations (such as calculations for algebra and statistics). Since the intro-
duction of the 486, the math coprocessor has been built into the processor. CPU

models that preceded the 486 can add a math coprocessor as an option. (There is
a special slot for it next to the CPU.)
Clock Speed
The clock speed is the frequency with which a processor executes instructions.
This frequency is measured in millions of cycles per second, or megahertz (MHz).
There is actually a “clock” of sorts within the CPU. This clock signal is generated
by a quartz crystal, which vibrates as electricity passes through it, thereby gen-
erating a steady pulse to every component synchronized with the signal. A system
cycle is generated by this pulse (called a clock “tick”), which sends a signal
through the processor telling it to perform another operation. To transfer data
to and from memory, an 8086 computer needed four cycles plus “wait states.”
Wait states allow the processor to wait for the slower speed RAM that was used
in 8086-based computers. Generally speaking, the higher the MHz value, the
faster the PC will be.
Cache memory
Cache memory is a storage area for frequently used data and instructions. It
requires a small amount of physical RAM that can keep up with the processor.
It uses this RAM for storage. The processor contains an internal cache controller
that integrates the cache with the CPU. The controller stores frequently accessed
RAM locations to provide faster execution of data and instructions. This type of
cache is known as a Level 1 Cache. It is also possible to have a cache external to
the CPU, called a Level 2 Cache. This type of cache performs the same functions
as a Level 1 Cache and can speed up the perceived performance. Basically, a
larger cache leads to the perception of a faster CPU.
The Bus
Finally, the processor’s ability to communicate with the rest of the system’s com-
ponents relies on the supporting circuitry. The system board’s underlying cir-
cuitry is called the bus. Although this is not the bus used to get to the mall or the
football game, the idea is similar: the computer’s bus moves information into and
out of the processor and other devices. A bus allows all devices to communicate
with each other. The bus consists of several components, including the external
bus, the data bus, and the address bus.
The External Bus (System Bus)

The external bus is also referred to as the system bus or expansion bus. The
expansion bus is a bus system that allows the processor to talk to another device.
It is known as an external bus system because it is outside of the processor. The
devices are connected through expansion cards and slots. (An expansion card is
a removable circuit board that expands the capability of the computer.) We will
cover bus types in more detail in Chapter 5, “PC Bus Architectures.”

The CPU 85
The Data Bus

The data bus is used to send and receive data. The larger the bus width, the more
data that can be transmitted (and, therefore, the faster the bus).
The data bus and address bus are independent of each other, but for better per-
formance larger data buses require larger address buses. The data bus width indi-
cates how much data the chip can move through at one time, and the size of the
address bus indicates how much memory a chip can handle.
Data in a computer is transferred digitally. A single wire carries 5 volts to indi-

cate a 1 data bit or carries zero volts to indicate a 0 data bit. Remember, computers
use the binary system to transmit information. The greater number of wires allows
more bits to be transmitted at the same time. For example, a 16-bit data bus width
has 16 wires to transmit data, and a 32-bit data chip can transmit twice the amount
of data as a 16-bit chip. A good comparison would be to the highway system. A
single lane for traffic allows only one car through at a time whereas two lanes
allow twice the amount of traffic to pass through at one time.
Be careful not to assume that data flows at the same speed within the proces-
sor as it does outside of the processor. Some Intel processors have an internal
data bus that is greater than the external data bus. The 8088 and 80386SX are
good examples of this. They are designed with an internal bus that has twice the
width of the external bus. This provides for backward compatibility with other
processors that do not support a wider bus.
The Address Bus

The address bus also contains a set of wires to carry information in and out of the
processor, but the information the address bus sends is addressing information
used to describe memory locations. This location is used for data being sent or
retrieved. The address bus carries a single bit of information, representing a digit
in the address, along each wire. The size of the address bus corresponds to the
number of address locations. The larger the address bus, the more memory address
locations that can be supported. The more memory address locations a processor
can address, the more RAM a processor can use.
As an analogy, we can compare the address bus to the address of a house or
its house number. If the house numbers for a street were limited to two digits,
then the street could have only 100 addresses (00 to 99). For an address bus,
which communicates in binary language, a limit of two digits would give four
addresses (00, 01, 10, and 11). Thus, the larger the address bus, the more com-
binations of 0 and 1 that would be permitted to pass through at one time. Take
a look back to Table 2.3. A 286 processor has a 24-bit address bus width. Using
binary theory, this translates to a little over 16 million locations, which means it
allows access to as much as 16MB of RAM. Using similar calculations, a 386DX
with a 32-bit address bus will allow access up to 4GB of RAM.

For more information on bus types, see Chapter 5, “PC Bus Architecture.”
Bus Speed
Motherboards are designed to be more or less universal. They have a processor
socket or slot that can support many different processor types and speeds. The
speed at which a processor can run is set via jumper, as is the speed at which the
expansion bus transfers data to and from the processor. The speed of the bus and
the speed of the processor are directly related.
When installing a processor into a motherboard, you must set both the proces-
sor speed and bus speed with a jumper. Typically, the bus speed is set to 66MHz,
100MHz, or 133MHz plus a multiplier. For example, when you have a 450 MHz
processor, you would set the processor speed jumper to 450MHz, the expansion
bus speed to 100MHz, and the multiplier to 4.5 (4.5 × 100MHz = 450MHz).
Processors below 200MHz generally set their speeds without a multiplier.
Some motherboards have either processor speed jumpers or bus speed/multiplier

jumpers, or both. To see which your motherboard uses, check the documentation
that comes with your motherboard.
The BIOS
B IOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. The BIOS communicates
between the computer and devices. The BIOS is usually stored in ROM. It was
created by IBM to act as a translator to run the same operating systems on
different hardware platforms. When the operating system needs to access a piece
of hardware, it would now ask the BIOS, rather than just taking control of the
hardware. The use of BIOS prevented programs from fighting over hardware. As
long as the operating system (such as DOS) uses the BIOS for its hardware
requests, it can run on different hardware platforms. The BIOS creates a stan-
dard reference point for many different types of hardware.
There are three major companies that manufacture ROM BIOS software:
Phoenix Technologies Phoenix Technologies was the pioneer who devel-
oped BIOS in the first place. Their BIOS software supports user-defined hard
drive types and 1.44MB floppy disk drives.
American Megatrends International (AMI) AMI BIOS has been very popu-
lar. AMI not only added a more extensive diagnostic program, but, more than
that, AMI produced its own system board. This provided guaranteed reliabil-
ity between BIOS and computer.

Memory 87
Award Software Award Software is the next largest manufacturer of BIOS

software. Award took its production one step further by allowing other
companies that purchase their BIOS to make modifications as needed to the
software.
In 1998, Award and Phoenix Technologies merged. The new company is Phoenix
Technologies. The new company will provide technical support for older products
from both companies as well as produce new BIOS software.
For more information on the three ROM BIOS manufacturers, check out their Web
sites: Phoenix Technologies at www.ptltd.com, AMI at www.megatrends.com, and
Award Software at www.award.com.
Hardware vendors sometimes will want to include new types of hardware

that the processor was never designed to talk to. In that case, a “BIOS upgrade”
may have to be performed. A BIOS upgrade is the process by which the BIOS
software is upgraded to a newer version. There are two ways of doing this: a
PROM upgrade or by “flashing” the EEPROM. Upgrading the PROM is as sim-
ple as removing the BIOS chip on the motherboard (while the computer is off, of
course) and replacing it with a new BIOS chip that contains the new version of
the BIOS. “Flashing” the BIOS involves using a special piece of software to
upload the new BIOS software to the BIOS EEPROM. This software can be
downloaded from the BIOS manufacturer or ordered through the mail. Once the
“flashing” is complete, the computer is rebooted and the new BIOS is functional.
NEVER TURN OFF A COMPUTER DURING A BIOS “flash” UPGRADE! The com-
puter won’t come back up because it doesn’t have the software to boot itself. Wait
for the “flash” to complete, then reboot the computer (many times the software
used to “flash” the BIOS EEPROM will do this for you automatically).
Memory
“M ore memory, more memory, I don’t have enough memory!” Today,
memory seems to be one of the most popular, easy, and inexpensive ways to
upgrade a computer. As the computer’s CPU works, it stores information in the
computer’s memory. The rule of thumb is, the more memory a computer has, the
faster it will operate. In this brief section I’ll outline the four major types of com-
puter memory. (Memory will also be covered in more detail in Chapter 3, “PC
Memory Architecture.”)

DRAM DRAM is dynamic random access memory. This is actually the

“RAM” that most people are talking about when they mention RAM. When
you expand the memory in a computer, you are adding DRAM chips. The rea-
son you use DRAM to expand the memory in the computer is because it’s
cheaper than any other type of memory. Dynamic RAM chips are cheaper to
manufacture than other types because they are less complex. “Dynamic”
refers to the chips’ need for a constant update signal (also called a “refresh”
signal) in order to keep the information that is written there.
SRAM The “S” in SRAM stands for static. Static random access memory
doesn’t require the refresh signal that DRAM does. The chips are more com-
plex and are thus more expensive. However, they are faster. DRAM access
times come in at 80 nanoseconds (ns) or more; SRAM has access times of 15
to 20 ns. SRAM is often used for cache memory.
ROM ROM stands for read-only memory. It is called read-only because it
can’t be written to. Once the information has been written to the ROM, it can’t
be changed. ROM is normally used to store the computer’s BIOS, because this
information normally does not change. The system ROM in the original IBM
PC contained the Power-On Self Test (POST), basic input-output system
(BIOS), and cassette BASIC. Later IBM computers and compatibles include
everything but the cassette BASIC. The system ROM enables the computer to
“pull itself up by its bootstraps,” or “boot” (start the operating system).
CMOS CMOS is a special kind of memory that holds the BIOS configura-
tion settings. CMOS memory is powered by a small battery so the settings are
retained when the computer is shut off. The BIOS will read information like
which hard drive types are configured for this computer to use and which
drive(s) it should search for boot sectors and so on. CMOS memory is usually
NOT upgradable.
Storage
W hat good is a computer without a place to put everything? Storage
media hold the data being accessed, as well as the files the system needs to operate,
and data that needs to be saved. When everything is done and information needs
to be stored, where should it be kept? The many different types of storage differ in
terms of their capacity (how much they can store), access time (how fast the com-
puter can access the information), and the physical type of media being used.

Storage 89
Hard Disk Systems

For permanent storage and quick access, the hard disk systems are used
(Figure 2.23). Hard disks reside inside the computer and can hold more informa-
tion than other forms of storage. The hard disk system contains three critical com-
ponents: the controller, the hard disk, and the host adapter. The controller controls
the drive. It understands how the drive operates, sends signals to the various
motors in the disk, and receives signals from the sensors inside the drive. The drive
is the physical storage medium. Hard disk systems store information on small disks
(between three and five inches in diameter) stacked together and placed in an
enclosure. Finally, the host adapter is the translator, converting signals from the
hard drive and controller to signals the computer can understand. Some hard disk
technologies incorporate the controller and drive into one enclosure. (For more
information on disk types, see Chapter 4, “Disk System Architecture.”)
FIGURE 2.23 A hard disk system
Floppy Drives
A floppy disk drive is a magnetic storage medium that uses a floppy diskette
made of a thin plastic encased in a protective casing. The floppy disk itself (or
“floppy,” as it is often called) enables the information to be transported from one
computer to another very easily. The down side of a floppy disk drive is its lim-
ited storage capacity. Whereas a hard drive can store hundreds of megabytes of
information, most floppy disks were designed to store only in the vicinity of one
megabyte. Table 2.7 shows the five different floppy disk drives that you may run
into, with five corresponding diskette sizes supported in PC systems. (Note that
the drives that offer anything less than 1.2MB are increasingly rare, as most com-
puters today do not carry the 5 1⁄4" size.)

TABLE 2.7 Floppy Diskette Capacities
Floppy Drive Size Number of Tracks Capacity
51⁄4" 40 360KB
51⁄4" 80 1.2MB
31⁄2" 80 720KB
31⁄2" 80 1.44MB
31⁄2" 80 2.88MB
CD-ROM Drives
Most computers today have a CD-ROM drive. CD-ROM stands for Compact
Disk Read-Only Memory. The compact disk is virtually the same as those used
in CD players. The CD-ROM is used to store data for long-term storage. CD-
ROMs are read-only, meaning that once information is written to a CD, it can’t
be erased or changed. Also, the time it takes to access the information is a lot
slower than it takes to access data residing on a hard drive. Why, then, is it so
popular? Mainly because it makes a great software distribution medium. Pro-
grams are always getting larger and larger, and are requiring more and more
disks to install them. So, instead of installing a program using 100 floppy disks
(a real possibility, believe me), you can use a single CD, which can hold approx-
imately 650 megabytes. (A second reason they are so popular is that CD-ROMs
have been standardized across platforms, with the ISO 9660 standard.)
DVD-ROM Drives
A new type of drive is finding its way into computers: the DVD-ROM drive. You
have probably heard of DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) technology in use in many
home theater systems. A DVD-ROM drive is basically the same as the DVD
player’s drive in your home theater system. To that end, a computer equipped with
a DVD-ROM drive and the proper video card can play back DVD movies on the
monitor. However, in a computer, a DVD-ROM drive is much more useful.
Because DVD-ROMs use slightly different technology than CD-ROMs, they can
store up to 1.6GB of data. This makes them better choices for distributing large
software bundles. Many software packages today are so huge they take multiple
CD-ROMs to hold all the installation and reference files. A single DVD-ROM, in
a double-sided, double-layered configuration, can hold as much as 17GB (as much
as 26 regular CD-ROMs).

Input/Output 91
Other Storage Media

There are many additional types of storage available for PCs today. However,
most of them are not covered on the A+ exam, so we’ll just discuss them briefly
here. Among the other types of storage are Zip drives, tape backup devices, and
optical drives.
Zip Drives and Jaz Drives

Iomega’s Zip and Jaz drives are detachable, external hard disks that are used to
store a large volume (around 100MB for the Zip, 1 and 2GB for the Jaz) of data
on a single, floppy-sized disk. The drives connect to either a parallel port or a
special interface card. The major use of Zip and Jaz drives is for transporting
large amounts of data from place to place. This used to be accomplished with
several floppies.
Tape Backup Devices

Another form of storage device is the tape backup. Tape backup devices can be
installed internally or externally and use a magnetic tape medium instead of disks
for storage. They hold much more data than any other medium, but are also
much slower. They are primarily used for archival storage. With hard disks, it’s
not “if they fail,” it’s “when they fail.” So, you must back up the information
onto some other storage medium. Tape backup devices are the most common
choice in larger enterprises and networks, because they can hold the most data
and are the most reliable over the long term.
Optical Drives
The final type of storage is the optical drive. Optical drives work by using
a laser rather than magnetism to change the characteristics of the storage
medium (typically an aluminum-coated plastic disk). Optical drives look sim-
ilar to and are used for the same applications as Zip drives (e.g. archival storage
and large file transport). However, optical drives can store more information
and have slower access times than Zip drives.
Input/Output
P utting information into the computer involves more than just turning it
on. You need a keyboard, mouse, or some other type of input device. Output
devices take data from the computer and translate it to some other usable form.
An A+ technician must be able to troubleshoot and fix problems with these types
of devices.

Input Devices
The most important device of any computer system is the keyboard. In fact, on
Macintosh systems, if a keyboard is not hooked up the computer will not start.
Actually, on any computer if a keyboard is not attached, there isn’t a whole lot
one can do with the computer. (It can be used as a good doorstop.) On computers
that do run without a keyboard (i.e., most PCs), if the keyboard is missing an
error message will occur at startup (usually a “301—Keyboard Missing” error).
It is the basic component used to enter information or data to the processor and
storage device, so it’s very important to have it connected. A standard 101-key
keyboard has four separate areas:
Standard alphanumeric keys These include the large or separately located
Shift, Backspace, Tab, Enter, and Caps Lock keys.
Function keys These are placed horizontally along the top of the keyboard,
with the Escape key in the top left corner.
Numeric keypad This set of keys has been separated to the right of the typ-
ing, cursor, and screen controls. This allows a user who is familiar with a cal-
culator to perform with the same accuracy and speed.
Cursor and screen controls These have also been separated, and include the
Home, End, Page Up, Page Down, and Insert and Home keys. The directional
keys are placed below the Home, End, Page Up, and Page Down keys.
Another device involved in the input of data is the mouse (or, generically, the
pointer device, since many people use trackballs or touch pads instead of mice).
The mouse changes the position of a pointer on the screen relative to the position
of the mouse. It is used to select menu options and other items within Graphical
User Interfaces (GUIs).
Other input devices include digitizing tablets, light pens, and touch screens.
Digitizing tablets are most often used by artists and draftspersons. They com-
prise a flat “drawing” pad and a pen or plotter that interacts with electronic sen-
sors in the pad. As the user moves the pen or plotter over the pad, the position
of the pen or plotter is communicated to the computer. Light pens are an inter-
active pointing device. Attached to the computer, light pens have a photodetector
in the tip that tracks the phosphors that blink on the screen. Pressing the light pen
to the screen is the same as clicking a mouse button. Touch screens are probably
the most prevalent of the non-keyboard/non-mouse input devices. They can be
seen anywhere from the gift registry at the local department store to the infor-
mation kiosks in shopping malls.
Output Devices
An output device gives the user a means to receive reports, communications, or
the results of calculations. The most common output devices are printers,

Input/Output 93
modems, and of course display systems (monitors). These devices are connected
to ports in the back of the computer. The ports are either a parallel port with a
standard female DB-25 connector or a serial port with a standard male DB-9
connector.
Printers
A printer is a device that converts signals from the computer into paper docu-
ments. Most printers are electromechanical devices that put either ink or toner
on the paper to form the images. There are three main types of printers: dot-
matrix, ink-jet, and laser.
Dot-Matrix Printers
Dot-matrix printers are the oldest type of printer, as well as the simplest. This
type of printer uses an array of pins to strike an inked ribbon, which in turn
makes a pattern of dots on the paper. The patterns of dots ultimately form letters
and images. Dot-matrix printers are easy to use as well as very inexpensive.
However, they are relatively slow and very noisy (as anyone who has tried to talk
on the phone while using one can attest). The best dot-matrix printers are only
“near letter quality” (letter quality is the quality found with a typewriter). They
are still in use because they are the only printer that can print on carbon copy
forms (invoices, receipts, etc.). Because the pins on dot-matrix printers actually
strike the paper, they can make simultaneous copies when used with pressure-
sensitive forms or carbon paper.
Ink-Jet Printers
Ink-jet printers spray the ink on the page instead of using an inked ribbon. The
major advantages of ink-jet printers are their low cost, increased image quality,
and ability to use colored ink and a variety of paper styles and sizes. However,
they aren’t very fast (though admittedly they are faster than dot-matrix), and the
ink needs to be replaced as it runs out, which is often. Additionally, if the printer
is not used for a long time, the ink can dry out, making the printer unusable until
the ink is replaced. For these reasons, they are widely used with home computers
and are not often found in offices.
Laser Printers
The laser printer is the most sophisticated type of printer. A laser jet printer uses
lasers, electric charges, and toner (a black carbon substance similar to the lead in
a pencil) to create images on paper. Laser printers have the highest image quality
and speed when compared to dot-matrix and ink-jet printers. They can print at
a speed of several pages per minute, which is similar to the speed of photocopiers.
Laser printers are more expensive than the other types of printers. They take up
more space, and their consumables (like toner) are more expensive than those
used by other types of printers. However, they are very popular in offices where
high capacity and quality are priorities.

For more information on printers, see Chapter 7, “How Printers Work.”
Display Systems
Another important tool to use with computer systems is the monitor. It would be
a little difficult to perform a calculation without being able to see the result;
indeed, it’s useful just to see what was input.
The first display systems were nothing more than fancy black-and-white TV
monitors called CRTs (Cathode Ray Tubes). These displays were usually run from
a video adapter that could also be connected to a television set. As computer tech-
nology developed, the demand for high-quality displays also developed. Soon
after, technologies such as VGA, EGA, CGA, and XGA were developed and far
outpaced the former CRT technology. However, each of these technologies uses
some of the same concepts as the original CRT.
At the time of the writing of this book, the newest computer display technol-
ogies are liquid crystal displays (LCD). LCDs are basically the same displays
being used on laptop computers, redesigned for use with desktop computers.
Modems
Modems (MODulator/DEModulators) are the devices that computers use to
talk to one another over phone lines. They can be considered a type of output
device because they move data out of the computer to another device. Modems
work by converting digital signals (binary 1s and 0s) into analog signals (tones
over a phone line), and vice versa. Modems are added to a computer either as
an external device or as an expansion card installed inside the computer. Inter-
nal modems are usually less expensive than external modems, but external
modems are easier to troubleshoot than internal modems because you can see
the lights that indicate what is happening. For more information on modems,
see Chapter 6, “Peripheral Devices.”
Interfaces
C omputers need ways of exchanging information with printers and other
devices. These ways are called interfaces. There are two major types of interfaces
available on computers today: parallel and serial. They differ primarily in the
speed of transfer and method of connection. Let’s examine each of these inter-
faces in detail.

Interfaces 95
Parallel Interface
The most popular type of interface available on computers today is the parallel
interface. Parallel communications take the “interstate approach” to data com-
munications. Everyone knows that interstate travel is faster, normally. This is
mainly because you can fit multiple cars going the same direction on the same
highway by using multiple lanes. On the return trip, you take a similar path, but
on a completely separate road. The parallel interface (an example of one is
shown in Figure 2.20) transfers data eight bits at a time over eight separate trans-
mit wires inside a parallel cable (one bit per wire). Normal parallel interfaces use
a DB-25 female connector on the computer to transfer data to peripherals.
The most common use of the parallel interface is printer communication, and
there are three major types: standard, bidirectional, and enhanced parallel ports.
Let’s look at the differences between the three.
“Standard” Parallel Ports

The “standard” parallel port is a parallel port that only transmits data OUT of
the computer. It cannot receive data (except for a single wire carrying a
“Ready” signal). This is the parallel port that came with the original IBM PC,
XT, and AT. This port can transmit data at 150KB/second and is commonly
used to transmit data to printers. This technology also has a maximum trans-
mission distance of 10 feet.
Bidirectional Parallel Ports

As its name suggests, the bidirectional parallel port has one important advantage
over standard parallel ports: it can both transmit and receive data. These parallel
ports are capable of interfacing with devices like external CD-ROM drives and
external parallel port backup drives (Zip, Jaz, and tape drives). Most computers
made since 1994 have a bidirectional parallel port.
Enhanced Parallel Ports

As more and more people started using their parallel ports for interfacing with
devices other than printers, they started to notice that the speed wasn’t good
enough. Double-speed CD-ROM drives had a transfer rate of 300KBps, but the
parallel port could only transfer data at 150KBps, thus limiting the speed a com-
puter could retrieve data from an external device. To solve that problem, the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) came up with a standard
for enhanced parallel ports, called IEEE 1284. The 1284 standard provided for
greater data transfer speeds and the ability to send memory addresses as well as
data through a parallel port. This allowed the parallel port to theoretically act as
an extension to the main bus. In addition, these ports would be backward com-
patible with the “standard” and bidirectional ports.

There are two implementations of IEEE 1284, ECP parallel ports and EPP
parallel ports. An Enhanced Capabilities Port (ECP port) was designed to trans-
fer data at high speeds to printers. It uses a DMA channel and a buffer to increase
printing performance. An Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP port) increases bi-
directional throughput from 150KBps to anywhere from 600KBps to 1.5MBps.
Serial Interface
If parallel communications are similar to taking the interstate, then serial com-
munications are similar to taking a country road. In serial communications,
each bit of data is sent one after another (single file, if you will) down one wire,
and returns on a different wire in the same cable. There are three main types of
serial interfaces available today: Standard serial, Universal Serial Bus (USB),
and FireWire.
Standard Serial
Almost every computer made since the original IBM PC has at least one serial
port. They are easily identified because they have either a DB-9 male (shown in
Figure 2.24) or DB-25 male port. Standard serial ports have a maximum data
transmission speed of 57KBps and a maximum cable length of 50 feet.
FIGURE 2.24 A standard DB-9 male serial port
Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Most computers built after 1997 have one or two flat ports in place of one DB-9
serial port. These ports are Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports and they are used for
connecting multiple (up to 127) peripherals to one computer through a single port
(and use of multi-port peripheral “hubs”). USB supports data transfer rates as high
as 1.5MBps. Additionally, USB cables can be a maximum length of 5 meters.

Power Systems 97
Because of it’s higher transfer rate, flexibility, and ease of use, most devices that,
in the past, used serial interfaces, now come with USB interfaces. It’s rare to see a
newly introduced PC accessory with a standard serial interface cable. For example,
PC cameras (like the Logitech QuickCam) used to come as standard serial-only
interfaces. Now you can only buy them in the stores with USB interfaces.
IEEE 1394 (FireWire)

Recently, one port has been slowly creeping into the mainstream and is starting
to be seen more and more on desktop PCs. That port is the IEEE 1394 port
(shown in Figure 2.25), more commonly known as a FireWire port. Its popular-
ity is due to its ease of use and very high (400Mbps) transmission rates. Origi-
nally developed by Apple, it was standardized by IEEE in 1995 to be IEEE 1394.
It is most often used as a way to get Digital Video into a PC so it can be edited
with digital video editing tools. At the time of the writing of this book, many of
the Apple iMac models include a FireWire port. Additionally, you can see it on
many PCs and laptops.
FIGURE 2.25 A FireWire port on a PC
Power Systems
T he computer’s components would not be able to operate without
power. The device in the computer that provides this power is the power supply
(Figure 2.26). A power supply converts 110 volt AC current into the four voltages
that a computer needs to operate. These are +5 volts DC, –5 volts DC (ground),
+12 volts DC, and –12 volts DC (ground). By the way, you may frequently see
“volts DC” abbreviated as “VDC.”
Power supplies contain transformers and capacitors that carry LETHAL amounts
of current. They are not meant to be serviced. DO NOT attempt to open them or do
any work on them.

FIGURE 2.26 A power supply
Power Supply Connectors

A power supply has three types of connectors used to power the various devices
within the computer (Figure 2.27). Each has a different appearance and way of
connecting to the device. Additionally, each type is used for a specific purpose.
FIGURE 2.27 Standard power supply power connectors
Floppy Drive Power Connectors

The first type are called floppy drive power connectors because they are most
commonly used to power floppy disk drives. This type of connector is smaller
and flatter (as shown in Figure 2.28) than any of the other types of power con-
nectors. These connectors are also called Berg connectors.

Power Systems 99
FIGURE 2.28 Floppy drive power connectors
System Connectors
The next type of power connector is called the system connector. There are only
two of these, labeled P8 and P9 (shown in Figure 2.29). They connect to the
motherboard and deliver the power that feeds the electronic components on it.
These connectors have small tabs on them that interlock with tabs on the power
connector on the motherboard. If there are two connectors, you must install
them in the correct fashion. To do this (on most systems) place the connectors
side by side with their black wires together, and then push the connectors onto
the receptacle on the motherboard.
While it’s easy to remove this type of connector from the motherboard, the tabs on
the connector make it difficult to reinstall it. Here’s a hint: Place the connector at
a right angle to the motherboard’s connector, interlocking the tabs in their correct
positions. Then tilt the connector to the vertical position. The connector will slide
into place very easily.
FIGURE 2.29 Power supply system board connectors

Standard Peripheral Power Connector

The last type of connector is the standard peripheral power connector. This type
of connector is usually used to power different types of internal disk drives. This
type of connector is also called a Molex connector.
Specialized Power Devices

Unfortunately, it’s rare for the power that comes out of the wall (what we nor-
mally call line power) to be consistently 110V, 60Hz. It may be of a slightly
higher or lower voltage, it may cycle faster or slower, there may occasionally
no power, or the worst, a 5000V spike may come down the power line from a
lightning strike and fry the expensive electronic components of your computer
and its peripherals.
There are three main classes of power problems that technicians have to deal
with: power quality problems, problems where too much power is coming out of
the wall, and problems where there is not enough. Almost every outlet has at
least one of these problems. Let’s examine each of these problems in detail.
Power Quality Problems and Solutions

The first type of power problem exists when the power coming out of the wall
has a different frequency than normal (60Hz is considered “normal”). This type
of problem manifests itself when stray electromagnetic signals get introduced
into the line. This interference is called electromagnetic interference (EMI) and is
usually caused by the electromagnetic waves emitted by the electric motors in
appliances. Additionally, televisions and other electronic devices (including the
computers themselves) can produce a different type of interference, called radio
frequency interference (RFI), which is really just a higher-frequency version of
EMI. However, RFI is produced by ICs and other electronic devices. If your
power lines run near a powerful radio broadcast antenna or factory, they can
both introduce noise into your power.
To solve these problems, companies like BEST Power Systems and APC make
accessories called line conditioners. The function of these devices is to produce
“perfect” power of 110V/60Hz. These devices will remove most of the stray EMI
and RFI signals from the incoming power. They will also reduce any power over-
ages down to 110V.
Power Overage Problems and Solutions

The most common type of power problem that causes computer damage is power
overages. As the name suggests, these problems happen when too much power
comes down the power lines. There are two main types of overage problems:
spikes and surges. The primary difference between the two is the length of time the
events last. A spike is a power overage condition that exists for an extremely short

Power Systems 101
period of time (a few milliseconds at the most). Surges, on the other hand, last for
much longer (up to several seconds). Spikes are usually the result of faulty power
transformer equipment at power substations. Surges can come from both power
equipment and lightning strikes.
A common misconception is that a power strip can protect your computer
from power overage problems. Most power strips (the ones that cost less than
$15.00) are nothing more than multiple outlets with a circuit breaker. There are
real “surge protectors,” but they usually cost upwards of $25.00. These devices
have MOSFET semiconductors that sacrifice themselves in the case of a power
overage. But even these aren’t perfect. They are rated in terms of clamping speed
(how long it takes to go from the overvoltage to zero volts) and clamping voltage
(at what voltage the MOSFET shorts out). The problem is that by the time the
clamping voltage is reached, some of the overvoltage has gotten through to the
power supply and damaged it. After a time, the power supply will be damaged
permanently.
Realistically, having a “surge protector” is better than not having one, but not
by much. It’s better to use a line conditioner that can absorb the overvoltage than
to use a circuit breaker.
Undervoltage Power Problems and Solutions

Undervoltage problems don’t cause damage to hardware, usually. More often,
they cause the computer to shut down completely (or at the very least, to reboot),
thus losing any unsaved data in memory. There are three major types of under-
voltage problems: sags, brownouts, and blackouts.
A sag is a momentary drop in voltage, lasting only a few milliseconds. Usually,
you can’t even tell one has occurred. Your house lights won’t dim or flicker (well,
actually they will, but it’s too fast for you to notice). But your computer will react
strangely to this sudden drop in power. Have you ever been on the “up” side of
a seesaw and had someone jump off the other end? You were surprised at the
sudden drop, weren’t you? Your computer will experience the same kind of dis-
orientation when the power drops immediately to a lower voltage. A computer’s
normal response to this kind of “disorientation” is to reboot itself.
You’ve probably experienced one of the other two power undervoltage prob-
lems: brownouts and blackouts. A brownout occurs when voltage drops below
110 volts for a second or more. Brownouts are typically caused by an immediate
increase in power consumption in your area and the lag time it takes for your
power provider to respond by increasing production. You might notice when
brownouts occur, because the lights in your home will dim, but not go out, then
go back to full brightness a second or two later. You might also notice because
your computer will reboot or the screen will flicker. (While writing this section,
I have counted two brownouts. Luckily, my computer hasn’t rebooted, so the
voltage drop probably wasn’t too bad.)

Everyone has experienced a blackout. A blackout occurs when the power

drops from 110 volts to zero volts in a very short period of time. It is a complete
loss of power for anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. They are typ-
ically caused by a power failure somewhere in your area. Sometimes there are
backup systems available, but it may take anywhere from a couple of seconds to
several hours to get power available in your area again.
There are two different hardware solutions to power undervoltage condi-
tions: the SPS and the UPS. They each take a different approach to keeping the
power at 110V. In both cases you plug the units into the wall, then plug your
computer equipment into the SPS or UPS. Let’s look at the SPS first. SPS stands
for standby power supply. It’s called that because there is a battery waiting to
take over power production in case of a loss of line voltage. The SPS contains
sensors that constantly monitor the line voltage and a battery with a step-up
transformer. While conditions are normal, the line voltage charges the internal
battery. When the line voltage drops below a preset threshold (also called the
cutover threshold—i.e., 105V), the sensors detect that and switch the power
from the wall to the internal battery. When the power comes back above the
threshold, the sensors detect the restoration of power and switch the power
source back to the line voltage.
The main problem with SPSs is that they take a few milliseconds to switch
to the battery. During those few milliseconds, there is NO voltage to the com-
puter. This lack of voltage can cause reboots or crashes (rather like a brown-
out). An SPS is great for preventing against blackouts, but it does little for
brownouts and sags. The better choice for undervoltage problems would be the
uninterruptible power supply or UPS. The UPS works similarly to an SPS, but
with one important difference. The computer equipment is always running off
the battery. While the line voltage is normal, the battery gets charged. When
power fluctuates, only the charging circuit is affected. The battery continues to
provide power to the equipment uninterrupted. Because the equipment is con-
stantly operating off the battery, the UPS also acts as a kind of line conditioner.
There is one main problem with UPSs: the quality of power they provide.
Batteries provide DC power, and computer power supplies run on AC power.
Inside the UPS is a power inverter that converts the DC into AC. It isn’t perfect.
AC power produces 60Hz sine waveform, whereas the inverter produces a
square wave. A computer’s power supply will accept these square waveforms,
but it doesn’t like them (see Figure 2.30). Even though this problem exists, UPS
manufacturers are using more sensitive inverters that can more closely approx-
imate the sine wave. So, a UPS should be put on every piece of computer equip-
ment where data loss would be a problem (in other words, almost every piece
of computer equipment).

Portable Computer Systems 103
FIGURE 2.30 A comparison between line power and UPS-supplied power
Never plug a laser printer or copier into a UPS! The large surge of power they
draw when they first get turned on can burn out the inverter and battery. These
devices can draw close to 15 amps when they first turn on.
Portable Computer Systems

I f miniaturization trends continue, we will all soon be able to have a com-
puter with the power of a current mainframe contained in a wristwatch or other
piece of jewelry. To that end, many people have embraced the current crop of
portable systems. A portable computer is any computer that contains all the
functionality of a desktop computer system but is portable. Most people’s defi-
nition of portable is defined in terms of weight and size. Just so that we can dis-
cuss things on the same level, let’s define portable as less than 20 pounds and
smaller than an average desktop computer.
Most portable computers fall into one of three categories: “luggable,” laptop,
or PDA. “Luggable” computers were the first truly portable computers,
although some of their owners would beg to differ with me. Compaq computer
made some of the first “luggable computers.”
Laptop computers were the next type of portable computer. They contain a
built-in keyboard, pointing device, and LCD screen in a clamshell design. They
are also called “notebook” computers because they resemble large notebooks.
Most portable computers in use today are laptop computers.
The final type of portable computer, and one that has really taken off recently,
is the palmtop computer (also known as a Personal Digital Assistant, or PDA).
These computers are designed to keep the information you need close to you so
you have access to it whenever you need it. There are two different approaches
to the PDA. Pen-based assistants are basically small digital notepads that use a
stylus and handwriting interpretation software to perform operations. The
Apple Newton and 3Com Palm Pilot are two examples of this type of PDA.

The other type of PDA is known as a Handheld PC (HPC). These are basically
“shrunken” laptops. The HPCs run an operating system, known as Windows
CE, from (whom else?) Microsoft. Windows CE is basically Windows 95
“shrunken” to fit into the limited RAM of the HPC. Instead of using a mouse to
point to the icons and menus in Windows CE, the HPCs use a stylus on the
touch-sensitive screen.
Portable Computer Accessories

Since portable computers have unique characteristics as a result of the portabil-
ity, they have unique accessories as well. First of all, portable computers can use
either of two power sources: batteries or AC power. There are many different
sizes and shapes of batteries, but most of them are either Nickel-Cadmium
(NiCad), Lithium Ion, or Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH). All of these perform
equally well as batteries, but NiCad batteries can only be recharged a finite num-
ber of times. After a time, they develop a “memory” and must be recharged on
a special “deep charging” machine. NiMH and Lithium Ion batteries don’t
normally develop a memory and can be recharged many times, but they’re a little
more expensive.
Some of the palmtop computers can use either type of battery, but some vendors
like Hewlett-Packard took a more common sense approach: they designed it to use
standard AA batteries.
Most notebook computers are also able to use AC power with a special
adapter that converts AC power into DC power (called an AC adapter). These
can be integrated into the notebook (as on some Compaq notebooks) or as a sep-
arate “brick” with a cord that plugs into the back of the laptop.
The final accessory that is unique to portable computers is the docking sta-
tion. A docking station allows a portable computer to function as a desktop com-
puter when it is attached to it (or “docked”). The docking station usually
contains interfaces and expansion ports and bays that the laptop can use only
when it is docked.

Summary 105
Summary
I n this chapter, you learned about the “nuts and bolts” of PC repair. You
learned the basic components that comprise a typical PC, their functions, and
how each interacts with the other components in the system.
In the first section, you learned about the main component of the PC, the Sys-
tem Board. Also called the motherboard or planar board, it holds all the com-
ponents of the system and serves as their main attachment point. You also
learned the details of the different kinds of motherboards, as well as the physical
distinctions between them.
In the next section, you learned about the “brain” of the computer, the Cen-
tral Processing Unit (CPU). In this section you learned what a CPU is, the various
types and models of CPUs, and the differences between them. Additionally, you
learned how the design of the CPU affects its performance.
The next topic you learned about was the Basic Input Output System (BIOS).
The BIOS is the software hard-coded into a chip on the motherboard and man-
ages the relationships between the hardware resources of a computer and the
operating system. In this section you learned about the different brands of BIOS
software and the major differences between them.
After learning about the BIOS, in the next section, you learned about mem-
ory. You learned what it is, how to locate the memory on a motherboard, what
its purpose is, and what the main types of memory are. Memory is discussed in
a later chapter, so continue reading the book for coverage about the different
types of memory. However, in this chapter you did learn about the CMOS mem-
ory that stores the BIOS settings and that it is battery backed to save these set-
tings when power is turned off.
Another of the computer subsystems you were introduced to in this chapter is
the storage subsystem. All files and programs you need to run need to be stored
somehow so that they can be loaded into memory when called upon. Data stor-
age keeps data and programs stored for the long term so they can be kept in the
computer, even when the power is turned off. In this section you learned about
both fixed and removable types of storage (including hard disks, CD-ROMs, Zip
disks, and CD-RW) that are available for use in a computer.
In the next section, you learned about the various kinds of input and output
devices that are commonly used with computers. You learned what input devices
are commonly used with computers, like mice and keyboards as well as graphics
tablets. You also learned about some types of hardware used to get data out of
a computer, including monitors, printers, and modems. You learned what func-
tion each component has and how each component differs from the others.

In the next section, you learned how to get the data into and out of the com-
puter using the various interfaces commonly found on computers. Some of these
interfaces include serial, parallel, USB, and FireWire. These interfaces connect
input and output devices to the computer and provide the pathway for data
transfers.
No computer would be able to function without some kind of power supply
to convert AC current into the DC voltages (+5, -5, +12, -12 VDC) that the com-
puter uses. In this next section, you learned about how a power supply delivers
these voltages and about the connectors used to deliver those voltages. You also
learned about the power problems that can, and do, occur with power supplies.
In the final section, you learned the differences between portable computer
systems and desktop PC systems. The A+ exam tests your knowledge of the hard-
ware unique to portable computers systems. You learned how these unique com-
ponents work. For example, you learned how the different types of LCD displays
worked. You also learned how power is supplied to portable computers through
batteries and AC adapters.
Key Terms
“baby” AT Integrated system boards

“full” AT joystick port
Berg connectors motherboard
Central Processing Unit (CPU) nonintegrated system boards
clock doubling parallel port
clock tripling parallel processing
CMOS battery planar board
direct-solder method proprietary design
dongle riser card
dongle connection serial ports
Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs) Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs)
expansion slots superscalar
floppy drive interfaces system board
game port Universal Serial Bus (USB)
hard disk interfaces x86 series

Review Questions 107
Review Questions
1. Which computer component contains all the circuitry necessary for all com-
ponents or devices to communicate with each other?
A. System board
B. Adapter card
C. Hard drive
D. Expansion bus
2. Clock speeds are measured in ____________________.

A. Ohms
B. Volts
C. Megahertz
D. Milliseconds
3. What was the original name for a monitor?

A. Video Display Unit
B. CRT
C. LCD
D. Optical Display Unit
4. Which of the following is the most important input device?

A. Mouse
B. Digitizing tablet
C. Keyboard
D. Printer
5. Access time refers to what?

A. Revolutions per unit of time
B. Difference between the time data is requested and received
C. Latency
D. The time it takes to create an Access database

6. What is the maximum amount of data that can be stored on a 51⁄4 "
floppy disk?
A. 360KB
B. 1.2MB
C. 320KB
D. 720KB
7. The system board is also called ____________________.

A. A fiberglass board
B. A planar board
C. A bus system
D. An IBM system board XR125
8. The ____________________ is used to store frequently accessed data and

instructions.
A. Hard drive
B. RAM
C. Internal cache memory
D. ROM
9. Which processor was introduced with 1.2 million transistors and a 32-bit
internal and external data path?
A. 386SX
B. 486DX
C. 486DX2
D. Pentium
10. Which processor had the math coprocessor disabled?

A. 286
B. 486SX
C. 486DX
D. 387SX

11. What are the four voltages produced by a common PCs power supply?
A. +3
B. -3
C. +5
D. -5
E. +12
F. -12
G. +110
H. -110
12. Which power device would be best to attach to your computer if you were
having undervoltage power problems?
A. Surge protector
B. UPS
C. Line Conditioner
D. SPS
13. If you wanted to connect a LapLink cable (a parallel data transfer cable) so
that you could upload and download files from a computer, which type of
parallel port(s) does your computer need to have?
A. Standard
B. Bidirectional
C. EPP
D. ECP
14. What peripheral port type was originally developed by Apple and is currently
primarily used for digital video transfers?
A. DVD
B. USB
C. IEEE 1394
D. IEEE 1284
15. What peripheral port type is expandable, using a hub, operates at 1.5Mbps,
and is used to connect various devices (from printers to cameras) to PCs?
A. DVD
B. USB
C. IEEE 1394
D. IEEE 1284

16. Which peripheral port type was designed to transfer data at high speeds to
printers only?
A. DVD
B. USB
C. IEEE 1394
D. IEEE 1284
17. Which motherboard form factor places expansion slots on a special riser card
and is used in “low profile” PCs?
A. AT
B. “Baby” AT
C. ATX
D. NLX
18. Which Intel processor type(s) use the SEC when installed into a motherboard?
A. 386
B. 486
C. Pentium
D. Pentium II
19. Which of the following can a DVD-ROM store in addition to movies?

A. Audio files
B. Word documents
C. Digital photos
D. All of the above
20. What type of expansion slot is used almost always for high-speed, 3D graphics
video cards?
A. USB
B. AGP
C. PCI
D. ISA


1. A. The spine of the computer is the system board, otherwise known as the
motherboard. On the system board you will find the CPU, underlying circuitry,
expansion slots, video components, RAM slots, and various other chips.
2. C. Clock speed is the frequency with which a processor executes instruc-

tions. This frequency is measured in millions of cycles per second, or mega-
hertz (MHz).
3. B. The first display systems were nothing more than fancy black and white
TV monitors called CRTs.
4. C. The most important device of any computer system is the keyboard. It is

the basic component used to enter information or data to the processor and
storage device.
5. C. Two factors, seek time and latency, make up the drive’s access time. The
average seek time plus the average latency equals the drive access time.
6. B. The drives today that offer anything less than 1.2MB are increasingly rare
as most computers today do not carry the 51⁄4 " size.
7. B. The spine of the computer is the system board, otherwise known as the
motherboard and less commonly referred to as the planar board.
8. C. An internal cache memory is a storage area for frequently used data and
instructions. It requires a small amount of physical RAM that can keep up
with the processor.
9. B. While the 386DX was the first Intel processor to use a 32-bit data bus and
a 32-bit address bus, the 486DX was the first Intel processor that used both a
32-bit internal and a 32-bit external data path.
10. B. To help cut the cost of the 486DX chip, Intel created the 486SX, which
disabled the internal math coprocessor.
11. C, D, E, F. The four voltages that a computer needs to operate are +5 volts
DC, -5 volts DC (ground), +12 volts DC, and –12 volts DC (ground).
12. B. The better choice for undervoltage problems would be the UPS. The com-
puter equipment is always running off the battery. While the line voltage is
normal the battery gets charged. When power fluctuates, only the charging
circuit is affected.
13. B, C, D. Bidirectional parallel port can both transmit and receive data. An
ECP was designed to transfer data at high speeds. EPP parallel ports provide
for greater transfer speeds and the ability to send memory addresses as well as
data through a parallel port.

14. C. The 1394 standard provided for greater data transfer speeds and the abil-
ity to send memory addresses as well as data through a parallel port.
15. B. USBs are used for connecting multiple peripherals to one computer
through a single port and support data transfer rates as high as 1.5Mbps.
16. D. IEEE 1284 standard defines the ECP parallel port to use a DMA channel
and the buffer to be able to transfer data at high speeds to printers.
17. D. The NLX form factor places expansion slots on a special riser card and is
used in low profile PCs.
18. D. The unique thing about the Pentium II is that it uses a Single Edge Connec-
tor (SEC) to attach to the motherboard instead of the standard PGA package.
19. D. The DVD-ROM can store many types of data as well as movies. In the
computer world, data can be audio files, Word documents, digital photos, and
many other things.
20. B. While technically PCI and ISA could be used for video adapters, AGP was
specifically designed for the use of high-speed, 3D graphic video cards.

Chapter PC Memory
Architecture
THIS CHAPTER:
4.2 Identify the categories of RAM (Random Access Memory)

terminology, their locations, and physical characteristics.
Terminology:
EDO RAM (Extended Data Output RAM)
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
SRAM (Static RAM)
RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module 184 Pin)
VRAM (Video RAM)
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM)
WRAM (Windows Accelerator Card RAM)
Locations and physical characteristics:
Memory bank
Memory chips (8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit)
SIMMs (Single In-line Memory Module)
DIMMs (Dual In-line Memory Module)
Parity chips versus non-parity chips

T he most commonly misunderstood concept in PC maintenance is
memory. Often confused with hard disk space, memory gives a computer its
“work area.” The computer uses this work area to store program instructions
and data that it’s working with.
In this chapter, we’ll present the various types of memory that are used by PCs
today. We’ll also discuss approaches to recognizing problems that may be related
to or solved by changing the memory settings in a customer’s computer. The top-
ics fall into the following categories:
Physical memory
Logical memory
Memory optimization
Memory troubleshooting
Physical Memory
T he most important component in the computer is the memory system.
When we say the word memory, we are most often referring to Random Access
Memory or RAM. However, there are other types of memory. We will discuss
them all in this chapter.
Physically, memory is a collection of integrated circuits (ICs) that store data
and program information as patterns of 1s and 0s (on and off states) in the chip.
Most memory chips require constant power (also called a constant refresh) to
maintain those patterns of 1s and 0s. If power is lost, all those tiny switches
revert back to the off position, effectively erasing the data from memory. Some
memory types, however, do not require refresh.
Physical Memory Types

There are as many types of memory as there are IC types. Let’s take a look at each
type in detail.

Physical Memory 115
SRAM
One type of memory is known as static random access memory (SRAM). It is
called static because the information doesn’t need a constant update (refresh).
SRAM stores information as patterns of transistor ons and offs to represent
binary digits. This type of memory is physically bulky and somewhat limited in
its capacity. It can generally store only 256Kb (kilobits) per IC. The original PC
and XT, as well as some notebook computer systems, use SRAM chips for their
memory.
Most new computers are moving away from SRAM, to the newer, more
efficient type of memory known as DRAM.
DRAM
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) was an improvement over SRAM.
DRAM uses a different approach to storing the 1s and 0s. Instead of transistors,
DRAM stores information as charges in very small capacitors. If a charge exists
in a capacitor, it’s interpreted as a 1. The absence of a charge will be interpreted
as a 0.
Because DRAM uses capacitors instead of switches, it needs to use a con-
stant refresh signal to keep the information in memory. DRAM requires more
power than SRAM for refresh signals and, therefore, is mostly found in desk-
top computers.
DRAM technology allows several memory units, called cells, to be packed
with very high density. Therefore, these chips can hold very large amounts of
information. Most PCs today use DRAM of one type or another.
Let’s take a brief look at some of the different types of DRAM:
Fast Page Mode (FPM)
Extended Data Out (EDO)
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM)
Direct Rambus (RIMM)
In this section you will learn about each type of DRAM and the differences
between them.
Fast Page Mode (FPM)

Fast Page Mode (FPM) DRAM chips, at the time of the 486/Pentium transition,
was the most common type of DRAM. Although its technical designation is FPM
DRAM, because it was the most common type of DRAM, everyone just started
calling it “DRAM.” It allowed data to be “paged” (swapped) into memory faster
than earlier versions, thus providing better performance.

116 Chapter 3 PC Memory Architecture
Extended Data Out (EDO)

In 1995, a new type of RAM became popular. EDO (Extended Data Out) RAM
increases performance by 10 to 15 percent over FPM DRAM by eliminating
memory wait states, which means eliminating a few steps to access memory. It’s
usually a bit more expensive than regular DRAM.
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

In the final quarter of 1996, a new type of memory, Synchronous DRAM, was
introduced. SDRAM was developed to match the ever-increasing processing
speeds of the Pentium systems. Synchronous DRAM, as its name suggests, is syn-
chronized to the speed of the systems it will be used in (e.g. PC66 SDRAM runs
at 66MHz, PC100 runs at 100MHZ, PC133 runs at 133MHz and so on). Syn-
chronizing the speed of the systems prevents the address bus from having to wait
for the memory because of different clock speeds.
If you happen to install PC133 SDRAM in a 100MHz bus, the system will function,
but the 133MHz memory will only operate at the 100MHz bus speed, thus reducing
overall system performance.
Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM)

Essentially, Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) is clock-doubled
SDRAM. The memory chip can perform reads and writes on both sides of any
clock cycle (the “up” or start and the “down” or ending), thus doubling the
effective memory executions per second. So, if you are using DDR SDRAM with
a 100MHz memory bus, the memory will execute reads and writes at 200MHz
and transfer the data to the processor at 100MHz. The advantage to DDR over
regular SDRAM is increased throughput, thus increased overall system speed.
Direct Rambus (RIMM)

Direct Rambus is a relatively new and extremely fast (up to 800MHz) technol-
ogy that uses, for the most part, a new methodology in memory system design.
Direct Rambus is a memory bus that transfers data at 800MHz over a 16-bit
memory bus. Direct Rambus memory models (often called RIMMs), like DDR
SDRAM, can transfer data on both the rising and falling edges of a clock cycle.
That feature, combined with the 16-bit bus for efficient transfer of data, results
in the ultra-high memory transfer rate (800MHz) and the high bandwidth of up
to 1.6GB/second (more than twice that of 100MHz SDRAM).
ROM
Read-only memory (ROM) is used to store information permanently for easy
and quick retrieval. This type of memory chip contains transistors that are man-
ufactured permanently in the on or off position, which is the main reason why

Physical Memory 117
this memory is called “read only.” Once these transistors have been set, they
can’t be changed. Because these switches are permanently in these positions,
accessing the information contained in ROMs is extremely fast.
ROMs are expensive to develop and manufacture. They are mainly used for
very specialized purposes, such as storing information about how a device needs
to operate. A computer’s BIOS is typically stored on a type of ROM chip.
PROM
For purposes more general than those required by ROM, a type of ROM chip
was developed called the Programmable ROM (PROM). The PROM is a ROM
that is first manufactured with all of its circuits as logical 1s (that is, with all
switches on); then, when the PROM is to be programmed, the connections that
need to be set to 0 are destroyed, using a high voltage electrical pulse. This makes
the settings permanent.
EPROM
The main disadvantage to ROM is that it can’t be changed once it has been man-
ufactured. To resolve this, IC developers came up with Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory (EPROM). EPROMs are erasable and able to be repro-
grammed, making them more flexible than ROMs. They work by storing binary
information as electrical charges deposited on the chip. These electrical deposits
are almost permanent. They will stay until dislodged by a special-frequency
ultraviolet light shone through a small window (see Figure 3.1). Exposure to this
light returns the chip to its blank state. The chip can then be completely repro-
grammed. These chips are usually easily identified by their small, circular win-
dows. Some older computers, such as the IBM PC or XT, used EPROMs for their
BIOS information.
FIGURE 3.1 A typical EPROM
The windows in EPROM chips are used during the erasure process. When you
open a computer case, make sure they are covered with a small piece of opaque
material (part of a self-adhesive mailing label works well) to prevent light (either
sunlight or light from fluorescent lamps) from inadvertently erasing these chips.

EEPROM
It is very inconvenient to remove an IC every time it needs to have the software
it contains upgraded. It can be a real pain and can be dangerous. A way was
needed to permit erasure of these chips “on the fly” while still maintaining their
capability of keeping information intact once power is removed. Electrically
Erasable PROM (EEPROM) chips were designed to solve this problem. They can
be erased by sending a special sequence of electric signals to the chip while it is
still in the circuit. These signals then erase all or part of the chip.
Although it might seem a good idea to use a EEPROM chip for the main mem-
ory in a computer, it would be very expensive. The primary use of this type of
chip is for BIOS information; you’ll see CMOS BIOS chips in most computers.
The CMOS memory keeps the computer’s BIOS settings while the computer is
turned off. These special EEPROM chips keep their information by means of a
small battery. Although the battery’s charge lasts for several years, it will even-
tually lose its ability to keep the CMOS settings. It’s easy to tell when this is hap-
pening, though, because the computer begins to lose its ability to keep BIOS
settings when powered off.
Because the BIOS settings can eventually be lost when the CMOS battery finally
loses its charge, we encourage all technicians (and PC owners in general) to
record their BIOS settings (on paper or save them to a floppy) so that they may be
reset if you have to replace the CMOS battery. The BIOS settings are available
from the computer’s Setup program, which is accessible by a special key or key
combination during startup. Some computers use the Delete key, one of the func-
tion keys, or the Escape key; others use Ctrl+Alt+Esc.
Memory Chip Package Types

The memory chips themselves come in many different types of packages. The
ones most frequently encountered are discussed in the following sections.
Dual Inline Package (DIP)

The first type of memory chip package is Dual Inline Package (DIP) memory (Fig-
ure 3.2), so named because the individual RAM chips use the DIP-style package for
the memory IC. Older computers, such as the IBM AT, arranged these small chips
like rows of caskets in a small memory “graveyard.” There are typically eight chips
in one of these rows, although there may be nine. If data is written to memory
8 bits at a time, why the ninth chip? The answer is that the ninth chip is used for
parity, a kind of error-checking routine (see the following sidebar, “Parity: How
Does It Work?”). Chips that have an extra chip for error checking are known as
parity chips. Those without error checking are known as non-parity.

Physical Memory 119
FIGURE 3.2 A DIP memory chip
Every time a person wanted to add memory to a computer, they had to go to

a computer or electronics store and buy a tube of RAM. These tubes typically
contained 8–16 of these chips. The markings on the chips indicated their speed
and size. A marking of AB256-80 means a 256-Kilobit chip that has an access
time of 80 ns. The size was commonly given in bits or Kilobits (Kb). If you put
in 256Kb chips and you put in eight of them (or nine, depending on the system),
you would have added 256 Kilobytes (256KB) of RAM.
These chips were used with computers based on the 8086, 8088, and 80286
processors. The problem with the 286 processor and memory was that the
processor was faster than the memory. The memory would get overrun with
requests from the processor, causing serious performance problems. To solve
this problem, manufacturers introduced wait states into their RAM. A wait state
causes the processor to wait one or more clock cycles, allowing the RAM to catch
up. A wait state of zero means that the processor and the memory are equally
matched in speed.
Parity: How Does It Work?
Parity is a simple form of error checking used in computers and telecommuni-

cations. Parity works by adding an additional bit to a binary number and using
it to indicate any changes in that number during transmission. There are two
types of parity: even and odd.
Even parity works by counting the number of 1s in a binary number and, if

that number is odd, adding an additional 1 to guarantee that the total num-
ber of 1s is even. For example, on the one hand, the number 11101011 has
an even number of 1s, so the sending computer would assign a 0 to the par-
ity bit. On the other hand, the number 01101101 has five 1s, and so would
have a 1 in the parity bit position to make the total number of 1s even. If, in
the second number, the computer had checked the parity position after
transmission and had found a 0 instead, it would have asked the processor
to resend the last bit.
Odd parity works in a similar manner. But, instead of guaranteeing that the
total number of 1s is even, it guarantees that the total is an odd number.

Parity works well for detecting single-bit errors (where one bit has changed its
value during transmission). But if the transmission is extremely garbled, two
bits might be switched at the same time. If that were the case, the value for par-
ity would still be valid; as a consequence, the sender would not be asked to
retransmit. That’s why transmissions that really need to be reliable often use
another method of error checking called a checksumming.
Checksumming works as follows: when the sender is ready to transmit a unit of

data, it runs a special algorithm against the binary data and computes what is
known as a checksum. The sender then appends this checksum to the data
being transmitted and sends the whole data stream to its intended recipient.
The recipient decodes the entire data stream and runs a similar algorithm
against the data portion. The recipient compares the value that it computed to
the value contained in the received checksum. If the values are different, it
rejects the data and asks the sender to retransmit it.
Most error checking done today uses checksumming, unless only a basic com-
munication check is required. For example, parity is used in the case of modem
communications, because these transfers are relatively slow to begin with. If
modems used checksumming instead of parity, modem communications would
be too slow to be a viable means of telecommunication. That’s why it is necessary
to set the parity to even or odd when setting up modem communications.
Single Inline Memory Module (SIMM)

The next type of RAM packaging that is commonly seen in computers is called
the Single Inline Memory Module (SIMM). SIMMs were developed because
DIPs took up too much “real estate” on the logic board. Someone got the idea
to put several of the DIP chips on a small circuit board and then make that board
easily removable. A couple of versions (there are many configurations) are
shown in Figure 3.3.
FIGURE 3.3 Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs)

Physical Memory 121
The first SIMMs had nine small DIP chips on them and took up less room
than before, because four of them could be installed in the same space as one row
of the older DIP memory chips. In order to accomplish this, the SIMMs are
installed very close to each other at approximately a 45º angle. This design was
also meant to prevent “chip creep”—whereby the chips that have been placed in
sockets on the board start to slowly move out of their sockets (caused by the
repeated heating and cooling of the system board).
An old technician’s trick: If an older computer (PC or XT) is having strange, irre-
producible problems, open the case and reseat all socketed chips by pressing
them down securely in their sockets. Most of the time, that will solve the problem.
If it does, then the problem was caused by “chip creep.”
Most memory chips are 32-bit; so are several of the processors. You have a
problem, however, when you have 32-bit memory chips and a 64-bit processor.
To solve this, you must either install the SIMMs in pairs (always installing mul-
tiples of two—this is especially true for Pentium computers) or change to a
DIMM installation (discussed next).
Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM)

The final type of memory package is known as a DIMM (Dual Inline Memory
Module). DIMMs are dual-sided memory chips that hold twice as many chips as
a SIMM. (And, except for the fact that they have chips on both sides, they look
just like a SIMM.) Generally, the DIMMs you’ll run into will have either 72 or
168 pins. Some DIMMs are 32-bit, but more and more are 64-bit and only have
to be installed one at a time in Pentium-class computers.
Specialized Memory Types

There are four major specialized applications for memory besides main memory.
Video RAM
Video memory (also called video RAM or VRAM) is used to store image data for
processing by the video adapter. The more video memory an adapter has, the
better the quality of image that it can display. Also, more VRAM allows the
adapter to display a higher resolution of image.
Windows RAM (WRAM)

Windows RAM (WRAM) is a specialized memory for Windows accelerator
cards. Developed by Samsung, it is similar to video RAM, except that it’s much
faster. While information is being read from one set of WRAM addresses to draw
the screen, other information can be written to another set of addresses. This is

faster than normal VRAM, where all addresses can only be either read from or
written to. This ability of WRAM to be read from or written to simultaneously
is called dual-ported memory.
Portable Memory
The memory styles for portable computers are many and varied. Each portable
computer manufacturer comes up with their own specification for portable
memory. Installing memory in a laptop usually involves removing a specially
attached panel on the bottom of the laptop and installing the memory in the slot
that is under the removed panel. Then you can replace the panel.
Because each laptop’s memory could potentially install in completely different

ways, check with the manufacturer of your laptop to determine how to upgrade
the memory.
Cache Memory
When a CPU goes to get either its program instructions or data, it always has to
get them from main memory. However, in some systems, there is a small amount
of very fast SRAM memory, called cache memory, between the processor and
main memory, and it is used to store the most frequently accessed information.
Because it’s faster than main memory and contains the most frequently used
information, cache memory will increase the performance of any system.
There are two types of cache memory: on-chip (also called internal or L1
Cache) and off-chip (also called external or L2 Cache). Internal cache memory
is found on Intel Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II processors, as well as on
other manufacturer’s chips. The original Pentium contains two 8KB-on-chip
caches, one for program instructions and the other for data. External cache
memory is typically either a SIMM of SRAM or a separate expansion board that
installs in a special processor-direct bus.
To get the most out of cache memory, if you have the option of installing an exter-
nal cache card onto your motherboard, do it. It can give you as much as a 25 per-
cent boost in speed.
Logical Memory
N ow that we have discussed the different types of physical memory, we
need to talk about the logical types of memory. Logical memory is the way the

Logical Memory 123
physical memory is “put together” for the operating system. In order to use
the physical memory installed in a computer, we need to organize it in some log-
ical manner. Most people don’t understand this concept. Let’s reduce that num-
ber by at least one right now.
The material that follows actually covers the Memory management subsection of
objective 1.1 of the Operating System Technologies exam. For instructional pur-
poses, we feel that it makes more sense to address this topic here. For complete
coverage of OS objective 1.1, please also see Part II, Chapters 12 and 14.
There is a model that helps us understand the way that memory is laid out.
This model is actually called the “MS-DOS Memory Map.” It was not created all
at once but has evolved over time. The first computers to run DOS were based
on the Intel 8088 processor. That processor could only access a maximum of
1MB (1,024KB) of memory. So, the first memory map looked like the one illus-
trated in Figure 3.4. This map allows us to describe how the memory is being
used. It is important to remember that this memory map is also called a stack,
because for purposes of visualizing concepts the memory blocks are stacked on
top of one another.
FIGURE 3.4 The MS-DOS Memory Map
The memory map’s first 1,024KB is divided up into 16 blocks of 64KB each.
We will be describing the purpose of each of these blocks in the sections that
follow.

The sixteen 64KB blocks are further divided into four “pages” of 16KB each.
This division allows us to look in a more detailed way at how an application is using
memory. Memory is allocated by the processor to those applications or devices that
request it. When you need to refer to these blocks you can refer to them either by
their block number (block 1, block 2, and so on), or you can refer to them as a range
of hexadecimal addresses. The hexadecimal method is the most common way, since
that is how the computers refer to them. These addresses are typically five-digit hex
addresses, primarily because the largest five-digit hex address is FFFFF (1,048,575
decimal, corresponding to 1,048,575 bytes, or 1MB). Table 3.1 gives the blocks,
their ranges in bytes, and their ranges in hexadecimal addresses.
TABLE 3.1 Memory Addresses in the MS-DOS Memory Map
Block # Byte Range Hex Range
1 0 to 63KB 00000 to 0FFFF
2 64 to 127KB 10000 to 1FFFF
3 128 to 191KB 20000 to 2FFFF
4 192 to 255KB 30000 to 3FFFF
5 256 to 319KB 40000 to 4FFFF
6 320 to 383KB 50000 to 5FFFF
7 384 to 447KB 60000 to 6FFFF
8 448 to 511KB 70000 to 7FFFF
9 512 to 575KB 80000 to 8FFFF
10 576 to 639KB 90000 to 9FFFF
11 640 to 703KB A0000 to AFFFF
12 704 to 767KB B0000 to BFFFF
13 768 to 831KB C0000 to CFFFF
14 832 to 895KB D0000 to DFFFF

Logical Memory 125
TABLE 3.1 Memory Addresses in the MS-DOS Memory Map (continued)
Block # Byte Range Hex Range
15 896 to 959KB E0000 to EFFFF
16 960 to 1024KB F0000 to FFFFF
In most utilities that scan memory to find its contents, you will see memory
addresses listed as hex addresses. The table above will be valuable when you’re
determining where a particular program or driver is resident in memory.
Conventional Memory
The first type of memory, represented as the first 640KB in the memory map, is
called “conventional memory,” as highlighted in Figure 3.5. It takes the first 10
blocks (00000 to 9FFFF). This type of memory is used for running programs,
loading the operating system files, and loading drivers (see sidebar). With the old
8086 chip, this area was dedicated for user applications and data. Conventional
memory turned out to be the Achilles’ heel for a DOS-based system, as almost all
DOS applications are written to be backward compatible, so they must support
conventional memory.
FIGURE 3.5 The conventional memory area

Device Drivers and Conventional Memory
Device drivers are small pieces of software that are loaded to allow the com-
puter to talk to hardware devices. Drivers control and understand these hard-
ware devices. For example, if you want DOS to be able to use a sound card, a
driver needs to be loaded for it. When you load a driver, it is allocated memory
from the conventional memory area. The problem is that your applications use
this area to run in. If you have too many drivers loaded, you may not have
enough conventional memory to run your programs. We will address this prob-
lem later in this chapter, in the section titled “Memory Optimization.”
The first block (the first 64KB) is used for loading the DOS operating system
files into memory. Also, this area contains any memory allocated to DOS disk
buffers (specified by the BUFFERS= parameter in the CONFIG.SYS file). Addition-
ally, DOS uses this area to load additional memory drivers (EMM386.EXE and
HIMEM.SYS). Finally, any memory that DOS needs for system operations (input/
output buffers, the processing of interrupts, and so on) is also allocated from this
first 64KB area.
Besides DOS itself and drivers, there are often programs that are loaded into
conventional memory and then keep a portion of themselves there after they’ve
been terminated. This behavior can be pretty handy, as programs like e-mail soft-
ware can be called up more quickly when parts of them are still located in mem-
ory. These programs are called Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) programs.
The following are a few examples of TSRs:
Anti-Virus programs, because they need to stay in memory constantly
Disk Caching programs (for example, SMARTDRIVE.EXE)
Network protocol stacks
All of these types of programs may want to take up more memory than is
available. Therefore, the developers came up with more types of memory.
Reserved Memory
If an 8088 can access 1MB of RAM, why can’t you use all of it to run programs?
The answer is that some devices in the computer also need RAM. Some RAM is
reserved for use by some devices in the computer to store data so it can be
accessed directly by the processor. This area of RAM, called “reserved memory”
or “upper memory,” consists of the remaining six blocks—the upper 384KB—
in the MS-DOS memory map. It is highlighted in Figure 3.6.
A unique characteristic of reserved memory is that various sections of this
memory area are typically allocated for special purposes. Table 3.2 lists the com-
mon uses for the reserved memory blocks and the addresses they occupy.

Logical Memory 127
FIGURE 3.6 The “upper” (or “reserved”) memory area
TABLE 3.2 Reserved Memory Block Usage
Address Range Standard Usage Notes
A0000 to BFFFF (128KB) Video RAM Varies according to type

of video adapter used.
C0000 to CFFFF (64KB) Available Adapter ROMs some-

times mapped here; can
also be used for EMS
page frame.
D0000 to FFFFF (192KB) Available Adapter ROMs may

also be mapped here.
E0000 to FFFFF (128K) System ROMs BIOS and BIOS

“echo” may also be
mapped here.

The first two blocks of reserved memory are usually used for accessing video
RAM. When a computer needs to send information to the display, it writes it to
this area. The adapter has its own memory mapped into this area. This area is
only 128KB large, but some video cards have more than 1MB on them. How can
the computer fit 1MB into a 128KB area? It does this through a technique known
as paging. Paging works by taking a portion of that 1MB and accessing it by
swapping it into this reserved area as data needs to be written to it.
Here’s an example of how this might work: Say the processor has a large
graphic to draw on the screen. It makes a call to the video card and says, “Hey,
I’ve got some video for you,” then starts writing to the video area in reserved
memory. When this area is full, the video card “swaps” those full blocks for
empty ones from the memory on the card. The video card takes the instructions
from the “full” blocks and uses them to draw the picture on the screen. Table 3.3
shows the most commonly used memory addresses for video cards.
TABLE 3.3 Commonly Used Video Card Memory Addresses
Video Card Memory Address Range
Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) B0000 to B1000 (4KB)
Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) B8000 to BC000 (16KB)
Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) A0000 to BFFFF (128KB)
Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) A0000 to BFFFF (128KB)
Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA) A0000 to BFFFF (128KB)
Other VGA cards (super, accelerated, others) A0000 to BFFFF (128KB)
In addition to the video adapter, other adapter cards may use the reserved
memory area in the same way. These adapter cards are configured to use a par-
ticular range of memory in this area, typically in the area from C0000 to DFFFF.
This area is used to map ROM memory addresses in upper memory. Addition-
ally, some LAN cards have buffers that are mapped into this area.
Finally, the area from D0000 to DFFFF is most often used for mapping the
BIOS ROM information and a copy of it, called the BIOS “shadow.” This is

Logical Memory 129
done so that a processor can access BIOS information when it needs to. Some
BIOSs have the ability to shut off the shadow, thus freeing up 64KB of upper
memory.
The important concept to remember is that when you’re configuring adapter
cards, you can’t let these memory ranges overlap. If they do overlap, you’ll find
that either one or the other card will work (not both), or neither will work. It’s
guaranteed, though, that the computer won’t work properly.
Expanded Memory
When programs evolved and grew to the point where they were bumping up
against the 640KB conventional-memory barrier, three vendors—Lotus, Intel,
and Microsoft—came up with a technology to circumvent this limitation. The
technology they came up with was expanded memory, or EMS, for Expanded
Memory System. (It’s also called LIM memory in honor of its creators.)
EMS worked by using the same type of paging technology that video cards
use. Expanded memory is divided up into 16KB chunks called pages that are
swapped into a special memory address space in reserved memory four pages at
a time. The area in reserved memory that is used to hold these pages is called the
expanded memory page frame (or page frame, for short—see Figure 3.7). This
area normally occupies a full 64KB block in the memory map and is created
when the expanded memory driver is loaded.
In the case of the original expanded memory, the actual memory was installed
on a special hardware board installed in the computer, and the driver that was
loaded was actually a hardware driver for the board. Incidentally, the reason that
all three companies got involved is rather unique. Intel developed one of the first
expanded memory boards, called the AboveBoard, which was used by people
who wanted to make larger spreadsheets with Lotus 1-2-3, which ran primarily
under MS-DOS (made by Microsoft). Expanded memory can be utilized on any
computer from the 8088-based PC to the Pentium and higher. Depending on the
motherboard you were using, you could install as much as 32MB of memory to
be used as expanded memory.
Today, computers are capable of emulating expanded memory through soft-
ware, because very few programs today use expanded memory. (Most computers
use the next type of memory we’re going to describe, extended memory.) The
EMS emulator is a software driver called EMM386.EXE. You load it in the
CONFIG.SYS file by adding the following line:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE

FIGURE 3.7 Expanded memory
This driver also allows DOS drivers and TSR programs to be loaded into the
unused portions of reserved memory by adding a second line:
DOS=UMB
This has the benefit of freeing up conventional memory for use by your pro-
grams and is a key concept to memory optimization (which will be discussed
later in this chapter). If you don’t need expanded memory capability, you can
change these lines to turn off EMS but keep the ability to load drivers and TSRs
into upper memory blocks (free areas in reserved memory, also called UMBs). To
do this, your CONFIG.SYS file must have these lines:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS
DOS=UMB
The EMS emulator (EMM386.EXE) and the DOS=UMB command were first available in
MS-DOS version 5.0 (which came out in 1991). If you’re trying to optimize memory
on a machine that is running an earlier version of DOS, your first step should be
to install the latest version of DOS.

Logical Memory 131
Extended Memory
With the introduction of the 286 processor, things changed dramatically for PC
memory. This processor (and all processors since then) had the capability of
accessing up to 16MB of RAM (current processors can access up to 4GB of
RAM). The problem was that DOS was written for the old 8086 processor and
that processor could access only 1MB of RAM. In order to allow DOS programs
to use all this memory, DOS would have to be rewritten to support the new pro-
cessor. If this was done, the new version of DOS would not support old pro-
grams, since the old programs would not run above 1MB. Computer buyers
don’t like it when they buy programs that are made obsolete with the introduc-
tion of new technology. So the chip manufacturers came up with an idea to allow
their new technology to be introduced.
To do this, the processor would use two different operating modes: real mode
and protected mode. In real mode, the 286 (and above) would operate like an 8086
(only faster) and could access only 1MB of RAM. To access memory above 1MB,
the processor would have to switch to protected mode. It is called protected mode
because each program that is running is protected from other programs that may
be misbehaving and taking memory away from it. For DOS programs to use this
memory, a program was written to extend DOS for those programs that can take
advantage of it. This program is called a DOS extender.
An example of a DOS extender is the memory driver HIMEM.SYS; it allows
certain programs to switch the processor to protected mode and access the mem-
ory above 1MB. It is loaded by adding the following line to the CONFIG.SYS file:
DEVICE=HIMEM.SYS
Once HIMEM.SYS is loaded, DOS can “see” the memory above 1MB. This mem-
ory is what is referred to as extended memory.
Additionally, when HIMEM.SYS is loaded, DOS can place the majority of
itself into the first 64KB of extended memory. This first 64KB is called the High
Memory Area (HMA). In order to load DOS into the HMA, you modify the
CONFIG.SYS with the following two lines:
DEVICE=HIMEM.SYS
DOS=HIGH

You may have noticed that the last line is analogous to the DOS=UMB line in the
last section. It is possible to have both of these lines in the CONFIG.SYS to get the
greatest amount of conventional memory available, although it is easier to do
them both at once, like so:
DEVICE=HIMEM.SYS
DEVICE=EMM386.EXE
DOS=HIGH,UMB
Basically, DOS can’t use extended memory without the help of these extend-
ers. However, there are several operating systems that can. These include OS/2,
UNIX, and Windows NT. Programs written for these non-DOS operating sys-
tems are able to take advantage of the benefits of the 286 (and above) processor,
including multitasking and access to all the memory the processor can address.
Most people don’t understand the MS-DOS memory map. That’s okay; most
people don’t need to. However, it is an invaluable tool for the PC technician.
Several programs report problems with memory addresses in hexadecimal.
This helps us understand which programs were fighting when the error
occurred. Also, in order to keep most PCs running efficiently, you must get as
much conventional memory as possible. To do this, it is very important you
understand the different types of memory, their addressing, and how they work
together in a PC.
With all of the different types of memory, you end up with a DOS memory
map that looks like the one in Figure 3.8. With so many different types of mem-
ory, it is easy to get them confused. Most often, expanded and extended are jux-
taposed. The easiest way to remember the difference is that expanded memory is
paged and extended is not.

Memory Optimization 133
FIGURE 3.8 The complete MS-DOS memory map
Memory Optimization
B ecause of the small amount of conventional memory available, the
increasing number of drivers that need to be loaded, and the increasing size of the
programs you need to run, it is very common to not have enough conventional
memory. When people talk about memory optimization, they usually mean mak-
ing as much conventional memory available as possible.
Memory optimization is one of the most important skills a technician can
have. With the number of DOS applications that exist, the need for a technician
to know how to optimize memory will continue to be valuable. In general, your
DOS-based PCs will run best with the most possible conventional memory avail-
able. Ideally, we’re talking in the neighborhood of 600KB or more free.

Step One: Determining How Much Memory You Have

Available
We already understand what conventional memory is, but in order to optimize
it, you must first make the determination whether or not memory optimization
is needed. For DOS systems, you use the MEM.EXE program. This program allows
us to determine how memory is being utilized within DOS. The syntax for the
MEM command is as follows:
MEM <option>
The available options are described in Table 3.4. If you execute the command
without an option, the MEM command shows how much of each type of memory
is installed, as shown in Figure 3.9.
In IBM’s PC-DOS, the QCONFIG.EXE program gives some of the same information
as the MS-DOS MEM.EXE program, as well as information regarding fixed disks.
FIGURE 3.9 A report from the MS-DOS MEM command when executed without any options
TABLE 3.4 MEM.EXE Command-Line Options
Option Description
/? The help switch. It gives basic information on the syntax of

the MEM command and its usage. It shows all the switches
listed in this table and their usage.

TABLE 3.4 MEM.EXE Command-Line Options (continued)
Option Description
/C The classify switch. When executed, gives an output similar to

the one following this table.
/D The debug switch. It details the usage of the first 640KB of

memory (conventional memory). This switch is helpful in
finding out the memory addresses of the various programs
that are loaded. (Remember that MEM itself is also a program
and should be listed.) An example report of MEM /D is shown
a couple of pages after this table.
/F The free memory switch. Shows all the free memory blocks in
the first 640KB and their starting addresses. Also useful in
optimizing memory.
/M <module> The module switch. Shows the starting addresses of the

data, program, and free memory allocated to the module
you specify.
/P The pause switch. When used in conjunction with the other

switches, /P displays the output of the command one page
at a time. When a page is displayed, the display will pause
until a key is pressed. The same effect can be accomplished
by piping the command’s results into the MORE command (i.e.,
using MEM <option>|MORE).
A Report from the MEM /C Command

The following is the output of the MEM /C command:
Modules using memory below 1MB:
Name Total Conventional Upper Memory

—————— ————————————— —————————————— —————————————
SYSTEM 48,880 (48K) 10,592 (10K) 38,288 (37K)
HIMEM 1,168 (1K) 1,168 (1K) 0 (0K)
EMM386 4,320 (4K) 4,320 (4K) 0 (0K)
WIN 3,696 (4K) 3,696 (4K) 0 (0K)
———— 288 (0K) 288 (0K) 0 (0K)
vmm32 102,064 (100K) 448 (0K) 101,616 (99K)
COMMAND 7,456 (7K) 7,456 (7K) 0 (0K)
IBMIDECD 10,848 (11K) 0 (0K) 10,848 (11K)
IFSHLP 2,864 (3K) 0 (0K) 2,864 (3K)

DOSKEY 4,688 (5K) 0 (0K) 4,688 (5K)

Free 627,120 (612K) 627,120 (612K) 0 (0K)
Memory Summary:
Type of Memory Total Used Free

——————————————— —————————— ———————— ——————————
Conventional 655,360 28,240 627,120
Upper 158,304 158,304 0
Reserved 393,216 393,216 0
Extended (XMS) 32,347,552 95,648 32,251,904
——————————————— —————————— ———————— ——————————
Total memory 33,554,432 675,408 32,879,024
Total under 1MB 813,664 186,544 627,120
Largest executable program size 627,104 (612K)

Largest free upper memory block 0 (0K)
MS-DOS is resident in the high memory area.
A Report from the MEM /D Command

The following is the output of the MEM /D command:
Conventional Memory Detail:
Segment Total Name Type

——————— ——————— ——————— ——————————————————————
00000 1,024 (1K) Interrupt Vector
00040 256 (0K) ROM Communication Area
00050 512 (1K) DOS Communication Area
00070 1,424 (1K) IO System Data
CON System Device Driver
AUX System Device Driver
PRN System Device Driver
CLOCK$ System Device Driver
A: - C: System Device Driver
COM1 System Device Driver
LPT1 System Device Driver
CONFIG$ System Device Driver


000C9 5,120 (5K) MSDOS System Data
00209 7,632 (7K) IO System Data
1,024 (1K) Relocated EBIOS data
1,152 (1K) Installed Device=HIMEM
4,304 (4K) Installed Device=EMM386
544 (1K) Sector buffer
512 (1K) BUFFERS=50
003E6 80 (0K) MSDOS System Program
003EB 32 (0K) WIN Data
003ED 288 (0K) ———— Data
003FF 256 (0K) WIN Environment
0040F 3,408 (3K) WIN Program
004E4 48 (0K) vmm32 Data
004E7 400 (0K) vmm32 Program
00500 288 (0K) COMMAND Data
00512 5,728 (6K) COMMAND Program
00678 1,440 (1K) COMMAND Environment
006D2 288 (0K) MEM Environment
006E4 90,464 (88K) MEM Program
01CFA 536,656 (524K) MSDOS — Free —
Upper Memory Detail:
Segment Region Total Name Type

————— ———— ——————— ————— —————
0C95C 1 51,968 (51K) IO System Data
10,832 (11K)IBMCD001 Installed vice=IBMIDECD
2,848 (3K)IFS$HLP$ Installed Device=IFSHLP
464 (0K) Block device tables
4,736 (5K) FILES=85
256 (0K) FCBS=4
26,800 (26K) BUFFERS=50
2,816 (3K) LASTDRIVE=`
3,072 (3K) STACKS=9,256
0D60C 1 272 (0K) vmm32 Data
0D61D 1 4,688 (5K) DOSKEY Program
0D742 1 101,344 (99K) vmm32 Data

Memory Summary:
Type of Memory Total Used Free
——————————————— —————————— ———————— ——————————
Conventional 655,360 28,240 627,120
Upper 158,304 158,304 0
Reserved 393,216 393,216 0
Extended (XMS) 32,347,552 95,648 32,251,904
——————————————— —————————— ———————— ——————————
Total memory 33,554,432 675,408 32,879,024
Total under 1MB 813,664 186,544 627,120
Memory accessible using Int 15h 0 (0K)

Largest executable program size 627,104 (612K)
Largest free upper memory block 0 (0K)
MS-DOS is resident in the high memory area.
XMS version 3.00; driver version 3.95
Step Two: Making the Optimization Changes

Once you have determined how much conventional memory you have available
(and in all likelihood found that you need to optimize your conventional mem-
ory), you must then determine how to best optimize it. If you have installed DOS
with the default installation, you will have the CONFIG.SYS file shown here:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS
Files=40
Stacks=9,256
SHELL=C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM /E:1024
The first procedure you can perform that will increase available conventional
memory is to add the DOS=HIGH line to CONFIG.SYS. This has the effect of mov-
ing DOS to the HMA, thus freeing up the first 64KB block (minus a small
amount to keep HIMEM.SYS and a few smaller files in conventional memory).
The next thing you can do is load some or all of your device drivers and TSRs
into upper memory. This is also called loading them “high,” which is a misnomer
since you aren’t loading them into the HMA, but rather into the upper memory
area (simply the other name for reserved memory, which I guess is higher than

conventional memory, but still, it’s not in the area typically referred to as the
high memory area—oh, well, I didn’t come up with it). This is accomplished by
doing three things:
1. Add DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE and DOS=UMB in your CONFIG.SYS so
that DOS can manage the UMBs (upper memory blocks, discussed earlier
in this chapter).
2. Make sure that you have some free UMBs. This can be done with the MEM
/C command, which, in its “Memory Summary” portion (the bottom half
of its report), shows the amount of upper memory available for UMBs (the
row labeled “Upper”) and the amount of upper memory that is already
being used (the row labeled “Reserved”).
3. Add something to each command that loads a driver or TSR so that it
loads into the upper memory area.
The command that you use to load a driver into the upper memory area is the
DEVICEHIGH=<drivername> command. You use this command in the same
manner as the DEVICE= command in CONFIG.SYS. When you replace each
DEVICE= line in your CONFIG.SYS with a DEVICEHIGH= command, the driver will
attempt to load into the upper memory area. You can see whether this is success-
ful by using the MEM /C command to show how much of the driver is loaded into
upper memory. The driver will be displayed, along with a number in the “Upper
Memory” column (in the top portion of the report) if it successfully loaded into
upper memory. Additionally, if you have drivers loaded from the
AUTOEXEC.BAT, you use the LOADHIGH <drivername> (or LH, for short) to load
that driver or TSR into a UMB.
Additionally, you should check to see if you have a program that uses
expanded memory. If you don’t, you can place the NOEMS line after
C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE in the CONFIG.SYS. This frees up the 64KB area being used
by the page frame so it can be used for UMBs.
These memory optimization “tricks” are easy enough, but most users don’t
want or need to know memory optimization theory. So, both Microsoft and IBM
included intelligent memory optimization utilities with their DOS operating sys-
tems (starting with version 6 of each one). The programs are MEMMAKER (by
Microsoft) and RAMBOOST (by IBM). These utilities already know the theory
behind memory optimization and can examine the system and determine how
best to optimize the system. Each accomplishes the same ends by different means.
MEMMAKER scans the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT and adds DEVICEHIGH
and LOADHIGH statements to optimize memory. RAMBOOST, on the other
hand, is a TSR that is constantly running. Any time you make a change to your
CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT, RAMBOOST detects the change, automatically
reboots the computer, and automatically rearranges the drivers in upper memory
to give the best possible memory configuration. It saves all its information to a
file known as RAMBOOST.INI.

For more information regarding RAMBOOST or MEMMAKER, please refer to their

respective user manuals.
One caution about MEMMAKER, though, is that it isn’t as “smart” as we

would like it to be. For example, if you had the following CONFIG.SYS:
FILES=50
BUFFERS=9,256
DEVICE=C:\SB16\CTMMCD.SYS
MEMMAKER might optimize it to read like so:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS
FILES=50
BUFFERS=9,256
DOS=UMB
DEVICEHIGH=C:\SB16\CTMMCD.SYS
The memory usage would be more efficient after MEMMAKER had run, but
there is one glaring problem. Where is DOS=HIGH,UMB? If MEMMAKER had
included this statement, it would have freed up a 64KB block of conventional
memory, but it didn’t include it. So, while it’s good at general optimization,
MEMMAKER can’t beat an intuitive technician with a good grasp of memory
theory.
Another factor in memory optimization is the order in which drivers are
loaded into memory. When optimizing memory, sometimes you run into a situ-
ation where you only need one or two kilobytes more of conventional memory
and you’ve done all you can to get the most available conventional memory. The
final “trick” in your bag is to change the order in which the drivers load. To do
this, you load the driver that needs the most memory first. Then the next larg-
est, and so on. Think of it this way, when you build a wall, do you put the
smallest stones down first, then the largest? Or do you put the biggest first,
then the smallest? Obviously, you do the latter so that your wall is stable.

Memory Troubleshooting 141
Memory Troubleshooting
V ery rarely does anything go wrong with the memory in a PC. However,
you need to have background knowledge of possible memory problems in case
they do occur.
It is very easy to tell when a memory error occurs, because a computer mal-
functions seriously with bad memory. With a memory error, the computer will
do one of two things. If the computer is already running, it will report the error
and stop the program. If the error occurs during the POST (power on self-test)
memory countup, the computer will not start at all. The reason the computer
stops in both cases is that the computer needs reliable memory in order to func-
tion. If the computer knows the memory is unreliable, it knows it might write a
1 to memory and read back a 0. And it knows that would be bad.
There are two types of memory problems: hard errors and soft errors. We’ll
discuss these in reverse order.
Soft Memory Errors

Soft errors occur once and disappear after the computer is rebooted. They are
usually caused by power fluctuations or single bit errors. The symptoms are typ-
ically unexplained problems with software and are not reproducible. Soft errors
are like gnats: annoying little things you wish you could kill, but they don’t stay
in one place long enough for you to do so. However, if these errors increase in
frequency, it usually indicates a hard memory error is about to occur.
Hard Memory Errors

Hard memory errors are related to a hardware failure and are reproducible.
When a hard memory error occurs, the computer might issue either a “Parity
Error” or a “201 BIOS Error” or issue a series of beeps (upon startup). For
example, if you are using AMI BIOS, and the computer issues one long and three
short beeps on startup (other BIOSs will use different beep codes), you have a
hardware-related memory error. A table of BIOS error codes is included in Chap-
ter 10, “Hardware Troubleshooting.”
To solve a hard memory error, you must replace some memory chips. The
question is always one of money. Since most computers have more than one
memory chip, you must determine which chip(s) or SIMM(s) need to be replaced.
One way to do this is to systematically replace one chip at a time until the mem-
ory error goes away. It may be easiest, however, to simply replace all the memory
at one time, especially if memory prices stay low.

Some BIOSs have beep or error codes that indicate which chip has failed. In that
case, use the manual that comes with the motherboard to determine which chip
is causing the error (assuming there is a manual available)—another good argu-
ment for having documentation available.
Summary
I n this chapter you learned about the way PC memory is used, the different
types of memory available for a PC, the differences between them, how to opti-
mize memory usage, and how to troubleshoot memory-related problems.
In the first section, you learned about the different types of physical memory
packages. You learned about the different memory form factors, like SIMM and
DIMM, as well as the different terms for the various types of memory (EDO,
SDRAM, RDRAM, and ROM).
In the next section, you learned how memory is laid out with respect to the
operating system. Specifically, you learned how DOS views and accesses mem-
ory. You learned that the memory is divided into four major areas: conventional,
reserved, expanded, and extended. Each area is used for a specific purpose within
DOS. Additionally, these memory areas are only found in DOS. Windows 95/98/
NT/2000 use a different memory scheme. They don’t divide memory into dis-
crete areas. Memory is, instead, accessed as one large “pool.”
Because memory in DOS is divided into these areas and because each of
these is used for more than one purpose, often there isn’t enough conventional
memory available to run programs properly. For this reason, it is important to
know how to optimize available memory. In the next section, you learned how
to optimize conventional memory both manually and using built-in tools like
MEMMAKER.
The last topic you learned about in this chapter is how to troubleshoot various
memory problems. You primarily learned about the two main types of memory
errors: soft errors and hard errors. Soft errors are random errors that occur and
that are cured by a simple reboot of the computer. They will disappear upon
reboot. Hard errors are usually the result of a failed memory component. They
will recur even after a reboot and usually require the replacement of memory.

Summary 143
Key Terms
cache memory memory optimization
checksum memory refresh
checksumming page frame
Direct Rambus page
DOS extender paging
driver parity
dual-ported memory pause switch
EDO (Extended Data Out) RAM protected mode
expanded memory page frame Rambus Inline Memory Modules (RIMMs)
Expanded Memory System (EMS) real mode
extended memory stack
High Memory Area (HMA) synchronous DRAM
L1 Cache Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR)
L2 Cache upper memory block (UMB)
logical memory wait state

Review Questions
1. RAM is short for ____________________.
A. Readily Accessible Memory
B. Recently Affected Memory
C. Random Access Memory
D. Read and Modify
2. What type of memory stores information as patterns of transistor ons and

offs to represent binary digits as physically bulky and somewhat limited in
capacity?
A. SRAM
B. DRAM
C. EDORAM
D. ROM
E. PROM
F. EPROM
3. The most important component in the computer is the ___________________.

A. Hard drive
B. System board
C. Peripheral ports
D. CPU
E. Memory system
4. Which of the following types of memory are erasable? (Select all that apply.)
A. RAM
B. SRAM
C. ROM
D. PROM
E. EPROM
F. EEPROM

5. Which type of memory found in desktop computers stores information as

charges in very small capacitors and needs a constant refresh signal to keep the
information in memory?
A. SRAM
B. DRAM
C. EDORAM
D. ROM
E. PROM
F. EPROM
6. Which switch will cause MEM.EXE to give the most detailed information about
the current memory configuration?
A. /A
B. /B
C. /C
D. /D
7. Which type of ROM memory chip has a small window that allows the chip to
be erased with a special ultraviolet light?
A. PROM
B. EPROM
C. EEPROM
D. APROM
8. What type of ROM memory chip is erasable using software tools and is most
commonly used for BIOS chips?
A. PROM
B. ROM
C. EPROM
D. EEPROM
9. Which area of memory is used for running most DOS programs, loading driv-
ers, and loading TSRs?
A. Conventional memory
B. Extensive memory
C. Extended memory
D. Expanded memory

10. Which of these processors was the first to access more than 1MB of RAM?
A. 8088
B. 8086
C. 80286
D. 80386
E. 80486
11. Which processor(s) can access as much as 4GB of RAM? (Select all that
apply.)
A. 8088
B. 8086
C. 80286
D. 80386
E. 80486
F. Pentium
12. If you are transmitting the 8-bit binary number 11010010 and are using even
parity, what would the parity bit be?
A. 1
B. 0
C. None
D. A
13. What type of error-checking routine do modem communications most

often use?
A. Parity
B. Error correction
C. Addition
D. Checksumming
14. A memory chip has markings of 45256–40. The last two digits after the dash
mean an access time of ____________________.
A. 4 ms
B. 4 ns
C. 40 ms
D. 40 ns
E. 400 ns

15. Which of the following indicate(s) a hard memory error? (Select all that
apply.)
A. 201 BIOS error
B. 301 BIOS error
C. One long beep, three short beeps
D. Two long beeps, two short beeps
E. Parity error
16. What is meant by a wait state of zero?

A. The processor is faster than memory in terms of speed.
B. The processor is slower than memory in terms of speed.
C. The memory is faster than the processor in terms of speed.
D. The processor and the memory are equally matched in terms of speed.
17. The first thing you can do to increase the available conventional memory is
___________________.
A. Load all device drivers into UMBs
B. Add DOS=HIGH to the CONFIG.SYS
C. Remove DOS
D. Rearrange the loading order of the drivers
18. If you don’t need expanded memory, you can free up 64KB of reserved mem-
ory that can be used for UMBs by putting the ______________________
parameter after C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE in the CONFIG.SYS to disable expanded
memory and remove the page frame.
A. NOEXT
B. NOEXP
C. NOPAGE
D. NOEMS
19. What type of memory has several chips on a small circuit board and the board
is easily removable?
A. Dual Inline Package
B. Single Inline Memory Module
C. Memory Package Grid Array
D. Single Inline Package

20. Which driver must be loaded in the CONFIG.SYS to give DOS access to
extended memory?
A. C:\DOS\EXTMEM.SYS
B. C:\DOS\UPPMEM.SYS
C. C:\DOS\MEMORY.SYS
D. C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE
E. C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS


1. C. As it applies to memory, RAM stands for Random Access Memory.
2. A. Of the above choices, SRAM would be the one to choose, as its storage
method is to use a pattern of transistor ons and offs to represent the data.
Because it’s bulky and its storage method is inefficient, SRAM is not as pop-
ular anymore.
3. E. Because the computer needs a place to store instructions and data in a

quickly and easily retrievable format, the memory system is the most impor-
tant component.
4. A, B, E, F. Since ROM stands for read-only memory and PROM stands for
programmable ROM, they automatically are incorrect answers for the ques-
tion. RAM and SRAM are both monikers of short-term memory (RAM), and
therefore have to be erasable to be of any use. EPROM and EEPROMs are
both special types of PROMs that are Erasable Programmable (EPROM) and
Electronically Erasable and Programmable (EEPROM) and therefore have the
ability to be erasable and re-usable.
5. B. DRAM (Dynamic RAM) stores information in capacitors. This storage

method is much more efficient and, therefore, has gained widespread popu-
larity over SRAM. And, as the name dynamic implies, it requires a constant
recharge to maintain the information.
6. D. /D signifies to run MEM.EXE in the debug mode. As such, you can think of
this as a verbose mode in that it will give you the most detailed information
about your memory utilization.
7. B. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) is erased and reprogrammed with

special ultraviolet light shone through a small window in the top of the chip.
This gives this type of chip quite an advantage over PROMs.
8. D. EEPROM (Electronically Erasable PROM) is even more sophisticated than

EPROM in that it can be erased and reprogrammed using software tools. This
makes it an exceptional choice for BIOS chips. Software upgrade utilities are
much easier to implement (and have less chance of error) than replacing an
entire chip.
9. A. When the 8088 and 8086 were first produced, the programs, drivers, and
TSRs were given an area of memory to run called conventional memory. This
is the first 640K of memory. Later this would change, and other areas of mem-
ory would become available, but conventional memory would remain the
default memory area to use.
10. C. The 80286 was the first processor to break through the 1MB barrier. It
could access as much as 16MB of RAM.

11. D, E, F. As address busses expanded beyond the 24-bit capability of the

80286, this allowed them to access even more memory. With a 32-bit address
bus width, the 80386, 80486, and Pentium processors can now access as much
as 4GB of RAM.
12. B. Because even parity works around the concept that all bits set to 1 have to
equal an even number (and in this question there are 4 bits set to 1), the parity
bit would have to equal 0 to maintain that even number. However, if the
above question only had 3 bits set to 1, then the parity bit would have to be
set to 1, so that it would be even.
13. A. Modem communications are serial-based, so the most efficient error-

checking method for them is parity. Checksumming would cause too much
overhead in the transmissions.
14. D. The last two numbers on a chip generally refer to the speed of the memory;
in this case it is a 40 ns chip.
15. A, C, E. Memory errors can be indicated by a beep code (each BIOS manufac-
turer has its own set of codes, so be sure to check the documentation that came
with your motherboard) and/or by an error message that states either that
there is a parity error or a 201 BIOS error.
16. D. If the memory and the processor do not run at the same speed, then wait
states have to be used to make sure that one does not send more information
at one time than what the other can handle. If they run at the same speed, then
a wait state of 0 is used.
17. B. While A and D both offer good choices, you will not be able to perform
them or gain any benefit from using them without first loading DOS=HIGH.
18. D. If you have no applications that can take advantage of expanded mem-
ory, you can disable that page frame and thereby reclaim 64KB of usable
memory by adding the NOEMS switch.
19. B. The Single Inline Memory Module is a small circuit board with multiple
DIPs soldered to it. Because of this, they are very easy to install and remove.
20. E. Don’t let this question confuse you. EMM386.EXE grants access to the
expanded memory area, but it is HIMEM.SYS that grants access to the extended
memory area.

Chapter Disk System
Architecture
THIS CHAPTER:

System board
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Storage devices
Monitor
Modem
Firmware
BIOS
CMOS
LCD portable systems
Ports
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
1.5 Identify proper procedures for installing and configuring IDE/
EIDE devices.
Master/slave
Devices per channel
Primary/secondary

1.6 Identify proper procedures for installing and configuring
SCSI devices.
Address/Termination conflicts
Cabling
Types (example: regular, wide, ultra-wide)
Internal versus external
Jumper block settings (binary equivalents)
2.1 Identify common symptoms and problems associated
with each module and how to troubleshoot and isolate
problems.
Processor/Memory symptoms
Mouse
Floppy drive
Parallel ports
Hard Drives
CD-ROM
DVD
Sound Card/Audio
Monitor/Video
Motherboards
Modems
BIOS
USB
NIC
CMOS
Power supply
Slot covers
Large LBA, LBA
Cables

Keyboard
Peripherals
power supplies).
AT (Full and Baby)
ATX
Components:
Communication ports
SIMM and DIMM
Processor sockets
Bus Architecture
ISA
PCI
AGP

A ll information needs to be stored somewhere. It’s a simple fact
of life. At your office, you may have letters, contracts, and so on that need to
be stored somewhere to make them easily accessible and retrievable. This stor-
age space needs to be large enough to hold as much information as possible,
but it should also be organized for easy access to that information. Although
some people simply use the top of the desk and store documents in piles, the
best solution for storing paper documents at most offices is a filing cabinet.
With computers, you have various types of electronic information to store,
including data files, application files, and configuration files. In this chapter, we
will explain the following A+ exam topics related to information storage:
Storage types
Floppy disk systems
IDE disk systems
Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI)
For complete coverage of objective 1.1, please also see Chapters 2 and 6. For
complete coverage of objective 2.1, please also see Chapters 1, 6, 8, and 10.
For complete coverage of objective 4.3, please also see Chapters 2 and 5.
Storage Types
I n this section, we’ll give a detailed description of each type of disk storage,
starting with a brief overview of punch card and tape storage and moving into
the different types of disks. Then we’ll give you some tips on how to configure
them and discuss their different troubleshooting techniques.

Storage Types 155
Punch Cards and Tape

Originally, computer information was contained in memory and printed to
punch cards. When you wanted to retrieve the data, you ran the punch cards
back into a special reader; the information was read back into memory and could
then be used. This proved to be a very limited storage medium in terms of capac-
ity and ease of retrieval. A single page of data could take several pages of punch
cards. Also, the punch card order was very important. The cards had to be put
into the reader in the correct order or the program wouldn’t run correctly. Hope-
fully you kept the cards in their correct order—God forbid you dropped them on
the floor or some jokester shuffled them.
Then one day, someone discovered that computer signals could be recorded
with a tape recorder. When the tape was played back into the computer, the infor-
mation was retrieved. This was a much more efficient storage system than punch
cards. Because the tape moved in only one direction and was a single, long tape
(rather than several punch cards), it reduced the possibility of getting the informa-
tion out of sequence and made it easier to access the information. We’ve all seen
movies where the computer room has massive cabinets with reels of tape moving
back and forth. What you might not know is that several early personal computer
systems (such as the TRS-80, the Tandy Color Computer, and the Apple II) came
with cassette tape storage devices to load and store programs and data.
The major limitations of tape were in speed and precision. Tape was slow to
store programs and data. Also, it was slow to access information because of its
linear nature. Tape devices are described as sequential storage devices. With
these types of devices, if a piece of information is located at the end of a tape, you
have to “fast forward” through all the other information to get to the data you
need. Also, the early tape mechanisms didn’t have very good position locators or
stepper motors. It was quite possible to start reading a tape after the information
you needed had already begun, causing you to miss the start of the program or
data and making it unusable.
Despite its drawbacks for most tasks you might want to undertake with a
computer, magnetic tape in various forms is still a great medium for “backing
up” your system—that is, recording some or all of the information stored on
your hard disk and putting the recording away in case of hard disk catastrophe.
Why is tape, which is not recommended for other types of information storage,
recommended so often for backups? In part, it’s because of the sheer amount of
data it can store. Some of the cheaply available types of tape media of today can
hold more than 4GB and are easily movable, removable, and insertable into their
respective recorder/playback drives. Moreover, the relatively low speed of
recording or playing back a backup tape is not a significant consideration for
most users as it would be with other computer tasks. Most users know that they

156 Chapter 4 Disk System Architecture
are simply performing a safety measure when they utilize a backup, so they
schedule their backups to be carried out automatically when no one is using the
computer anyway.
Disk Drives
To overcome the limitations of magnetic tape, magnetic disk systems were devel-
oped. Rotating stacks of disks were coated with a special substance that was sen-
sitive to magnetism. As the disk rotated, the particles in the substance could be
polarized (magnetized), indicating a 1. The unpolarized areas would indicate 0s.
(We will discuss the way information is stored on a disk in the next section.) This
technology is the cornerstone of most current disk storage types and hasn’t
changed much since its inception. These types of disk systems store data in non-
linear format and are called random access storage devices, in contrast to tape’s
sequential access storage methods. The data can be accessed no matter where it
is located on the disk because the read/write head can be positioned exactly over
the requested data so you don’t have to “fast forward” through the data that was
stored before it.
There are two major types of disk systems—fixed and removable. Let’s cover
fixed disks first.
Fixed Disk Drives

Also known as hard disks and hard drives, fixed disks actually contain several
disks called platters, stacked together and mounted through their centers on a
small rod called a spindle (see Figure 4.1). The disks are rotated about this rod
at a speed between 2,000 and 10,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). As the disks
rotate, one or more read/write heads float approximately 10 microinches (about
1/10th the width of a human hair) above the disk surfaces and make, modify, or
sense changes in the magnetic positions of the coatings on the disks. Several
heads are moved together as one unit by an actuator arm. There is usually one
head for each side of a platter. This entire mechanism is enclosed in a hard disk
case. These disks are called fixed disks because the mechanism is not designed to
be removed. The disk platters, though perfectly free to revolve at high RPM, are
otherwise fixed in place.

Storage Types 157
FIGURE 4.1 A fixed disk
Disk Organization
We must have a way of organizing this disk into usable sections. It’s done by first
dividing up the platters into sections as you would a pie and then further dividing
this area into concentric circles, called tracks (see Figure 4.2). Tracks are num-
bered from the outside (track 0) to the inside (track 902 on a 903-track hard
disk). A disk sector is the part of a track that falls in a particular section of the
“pie slice” on the disk.
FIGURE 4.2 Disk organization
If you can visualize several tracks stacked together vertically (the same tracks
on each disk), you might describe that collection of tracks as a cylinder. In fact,
that’s how tracks are referred to in a discussion of the organization of disk infor-
mation, because when information is read from or written to a disk, the heads
read or write a sector-sized division of a track a whole stack at a time, from top

to bottom (see Figure 4.3). In other words, the disks’ tracks aren’t treated as indi-
vidual tracks on single disks; they’re treated as cylinders. This amounts to quite
a bit of information read or written at one time. The precise amount of informa-
tion that is read at once depends on the number of cylinders, heads, and sectors,
or what we call drive geometry.
FIGURE 4.3 Hard drive geometry
Disk Specifications
When a fixed disk is rated, it has several qualities that are given as specifications.
Size, or capacity, is just one of the properties given. Size is determined by drive
geometry. Let’s quantify this by giving some values to each variable. Let’s say we
have 903 cylinders, 12 heads (6 platters—1 head per side, 2 sides to each platter),
and 63 sectors per track. A typical fixed disk has 512 bytes per sector (that’s
0.5KB/sector). The capacity of the hard disk would be 341,334KB, or 333MB
(903 cyl × 12 heads × 63 sectors/track × 0.5KB/sector). These values are com-
monly given on the outside of a fixed disk.
Another quality that is used to gauge the performance of an individual drive
is seek time. This value, commonly given in milliseconds (ms), is how long it
takes the actuator arm to move from rest to the position where the read/write
head will access information. Additionally, because the platters rotate, once the
read/write is in position, it may take a few milliseconds for the target sector to
move under the read/write head. This delay is known as the latency factor.
Latency values are given in milliseconds (ms).
Because the faster a drive spins, the lower the average latency values, drives
are also rated with a spin speed. Spin speeds indicate how fast the platters are
spinning. They are stated in revolutions per minute (RPM); higher RPM values

Storage Types 159
mean faster speeds and lower latency values. For example, if a disk has a spin
speed of 5,000 RPM, it will be rotating at 83.34 revolutions per second. One
rotation will take 1/83.34 seconds, or 11.9 ms. This value would represent the
largest possible delay (i.e., the disk head is in position just after the required sec-
tor moved past it). However, disk latency values are actually only average
latency values, because latency values are not constant. The target sector could
be close, or it could be far away. So in our example, we take the largest possible
latency (11.9 ms) and smallest possible latency (0 ms) and average them to get
the average latency: (11.9 ms + 0)/2 = 5.95 ms.
The two factors, seek time and latency, make up the drive’s access time. Put
simply, the average seek time plus the average latency equals the drive’s access
time. The smaller the access time value is, the faster the drive.
Read/Write Processes
Now that we know how the drive functions and how the drives are rated, let’s dis-
cuss the most important topic: how the drive stores the information. At the most
basic level, the disk works by making flux transitions with an electromagnet in the
read/write head to store information on the disk surface. A flux transition is the
presence or absence of a magnetic field in a particle of the coating on the disk. As
the disk passes over an area, the electromagnet is energized to cause the material
to be magnetized in a small area. The process by which binary information is
changed into flux transition patterns is called encoding.
There are many ways of converting 1s and 0s to flux transitions. The simplest
way is to interpret the presence of a flux transition as a 1 and the absence as a
0. Because this was the most obvious choice, the first hard disks (ST-506, ESDI
types) used this method of encoding, known as Frequency Modulation (FM),
and its cousin Modified FM (MFM). This worked well until techniques for
increasing the track/cylinder density became almost too successful. What hap-
pened was that tracks would be placed so tightly together that at higher speeds,
the read/write heads would affect not only the track immediately under the head,
but the adjacent ones as well.
To solve this problem, a technology known as Run Length Limited (RLL)
was developed; it spaced the 1s farther apart using a special code for each byte.
This method turned out to be more efficient for large drives than for small ones.
RLL encoding also introduced data compression, a set of technologies that
increased the amount of data that could be stored on the drive. Most of today’s
drives (IDE, SCSI, and so on) use a form of RLL encoding.
With this new type of encoding, much more data could be transferred to the
computer at once, but this created a new problem. The interface would some-
times get bogged down and would stop reading in order to “catch up.” This was
a problem because during this pause, the platters were still rotating and the read/
write heads could skip a whole bunch of sectors. To solve this problem, disk
designers developed a technology known as interleaving.

A Question of Interleaves
Although interleaving may come up on the A+ Certification exam, the topic is

almost irrelevant with the hard drives available in the last few years because the
hardware technology has improved so much. Here’s what you need to know for
the test.
Interleaving involves skipping sectors to write the data instead of writing

sequentially to every sector. This evens out the data flow and allows the drive
to keep pace with the rest of the system. Interleaving is given in ratios. If the
interleave is 2:1, the disk skips 2 minus 1, or 1 sector, between each sector it
writes (it writes to one sector, skips one sector, then writes to the next sector).
Most drives today use a 1:1 interleave, because today’s drives are very efficient
at transferring information. A 1:1 ratio means that the drive writes to one sector
and then simply goes to the immediate next sector (skipping 1 minus 1 sectors,
or 0 sectors). A 1:1 interleave ratio really means that the drive has no interleave
at all.
To make it easier for the operating system to manage the storage space, the
information encoded on the drive is written to groups of sectors known as clus-
ters. A cluster is made up of up to 64 sectors grouped together (the actual number
of sectors included in a cluster varies with the size of the hard disk). When the
operating system is storing information, it writes it to a particular cluster instead
of to an actual sector because it’s more efficient for the operating system to keep
track of clusters than sectors. The file that contains the information about where
the tracks and sectors on the disk are located is known as the file allocation table,
or FAT. It is contained in the outermost track (track 0) of the disk.
Why Is the FAT on Track 0?
Because advances in disk technology are constantly increasing the number of

tracks, even on disks of the same size (i.e., the designers are always striving to
increase the track density), if the FAT were located on the inside track, it might
be in a slightly different position on one disk than on another. Also, because the
outside track (track 0) is so easily accessible, the FAT is placed there so that the
computer can use a simple routine to locate its operating system and disk infor-
mation. Moreover, this routine never needs to change.

Storage Types 161
Formatting the Disks to Prepare Them for Use

To create the FAT, a machine at the factory performs a procedure known as a
low-level format. This procedure organizes the disk into sectors and tracks.
Once the sectors and tracks have been created, the low-level format procedure
makes the FAT file and records in it the positions of the new sectors and tracks.
Additionally, during this procedure, the low-level format procedure meticu-
lously checks the disk’s surface for defects. If any are found, the locations of
these “bad spots” are entered into the FAT as well, so that the operating system
knows not to store any information in those locations.
When an operating system is installed, it will do a high-level format (or oper-
ating system format) and create its own separate FAT that keeps track of where
clusters are located and which files are located in which clusters. These two FAT
technologies are applicable to all types of drives.
Removable Media Drives

Another type of drive system is removable media drives. Removable drives use
technologies similar to fixed disk (fixed media) drives, except the storage medium
is removable. The obvious advantage is that removable media multiplies the use-
fulness of the drive. With a hard disk, when the disk is full, the only two things you
can do to increase space are to delete some information or get a larger drive. With
removable media drives, you can remove the full disk and insert a blank one. Other
than the Zip and Jaz drives discussed in Chapter 2 (and other than removable hard
drives themselves), there are numerous categories of removable media drives cov-
ered on the test, as discussed in the rest of this section.
Floppy Disk Drives

The type of removable media drive that is the most often described is the floppy
disk drive. It is called that because the original medium was flexible. Floppy disks
are like fixed disks, but they have only one “platter” encased in a plastic shell.
There are several types of floppy disk drives available in many different capaci-
ties (Figure 4.4 shows a 1.44MB 31⁄2 -inch drive), and we will discuss them in the
sections to come.

FIGURE 4.4 A floppy disk drive
A floppy drive has either one or two read/write heads. Each head moves in a
straight line on a track over the disk rather than on an angular path as with fixed
disk systems. When the disk is placed into the drive, a motor engages the center
of the disk and rotates it. This action moves the tracks past the read/write heads.
CD-ROM Drives
Another type of removable media drive is the CD-ROM drive (see Figure 4.5).
These drives are slightly different from other storage media in several ways. First
of all, they have a different way of reading information than magnetic media disk
drives do. Because CD-ROM drives use laser light to read the information from
the media, they are described as optical drives.

Storage Types 163
FIGURE 4.5 A CD-ROM drive
When reading information from a CD, the drive is basically reading a lot of
pits and lands (lands are the spaces between the pits) in the disc surface. The pits
are etched into the CD at production time. The laser reflects off the CD’s surface
and onto a sensor. The sensor detects the pattern of pits and lands as the disc
rotates and translates them into patterns of 1s and 0s. This binary information
is fed to the computer that is retrieving the data.
Another difference between magnetic media and CD-ROM drives is that CD-
ROM drives are read-only devices (CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc–Read-
Only Memory). The only way of writing to a CD-ROM is during manufacture
time, where the pits are “burned” into the substrate of the disc. Once written,
they cannot be erased.
The reason CD-ROMs are so popular, even though they can’t be written to,
is their large capacity (greater than 500MB) and easy access. They are a great
choice for archival storage. Most often used for software distribution, they have
really taken off in the past few years as the speed of CD-ROM drives has
increased.
Recordable and rewritable CD devices are becoming popular; but strictly speak-
ing, they are not CD-ROMs. Technically, these devices are called rewritable com-
pact discs.
Finally, a CD-ROM disc has a single track that runs from the center to the
outside edge, exactly the reverse of the groove on a record.
A CD-ROM uses basically the same technology as the audio compact discs
in use in most homes today. When a CD-ROM is placed into a CD-ROM drive,

a motor spins the CD at a specific rate. A laser that reads the CD is then acti-
vated. Because of these basic similarities, there are several compatibilities
between the different compact disc technologies. For example, it is possible to
play audio CDs in a computer’s CD-ROM drive. Also, some computer CDs
have audio tracks on them and are made to be used in either type of CD drive
(home audio or computer).
This compatibility is possible because of standards. Standards are put
together by committee (de jure standards) or documented simply to recognize a
standard that’s already in practice (de facto standards). CD-ROM standards are
put together by several groups, the largest of which is the International Standards
Organization (ISO), which has defined several standards. Table 4.1 shows the
most popular CD standards and their respective applications. The compact disc
standards are given as colors of books (we don’t know why, they just are).
TABLE 4.1 Compact Disc Standards
CD Standard Application ISO Name (If Any)
Red Book Audio CDs CD-Audio
Yellow Book Data Storage (CD-ROM) ISO 9660
Green Book CD-I (Interactive CD) N/A
Orange Book Write-Once CD and Magneto-Optical N/A
White Book CD-I Bridge N/A
Optical Disk Drives

Another type of disk is the optical disk. An optical disk is much like a CD-ROM
except that optical disks can be read from and written to (like fixed disks, except
optical disks are similar to CD-ROM discs and thus a laser is used). The upside
is that optical disks are removable and can hold lots of information. The down-
side is that they are expensive and are still slower than fixed disks.
Tape Drives
The final type of removable media drive is a tape drive (see Figure 4.6). The tape
cartridge uses a long polyester ribbon coated with magnetic oxide wrapped
around two spools. As the tape unwinds from one spool, it passes by a read/write
head in the drive that retrieves or saves the information. It then proceeds to the
other spool where it is kept until needed again.

Storage Types 165
FIGURE 4.6 A tape drive
Tape media is great for large-capacity storage, but it is agonizingly slow. The
best application for tape media is for backup purposes. Current tape technology
uses 4mm or 8mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT) or Digital Linear Tape (DLT) for
its storage medium. With these technologies, it is possible to store up to 70GB of
data on a single tape cartridge.
Disk Theory
With all of these storage technologies available, there are many to choose from.
Which one is the best? The answer is, “It depends.” Each type of storage has its
own benefits and drawbacks. Each type of storage is ideally suited to a different
application. To help understand this, a model has been developed to define the
different types of storage. This model is called the “storage pyramid” and shows
the relationship between the types of storage and their benefits (see Figure 4.7).
FIGURE 4.7 The “storage pyramid”

As you can see, at the bottom of the pyramid the storage types have the largest
capacity but the slowest access times. Additionally, those types have the least
expensive cost per megabyte.
Floppy Disk Systems

T here are four major types of floppy disk drives in use today. They are
usually identified by the size of the media they use and the capacity of that media.
We’ll cover each one and its associated configuration and troubleshooting issues.
But before we do, let’s discuss the four components of a floppy drive subsystem:
the disk (also called the medium), the drive, the controller, and the cable.
The Medium
The floppy disk, as we have already mentioned, is the removable medium on
which information is stored in a floppy disk system. There are two major types
in use today, the 51⁄4 -inch “floppy” disk and the 31⁄2 -inch “diskette” (sometimes
incorrectly called a “hard floppy” or even a “hard disk”). Both are shown in Fig-
ure 4.8.
FIGURE 4.8 A 51⁄4 -inch floppy disk and a 31⁄2 -inch diskette
51⁄4 -Inch Floppy Disk

The 51⁄4 -inch floppy disks are made from a polyester disk coated with iron oxide
and a flexible outer covering. The disk has a large hole in the center, called the
drive hole, that is used by the motor in the disk drive to spin the disk. In addition,
there is also a 11⁄2 -inch oval window cut into the case to allow the read/write
heads access to the disk media. A small round hole cut into the disk shell next to
the drive hole lines up with an even smaller hole cut into the disk media. When
this smaller hole spins past the slightly larger hole in the shell, it allows a light to
shine all the way through the disk system. In this way, the floppy drive can tell
how fast the disk is rotating by how many times in a second that hole appears.

Floppy Disk Systems 167
Finally, there is a notch cut in one side of the disk. This notch is called the
write-protect tab. When a disk is inserted into a floppy drive, a small lever places
itself into this notch. When the lever is in the notch, the disk can be written to.
You can “write protect” the disk (which prevents it from being written to) by
covering this hole.
The 51⁄4 -inch disks have almost completely disappeared in the last few years,
replaced by the 31⁄2 -inch format, and most newer computers no longer include
51⁄4 -inch drives.
Floppy disks and 51⁄4 -inch disk drives aren't common in computers today. As such,
you won't be tested on this topic in the A+ exam. We have included coverage in
this chapter to provide you with background information.
31⁄2-Inch Diskette
The other type of floppy disk media is not really “floppy” at all. Some people
mistakenly call it a “hard disk.” Its real name is a 31⁄2 -inch diskette (to differen-
tiate it from a full-grown “disk,” we suppose). The 31⁄2 -inch diskettes are also
made from a polyester disk coated with a layer of iron oxide. This disk is
enclosed in a durable, plastic case. This was an improvement over the 51⁄4 -inch
variety because the 51⁄4 -inch floppies were easily creased or damaged. Also, the
31⁄2 -inch diskettes have a metal shutter over the media access window. Again, this
was an improvement over 51⁄4 -inch media because people often grasped the disks
inadvertently by this edge of the disk, pressing their fingers onto the media and
thus contaminating the disk, making it difficult to read.
Finally, there is a notch with a sliding plastic tab over it to write protect the
31⁄2 -inch disk. This is also better than 51⁄4 -inch disks because the write-protect
notch in the other disks was covered with a type of tape that could come loose
in the drive and cause gum-ups.
The Drives
The next item we need to discuss is the floppy disk drives themselves. There are
three items we need to discuss regarding the drives: media size, form factor, and
capacity.
Media Size
Because we just covered media size in our discussion of the media, we’ll just refer
you to the previous paragraphs and continue on. We do want to make one note,
however. You can’t put a 51⁄4 -inch diskette into a 31⁄2 -inch drive. Or vice versa. I
know some of you are saying, “Thank you, Captain Obvious, for that enlightening

bit of minutia.” However, it has become apparent to us that not everyone seems to
know this fundamental rule; we are constantly pulling folded-up 51⁄4 -inch disks out
of 31⁄2 -inch drives.
Form Factors
There are three main types of form factors, or drive styles, available today. A
form factor usually just means the physical dimensions and characteristics.
Today’s floppy disk drives use either the full-height, half-height, or combo form
factors. Full-height drives were the only ones available for the first PCs. The
drives were large and bulky and usually lower in capacity than today’s drives.
Half-height drives take up only half the space (vertically) of full-height drives.
(Captain Obvious?)
The final form factor is becoming more popular as space becomes a premium
in computer cases. The combination form factor (or combo, for short) contains
both 1.2MB 51⁄4 -inch and 1.44MB 31⁄2 -inch drives in a half-height enclosure.
This has the obvious advantage of having both drives in the space for one.
Capacity
The final topic in our discussion of drives is their capacity. The capacities range
from 360KB to 1.44MB in various form factors. Table 4.2 details the range of
capacities available today, their associated form factors, the number of sides
used, and the density of the disk. Some disks use only one side of the media,
whereas others use both sides. The density of a disk determines how closely the
sectors and tracks can be packed. Notice how the combination of all three items
relates to the capacity.
TABLE 4.2 Disk Capacities
Capacity Form Factor Density Sides
180KB 51⁄4" FH Single Double
360KB 51⁄4" FH Double Double
720KB 31⁄2" HH Double Double
1.2MB 51⁄4" FH or HH High Double
1.44MB 31⁄2" HH High Double

You may have heard that even though some floppy disks and diskettes are rated as
single-sided, in fact, both sides of a disk are always coated with media. Some people
have taken this bit of industry knowledge and decided that it means you can actually
store information on both sides of a single-sided disk. Don’t do it! Even though the
disk might be able to be formatted, that doesn’t mean the data will stay on the disk.
If the disk was rated as single-sided at the factory, you can be assured that the test-
ing process determined that there were problems on the other side of the disk.
Spend the extra 20 cents and get a disk that’s rated for the drive you are using. The
same holds true for formatting a low-density disk in a high-density drive and then
using it in a low-density drive. These low-density disks aren’t designed to have the
information packed as tightly as the high-density drives save it.
The Controller
The floppy disk controller (Figure 4.9) is the circuit board that is installed in a
computer and translates signals from the CPU into signals that the floppy disk
drive can understand. Often, the floppy controller is integrated into the same cir-
cuit board that houses the hard disk controller. Or even better, the controller
might be integrated into the motherboard in the PC. Some people might like this
approach, but from a technician’s standpoint, it’s a nightmare. Imagine having
to tell the customer that the reason their floppy drive doesn’t work is because
their motherboard needs to be replaced at a cost of $1,100! Wouldn’t it be nicer
to tell them that you need to replace the $22 floppy disk controller board?
FIGURE 4.9 A floppy controller with cable
A floppy controller is not a complicated device. The early controllers were

large expansion boards that usually contained an Intel 8272 or Zilog 765 con-
troller chip. As this book is being written, you can buy a card that contains the
floppy controller, two serial interfaces, parallel and game interface ports, and
disk interface for about $35.

The Cable
The last topic on our list of prerequisites is the floppy drive cable (shown in Fig-
ure 4.9). This cable is made up of a 34-wire ribbon cable and three connectors.
One of these connectors attaches to the controller. The other two connect to
the drives (one for drive A:, the other for drive B:). You can attach up to two
floppy drives to a single controller. These connectors are specially made so that
they can be attached to the drives in only one way.
Additionally, you might think that with 34 wires, the data would be trans-
mitted in a parallel manner (8 bits at a time), but it isn’t. Data is transmitted 1
bit at a time, serially. This makes floppy transfers slow, but usually the serial data
transfer isn’t the bottleneck.
The cable also has a red stripe running down one side, as shown in the detailed
version in Figure 4.10. This stripe indicates which wire is for pin #1 on the con-
troller and on the drive(s). This pin is usually marked with a small 1 or a white
dot on the controller. When connecting the drives to the controller, you need to
make sure that the red stripe is oriented so the wire it represents is connected to
pin #1 on the drive and pin #1 on the controller. Also, you connect the drive that
is going to be drive A: after the twist in the floppy cable for most ISA floppy sys-
tems (very important).
FIGURE 4.10 A typical floppy cable
A common technician’s trick to remember how to connect floppy drives is to say,

“Point the red stripe toward the power cable.” The problem is that this trick
doesn’t work with every brand of floppy drive. It could be considered a general
“rule of thumb,” but not a “rule to live by.”

Installation and Configuration

Now that we’ve covered the basics, let’s talk about installation, configuration,
and troubleshooting. Installing floppy drives is no big trick. The first step is to
connect the cable to the drive as per the aforementioned instructions. Then,
install the drive in the computer by physically mounting it in the computer case
and connecting the power cable. Finally, you connect the cable from the drive to
the controller, as we discussed already.
With regular diskette drives, when connecting the cable to the drives, you con-
nect the B: drive to the connector before the twist in the cable and the A: drive
to the connector after the twist.
One unique situation crops up if you have a Compaq Deskpro. These computers
have twists before each of the drives and the drives are reversed. The first drive on
the cable, for Deskpros, is the A: drive, and the second drive is the B:. Finally,
Deskpros will sometimes have a tape drive connected to the last connector on the
cable, after the B: drive and on the same cable. This tape drive must be one
specially made for a Deskpro.
Troubleshooting the floppy drive is also relatively simple. The most common
problem after installation is a drive light that refuses to go out. This is caused by
having the floppy drive cable upside down on one side. As you already know,
most floppy cables are keyed so that they go on in only one direction. However,
in some systems, the floppy cable might not be keyed, so you must understand
the consequences of not having the cable on in the right direction. Just remember
which way the red stripe goes!
In addition to the cable position, you must also set the drive type and size of
the floppy drive in the CMOS setup. This is done so that the computer will know
what drives are attached. If this information is wrong, most computers will
detect that the wrong drive type is selected and an error will occur during
bootup.
You can also troubleshoot sporadic read/write problems. More often than
not, these are caused by a dirty drive. If this is the problem, it can be fixed with
a floppy-disk head-cleaning kit. Another cause might be a bad floppy disk. Flop-
pies have a finite number of uses in them and they can go bad. (This may come
as a shock to some people who think their data is safe forever on a floppy disk.)
This problem can be fixed by copying the data (if possible) from the old disk to
a new one.
Also, don’t forget to check the obvious things like disconnected floppy cable,
power not plugged in, or disks not inserted properly. Any one of these can cause

problems that most people just assume can’t be the problem because it’s too
obvious.
Enough about floppies; let’s talk about the disks that have a little more back-
bone: the hard disks.
IDE Disk Systems

S T-506 and ESDI drives were great drive systems in their day, but by the
time the IBM AT computer came out, drive sizes were increasing beyond the capa-
bilities of existing technologies to utilize them. The only way out was to use a tech-
nology called SCSI (pronounced “scuzzy,” it stands for Small Computer System
Interface—which we discuss in the next section). Although it was technologically
superior, it was also, at the time, quite expensive. Two companies, Compaq and
Western Digital, saw this problem and developed an alternative to SCSI.
Their idea was that if they could develop a cheap, flexible drive system, people
would buy it. They were more right than they realized. That solution, known as
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) because its major feature was a controller
located right on the disk, is one of the most popular drive interfaces on the mar-
ket today.
In this section, we’ll discuss the theory behind IDE drive systems, as well as
their configuration and installation issues.
IDE Technologies
The idea for IDE (more commonly known as AT Attachment interface, or ATA)
was a simple one: Put the controller right on the drive itself and use a relatively
short cable to connect the drive/controller to the system (Figure 4.11). This had
the benefits of decreasing signal loss (thus increasing reliability) and making the
drive easier to install.
FIGURE 4.11 An IDE drive and interface

IDE Disk Systems 173
In addition, because the controller was integrated into the same assembly as
the drive, the only board that needed to be installed in the computer was an
adapter that converted signals between the motherboard and the drive/control-
ler. The board is normally called a pass-through or paddle board. (This board is
often, incorrectly, called a controller. The term is incorrect because the paddle
board is often integrated with a floppy controller, two serial ports, a game port,
and a parallel port. In fact, this combination is normally called a multifunction
interface board.) With some of today’s systems, the IDE adapter is integrated
into the motherboard.
The original IDE specification, in addition to being relatively simple to install,
also can support drives of up to 528MB and speeds of 3.3MBps. To overcome
limitations, a new technology was developed that could support drives of several
gigabytes. This technology was ATA version 2 (ATA-2). Also, these newer drives
have data transfer rates of 11.1MBps. Because of marketing information, the
general category of ATA-2 drives is known as Enhanced IDE, or EIDE.
The main limitation to IDE technologies is that they support only two drives (or
four if you’re using ATA-2). In order to add more drives, you must use a different
technology, like SCSI. In addition, you are limited to only hard disks. To over-
come this limitation, an extension to ATA-2 was developed, called the ATA
Packet Interface (ATAPI). ATAPI allows other non–hard disk devices (like tape
drives and CD-ROMs) to be attached to an ATA interface and coexist with
hard disks.
Another update to the ATA standard is ATA version 4 (ATA-4), also known
as Ultra DMA IDE. It can transfer data at 33MBps, so it is also commonly seen
in motherboard specifications as Ultra DMA/33 or UDMA.
Installation and Configuration

Installation and configuration of IDE and EIDE devices is much easier than it is
with ST-506 and ESDI systems. The basic steps for installing them are the same:
Mount the drive in the carrier, connect the cable to the drive, install the drive in
the computer, and configure the drive. However, IDE’s cabling and configura-
tion issues are less complex. For example, you only have a single, 40-pin cable to
connect the drives to the computer. (And no, there aren’t any twists in this cable.)
Cabling is just a matter of connecting the drive(s) to the cable and plugging the
cable into the paddle board (Figure 4.12). This is made easier because the major-
ity of the IDE cables today are keyed so that they only plug in one way. If you
happen to get one of the cables that isn’t keyed, just use the red stripe trick (as
discussed earlier in this chapter).

FIGURE 4.12 IDE cable installation
You may also want to note that some IDE drives come with only a two-
connector cable, as shown at the top of Figure 4.12. If you need three connectors
(for installing a second drive, as in the bottom of the figure), you may have to go
to your local electronics supplier and get one.
The one situation that does complicate matters is when you have two (or
more) drives in an IDE/EIDE system. Remember that an IDE drive has the con-
troller mounted on the drive. If you had two drives connected, which controller
would be talking to the computer and sending data back and forth? The answer
is “Only one of them.” When you install a second drive, you need to configure
it so that the controller on one drive is active and the other drives use the con-
troller on this drive for their instructions. You do this by setting the first drive to
be the master drive and the others to be slave drives. As you might suspect, the
master is the drive whose controller is used by the other drives (the slaves).
Also, most computer systems currently use ATA-2 technologies or above,
which means that they can support four IDE drives. There will be a primary and
a secondary IDE bus, and each will have its own master and slave drives. In these
systems, you can have a primary master, primary slave, secondary master, and
secondary slave drives. Which bus (primary or secondary) a device is shown as
depends on the bus to which you connect the drive. From there, you can then des-
ignate each drive as master or slave as described in the next section.

IDE Disk Systems 175
Most CMOS setup programs will display all the IDE buses and which devices are
connected in which positions. You can check which bus and which designation
(master or slave) a device is configured for by using “View drive setup” (or simi-
lar) in your computer’s setup program.
You implement the master/slave setting by jumpering a set of pins. There are
several different configurations of these pins, so we’ll just detail the most com-
mon. As always, check your documentation to determine which method your
drive uses.
The first type is the simplest. There are two sets of pins, one labeled “master/
single,” the other labeled “slave” (Figure 4.13). If you have one drive, you
jumper the master side and leave the slave side jumper off. If you have two drives,
you jumper the master side only on the first drive (at the end of the cable) and
jumper the slave side only on the other drive(s). A variant of this type uses
no jumpers on either to indicate just one drive on the bus.
FIGURE 4.13 Master/slave jumpers
The other type commonly in use has three sets of pins labeled 1 through 6.
These six pins are arranged in three rows of two, with one set labeled “master,”
another set labeled “slave,” and the third set with no label. With one drive
installed, you leave all jumpers off. With two drives installed, you set the first
drive (usually located at the end of the cable) to master by jumpering the two pins
labeled “master,” then set the second drive to slave by jumpering the two
pins labeled “slave.”

If you have two drives on a bus and both are set to master, or both are set to
slave, neither drive will work. In the first case (two masters), they will be fighting
each other for control of the disks. In the latter case (two slaves), the disks won’t
know where to get their instructions from. However, if you have an EIDE inter-
face system, you can have two masters as long as the drives are on two separate
IDE buses.
Once you have the cable installed and the drives configured as either master
or slave, you must tell the computer that the drives exist and what their drive
geometry is. You do this by entering the BIOS’s CMOS setup program (or the
disk-based BIOS setup program for older computers). This setup program mod-
ifies the computer’s settings in the CMOS memory that stores the configuration
information for the computer. It is accessed by a special key or key combination
at startup. Some BIOSs use Del, Esc, or one of the function keys; others use
Ctrl+Alt+Esc. It should be noted that some of the newer BIOSs will auto-detect
the type of drive installed in the system and automatically configure these param-
eters. With this type of system, you only need to accept these parameters and
reboot.
If the drive you are installing is larger than 504MB (528,482,304 bytes), and most
IDE drives today are, you must install it in a computer that has a BIOS that sup-
ports Logical Block Addressing (LBA). This technology allows the BIOS to access
drives up to 8GB. Most BIOSes made after 1995 support this feature (although
sometimes it has to be enabled).
Because each machine is different, we’ll just talk in general terms. Once you
have the disks installed, you enter the setup program, go to the Fixed Disk area,
and enter the appropriate numbers for the number of cylinders, heads, and sectors
that the drives have. You then save these values and reboot the machine. At this
point, the system should recognize that there is at least one drive in the system.
There is one problem: Standard BIOS configuration of Cylinders, Heads, and
Sector (CHS) information is limited to 1024 cylinders. If you are installing a
drive with more than 1024 cylinders, somehow you must get the BIOS to recog-
nize the drive’s full capacity. The technology that BIOS manufacturers use to
enable drive sizes larger than 1024 cylinders (approximately 600MB) is sector
translation. Sector translation involves remapping the standard CHS layout of a
drive in favor of a matrix that will allow the full capacity to be used. The most
popular method is Logical Block Addressing (LBA). In LBA, each sector of the
drive is number sequentially from the first usable sector to the last. With LBA
enabled, the BIOS translates the LBA number of the data being requested into the
CHS data for the drive. If you have a drive larger than 1024 cylinders, you must
have a BIOS that supports LBA and it must be enabled.

Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) 177
You do not low-level format IDE (or SCSI) drives! IDE drives are low-leveled at
the factory and should never be redone. They use a special utility to perform this
delicate procedure. Performing a low-level format on an IDE or SCSI drive will
render your drive unreliable, at the least (and will thus compound any problems
you may have already been having). At the worst, it will make the drive com-
pletely useless by overwriting sector translation information. Once you have the
drive installed and recognized by the computer, low-leveling is not necessary.
Now that your drive is installed, you can proceed to format it for the operat-
ing system you have chosen. Then, finally, you can install your operating system
of choice.
IDE was such a popular hard disk interface that some people have adapted
CD-ROM and tape devices to operate on IDE-type interfaces as well. Granted, it
should be noted that an “IDE” CD-ROM may or may not coexist peacefully with
an IDE hard disk. The former may reduce the performance of the latter. Some of
the new Compaq computers, for example, have included a second IDE bus for
the CD-ROM (it is labeled specifically for that purpose).
Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI)

T he last type of disk subsystem is probably the most flexible and the most
robust. Conversely, it’s probably also the most complex. In this section we’ll dis-
cuss the theory behind the Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI), the differ-
ent types of SCSI, and configuration and installation issues.
As already mentioned, SCSI (pronounced “scuzzy”) stands for Small Com-
puter Systems Interface. It was a technology developed in the early ’80s and stan-
dardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986. The
standard, which is known as ANSI document X3.131-1986, specifies a univer-
sal, parallel, system-level interface for connecting up to eight devices (including
the controller) on a single, shared cable (called the SCSI bus). One of the many
benefits of SCSI is that it is a very fast, flexible interface. You can buy a SCSI disk
and install it in a Mac, a PC, a Sun workstation, or a Whizbang 2000, assuming
they make a SCSI host adapter for it. SCSI systems are also known for their
speed. At its introduction, SCSI supported a throughput of 5MB/sec (5 to 10
times faster than previous buses).

SCSI devices can be either internal or external to the computer. If they are
internal, they use a 50-pin ribbon cable (similar to the 40-pin IDE drive cable).
If the devices are external, they use a thick, shielded cable with Centronics-50 or
male DB-25 connectors on it. These devices aren’t always disk drives. Scanners
and some printers also use SCSI because it has a very high data throughput.
To configure SCSI, you must assign a unique device number (often called a
SCSI address) to each device on the SCSI bus (also sometimes call the SCSI
chain). These numbers are configured through either jumpers or DIP switches.
When the computer needs to send data to the device, it sends a signal on the wire
“addressed” to that number. A device called a terminator (technically a termi-
nating resistor pack) must be installed at both ends of the bus to keep the signals
“on the bus.” The device then responds with a signal that contains the device
number that sent the information and the data itself.
This information is sent back to the SCSI adapter, which operates somewhat
like a controller and somewhat like a paddle board. The adapter is used to man-
age all the devices on the bus as well as to send and retrieve data from the devices.
The adapter doesn’t have to do as much work as a true controller because the
SCSI devices are “smart” devices; they contain a circuit board that can control
the read/write movement. It can also receive signals like “Get this information
and give it to me.” When a device receives a command like that, it is smart
enough to interpret the signal and return the correct information.
Types of SCSI
The original implementation of SCSI was just called “SCSI” at its inception.
However as new implementations came out, the original was referred to as
“SCSI-1.” This implementation is characterized by its 5MBps transfer rate, its
Centronics-50 or DB-25 female connectors, and its 8-bit bus width. SCSI-1 also
had some problems. Some devices wouldn’t operate correctly when they were on
the same SCSI bus as other devices. The problem here was mainly that the ANSI
SCSI standard was so new that vendors chose to implement it differently. These
differences would be the primary source of conflicts.
After a time, the first major improvement to SCSI-1 was introduced. Known
as SCSI-2 (ANSI Standard document X3.131-1994), it improved SCSI-1 by
allowing for more options. These options produced several subsets of SCSI-2,
each having its own name and characteristics. But the most obvious change from
SCSI-1 is that SCSI-2 now uses a higher-density connector (see Figure 4.14).
Also, SCSI-2 is backward compatible with SCSI-1 devices.

FIGURE 4.14 A SCSI-2 connector
The first improvement that was designed into SCSI-2 was a wider bus. The
new specification specified both 8-bit and 16-bit buses. The larger of the two
specifications is known as Wide SCSI-2 because it’s wider (Captain Obvious
rides again). It improved data throughput for large data transfers. Another
important change was to improve upon the now-limiting 5MBps transfer rate.
The Fast SCSI-2 specification allowed for a 10MBps transfer rate, thus allowing
transfers twice as fast as SCSI-1. So, Wide SCSI-2 transfers data 16 bits at a time,
Fast SCSI transfers data 8 bits at a time, but twice as fast (at 10MBps).
Another option was to combine both into a blazingly fast technology known
as SCSI-2 Fast-Wide. It combined the speed of Fast SCSI-2 with the bus width of
Wide SCSI-2 to produce a transfer rate of 40MBps!
Finally, there is a new SCSI standard, SCSI-3 One of the feature sets is known
as Fast-20 SCSI (also known to some as Ultra SCSI). Basically, this is a faster ver-
sion of Fast SCSI-2 operating at 20MBps for narrow SCSI and 40MBps for Wide
SCSI. Another feature set is the Ultra2 Low Voltage Differential (LVD), which
increases the maximum SCSI bus length to 25 meters (82 feet) and increases the
maximum possible throughput to 160MBps (on Ultra2 Wide LVD).
There are other proposed SCSI implementations, like Apple’s FireWire, Fiber
Channel, and IBM’s SSA, all offering speeds in the hundreds of MBps range.
Fibre Channel, specifically, is gaining support in the LAN arena because of its
high-speed storage access and shared-media capability. The name Fibre Channel
is somewhat of a misnomer because the technology will run over fiber optic
cable, STP, or coaxial cable.
SCSI Device Installation and Configuration

Installing SCSI devices is rather complex, but you still follow the same basic steps
as mentioned with the other types of drives (refer back to the previous types of
hard disk interfaces if you’re still unclear). The main issues with installing SCSI
devices are cabling, termination, and addressing.

We’ll discuss termination and cabling together because they are very closely
tied together. There are two types of cabling:
Internal cabling uses a 50-wire ribbon cable with several keyed connectors
on them. These connectors are attached to the devices in the computer (the
order is unimportant), with one connector connecting to the adapter.
External cabling uses thick, shielded cables run from adapter to device to
device in a fashion known as daisy-chaining (see Figure 4.15). Each device
has two ports on it (most of the time). When hooking up external SCSI
devices, you run a cable from the adapter to the first device. Then you run
a cable from the first device to the second device, from the second to the
third, and so on.
FIGURE 4.15 A “daisy chain”
Because there are two types of cabling devices, you have three ways of con-
necting them. The methods differ by where the devices are located and whether
or not the adapter has the terminator installed. The guide to remember here is
that both ends of the bus must be terminated:
Internal devices only The first situation we’ll discuss is one in which you
have internal devices only (Figure 4.16). When you have only internal SCSI
devices, you connect the cable to the adapter and to every SCSI device in the
computer. You then install the terminating resistors on the adapter and on the
last drive in the chain only. All other terminating resistors are removed.

FIGURE 4.16 Cabling internal SCSI devices only
Some devices and adapters don’t use terminating resistor packs; instead you
use a jumper or DIP switch to activate or deactivate SCSI termination on such
devices. (Where do you find out what type your device uses? In the documenta-
tion, of course.)
External devices only In the next situation, you have external devices only
(Figure 4.17). By external devices, we mean each with its own power supply.
You connect the devices in the same manner you connected internal devices,
but in this method you use several very short (less than 0.5 meters) “stub”
cables to run between the devices in a daisy chain (rather than one, long cable
with several connectors). The effect is the same. The adapter and the last
device in the chain (the one with only one stub cable attached to it) must be
terminated.
FIGURE 4.17 Cabling external SCSI devices only

Both internal and external devices Finally, there’s the hybrid situation in
which you have both internal and external devices (Figure 4.18). Most
adapters have connectors for both internal and external SCSI devices—if
yours doesn’t have both, you’ll need to see if anybody makes one that will
work with your devices. For adapters that do have both types of connectors,
you connect your internal devices to the ribbon cable and attach the cable
to the adapter. Then, you daisy-chain your external devices off the external
port. Finally, you terminate the last device on each chain, leaving the
adapter unterminated.
FIGURE 4.18 Cabling internal and external SCSI devices together
Even though the third technique described is the technically correct way to install
termination for the hybrid situation (in which you have both internal and external
devices), some adapter cards still need to have terminators installed (for instance,
Adaptec AHA-1542s). If you set up both internal and external devices and none of
them work, you might have one of these adapters. Try enabling termination on it
to see if that fixes the problem.
In addition to running the cable(s) correctly, it is important that you realize

that you are limited to the number of devices you can have on the SCSI channel
as well as the maximum length of the SCSI bus. Generally speaking, the faster the
SCSI, the shorter the total length of the bus.
TABLE 4.3 SCSI Differences
SCSI Bus Width Max Max Transfer Max Length

Type (bits) Devices Rate (MBps) (Meters)* Connector
SCSI-1 8 8 5 6 25
SCSI-2 8 8 5 6 50

TABLE 4.3 SCSI Differences (continued)
Fast 8 8 10 3 50
SCSI
Wide 9 16 20 3 68
SCSI
Ultra 8 8 20 3 50
SCSI
Wide 16 8 40 1.5 68
Ultra
SCSI
*NOTE: Lengths are given for non-LVD devices.
Now that you have them all correctly connected, you need to assign each
device a unique SCSI ID number. This number can be assigned by jumper (with
internal devices) or with a rotary switch (on external devices). You start by
assigning your adapter an address. This number can be any number from 0 to 7
on an 8-bit bus, 0 to 15 on a 16-bit bus, and 0 to 31 on a 32-bit bus, as long as
no other device is using that ID.
At our office, we have an 8-bit bus, so we normally set our adapter to 7 if
we’re using regular PC SCSI. This is because on PC SCSI, the higher the number,
the higher the priority. If two devices request the bus at the same time, the device
with the higher priority wins. However, if we were running PS/2 SCSI, the oppo-
site would hold true (lower numbers, higher priority). So on PS/2s we would set
our adapter to 0.
Every other device can be set to any number as long as it’s not in use. How-
ever, there are some recommendations that are commonly accepted by the PC
community. Remember that these are guidelines, not rules:
Generally speaking, give slower devices higher priority so they can access
the bus whenever they need it.
Set the bootable (or first) hard disk to ID 0.
Set the CD-ROM to ID 3.
One other note regarding setting the SCSI ID on internal devices: most internal
devices use three sets of jumpers to set the SCSI ID. These three sets of jumpers rep-
resent three binary digits. The highest three-digit binary number is 111, the deci-
mal equivalent of which is 7, or eight discrete positions (0-7). The presence of a
jumper on one of these jumper sets would represent a binary “1” in that position.
The absence of the same would indicate a binary “0”. You set the decimal SCSI ID
of a device by placing or removing jumpers on the three sets of pins so that the

binary number indicated represents the SCSI ID you want the device set to. For
example, if you want to set a device to SCSI ID 3, you must find out what the
binary representation is. Remember from Chapter 1 that 011 is the binary repre-
sentation of the decimal number 3. Therefore, you would jumper the rightmost
two pins (although you should check which pins in your drive’s documentation).
Now that you’ve got the devices cabled together and terminated correctly,
you have to get the PC to recognize the SCSI adapter and its devices. The good
news is that you don’t have to modify the PC’s CMOS settings. As a matter of
fact, because SCSI devices are intelligent, you tell the PC that there is no disk
installed and let the adapter handle controlling of the devices. You have two
other ways of getting the PC to recognize the SCSI devices:
If the device is going to be bootable, then you must set the card to be
“BIOS enabled,” meaning that the card has its own BIOS extension that
will allow the PC to recognize the device without a software driver. The
downside to this method is that the adapter must be configured to use an
area in reserved memory for its BIOS. However, in a machine with only
SCSI devices, it’s the most efficient method.
The other method, in case you haven’t guessed it, is to load into the oper-
ating system a driver for the adapter. This method only works if you are
booting from some other, non-SCSI device. If you must boot from the
SCSI drive, you must use the preceding method. This method is commonly
used when the only SCSI device attached to the computer is a scanner or
CD-ROM drive.
Generally speaking, it’s a bad idea to mix SCSI with any other disk technology. The
only way you can make mixing work is to have the SCSI disks be secondary stor-
age devices. It will degrade the performance of your system, however, because
the boot files will be located on the first hard disk (the non-SCSI one). It will not
work to have it the other way around (SCSI first, other disks second) because in
that situation, their BIOSs will conflict as to who is the “boss.”
Now that you have the drive installed and talking to the computer, you’re
almost done. At this point you can high-level format the media and install the
operating system.
Remember the note about low-level formatting IDE and SCSI drives—don’t do it!
If there are problems, double-check the termination and ID numbers. If everything

looks correct, try changing ID numbers one at a time. SCSI addressing is one of
those areas that is a “voodoo” art. Some things that should work don’t, and some
things that shouldn’t work do.

Summary 185
Summary
S torage systems for PCs store data until is called for by the process. In this
chapter, you learned about the various types of disk and storage systems avail-
able on PCs today, how they work, and the various capacities and access times
for each.
In the first section, you learned to differentiate among the various types of
storage. You learned about storage types used on older computer systems (stor-
age types like punch cards and punch tape, as well as magnetic tape). These
storage systems were the “grandparents” of the magnetic disks of today. In this
section, you also learned how the basic types of storage work, as well as how
they are laid out. You learned terms like FAT, cylinders, sectors, encoding, and
interleaving.
In the next section, you learned how floppy disk storage works, the basic com-
ponents of a floppy disk subsystem, and how to install and configure a floppy
disk system. You learned about the different types of floppy disks available (3.5"
and 5.25"), as well as the different types of drives associated with each type. You
also learned about the controller and cable used to hook the floppy disk drive to
the system so that data can be stored on it.
IDE disk drives are the most popular type of disk subsystem used by home
PCs today. In the next section, you learned the details about this popular fixed
disk system. Some of the things you learned in this section include the differences
between the various types of IDE drives. You also learned how to properly con-
figure a multiple-IDE disk system, including the concepts of multiple IDE buses
and master and slave drives. Finally, you learned how to properly install and
configure the different types of IDE disks.
In the last section in this chapter, you learned about Small Computer Systems
Interface (SCSI) drives. SCSI drives aren’t normally found in desktop PCs; they
are more commonly found in servers because of their increased performance
(and corresponding increased price). In this section you learned about the differ-
ent types of SCSI buses. You also learned how to properly install and configure
a SCSI disk, including how to properly terminate a SCSI bus and how to set the
SCSI ID of a device.
Key Terms
access time low-level format

actuator arm master drive
ATA version 2 (ATA-2) optical drives
BIOS CMOS setup program platters
clusters read/write heads
cylinder removable media
daisy-chaining resistor pack
data compression Run Length Limited (RLL)
drive geometry SCSI adapter
drive hole SCSI address
encoding SCSI bus
FAT SCSI chain
file allocation table sector
fixed disks seek time
flux transition slave drives
hard disk drive spin speed
hard disks spindle
high-level format tracks
interleaving Ultra DMA IDE
latency write-protect tab
Review Questions
1. Which IDE-related standard is able to transfer data at 33MBps?
A. IDE
B. ATA
C. ATA-2
D. UltraDMA (UDMA)
2. What are the most common sizes for floppy drives? (Select all that apply.)
A. 31⁄4 inch
B. 31⁄2 inch
C. 51⁄4 inch
D. 51⁄2 inch
3. How many devices can SCSI-1 support (including the controller)?

A. 8
B. 7
C. 1
D. 9
4. Which kind of device is connected to the last connector on a Compaq

Deskpro?
A. Drive A:
B. Drive B:
C. Drive C:
D. Tape drive
5. The device that converts signals from an IDE drive into signals the CPU can
understand is called a ____________________ .
A. Controller
B. Host bus adapter
C. Bus
D. Paddle board

6. Which implementation of SCSI has a transfer rate of 20MB/sec?

A. Fast SCSI-2
B. Fast-Wide SCSI-2
C. Wide SCSI-2
D. Ultra SCSI
7. Suppose you have an internal SCSI hard drive and two external devices: a
scanner and a CD-ROM drive. The scanner is the last device on the chain.
Which device(s) should be terminated? (Select all that apply.)
A. Hard disk
B. Scanner
C. CD-ROM drive
D. Host bus adapter
8. The process known as ____________________ converts binary information

into patterns of magnetic flux on a hard disk’s surface.
A. Fluxing
B. Warping
C. Encoding
D. Decoding
9. What is the name for the areas that a typical hard disk is divided into (they
look like the wedges in a pie)?
A. Tracks
B. Sectors
C. Clusters
D. Spindles
10. How do you low-level format an IDE drive?

A. Enter the DEBUG.EXE program and enter g=c800:5 at the - prompt.
B. Run LOWLEVEL.COM.
C. Execute FORMAT.COM.
D. You don’t; it’s done at the factory.
11. Which SCSI implementation can transfer data at up to 10MBps?

A. SCSI-1
B. Fast SCSI-2
C. UltraSCSI
D. Wide Ultra2SCSI

12. How do you low-level format a SCSI drive?

A. Enter the DEBUG.EXE program and enter g=c800:5 at the - prompt.
B. Run LOWLEVEL.COM.
C. Execute FORMAT.COM.
D. You don’t; it’s done at the factory.
13. Which of the following must be done when installing SCSI devices? (Select all
that apply.)
A. Terminate the first and last devices in the chain.
B. Set unique SCSI ID numbers.
C. Connect the first device to the connector before the twist.
D. Set every device on the same SCSI channel to the same SCSI ID
number.
14. Low-leveling a disk drive means ____________________ .

A. Installing the drive in the bottom of the computer
B. Getting a disk drive ready for the installation of an operating system
C. Organizing the disk into sectors and tracks
D. Organizing the disk into clusters and FATs
15. You have just replaced the floppy drive in a PC. Upon turning the computer
on, you discover you can’t boot to the floppy drive. The drive light turns on
during power-up and stays lit until you turn the computer off. What should
you do to solve this problem? (Select all that apply.)
A. Change the drive type in the CMOS setup.
B. Reverse the floppy drive cable.
C. Remove the terminating resistor on the floppy drive.
D. Move the floppy drive to the end of the floppy cable.
16. Which of the following is not a feature of disk drives?

A. Rotating disks are coated with a special substance sensitive to
magnetism.
B. As the disk rotates, the particles of the substance become polarized or
magnetized, indicating a 1.
C. The unpolarized areas indicate a 0.
D. These disk systems store data in linear format and store data in
sequential access.

17. All of the following are disk specifications except ___________________ .
A. Size or capacity
B. Individual seek time
C. Access time to perform read/write requests
D. Spin speed
18. A typical hard drive has how many bytes per sector?
A. 512
B. 501
C. 515
D. 520
19. All of the following are means of disk organization except _______________ .
A. Tracks
B. Heads
C. Sectors
D. Cylinders
20. If a typical hard disk has 903 cylinders, 12 heads, 63 sectors per track, and 512
bytes per sector, what is its capacity?
A. 333MB
B. 350MB
C. 323MB
D. 373MB


1. D. UDMA is able to transfer data at 33MBps. IDE and ATA are essentially the
same technology and can transfer data at 3.3MBps. ATA-2 can transfer data
at 11.1MBps.
2. B, C. The two sizes of drives that can be found are 31⁄2 inch and 51⁄4 inch, but
31⁄2 inch is more common now.
3. A. Including the controller card, SCSI-1 can support up to 8 devices, with

address IDs ranging from 0 to 7.
4. D. Occasionally you will find a Compaq Deskpro with a tape device attached.
It will be attached as the last drive of the chain.
5. D . The paddle board is the device responsible for converting signals from an
IDE drive into signals the CPU can understand. It is commonly, and errone-
ously, called the controller card.
6. D. The Ultra SCSI, or SCSI-3, standard supports a transfer rate of 20MB/sec.

This is twice as fast as the Fast SCSI-2 implementation.
7. A, B. In this example, you would want to terminate the internal hard drive,
not the adapter, and terminate the scanner because it is the last device of the
external chain.
8. C. Encoding converts binary information into patterns of magnetic flux on a

hard disk’s surface. This is how the data is written to the surface.
9. B. Although all of the options are terms that describe characteristics of the
hard drive, sectors would most closely resemble pie-shaped wedges.
10. D . Low-level formatting should not ever be done because it is done before the
drive leaves the factory. If you attempt to do so, you can render your drive
unusable.
11. B. SCSI transfers data at 5MBps, Fast SCSI-2 at 10MBps, UltraSCSI at

40MBps, and Wide Ultra2SCSI at 80MBps.
12. D. Just as with IDE drives, you don’t want to ever low-level format a SCSI
drive. It can render your disk unusable.
13. A, B. To properly configure SCSI devices, the ends of the chain(s) must be
properly terminated and each device must have a unique ID.
14. C. “Low-leveling” is a formatting process done at the factory that arranges the
disk into the correct number of sectors and tracks. This is not something that
should be done to IDE or SCSI drives because it will render them unusable.

15. A, B. One, or both, of two things need to be changed. More than likely, pin #1
is not properly connected to the ribbon cable on either the controller or the
drive side of the cable. Also, it is possible that in CMOS setup, the drive is set
to the wrong type and needs to be corrected.
16. D. Fixed disk drives store data randomly, so therefore, option D is not a fea-
ture of disk drives.
17. C. Generally, disk specifications are given as the capacity, the seek time, and
the spin speed of the drive.
18. A. A typical hard drive has 512 bytes per sector.
19. B. Heads are a physical part of the drive system and are responsible for reading/
writing the data, whereas all others are means of organizing the disk.
20. A. The way to solve this problem is to understand how the math works. Take
((903 × 12 × 63) ÷ .5) ÷ 1,024 and the answer is roughly 333MB. The division
by 1,024 is necessary to convert bytes to megabytes.

Chapter PC Bus Architectures

THIS CHAPTER:

System board
Storage device
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Input devices
Hard drive
Keyboard
Video board
Mouse
Portable system components
AC adapters
DC controllers
LCD panel
PC card
Pointing devices
peripheral devices.
Monitor/Video Card
Modem
USB peripherals and hubs
IEEE-1284

IEEE-1394
External storage
Portables
Docking stations
PC cards
Port replicators
Infrared devices
power supplies).
AT (Full and Baby)
ATX
Components:
Communication ports
SIMM and DIMM
Processor sockets
Bus Architecture
ISA
PCI
AGP

S o far, we have discussed many key components in the average
PC. However, we haven’t talked about the way information travels between
them. In this chapter, we’ll cover the following A+ exam topics related to infor-
mation flow:
Expansion bus components
The 8-bit expansion bus
The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus
The Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus
The Extended ISA (EISA) bus
VESA Local Bus (VL-Bus)
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA)
Additionally, we’ll discuss the identification, installation, and configuration
issues associated with each.
For complete coverage of objective 1.2, please also see Chapters 2, 8, and 9. For
complete coverage of objective 1.7, please also see Chapters 7 and 9. For com-
plete coverage of objective 4.3, please also see Chapters 2 and 4.
What Is a Bus?
E xactly what is a bus? A bus is a set of signal pathways that, as we have
already alluded to, allow information and signals to travel between components
inside or outside of a computer. There are three types of buses inside a computer:
the external bus, the address bus, and the data bus.

196 Chapter 5 PC Bus Architectures
The external bus allows the CPU to talk to the other devices in the computer
and vice versa. It is called that because it’s external to the CPU. When the CPU
wants to talk to a device, it uses the address bus to do so. It will select the particular
memory address that the device is using and use the address bus to write to that
address. When the device wants to send information back to the microprocessor,
it uses the data bus.
In this chapter, we’ll focus primarily on the most common type of external
bus—the expansion bus.
Expansion Bus Features

T he expansion bus allows the computer to be expanded using a modular
approach. Whenever you need to add something to the computer, you plug
specially made circuit boards into the connectors (also known as expansion
slots) on the expansion bus. The devices on these circuit boards are then able to
communicate with the CPU and are semipermanently part of the computer.
The Connector, or Slot

The connector slots are made up of several tiny copper “finger slots,” the row of
very narrow channels that grab the fingers on the expansion circuit boards.
These finger slots connect to copper pathways on the motherboard. Each set of
pathways has a specific function. One set of pathways provides the voltages
needed to power the expansion card (+5, +12, and ground). Another set of path-
ways makes up the data bus, transmitting data back to the processor. A third set
makes up the address bus, allowing the device to be addressed through a set of
I/O addresses. Finally, there are other lines for different functions like interrupts,
direct memory access (DMA) channels, and clock signals.
Interrupt Lines
Interrupts are special lines that are connected directly to the processor; a device
uses an interrupt to get the attention of the CPU when it needs to. It’s rather like
the cord you use to signal the driver when you need to get off at the next stop
when you’re a passenger on an actual bus. Just as you would use the “stop
requested” cord to send a signal when you need the bus driver’s attention, a com-
puter device uses the interrupt request (IRQ) line to get the attention of the CPU.
There are several interrupt request lines in each type of bus. Lines 0 and 1 (cor-
responding to IRQ 0 and IRQ 1, respectively) are used by the processor for special
purposes. The other lines are allocated to the various pieces of hardware installed
in the computer. Not every line is used. In an average PC, there is usually at least

Expansion Bus Features 197
one free IRQ line. When you configure a device for a computer, you must tell it
which IRQ to use to get the attention of the processor. If two devices use the same
IRQ line, the processor will get confused and neither device will work.
DMA Channels
Another feature of the bus is that it allows devices to bypass the processor and
write their information directly into main memory. This feature is known as
direct memory access, or DMA. Each type of bus has a different number of chan-
nels that can be used for DMA. If two devices are set to the same DMA channel,
neither device will write information to memory correctly; thus, neither device
will work.
I/O Addresses
Each bus type has a set of lines that are used to allow the CPU to send instruc-
tions to the devices installed in the bus’s slots. Each device is given its own unique
communication line to the CPU. These lines are called input/output (I/O)
addresses and they function a lot like unidirectional mailboxes. If you want to
send an invitation for people to come to a party, you write a message and address
it to the mailbox of the person you want to invite. When the person receives the
message, they read it and return some information, perhaps via some other
method (such as a phone call). The I/O addresses (also called I/O ports or hard-
ware ports) work in a similar fashion. When the CPU wants a device to do some-
thing, it sends a signal to a particular I/O address telling the device what to do.
The device then responds via the data bus or DMA channels.
Clock Signals
Finally, each computer has a built-in metronome-like signal called a clock signal.
There are two types: the CPU clock and the bus clock. The former dictates how
fast the CPU can run; the latter indicates how fast the bus can transmit informa-
tion. (In the first PCs, the CPU clock was also the clock for the bus.) The speed
of the clocks is measured by how fast they “tick” and is given in millions of cycles
per second, or Megahertz (MHz). The bus or the CPU can perform an operation
only on the occurrence of a tick signal. Think of the clock signal as a type of met-
ronome that keeps the processor “in time.”
Bus Mastering
With DMA channels, a device can write directly to memory. But what if a device
needs to read or write directly to another device (like the hard disk)? For this pur-
pose, bus designers came up with bus mastering. This is a feature that allows a

device to distract the CPU for a moment, “take control” of the bus, and read
from or write information to the device. This feature can greatly improve per-
formance of the device. Some buses can use several bus-mastering devices. The
more bus-mastering devices, the faster the bus can operate.
Now that we have discussed the basic expansion bus concepts, we’ll use these
concepts to describe each of the different types of buses.
The 8-Bit Expansion Bus

T he first type of expansion bus we’re going to discuss is the 8-bit bus. It
is also sometimes known as “You know, the first PC bus.” When the first PC was
developed with the Intel 8088, it only had eight data lines running from the pro-
cessor to the expansion connectors. Each line carried 1 bit of data. Thus was
born the 8-bit bus. This was the most common name given to this particular bus.
Some other names include the IBM PC bus, the XT bus, and the “slow bus.”
(Okay, that last one is a name we gave it, but it’s true, don’t you think?)
Information and Identification

The 8-bit bus is characterized by having a maximum bus clock speed of 4.77
(approximately 5) MHz, 8 interrupts (of which 6 could be used by expansion
devices), 4 DMA channels, and 1 large connector with 62 tiny “finger slots”
(channels) along the sides (see Figure 5.1).
FIGURE 5.1 The 8-bit bus connector

The 8-Bit Expansion Bus 199
It is very rare to find an 8-bit bus in today’s computer. If you do, it’s usually
just one: an 8-bit slot for a single 8-bit expansion card (Figure 5.2). The expan-
sion cards for this size bus are easily identifiable because they have only one con-
nector. Also, when these cards came out, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
had not taken off yet, so if you find an 8-bit card, it will usually be packed with
resistors and other large electronics components.
FIGURE 5.2 An 8-bit bus expansion card
The 8-bit bus died out about the same time the 8-bit processors fell by the
wayside. It wasn’t efficient to try to shoehorn 32 bits or more into a bus that can
only accept 8 bits at a time. Even so, some manufacturers tried to accomplish just
that by placing a 386 chip on a motherboard with an 8-bit bus. What normally
happened in that situation is that the computer divided the 32-bit signal into four
8-bit “chunks.” It was a lot like trying to run lunchtime city freeway traffic down
a side street. Every car could get through, just a lot more slowly. Also, because
most processors run quite a bit faster than 4.77MHz, it was like putting the
speed limit on that side street at 4.77 MPH instead of 55 MPH. Just a bit poky,
don’t you think?
Also, in the 8-bit bus, there were only eight interrupts and four DMA chan-
nels, most of which were being used. It made expansion of the 8-bit bus relatively
difficult because there were very few choices to set expansion cards to. Tables 5.1
and 5.2 show the default uses for the eight IRQ lines and four DMA channels.

TABLE 5.1 8-Bit Bus Default IRQ Assignments
IRQ Line Default Assignment
IRQ 0 System Timer
IRQ 1 Keyboard
IRQ 2 Available
IRQ 3 COM 2
IRQ 4 COM 1
IRQ 5 Hard Disk Controller
IRQ 6 Floppy Controller
IRQ 7 LPT1
TABLE 5.2 8-Bit Bus Default DMA Channel Assignments
DMA Channel Default Assignment
DMA 0 Dynamic RAM Refresh
DMA 1 Hard Disk Controller (XT)
DMA 2 Floppy Controller
DMA 3 Available
Bus Configuration
Configuring your devices involves assigning system resources (that is, DMA
channels, IRQs, and I/O addresses) that aren’t being used by other devices. Con-
figuration of the 8-bit bus is relatively complex, primarily because there is only
one IRQ (IRQ 2) and one DMA channel (DMA 3) available. With so few system
resources available, you have to decide which components will use each of the
limited resources. One way to free up resources is to disable a device that you
won’t be using at the same time you’ll be using the device you need to work with.
Each card must be separately configured to operate with the computer
according to the instructions that come with the card. You set the configuration
on each card using jumpers and Dual Inline Package (DIP) switches so that the

The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Bus 201
settings are the way you want them. The first step in the procedure is to take the
case off the computer. Next, you configure the card using the aforementioned
jumpers. After that, you install the card in a free slot (assuming you have one).
Finally, you boot the computer and install the software drivers to activate the
card. If all was successful, the drivers will load without incident. If a conflict
exists, you must repeat the entire procedure, changing one setting at a time until
you get the correct setting, one that doesn’t conflict with any other devices. A
tedious process, to be sure.
We will cover expansion card installation in detail in Chapter 8.
The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Bus

T he biggest shortcoming of the 8-bit bus was that it was only 8 bits wide.
The design of the IBM AT processor specified a processor with a 16-bit data
path. A new bus was needed for this processor because the old bus would cause
the “traffic jam” scenario described earlier. The new bus design was a 16-bit bus;
it was given the same name as the computer it was designed for: the AT bus. It
was also known as the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus.

The ISA bus is easily identifiable by the presence of the small bus connector
behind the 8-bit connector, as shown in Figure 5.3. This additional connector
adds several signal lines to make the bus a full 16-bit bus. The other connector
is a regular 8-bit bus connector. The ISA bus has eight more interrupts than the
8-bit bus and four additional DMA channels. Also, this bus can operate at nearly
twice the speed of the older, 8-bit bus (ISA can run at 8MHz, and Turbo models
can run as fast as 10MHz reliably). Finally, this bus can use one bus-mastering
device, if necessary.
FIGURE 5.3 An ISA bus connector

ISA expansion cards use a connector similar to the 8-bit bus but with the addi-
tional connector for the 16-bit data and address lines (Figure 5.4).
FIGURE 5.4 An ISA bus expansion card
One interesting thing about the ISA bus is that it is backward compatible with
the older, 8-bit bus. ISA bus slots are basically 8-bit slots with the extra signal
lines required to make them 16-bit on a second connector. Expansion cards
made for the PC’s 8-bit bus can be inserted into ISA slots and they will function
properly. There is one exception, however. Some 8-bit cards have a “skirt”
extending below the bus slot. This skirt will not allow the 8-bit card to be
inserted all the way into the ISA slot. It is for this reason that you will sometimes
have 8-bit slots mixed in with ISA slots on the same motherboards.
A major problem cropped up, however, when CPU speed outpaced the 8MHz
bus speed (like the early Compaq with its 12MHz 286 processor). The computer
could not use the ISA bus because that bus ran at 8MHz and the processor ran
faster. Putting a 12MHz processor in this type of system would limit it to running
at 8MHz, thus negating any benefits received from a faster processor.
The solution was to dissociate the CPU clock from the bus clock. This would
allow the 12MHz processor to run at its rated speed and let the 8MHz ISA bus
run at its rated speed. When information needed to get transferred to a compo-
nent on the ISA bus, it was transferred at the 8MHz clock speed. But all other
operations inside the processor happen at 12MHz.
This works well, with one exception. Some boards (like memory expansion
boards) need to run at the processor’s speed. If you put memory in an ISA board
and place it in an ISA bus along with a 33MHz processor, information will get
transferred from memory to the processor at 8MHz instead of 33MHz! This is
a serious performance degradation. Granted, you don’t find many ISA memory
boards, but the potential is there. Take heart, though. This problem has been
solved in a few of the other bus types (those buses that are considered to be
“local” buses).

The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Bus 203
Bus Configuration
Configuring expansion cards for use in ISA buses is a little less complex than con-
figuring 8-bit buses, mainly because there are more choices available for inter-
rupts and DMA channels. Tables 5.3 and 5.4 list the interrupts and DMA
channels that are available in an ISA system.
TABLE 5.3 ISA Bus IRQ Defaults
IRQ Default Assignment
IRQ 0 System Timer
IRQ 1 Keyboard
IRQ 2 Cascade to IRQ 9
IRQ 3 COM 2 and 4
IRQ 4 COM 1 and 3
IRQ 5 LPT2 (usually available)
IRQ 6 Floppy Controller
IRQ 7 LPT1
IRQ 8 Real Time Clock (RTC)
IRQ 9 Cascade to IRQ 2
IRQ 10 Available
IRQ 11 Available
IRQ 12 Bus Mouse port (available if not used)
IRQ 13 Math Coprocessor
IRQ 14 Hard Disk Controller Board
IRQ 15 Available

TABLE 5.4 ISA Bus DMA Channel Defaults
DMA Channel Default Assignment
DMA 0 Available
DMA 1 Available
DMA 2 Floppy Controller
DMA 3 Available
DMA 4 Second DMA controller
DMA 5 Available
DMA 6 Available
DMA 7 Available
Note that COM 1 and COM 3 share the same interrupt, as do COM 2 and
COM 4. The pairs are differentiated by using different I/O addresses for the dif-
ferent COM ports. This can work without conflict. The only problem is if you
connect two devices that need to use an interrupt to the COM ports that use the
same interrupt (for example, a mouse on COM 1 and a modem on COM 3).
When this happens, the devices will work separately, but if you try to use both
at the same time (for example, use the mouse while downloading a file with the
modem), they will conflict and problems will occur.
The same procedures that are used to configure the 8-bit expansion cards are
used to configure ISA cards. You need to configure the card for interrupts, mem-
ory addresses, DMA channels, and I/O ports. Again, this is done using jumpers
and DIP switches.
One special case exists for interrupts when configuring them. You will notice
that some interrupts are “cascaded” to each other. What this means is that in an
ISA system, when the computer needs to access an interrupt higher than 9, it uses
IRQ 2 to get to it. This method ensures backward compatibility with 8-bit buses.
As the ISA bus and its expansion cards evolved, people got tired of setting all
those jumpers and DIP switches. As the saying goes, “Build a better mousetrap
and the world will beat a path to your door.” Well, someone found a better way
to configure ISA devices. They found that if they put the jumper positions into an
EEPROM chip on the device, they could set them using a special software con-
figuration program. Because it’s so easy, this method is used to configure the set-
tings of most ISA cards today.

The Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) Bus 205
There is a special case with regard to configuring ISA buses: the ISA Plug-and-Play
bus. This bus consists of a standard ISA bus and a special set of BIOS extensions.
The extensions examine the installed Plug-and-Play–compatible cards at start-up
and set them to available settings. At least that’s the theory.
The Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) Bus

E ven though IBM developed the original 8-bit bus and had a hand in
developing ISA, through the early part of the 1980s it steadily lost its domination
of the PC market. But IBM had an ace up its sleeve. It was developing a new
line of computers called the PS/2 (Personal System 2). Along with the new com-
puter, it was developing a new bus that was supposed to be better than ISA in
every way. Its higher-end models (PS/2s numbered more or less sequentially from
50 to 80) were going to incorporate this new bus. This bus used a smaller, high-
density connector and was known as Micro Channel Architecture (MCA).

MCA was a major step forward in bus design. First, it was available in either
16-bit or 32-bit versions. Second, it could have multiple bus-mastering devices
installed. Third, the bus clock speed was slightly faster (10MHz instead of
8MHz). And finally, it offered the ability to change configurations with soft-
ware rather than with jumpers and DIP switches.
The MCA bus connector is a high-density connector that looks similar to an
ISA bus connector. However, the MCA bus connector has almost twice as many
connectors in a smaller area and is segmented to provide for 16-bit, 32-bit, and
video extension segments.
There are two easy ways to identify an MCA bus card. The first is by the
connector on the card (see Figure 5.5). It looks like no other bus connector. The
connectors on the card are spaced closely together. The second is by the label-
ing on the connector. Most MCA cards (more than 80 percent) are made by
IBM. When you take an MCA card out of the package, you will notice that
there are two blue handles on the top of the card. It’s likely that the handles will
display the IBM logo. Even if the cards were made by other vendors, the han-
dles will still more than likely be blue.

FIGURE 5.5 An MCA bus expansion card
The MCA bus was a bold venture for the folks at IBM. They were hoping it
would be the new standard for the PC bus. Unfortunately, it had a major draw-
back. It was very proprietary. Anyone who wanted to clone the MCA bus had to
pay around five percent of their gross receipts to IBM. Although it was one of the
best technically, it was more expensive. And it was incompatible with the estab-
lished ISA bus architecture. It was for these reasons that many system designers
chose not to “hop on the MCA bandwagon” and implemented other bus choices
instead.
Bus Configuration
As we have already mentioned, one of MCA’s strengths is that you can use soft-
ware to configure it. Installing an expansion card in an MCA slot still involves
the same concepts as installing an ISA card. You must configure the card to use
an available IRQ, DMA channel, memory address, and I/O ports. To configure
the options on these cards, you must use a Reference disk and an option diskette
after installing the device into the computer physically.
The Reference disk is a special disk that is bootable and contains a program
that is capable of sending special commands to bus devices to configure their
parameters. This disk is included with the computer and is special in that it only
works with one particular model of MCA bus computer.
Don’t lose the Reference disk or option diskette. You can’t add new devices with-
out them. Make backup copies and use them to configure the system. Place the
originals in a safe place.
Every new MCA device you can install will come with an option diskette. An
option diskette contains the device-specific configuration files for the device
being installed. For example, if you are going to install a sound card, the option

The Extended ISA (EISA) Bus 207
diskette will contain settings pertaining to how the sound card needs to commu-
nicate with the rest of the computer.
Device-specific configuration files are also called ADF files because their filenames
have an .adf extension.
Once you have a new device ready to be installed, you shut down the com-
puter and install the board into the slot. Then, you boot the computer to the Ref-
erence disk. From the Main menu, select the option to configure the installed
boards, then choose the slot number of the board you wish to configure. Because
this is a new board, you will be prompted to insert an option diskette with the
configuration files on it. This is where you insert the option diskette that came
with the card. The files particular to the new device will be copied to the Refer-
ence disk so that the next time you need to change its settings, the files will
already be on the Reference disk.
The Extended ISA (EISA) Bus

B ecause MCA was rather expensive and ISA was slowing down their
systems, a few companies (mainly Olivetti, Compaq, AST, Tandy, WYSE,
Hewlett-Packard, Zenith, NEC, and Epson, a.k.a. the “gang of nine”) got
together and came up with the Extended ISA, or EISA. This bus took the best
parts of the other buses and combined them into a 32-bit software-configurable
bus. The best part was that 16-bit ISA cards were compatible with this new bus
and the standard was open.

There were several new, desirable features introduced with EISA. Its creators
took the best of MCA’s features and added to them. As we have already men-
tioned, EISA has a 32-bit data path. Additionally, it has more I/O addresses, it
allows expansion cards to be set up using software, there is no need for interrupts
or DMA channels, and it allows for multiple bus-mastering devices. However,
despite all these advances, it still uses the 8MHz clock speed of ISA (to ensure
backward compatibility with ISA cards).
The bus slots (Figure 5.6) have both 16-bit and 32-bit finger slots. The
16-bit finger slots and the 32-bit finger slots alternate every other finger slot.
Also, the 16-bit finger slots are located toward the top of the connectors and
the 32-bit finger slots are buried deep within the connectors. The reason for all
this alternating, burying, and arranging is that when you insert a 16-bit card,
it will only go in halfway and make contact with the top (16-bit) connectors.

But an EISA card (Figure 5.7), because of its longer fingers, will seat all the way
into an EISA slot and make full contact with the deeper, 32-bit finger slots.
FIGURE 5.6 An EISA bus connector
FIGURE 5.7 An EISA bus expansion card

The Extended ISA (EISA) Bus 209
Bus Configuration
Configuring an EISA bus is similar to configuring an MCA bus, unless you install
an ISA card into an EISA bus slot. If you do that, the configuration issues for ISA
apply (including interrupts, DMAs, and so forth). If you are using only EISA
cards, then the steps are quite different.
First, you must select a slot number to install the card into. Obviously, the slot
must not have a card already installed in it. Second, you must install the card into
one of the available slots. Third, you must boot the computer. When you do this,
the computer will recognize that there is a new, unconfigured card in the bus slot
(very much like a Plug-and-Play ISA bus without the auto-configuration). Then,
you are given the choice to run the EISA Configuration Utility program (or EISA
Config for short) or to continue and ignore the new information. If you choose
the latter, the next time you boot, you will be asked again.
To access the EISA configuration program on a Compaq server, press F10 when
the flashing, white cursor appears in the upper-right corner of the screen at sys-
tem start-up. If the cursor doesn’t appear, then the EISA configuration program
was not installed onto the boot sector(s) of the first hard disk. Booting to the Com-
paq EISA Configuration Utility disk for the first time will assist you in this process.
If you choose to configure the bus, you must have the EISA Configuration
Utility disk in the A: drive so that the computer can boot to it. During the boot
process, the EISA Config program will detect which card has been installed and
will ask for a disk with the configuration files. These files are device specific,
have the extension .cfg, and can be downloaded from the particular vendors.
Also, the CFG files specific to the devices installed in the computer will be
copied to the Configuration Utility disk so that you can use that disk to change
the various parameters without having to have more than one disk.
Once the computer is booted, you will be running the EISA Config utility and
can then pick which slot number the new card is using by selecting it from the
menu. When you are viewing this portion of the configuration screen, you can
change any parameters you need to. After you do so, you select the Save the Con-
figuration Information to the BIOS option and reboot the computer. The com-
puter now knows about the card and what resources it’s using.
The high-performance and ease-of-configuration benefits offered by EISA
were seen mainly in Intel 80486 and newer processors. For quite some time, EISA
buses were the primary expansion bus for servers; now, however, they are
quickly being replaced by the PCI bus (covered later in this chapter).

VESA Local Bus (VL-Bus)

T he EISA bus had several major advantages, but it had one glaring prob-
lem: It had a maximum clock speed of 8MHz. As processors got faster and faster,
the 8MHz limit was a major obstacle. What was needed was a bus that would run
at the same clock speed as the processor. This type of bus is known as a local bus.
There are several different types of local buses. One type is a bus slot, usually
called something like a processor direct slot. It is used for adding higher-speed
expansion cards, like memory or cache cards. And because it is a local bus slot,
it runs at the processor’s rated speed. It is usually a single connector, and it’s
highly proprietary. Usually, only cards made by the computer’s manufacturer
will work in this slot.
Some companies took this idea and thought that they could speed up some
components in the computer by putting them onto the local bus. In addition to
the memory and cache cards, one of the first components to be put on the local
bus was the video circuitry, because it could benefit from direct communication
with the processor. Some manufacturers designed a special local-bus video card
slot and designed special, high-performance cards for these slots. This approach
became very popular and most companies adopted it. The problem with this
approach is that the local-bus video card from one vendor would not work in a
local bus slot from another vendor.
The Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) was formed for this rea-
son. This group made sure that cards made for one vendor’s slot would work in
another vendor’s computer. As time passed, the slot design changed and was
given a new name, the VESA Local Bus slot (and was also known variously as
VL-Bus, VLB, or just VESA, after the group that came up with the standard).
This slot was a 32-bit addition to the ISA bus and was therefore backward com-
patible with it.
VLB has one major drawback in that it really is just a bigger ISA bus; namely,
it still has the same limitations as ISA. Configuration is still done through jump-
ers and DIP switches instead of through special bus-configuration programs.
It’s been called the “big ISA” bus because that’s what it is: just a 32-bit version
of ISA.

Identifying a VL-Bus slot is easy, if you know what to look for. First, VESA
designed this slot to be an extension of ISA. A VL-Bus slot is a regular ISA slot
with the 32-bit, local bus connector added to the ISA bus connector as a third bus

VESA Local Bus (VL-Bus) 211
connector (Figure 5.8). This connector is a high-density connector that has all of
its lines running directly to the processor.
FIGURE 5.8 A VL-Bus connector
The VL-Bus expansion card is also easily identifiable. The card is a bit
longer than an ISA card and has one extra connector (the 32-bit, local connec-
tor). Figure 5.9 shows two typical VL-Bus expansion cards. These cards are
typically used for video cards (as previously mentioned), SCSI host bus adapt-
ers, and multimedia expansion cards (sound cards, hard drive and CD-ROM
controllers, and video input devices) because of the amount of throughput
they need. Typically, you’ll find no more than three VL-Bus connectors on a
motherboard (mixed with other bus types). Any more than three and the pro-
cessor wouldn’t be able to keep up with the bus transfers.

FIGURE 5.9 VL-Bus expansion cards. Top: A video card. Bottom: An IDE hard drive controller.
Because you can have only three VL-Bus slots in a PC, most vendors will mix
VL-Bus slots and ISA slots (or EISA slots) on the motherboard. This approach
gives the computer owner more choices for expansion.
Bus Configuration
There is very little new information we need to discuss about the configuration
of VL-Bus devices. Primarily, they are ISA bus devices with an extra connector.
When you configure a VLB card, you perform operations that are similar to
those you perform when configuring ISA cards (moving jumpers, setting DIP
switches, and so on). However, because the VL-Bus is a more modern bus, some
of these cards are Plug and Play or, at the very least, software configurable.

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) 213
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

W ith the introduction of the Pentium-generation processors, all existing
buses instantly became obsolete. Because the Pentiums were 64-bit processors
and most buses were of the 16-bit or 32-bit variety, using existing buses would
severely limit the performance of the new technology. It was primarily for this
reason that the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus was developed.
PCI has many benefits over other bus types. First, it supports both 64-bit
and 32-bit data paths, so it can be used in both 486 and Pentium-based sys-
tems. In addition, it is processor independent. The bus communicates with a
special “bridge circuit” that communicates with both the CPU and the bus.
This has the benefit of making the bus an almost universal one. PCI buses can
be found in PCs, Mac OS–based computers, and RISC computers. The same
expansion card will work for all of them; you just need a different configura-
tion program for each.
Another advantage to PCI over other buses is a higher clock speed. PCI (in its
current revision) can run up to 66MHz. Also, the bus can support multiple bus-
mastering expansion cards. These two features give PCI a maximum bus
throughput of up to 265Mbps (with 64-bit cards).
The final two features of PCI that we should discuss are its backward com-
patibility and software setup features. The PCI bus uses a chipset that works with
PCI, ISA, and EISA. It is possible to have a PC that contains all these buses on the
same motherboard. Also, the PCI cards are mostly Plug and Play. The cards will
automatically configure themselves for IRQ, DMA, and I/O port addresses.
In some systems that are a combination of PCI and ISA, each PCI slot will be
located right next to an ISA slot. When you put a card in that PCI slot, you disable
the ISA slot and vice versa. Only one card will fit in a combination slot at a time.

Identification of PCI bus slots is very simple. The finger slots in the bus
(Figure 5.10) are packed together tightly. This connector is usually white and
contains two sections. There are two versions of the PCI bus that are found in
today’s systems. The versions are differentiated by the voltages that they use.
One uses +5.5Vdc to power the expansion cards, the other uses +3.3Vdc. When
you look at the connectors for these buses, the only difference you’ll see is the
different placement of the blocker (called a key) in each connector so that a
+3.3Vdc card can’t be plugged into a +5.5Vdc bus slot and vice versa.

FIGURE 5.10 PCI bus connectors
Bus Configuration
When you need to configure a PCI expansion card (Figure 5.11), you don’t move
jumpers or DIP switches; you simply install the card. The computer’s BIOS takes
care of configuring IRQ, I/O, and DMA addresses. Then you install the appro-
priate software so that the computer can use the device.
FIGURE 5.11 A PCI expansion card

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) 215
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

A s Pentium systems got faster, PC game players got games that had better
graphics, more realism, and more speed. However, as the computers got faster,
the video technology just couldn’t seem to keep up, as was the case with the
VL-Bus discussed earlier. VL-Bus could only run at 33MHz, and with 100 and
200MHz processors, there was a need for a faster, processor-direct, video expan-
sion bus. The bus that was developed to meet this need was the Accelerated
Graphics Port (AGP) bus.

The AGP connector is similar in physical size and appearance to a PCI connector
(as shown in Figure 5.12). But it’s usually darker in color and offset from the
other PCI slots to avoid confusion. The reason for the similarities is that Intel
started with PCI 2.1 interface specifications to develop AGP. The bus is 32 bits
wide, just like PCI. However, the similarities end there. AGP actually runs at
twice the memory bus speed (as opposed to PCI, which runs at only half the
memory bus speed). AGP runs at 66MHz. Additionally, in its fastest mode, AGP
can transfer data at 508.6MBps! PCI is limited to 127MBps.
FIGURE 5.12 An AGP slot on a motherboard

Bus Configuration
Configuration of an AGP expansion card is simplicity itself. Motherboards that
support AGP have Plug-and-Play BIOSs that will automatically configure the
card. To add an AGP card, simply power down the system, install the card in the
AGP slot, and power the system back up. Once the system comes back up, the
BIOS will configure the card automatically. Finally, you can install the drivers
for your operating system. This step is unnecessary if you have a Plug-and-Play
operating system.
PCMCIA—What Does It Stand For?

T he tongue-twister PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory
Card International Association. The bus was originally designed to provide a
way of expanding the memory in a small, handheld computer. The PCMCIA was
organized to provide a standard way of expanding portable computers. The
PCMCIA bus has been recently renamed PC card to make it easier to pronounce.
The PC card bus uses a small expansion card (about the size of a credit card).
Although it is primarily used in portable computers, there are PC card bus adapt-
ers for desktop PCs. It was designed to be a universal expansion bus that could
accommodate any device.
The first release of the PCMCIA standard (PCMCIA 1, the same used in that
original handheld computer) defined only the bus to be used for memory expan-
sion. The second release (PCMCIA 2) is the most common; it is in use throughout
the computer industry and has remained relatively unchanged. PCMCIA 2 was
designed to be backward compatible with version 1, so memory cards can be
used in the version 2 specification.

As this book is being written, PCMCIA’s bus width is only 16 bits, but a 32-bit
version is on the way. Also, PC cards support only one IRQ (a problem if you
need to install in a PC card bus two devices that both need interrupts). PC cards
also do not support bus mastering or DMA. However, because of its flexibility,
PCMCIA has quickly become a very popular bus for all types of computers (not
just laptops).

PCMCIA—What Does It Stand For? 217
There are three major types of PC cards (and slots) in use today. Each has dif-
ferent uses and physical characteristics (see Figure 5.13). Coincidentally, they are
called Type I, Type II, and Type III:
Type I cards are 3.3mm thick and are most commonly used for memory
cards.
Type II cards are 5mm thick and are mostly used for modems and LAN
adapters. This is the most common PC card type found today, and most
systems have at least two Type II slots (or one Type III slot).
The Type III slot is 10.5mm thick. Its most common application is for the
PC card hard disks. Developers have been slowly introducing these
devices to the market.
FIGURE 5.13 PC card types by thickness
In addition to the card, there are two other components in the PC card archi-
tecture. The first one is the Socket Services software. This software is a BIOS-
level interface to the PCMCIA bus slot. When loaded, it hides the details of the
PC card hardware from the computer. This software can detect when a card has
been inserted and what type of card it is.
The second component is the Card Services software. This software is the
interface between the application and Socket Services. This is the software that
tells the applications which interrupts and I/O ports the card is using. Applica-
tions that need to access the PC card don’t access the hardware directly. Instead,
they tell Card Services that they need access to a particular feature and Card Ser-
vices gets the appropriate feature from the PC card.
This dual-component architecture allows the PCMCIA architecture to be
used in different types of computer systems (that is, not just Intel’s). For example,
the Apple laptop computers currently use PC cards for modems and LAN inter-
face cards, and they are based on Motorola processors.
Bus Configuration
The process for installing a PC card is different than that for any of the other bus
types, mainly because this type was designed to allow the cards to be “hot
swapped”—inserted or removed while the computer is powered up. This is the
only bus that allows this. However, see the following warning about taking
advantage of this feature.

Even though you can remove a PC card while the power is on, you shouldn’t! If
you remove a PCMCIA card while the system is up, realize that some software may
not like having its hardware ripped out from underneath it. That software will then
have no hardware to talk to and it may crash the system. (As for other expansion
cards, never remove them without shutting off the power to the computer first! If
the power is on, you will certainly damage the card, the computer, or both.)
The process for installing a PC card is very straightforward. Just slip the card
into an available slot, making sure the card type matches the slot type. Once the
card is installed, you must install the software to use the card (Windows 9x will
do this automatically).
You have a few items to note when installing and configuring PC cards. First,
you must have the Card and Socket Services software installed before you try to
physically install the card so that the computer can manage the card’s resources.
Second, you may have a PC card bus that supports two Type II cards or one Type
III. If you do have one of these buses, you can have only one or the other situa-
tion. If you have a Type II card installed, you can’t install a Type III card without
removing the existing Type II. Finally, PC cards are too small to have jumpers or
DIP switches, so the hardware must be configured through a software configu-
ration program. This program can be a separate program or it can be built into
the BIOS.
Sometimes, there is not enough memory to load all the files for Card and Socket
Services. In the DOS world, the software for Card and Socket Services loads in
conventional memory (or in UMBs if you so choose). With many such DOS driv-
ers being loaded, you may run out of conventional memory and not be able to
run some DOS programs.
To solve this, PC card manufacturers have come up with a piece of software

called a PC Card “shim” that allows the card to be used as any other expansion
card is used. In addition, it takes up less conventional memory. The only
downside is that the shim might not be completely compatible with the sys-
tem. Windows 9x incorporates this software as virtual device drivers, or VXDs.

Summary 219
Summary
T his chapter covered the different types of expansion buses that exist. An
expansion bus is used to expand the capabilities of a PC by making a computer
modular. If you want to add a capability that your computer doesn’t have, you
just need to add a new expansion card.
In the first section, we explained exactly what a bus is. You learned about the
different pathways that make up a typical paths and the difference between an
internal and external bus.
In the next section, we discussed the components that make up a bus. You
learned about each component and how those components work together to
facilitate communication between the expansion card and the rest of the circuitry
in the computer. Some of these components include the expansion slot itself, the
various lines between the slot and the processor, and the bus controller. You also
learned how different busses use different circuitry.
In the remaining sections in this chapter, you learned the differences between
all the different types of busses as well as how to configure them. Table 5.5
shows all these differences and summarizes the details of each bus.
TABLE 5.5 Summary of Bus Types
Bus Maximum
Width Speed Uses Bus
Bus Type (Bits) (MHz) Mastering? Configuration
8-bit 8 4.77 N Jumpers/DIP switches
ISA 16 8 (10 for N Jumpers/DIP switches

Turbo) (Some cards are software
configurable.)
MCA 16 or 32 10 Y Software—Reference disk
EISA 32 8 Y Software—EISA configu-

ration disk
VL-Bus 32 33MHz Y Same as ISA
PCI 64 66MHz Y Software—Plug and Play
AGP 64 66MHz N Software—Plug and Play
PC Card 16 33 N Software—PC Card and

Socket Services

Key Terms
8-bit bus external bus

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus hardware ports
address bus I/O ports
AT bus Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus
bus clock input/output (I/O) addresses
bus connector slot interrupt request (IRQ)
bus mastering interrupts
clock signal option diskette
CPU clock PC card
data bus PCMCIA
direct memory access (DMA) reference disk
EISA Configuration Utility (EISA Config) VESA Local Bus slot
expansion slots

Review Questions
1. PCMCIA expansion cards need which software in order to operate? (Select all
that apply.)
A. Cardmember Services
B. PC Card Services
C. Modem Services
D. Socket Services
2. ISA is an acronym for ____________________.

A. InSide Architecture
B. Industry Standard Architecture
C. Industry Simple Architecture
D. Internal Systems Architecture
3. EISA has a bus width of ______ bits.

A. 32
B. 16
C. 64
D. 8
4. PCI has a bus width of ______ bits. (Select all that apply.)
A. 32
B. 16
C. 64
D. 8
5. ISA has a bus width of ______ bits.

A. 32
B. 16
C. 64
D. 8
6. MCA has a bus width of ______ bits. (Select all that apply.)
A. 32
B. 16
C. 64
D. 8

7. Which of the following buses require a software configuration program to

configure their settings? (Select all that apply.)
A. 8-bit bus
B. ISA
C. EISA
D. MCA
E. PCI
F. PCMCIA
8. Which of the following buses require the use of jumpers and DIP switches to
configure their settings?
A. 8-bit bus
B. ISA
C. EISA
D. MCA
E. PCI
F. PCMCIA
9. Which bus signal line allows a device to request the processor’s attention?
A. I/O address lines
B. DMA address lines
C. Clock address lines
D. Interrupt request (IRQ) address lines
10. Which bus signal line allows a device to send data directly to a computer’s
memory, bypassing the CPU?
A. I/O addresses
B. DMA address
C. Clock addresses
D. Interrupt request (IRQ) addresses
11. Which bus signal line allows the CPU to send requests to the device to send data?
A. I/O addresses
B. DMA address
C. Clock addresses
D. Interrupt request (IRQ) addresses
12. What is the maximum clock speed that an ISA Turbo bus can run reliably?
A. 8MHz
B. 10MHz
C. 16MHz
D. 33MHz

13. How many DMA channels are available in an 8-bit system?

A. 1
B. 4
C. 8
D. 16
14. You have just installed a sound card in a PC and it is not functioning correctly
(it produces no sound and it hangs the computer when it tries to). After checking
the settings, you find that it is set to IRQ 7, DMA 1, I/O port 300. You suspect
that an IRQ conflict exists, so you check the other devices in the system. The
system is using an ISA bus. Which device is the sound card conflicting with?
(Assume the computer is using default settings for all devices.)
A. A network card
B. COM 1
C. LPT 1
D. COM 2
15. You have just installed a sound card in a PC and it is not functioning correctly
(it produces no sound and it hangs the computer when it tries to). After check-
ing the settings, you find that it is set to IRQ 7, DMA 1, I/O port 300. If you
change the sound card from IRQ 7 to IRQ 10, will a conflict still exist?
(Assume the computer is using default settings for all devices.)
A. Yes
B. No
16. What is the maximum bus clock speed of the 8-bit bus?
A. 3.77
B. 5.78
C. 4.77
D. 7.89
17. Which bus architecture was the first to offer configuration by software rather
than by DIP switches or jumpers?
A. 8-bit expansion
B. ISA
C. ESIA
D. MCA
E. PCI
18. What is the clock speed of EISA buses?
A. 8MHz
B. 16MHz
C. 32MHz

19. PCI buses were developed mainly because ___________________ .

A. Pentiums were 8-bit processors
B. Pentiums were 16-bit processors
C. Pentiums were 32-bit processors
D. Pentiums were 64-bit processors
20. The 8-bit expansion bus contained how many interrupts and DMA channels?
A. 8 interrupts and 3 DMA channels
B. 4 interrupts and 4 DMA channels
C. 5 interrupts and 4 DMA channels
D. 8 interrupts and 4 DMA channels


1. D. There are two components in the PC card architecture. The first one is the
Socket Services software and the second is the Card Services software.
2. B. ISA stands for Industry Standard Architecture.
3. A. EISA supports a bus width of 32-bits.
4. A, C. PCI supports both 32-bit and 64-bit bus width.
5. B. The ISA bus is a full 16-bit bus.
6. A, B. The MCA bus was available in either 16-bit or 32-bit versions.
7. C, D, E, F. Only the EISA, MCA, PCI, and PCMCIA buses require a software
configuration program to configure their settings.
8. A . Only the 8-bit bus requires the use of jumpers and DIP switches to configure
its settings.
9. D. Interrupts are special lines that go directly to the processor; a device uses
them to get the attention of the CPU when it needs to.
10. B. DMA channels allow a device to send data directly to computer memory,
bypassing the CPU.
11. A. The I/O address bus signal line allows the CPU to send requests to the
device to send data.
12. B. 10MHz is the maximum clock speed that an ISA Turbo bus can run reliably.
13. B. There are 4 DMA channels are available in an 8-bit system.
14. C. LPT 1 uses IRQ 7 by default, which conflicts with the sound card setting.
15. B . IRQ 10 is available to use as a sound card setting.
16. C. The 8-bit bus has a maximum bus clock speed of 4.77.
17. D. MCA was the first bus architecture to offer configuration by software
rather than DIP switches or jumpers.
18. A. Even though EISA buses were an improvement over ISA in that they were
software configurable and had a larger bus width, they still had a clock speed
of 8MHz.

19. D. PCI buses were developed mainly to support the 64-bit capability of the
Pentium processors.
20. D. The 8-bit bus could support only 8 interrupts and 4 DMA channels.

Chapter Peripheral Devices
6
THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVES ARE COVERED IN
THIS CHAPTER:
System board
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Storage devices
Monitor
Modem
Firmware
BIOS
CMOS
LCD portable systems
Ports
PDA (Personal Digital Assistants)
1.4 Identify common peripheral ports, associated cabling, and their

connectors.
Cable types
Cable orientation
Serial versus parallel
Pin connections
Examples of types of connectors:
DB-9
DB-25
RJ-11
RJ-45
BNC
PS2/MINI-DIN
USB
IEEE-1394

2.1 Identify common symptoms and problems associated
with each module and how to troubleshoot and isolate
problems.
Mouse
Floppy drive
Parallel ports
Hard Drives
CD-ROM
DVD
Sound Card/Audio
Monitor/Video
Motherboards
Modems
BIOS
USB
NIC
CMOS
Power supply
Slot covers
Large LBA, LBA
Cables
Keyboard
Peripherals

U p to this point, we have discussed the main components of the
average PC, how they work, and their service issues. But there are many kinds of
components that are not directly a part of the PC. They are on the outside, or the
periphery, of the computer’s operations. For this reason, they fall into the cate-
gory of devices known as peripherals. In this chapter, we will discuss the follow-
ing topics:
Input devices
Output devices
Computer display devices
Other peripherals
In addition to discussing these devices, we will also discuss how to properly clean
some of them.
For complete coverage of objective 1.1, please also see Chapters 2 and 4. For com-
plete coverage of objective 1.4, please also see Chapter 2. For complete coverage
of objective 2.1, please also see Chapters 1, 4, 8, and 10.
Because printers are such complex peripherals (they’re also the reason for the
largest percentage of service calls), they are covered pretty extensively on the A+
exam. For the same reasons, we’ll skip the details concerning printers in this over-
all coverage of peripherals and instead devote an entire chapter to printers (Chap-
ter 7). The topic of troubleshooting printer problems is also covered in detail in the
chapter on troubleshooting (Chapter 10).

230 Chapter 6 Peripheral Devices
Input Devices
L et’s start this chapter off by talking about some of the most commonly
used peripheral devices: input devices. As their name suggests, input devices exist
so that human beings can communicate with the object we call a computer.
These devices interpret the intentions of their users (via a keystroke or some
other movement) to tell the computer to perform some action. Without them, the
computer would be of little use to us.
Keyboards
Let’s begin our discussion of input devices with the most common PC input
device: the keyboard (Figure 6.1). This type of device translates keystrokes into
letters or numbers. The letters are then interpreted and commands are per-
formed, depending on what was being sent. With today’s PCs, the keyboard is
the most important input device. There are two major types of keyboards:
mechanical keyswitch and capacitive.
FIGURE 6.1 A common PC keyboard
Mechanical Keyswitch Keyboards

The first type of keyboard technology is the keyswitch type (Figure 6.2). It works
by using an individual switch for each key. When you press a key, a plunger
under the key cap moves down and makes a connection between two signal lines
coming from the keyboard controller in the keyboard. When the connection is
made, the keyboard controller sends a signal to the computer, saying, “Someone
just typed an A.” When a key is released, a spring pushes the plunger back to its
original position. On a typical keyswitch keyboard, there may be more than 100
individual keyswitches.

Input Devices 231
FIGURE 6.2 How a keyswitch keyboard works
There are a few benefits to this type of keyboard. First, they are simple to make.
Thus, they are inexpensive. Also, they are simple to service. When a key goes bad,
a technician can desolder the broken keyswitch and solder in a new one.
Originally there were a few problems with this type of keyboard. The first
keyboards had really “bouncy” springs. Sometimes, when a key was pressed and
released quickly, the key would bounce, causing duplicate letters to appear on
the screen. The first attempt at solving this problem was a mechanical one. The
designers first tried to lessen the tension on the spring. That didn’t work because
the lessened tension increased the finger fatigue of the person typing.
Their second attempt worked better. They used an electronic technique that
we call debouncing. It worked by having the keyboard controller constantly scan
the keyboard for keystrokes. The controller registered only those keystrokes that
were pressed for more than two scans, and it ignored all others (like those com-
ing from a “bouncing” key). This technique worked and has been included in
most keyboard controllers since then.
Capacitive Keyboards
The problem with keyswitch-based keyboards is that they are rather bulky. The
mechanical keyswitches take up too much room to be used in laptops. Also, they
require a certain minimum amount of power to operate because each switch
requires a certain amount of voltage.
The solution to these problems was to take the switch out of the key. One key-
board design placed two sheets of semiconductive material separated by a thin
sheet of Mylar inside the keyboard. This is one type of capacitive keyboard.
When a key is pressed, the plunger presses down and a paddle connected to the
plunger presses the two sheets of semiconductive material together, changing the
total capacitance of the two sheets. The controller can tell by the value returned
which key was pressed. The controller then sends the results (called scan codes)
to the computer, telling it what key to display.

This keyboard has the advantages of being less complex, more durable, and
even cheaper than mechanical keyswitch keyboards. One disadvantage of these
keyboards—although in some ways it is also an advantage—is that you can’t
repair them. This can be an advantage insofar as the price for a new one (less
than $40 at the time of the writing of this book) is less than the labor to repair
it (around $50).
Keyboard Connectors
Keyboards have to be connected to the computer somehow. They are connected
through some type of connector (Captain Obvious strikes again). This connector
carries the signals from the keyboard controller to the CPU. There are two major
types, identified by the type of connector they use:
DIN-5 connector (Figure 6.3). This is also called the standard, IBM PC, or
XT/AT keyboard connector.
Mini PS/2 connector (Figure 6.4). This one is also called the PS/2-style
connector because it was first used on the IBM PS/2. This style of key-
board connector has one main advantage: It’s smaller.
FIGURE 6.3 An IBM PC keyboard plug and connector
FIGURE 6.4 A PS/2-style keyboard plug and connector

Input Devices 233
Cleaning Keyboards
We think everyone who drinks pop and eats potato chips near computers should
have to clean a keyboard used by such a person. When the soda dries, it leaves
the syrup behind, and it’s almost impossible to remove it from the keyboard
without disassembling the keyboard. Potato chip crumbs love to stick to the
syrup and complicate matters.
The easiest way to clean a keyboard is to remove it from the computer and
soak it with distilled, demineralized water as soon as the spill occurs. If the spill
is allowed to dry, the contaminants will be much harder to remove and disas-
sembly of the keyboard may be required. Some people have even run their key-
boards through the dishwasher (with soap and a heat-dry cycle) to clean them!
This approach works when the local water supply doesn’t contain very many con-
taminants. An easy way to tell if your water contains the type of contaminants that
may be harmful to your keyboard is to look to see if water drips stain your sink;
if so, your local water contains minerals or other contaminants and the dishwasher
will probably do more harm than good. In any case, make sure the keyboard is
completely dry before using it.
The other way to clean your keyboard is to disassemble it completely and use
special keyboard cleaners (available in most electronic supply stores) to clean the
components. This approach works well when the keyboard is extremely dirty.
The only drawback to cleaning a keyboard is that, in terms of the time that
you as a professional service technician would have to spend doing it, it often
costs more than the keyboard is worth. It’s usually cheaper to replace a keyboard
than to clean it.
Mice
For several years, operating systems were character based. They displayed infor-
mation on the screen in text format and people interacted with them using com-
mand words. Then, a couple of people at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC), intrigued with the idea that computers should be “friendly” and easy to
use, started working with a graphical user interface (GUI), which used pictures
to represent computer entities (like files, disks, and so on). To interact with the
pictures, a special device was introduced into the computer world. This device
was the mouse. The mouse translates movements on a horizontal surface into
movements of a pointer on the screen. There are two methods of making these
translations: opto-mechanical and optical.

Mouse Types
The first type of mouse we’ll discuss is the opto-mechanical type. This type of
mouse contains a round ball that makes contact with two rollers—one for the
x-axis (the horizontal) and one for the y-axis (the vertical). Moving the mouse
causes the ball to roll, and because the ball is in contact with the two rollers,
it causes them to turn. These rollers are connected to wheels with small holes
in them (Figure 6.5). Each wheel rotates between the arms of a U-shaped opti-
cal sensor. The holes allow a light to shine through the wheel onto the optical
sensor in flashes as the wheel turns. By the speed and patterns of the light
pulses, the mouse senses the speed and direction it is moving and sends its inter-
pretation of those movements to the computer and the mouse control software.
FIGURE 6.5 An opto-mechanical mouse mechanism
An optical mouse looks the same as any other computer mouse, except there
is no mouse “ball.” Instead, the optical mouse uses a special mouse pad and a
beam of laser light (Figure 6.6). The beam of light shines onto the mouse pad and
reflects back to a sensor in the mouse. The mouse pad has small lines crossing it
that can reflect the light into the sensor in different ways. It is in this fashion that
the optical mouse detects direction and speed of movements. This mouse will not
work without the special mouse pad.

Input Devices 235
FIGURE 6.6 An optical mouse mechanism
Now that we have discussed the different ways that mouse devices work, let’s
discuss the different ways of hooking them up to a computer.
Mouse Interfaces
Just as there are many types of mice, there are several different ways of connect-
ing them to a PC. There are three major types of mouse interfaces: serial, bus, and
PS/2. Each one has its own installation and configuration issues. Let’s discuss
them, in order.
Serial Mouse Interface

The serial mouse was the first major type of mouse interface, mainly because it
made the most sense: Mice send position information in a stream of coordinates,
and the interface that handles small, continuous streams of data best is the serial
interface. All computers came with at least one serial port that the mouse could
use with its female DB-9 connector. If the serial port was of the 25-pin variety,
the user could plug the mouse’s DB-9 connector into the adapter that was usually
included with the mouse (Figure 6.7) to allow it to work. Also, installing the
mouse was as simple as connecting the mouse to an available serial port and
installing the mouse driver software. For these reasons, the serial mouse became
very popular.

FIGURE 6.7 A serial mouse DB-9–to–25-pin adapter
One disadvantage to the serial mouse is that it uses a COM port. If the com-
puter had only one COM port, that was it—you couldn’t use any other peripheral
devices. Also, if you had another COM port but it was on a shared interrupt, that
other COM port couldn’t be used for another communication device (like a
modem) as long as data was coming into the computer on the COM port being
used by the mouse. So, in a manner of speaking, a serial mouse really takes up two
COM ports. For example, because COM 1 and COM 3 both share Interrupt 4,
when you put a mouse on COM 1 you are also preventing the use of COM 3.
Bus Mouse Interface

To some people, the serial interface was too bulky and cumbersome. For those
people, a special mouse connector was developed: the small, round PS/2 connec-
tor. This connector attached to a special, 8-bit interface card that was installed
directly into the computer’s bus. Thus, the signals traveled on a more direct path
to the CPU. This type of mouse was called a bus mouse for these reasons (and
because it was developed by Microsoft, primarily, it’s also called the MS bus
mouse). See Figure 6.8 for an example of a bus mouse connector.

Input Devices 237
FIGURE 6.8 A bus mouse PS/2 plug and connector
Although the bus mouse had a faster interface, speed wasn’t really an issue.
The mouse signals didn’t really overload the interface. The major advantage to
a bus mouse, compared to a serial mouse, was that it didn’t take up a COM port.
This allowed systems that were short on COM ports to add a mouse. The one
downside was that the bus card does use an interrupt (and it can only use IRQ
2, 3, 4, or 5).
Installing a bus mouse involved three steps. First, you installed the bus card to
one of the possible IRQ choices. You might have to change the IRQs on a few
devices to free up one of the possible choices for the bus mouse. Once that was
accomplished, you could connect the mouse to the bus mouse port. Finally, you
installed the driver software for the operating system you were using.
PS/2 Mouse Interface

The bus mouse is still around; however, it has evolved to be included on the moth-
erboard of some of today’s computers. This interface uses the same connector as
the bus mouse, but as already mentioned, it is not on a card but rather is hardwired
to the motherboard. This interface was introduced with the IBM PS/2 series of
computers and was henceforth called the PS/2 mouse interface (see Figure 6.9). It’s
essentially the same mouse as the bus mouse, except that the bus mouse uses a spe-
cial expansion card with a special pin configuration, whereas the PS/2 mouse port
is integrated into the motherboard.

FIGURE 6.9 A PS/2 mouse plug and connector
Installation of a PS/2 mouse is easy. Just connect the mouse to the PS/2
mouse port. (The interrupt has most likely been hardwired to IRQ 12; check
your documentation to be sure.) Then you can install the mouse software and
use the mouse.
Cleaning a Mouse
The largest problem with mechanical mice is that they contain moving parts.
These moving parts don’t like dirt and dust. The mouse is designed to move on
a flat surface. Most often, the mouse ball picks up dirt and dust and deposits it
on the mouse rollers. When this dirt and dust combines with the oil from your
skin, it forms a substance that sticks to the mouse rollers and forms a ring around
the roller.
This ring around the roller causes the mouse to rattle as it moves across the
mouse pad (mainly because the ring isn’t completely even). If the ring builds up
too far, it may actually wedge between the mouse ball and the roller and prevent
the roller from rotating. If you’ve ever moved a mouse and the mouse pointer
appeared to have hit an invisible “wall” in the middle of the screen (that is, the
pointer won’t move any farther in that direction no matter how much you move
the mouse), your mouse more than likely has “ring around the roller.”
There’s nothing you can do to prevent this condition. It is possible, however,
to cure the symptoms. First, turn the mouse upside down and remove the mouse
ball by rotating the retaining ring counterclockwise. Flip the mouse right side up
and the mouse ball will drop out. Flip the mouse back over and locate the two
rollers. The “ring around the roller” will be obvious. To clean the “gunk” from
the rollers, you can use a small eyeglass screwdriver. If the gunk won’t come
loose, soak the deposits with a little isopropyl alcohol to loosen them. After the
rollers are cleaned, the mouse will perform better and the “phantom wall” will
be gone.

Input Devices 239
Other Pointing Devices

Mice are the most popular pointing devices, but they are not the only type of
pointing device in common use. Why is that? The answer we’ll give is in the form
of a question: Have you ever tried to draw a circle with a mouse? It’s downright
difficult. Also, mice are too bulky to be easily used on portable computers. These
are some of the reasons other pointing devices were designed.
Trackballs
A trackball is basically an opto-mechanical mouse turned upside down. Instead
of moving the mouse on a table, you move the mouse ball (or, properly, the
trackball), which otherwise remains stationary. The only other differences are
that the trackball uses a bigger ball and the buttons are usually on the sides. Some
manufacturers offer small, portable, clip-on versions of the trackball, which you
can hold in your hand or clip onto the side of your laptop computer. Both are
FIGURE 6.10 Two kinds of trackballs: a typical desktop trackball and a portable trackball
Trackballs can be connected to a computer in the same ways a mouse can be

connected. More and more commonly, though, you’ll see a trackball already
installed into a laptop computer, right where your thumbs would hover (just
below the spacebar). They fit well and the entire assembly doesn’t have to move,
just the trackball.
Because trackballs operate similarly to mice, they can be cleaned similarly.
The trackball can be removed and the rollers cleaned in exactly the same manner.
Drawing Tablets
Another type of pointing device that is used with computers is the drawing tablet.
These devices help solve the mouse circle-drawing problem. To outward appear-
ances, the tablet is just a flat piece of plastic covered with a rubberized coating.

There is one laptop that does include a portable mouse built right into the body
of the laptop. One model of Hewlett-Packard Omnibook has a small mouse that
pops out of the side and can be used as a regular mouse. It’s a nice compromise,
and it really does work well.
You use a pen-shaped tool called a stylus to “draw” on the surface (sometimes
a mouse-shaped device known as a puck might be used). As you can guess, if you
do much typing at all, the drawing tablet is not really efficient as a pointing
device because you have to keep picking up the stylus to use it. But it is really effi-
cient as a drawing tool. Because they do quite a lot of drawing, graphic designers
and computer-aided design (CAD) professionals use drawing tablets to make
their work easier. Figure 6.11 shows a couple of typical drawing tablets.
FIGURE 6.11 Drawing tablets: one with a stylus, one with a puck
There are three major types of drawing tablets: electromagnetic, resistive, and
acoustic. They differ primarily in the way that they work:
Electromagnetic tablets have a grid of wires underneath the rubberized
surface. The stylus contains a small sensor that is sensitive to electromag-
netic fields. At timed intervals, an electromagnetic pulse is sent across the
grid. The sensor in the stylus picks up these pulses. Because the pulses are
timed, the stylus knows how long it takes to get from their point of origin
in each direction to the stylus. The controller in the table translates this
information into a set of x and y variables that are then sent to the com-
puter. The computer then moves the pointer on the screen to the x- and y-
coordinates on the screen corresponding to the x- and y-coordinates on
the tablet.

Input Devices 241
The resistive type of tablet has a special resistive surface instead of a grid
of wires under the rubberized coating. This surface has a current induced
from each of the x- and y-coordinate sides. The current gets larger as it
travels along one coordinate side. The puck detects these voltages and,
depending on its position, will get different voltage readings from each
side. These readings are translated into x- and y-coordinate values, which
are transmitted to the computer.
The final type of drawing tablet in use today is the acoustic type. It works
slightly differently than the other two models. The stylus or puck has a
small spark generator inside it. There are also banks of small microphones
on the x- and y-axes. When the user presses a button on the stylus, it acti-
vates the spark. The sound of the spark is picked up on the x and y micro-
phones and the coordinates are translated into x and y values for the
computer.
To clean a drawing tablet, wipe the rubberized surface with a damp cloth (no
detergents!). If there is a tough stain that the damp cloth won’t remove, use a
cloth dampened with denatured alcohol. After removing the stain, follow with
water-dampened cloth to remove any residue.
Touch Screens
The last type of pointing device we’ll discuss can be found in use at many depart-
ment stores: the little informational kiosks with screens that respond to our
touch and give us information on product specials or bridal registries. Instead of
a keyboard and mouse, these computer screens have a film over them that is sen-
sitive to touch. This technology is known as a touch screen (see Figure 6.12).
With most of the interfaces in use on touch screens, touching a box drawn on the
monitor does the same thing as double-clicking that box with a mouse.
FIGURE 6.12 A typical touch screen

There are two major types of touch screens: optical and capacitive:
Optical screens work like so: When a person uses a finger to touch
the screen, it breaks light beams emanating in a grid from the sides of the
screen (in front of the glass). Which light beams get broken indicates to the
touch screen where the finger was, using an x-,y-coordinate notation.
Capacitive screens work just like capacitive keyboards. There are two
clear, plastic coatings over the screen, separated by a thin layer of air.
When you press the coatings together in a particular spot, the controller
registers a change in the total capacitance of the two layers. Based on a
table that relates capacitance values to position, the screen can relay
x- and y-coordinates to the computer.
Cleaning touch screens is usually just as easy as cleaning a regular monitor.
With optical touch screens, the monitor is, in fact, a regular monitor. It can be
cleaned with glass cleaner. However, if the screen has a capacitive coating, the
glass cleaner may damage it. Instead, use a cloth dampened with water to clean
the dirt, dust, and fingerprints from the screen.
Other Types of Pointing Devices
There are some types of pointing devices that are not mentioned on the A+
exam. One example is the touch pad. It uses the capacitance method to translate
position to x-,y-coordinates. Its primary use is in notebook computers because
it takes up very little space and doesn’t have to be moved. Another pointing
device commonly seen on notebooks is the finger mouse (or J-mouse, because
it sticks up next to the J key on the keyboard). This device looks like a small
eraser sticking up from the middle of the keyboard. When you push this
“eraser,” the pointer on the screen moves in the same direction. Most people
either love it or hate it.
These technologies have become popular in the last few years—so much, in
fact, that some keyboard manufacturers have integrated these types of pointing
devices into their keyboards.
Scanners
In addition to using keyboards and pointing devices, there is another very common
method of getting data into a computer. The charge-coupled device (CCD) was
developed to allow light (and shades of light) to be converted into electrical pulses.
This opened up the arena to allow a new breed of devices to input data to a com-
puter. The largest class of these devices are scanners. Optical scanners (their full
name) use CCDs and a light source to convert pictures into a stream of data.

Input Devices 243
Flatbed Scanners
The first type of scanner that was developed was the flatbed scanner. Named
after the flat bed of glass that the item to be scanned would lie upon, they
resemble the top half of a photocopier (Figure 6.13). Inside the scanner there
is a motorized carriage, upon which is mounted a light source and a CCD.
When you want to scan a picture into the computer, you place the item to be
scanned face down on the glass that separates the item from the CCD. Then
you use the software to indicate the start of the scan cycle. When this occurs,
the software sends a signal to the scanner to begin scanning. The control board
in the scanner turns on the light source and starts receiving data from the CCD.
After scanning an entire line, the control board tells the carriage to move down
slightly so the CCD can scan the next line. The carriage moves slowly down the
page and the CCD scans the page one line at a time. The controller then feeds
this stream of image data to the scanning software, where it is assembled, line
by line, together into a picture of the item.
FIGURE 6.13 A flatbed scanner
Flatbed scanners are usually SCSI devices, therefore they need to be config-
ured as any other SCSI device (so remember the rules of addressing and termi-
nation, especially). Sometimes, though, manufacturers include a special,
proprietary interface card. In that case, configuration usually involves install-
ing the card and simply connecting the scanner to the card with the cable pro-
vided. The downside is that this interface takes an additional IRQ address and
can’t be used for anything else (whereas SCSI can be used for disks and other
devices). When configuring this card, use the configuration tips for the type of
bus the card uses.

A dirty scanner bed (the big sheet of glass between the scanning CCD and the
item being scanned) can cause image quality problems. Fingerprints show up as
dark smudges in the scanned image. The scanner bed is simply glass, so you can
clean it with glass cleaner.
Be careful when handling flatbed scanners. Transporting them can be dangerous

because they contain a large sheet of glass. Also, never set anything sharp or
heavy on the glass surface, because scratches will probably show up in the
scanned image (and besides, it could shatter and cut you).
Handheld Scanners
Handheld scanners work exactly like flatbed scanners, with one exception.
Instead of an all-in-one enclosure containing a carriage, controller, light source,
and CCD, a handheld unit is just the controller, CCD, and light source contained
in a small enclosure with wheels on it (Figure 6.14). The carriage is your hand.
To start scanning, you place the item to be scanned on a flat surface and place the
scanner unit at the top. You tell the software you’re ready to start scanning and
then press a “start” button on the scanner unit. This turns on the light source
and tells the CCD to start receiving data. At the same time, you must move the
scanner unit down the item being scanned. When you finish scanning, you
release the start button.
FIGURE 6.14 A hand-held scanner
The major advantage of these scanners is that they produce adequate quality
at less than half the price of a flatbed scanner. The major downside is that they
are slow and the quality depends on how steady the hand of the operator is.

Output Devices 245
They usually use a COM port or bidirectional parallel port instead of SCSI to
transfer their data. They are limited in their quality, however, and generally
should not be used in graphics work.
Output Devices
W e have talked about how to get data into a computer, so now we must
discuss ways of getting it out. To get data out of computers, we use a class of
devices known as output devices. There are two major categories: printers and
computer displays.
Printers
Printers and their operation are the subject of Chapter 7 (and also about half of
the troubleshooting chapter, Chapter 10), so we’ll just briefly talk about the dif-
ferent types. There are four major types of printing devices used to get computer
output into “hard” copy (paper copies). They are impact, sprayed-ink, electro-
photographic (EP), and plotters.
Impact
Impact printers work by striking a form through an inked ribbon onto the paper,
similar to the way a printing press works. There are two major types of impact
printers: dot matrix and daisy wheel. Dot-matrix printers press a set of pins
through the ribbon in patterns corresponding to the characters to be produced.
Daisy-wheel printers use a wheel that has all the letters of the alphabet on dif-
ferent spokes. The printer’s controller rotates this wheel until the spoke holding
the desired letter is in place. Then, a hammer behind the wheel strikes this letter
onto the inked ribbon and the paper, thus making an image.
Dot-matrix printers sacrifice quality for speed and thus produce a lower-
quality image than the daisy-wheel printers. On the other hand, although
daisy-wheel printers give letter-quality output, they cannot reproduce graph-
ics. Dot-matrix printers can only achieve “near letter-quality,” but they are
capable of printing graphics. In addition, daisy-wheel printers are, in general,
noisier. They’re also generally more expensive. (Of course, you’ll find that
some dot matrixes are noisier than some daisy wheels, and some are more
expensive.)

Today we primarily use impact printers for printing multipart carbon forms
because these forms require that something strike the page to make multiple cop-
ies. No other printing technology can handle multiple-part forms (unless they
print multiple copies of the same form). The quality of printout is lower with
daisy-wheel and dot-matrix printers than with any other printing technology, so
they are used when low-cost, fast printouts are needed and quality isn’t an issue.
A couple of typical impact printers are shown in Figure 6.15.
FIGURE 6.15 Typical impact printers
Sprayed-Ink
A sprayed-ink printer works as its name suggests. Ink is sprayed onto the page
in the shape of the letters or images. There are a variety of sprayed-ink printers
on the market, and they are all lumped together into this one category, but there
are two basic types: ink-jet and bubble-jet. (As with the other printers mentioned
in this chapter, we’ll cover them in more detail in Chapters 7 and 10.) The image
quality is relatively good with both types of sprayed-ink printer; better than that
produced by an impact printer but not quite as good as that produced by an elec-
trophotographic printer (discussed next). The primary advantage of sprayed-ink
printers is their cost. They can offer good output at a low cost (less than that of
an electrophotographic printer). They have found a niche in the SOHO (small
office, home office) market as a great printer for printing letters and other small
documents. A typical sprayed-ink printer is shown in Figure 6.16.

Output Devices 247
FIGURE 6.16 A typical sprayed-ink printer
Electrophotographic (EP)
The name “electrophotographic (or EP) printer” suggests a complex image for-
mation process. EP printers are actually more commonly known as laser printers,
because they do use a laser (as well as high voltage and black carbon toner) to
form the image on the page. Because of their complexity, these printers have a
relatively high cost associated with them (about twice the cost of a sprayed-ink
or impact printer). But the complexity and cost have a benefit. The images pro-
duced by EP printers are of the very best quality, and they produce these images
at higher speeds (most EP printers today print at least four pages per minute).
EP printers are often found in offices and publishing firms. It’s rather inter-
esting that the first EP printers to be sold (the Apple LaserWriter and the
Hewlett-Packard LaserJet) sold for more than $4,000. Today you can buy an EP
printer that produces output at more than twice their resolution and speed for
about one-eighth the cost.
Two typical electrophotographic printers are shown in Figure 6.17.
FIGURE 6.17 Two typical electrophotographic printers

Plotters
The last type of hard copy output device isn’t really a printer at all. Printers make
images one line at a time and move from top to bottom during the printing process.
Plotters, on the other hand, draw the image as we would, with a pen. One shape
at a time. Plotters are most often used with CAD software to produce blueprints
or technical diagrams. It would be quite expensive to make a printer that can print
on paper as wide as these drawings require. Because a plotter uses a pen (or several
pens in a holder) on a cable carrier, it is easy (and relatively inexpensive) to make
a very wide plotter. A couple of typical plotters are shown in Figure 6.18.
FIGURE 6.18 Typical plotters
Computer Display Systems

The second way of getting information out of a computer is to use a computer
display. Display systems convert computer signals into text and pictures and dis-
play them on a TV-like screen. As a matter of fact, the first personal computers
actually used television screens because it was simple to use an existing display
technology rather than to develop a new one. There are several different types of
computer displays in use today, including the TV. All of them use either the same
cathode ray tube (CRT) technology found in television sets (almost every desk-
top monitor uses this technology) or the liquid crystal display (LCD) technology
found on all laptop, notebook, and palmtop computers.
Display Concepts
There are several aspects of display systems that make each type of display dif-
ferent. But most display systems work the same. First, the computer sends a sig-
nal to a device called the video adapter—an expansion board installed in an

Output Devices 249
expansion bus slot—telling it to display a particular graphic or character. The

adapter then renders the character for the display—that is, it converts that single
instruction into several instructions that tell the display device how to draw the
graphic—and sends the instructions to the display device. The primary differ-
ences after that are in the type of video adapter you are using (monochrome,
EGA/CGA, VGA, or SuperVGA) and the type of display (CRT or LCD).
Video Technologies
Let’s first talk about the different types of video technologies. There are four
major types: monochrome, EGA/CGA, VGA, and SuperVGA. Each type of
video technology differs in two major areas: the highest resolution it supports
and the maximum number of colors in its “palette.” Resolution depends on
how many picture units (called pixels) are used to draw the screen. The more
pixels, the sharper the image. The resolution is described in terms of the
screen’s dimensions, indicating how many pixels across and down are used to
draw the screen. For example, a resolution of 1,024 × 768 means 1,024 pixels
across and 768 pixels down were used to draw the pixel “grid.” The video tech-
nology in this example would have used 786,432 (1,024 × 768 = 786,432)
pixels to draw the screen.
Monochrome
The first video technology for PCs was monochrome (from the Latin mono,
meaning one, and chroma, meaning color). This black-and-white video (actu-
ally, they were green-and-white or amber-and-black) was just fine for the main
operating system of the day, DOS. DOS didn’t have any need for color. Thus, the
video adapter was very basic. The first adapter, developed by IBM, was known
as the Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA). It could display text, but not
graphics, and used a resolution of 720 × 350 pixels.
The Hercules Graphics Card (HGC), introduced by Hercules Computer Tech-
nology, had a resolution of 720 × 350 and could display graphics as well as text.
It did this by using two separate modes: a text mode that allowed the adapter to
optimize its resources for displaying predrawn characters from its onboard
library, and a graphics mode that optimized the adapter for drawing individual
pixels for on-screen graphics. It could switch between these modes on the fly.
These modes of operation have been included in all graphics adapters since the
introduction of the HGC.
EGA and CGA

The next logical step for displays was to add a splash of color. IBM was the first
with color, with the introduction of the Color Graphics Adapter (CGA). CGA
could display text, but it displayed graphics with a resolution of only 320 × 200
pixels with four colors. (It displayed a better resolution—640 × 200—with

two colors—i.e., black and one other color.) After some time, people wanted
more colors and higher resolution, so IBM responded with the Enhanced Graph-
ics Adapter (EGA). EGA could display 16 colors out of a palette of 64 with a res-
olution of 320 × 200 or 640 × 350 pixels.
These two technologies were the standard for color until the IBM AT was
introduced. This PC was to be the standard for performance, so IBM wanted a
better video technology for it.
VGA
With the PS/2 line of computers, IBM wanted to answer the cry for “more reso-
lution, more colors” by introducing its best video adapter to date, the Video
Graphics Array (VGA). This video technology had a whopping 256KB of video
memory on board and could display 16 colors at 640 × 480 pixels or 256 colors
at 320 × 200 pixels. It became very widely used and has since become the stan-
dard for color PC video; it’s the “starting point” for today’s computers, as far as
video is concerned. You can get better, but your computer should use this video
technology at minimum.
One unique feature of VGA is that it’s an analog board. This allows the
256 colors it uses to be chosen from various shades and hues of a palette of
262,114 colors. It sold well mainly because users could choose from almost any
color they wanted (or at least one that was close).
SuperVGA
Up to this point, most video standards were set by IBM. IBM made them, every-
one bought them, it became a standard. Some manufacturers didn’t like this
monopoly and set up the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) to try
to enhance IBM’s video technology and make the enhanced technology a public
standard. The result of this work was the enhancement known as SuperVGA
(SVGA). This new standard was indeed an enhancement, because it could sup-
port 256 colors at a resolution of 800 × 600 (the VESA standard), or 1,024 × 768
pixels with 16 colors, or 640 × 480 with 65,536 colors.
XGA
The final development in this tale of “keeping up with the Joneses” is that IBM
introduced a new technology in 1991 known as the Extended Graphics Array
(XGA). This technology was only available as an MCA expansion board and not
as an ISA or EISA board. It was rather like saying, “So there. You won’t let me
be the leader, so I’ll lead my own team.” XGA could support 256 colors at 1,024
× 768 pixels or 65,536 colors at 640 × 480 pixels. It was a different design, opti-
mized for GUIs like Windows or OS/2. Also, it was an interlaced technology,
which means that, rather than scan every line one at a time to create the image,
it scanned every other line on each pass, using the phenomenon known as “per-
sistence of vision” to produce what appears to our eyes as a continuous image.

Output Devices 251
Table 6.1 details the various video technologies, their resolutions, and the
color palettes they support.
TABLE 6.1 Video Display Adapter Comparison
Name Resolutions Colors
Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) 720 × 350 Mono (text only)
Hercules Graphics Card (HGC) 720 × 350 Mono (text and

graphics)
Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) 640 × 350 16
Video Graphics Array (VGA) 640 × 480 16
320 × 200 256
SuperVGA (SVGA) 800 × 600 256
1,024 × 768 16
Extended Graphics Array (XGA) 800 × 600 65,536
1,024 × 768 256
Monitors
As we have already mentioned, a monitor contains a CRT. But how does it
work? Basically, a device called an electron gun shoots electrons toward the back
side of the monitor screen (see Figure 6.19). The back of the screen is coated with
special chemicals (called phosphors) that glow when electrons strike them. This
beam of electrons scans across the monitor from left to right and top to bottom
to create the image.

FIGURE 6.19 How a monitor works
There are two ways of measuring a monitor’s quality of image: dot pitch and
refresh (scan) rate. A monitor’s dot pitch is the shortest distance between two
dots of the same color on the monitor. Usually given in fractions of a millimeter
(mm), it tells how “sharp” the picture is. The lower the number, the closer
together the pixels are, and thus, the sharper the image. An average dot pitch is
0.28mm. Anything smaller than 0.28mm is considered great.
A monitor’s refresh rate (technically called the vertical scan frequency) spec-
ifies how many times in one second the scanning beam of electrons redraws the
screen. The phosphors stay bright only for a fraction of a second, so they must
constantly be hit with electrons to stay lit. Given in draws per second, or Hertz,
the refresh rate specifies how much energy is being put into keeping the screen lit.
The standard refresh rate is 60Hz for VGA. However, some monitors have a
refresh rate of 72Hz, which is much easier on the eyes (less flicker is perceived).
One note about monitors that may seem rather obvious: You must use a video
card that supports the type of monitor you are using. For example, you can’t use
a CGA monitor on a VGA adapter.
To use a 72Hz monitor, your video card must also support the 72Hz refresh rate.
Most video cards sold today support this faster 72Hz refresh rate but are config-
ured as 60Hz out of the box. If you intend to use the 72Hz rate, you must configure
the card to do so. Check the documentation that came with the card for details on
how to configure it.

Output Devices 253
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)

Portable computers were originally designed to be compact versions of their big-
ger brothers. They crammed all the components of the big, desktop computers
into a small, suitcase-like box called (laughably) a portable computer. No matter
what the designers did to reduce the size of the computer, the display remained
as large as the desktop version’s. That is, it did until an inventor found that when
he passed an electric current through a semicrystalline liquid, the crystals would
align themselves with the current. It was found that by combining transistors
with these liquid crystals, patterns could be formed. These patterns could repre-
sent numbers or letters. The first application of these liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) was the LCD watch. It was rather bulky, but it was cool.
As the LCD elements got smaller, the detail of the patterns became greater
until one day someone thought to make a computer screen out of several of these
elements. This screen was very light compared to computer monitors of the day.
Also, it consumed very little power. It could easily be added to a portable com-
puter to reduce the weight by as much as 30 pounds! As the components got
smaller, so did the computer, and the laptop computer was born.
There are two major types of LCD displays in use in laptops today: active
matrix screen and passive matrix screen. Their main differences lie in the quality
of the image. Both types, however, use some kind of lighting behind the LCD
panel to make the screen easier to view.
Active Matrix
An active matrix screen works in a similar manner to the LCD watch. The screen
is made up of several individual LCD pixels. A transistor behind each pixel,
when switched on, activates two electrodes that align the crystals and turn the
pixel dark. This type of display is very crisp and easy to look at.
The major disadvantage to an active matrix screen is that it requires large
amounts of power to operate all the transistors. Even with the backlight turned
off, the screen can still consume battery power at an alarming rate. Most laptops
with active matrix screens can’t operate on a battery for more than two hours.
Passive Matrix
Within the passive matrix screen, there are two rows of transistors: one at the
top, another at the side. When the computer’s video circuit wants to turn a par-
ticular pixel on (turn it black), it sends a signal to the x- and y-coordinate tran-
sistors for that pixel, thus turning them on. This then causes voltage lines from
each axis to intersect at the desired coordinates, turning the desired pixel black.
Figure 6.20 illustrates this concept.

FIGURE 6.20 A passive matrix display
The main difference between active matrix and passive matrix is image qual-
ity. Because the computer takes a millisecond or two to light the coordinates for
a pixel in passive matrix displays, the response of the screen to rapid changes is
poor, causing, for example, an effect known as “submarining”: If, on a computer
with a passive matrix display, you move the mouse rapidly from one location to
another, it will disappear from the first location and reappear in the new location
without appearing anywhere in between.
In order to keep the quality of the image on an LCD the best, the screen must
be cleaned often. Liquid crystal displays are typically coated with a clear, plastic
covering. This covering commonly gets several fingerprints as well as a generous
coating of dust. The best way to clean the LCD lens coating is to wipe it off occa-
sionally with a damp cloth. This will ensure that the images stay crisp and clear.
Other Peripherals
I n addition to all the input and output devices, we have a few categories of
devices that are neither input nor output devices. Devices like multimedia devices
(sound cards and CD-ROM drives) and modems don’t fit well into any category,
so we’ll discuss them here.

Other Peripherals 255
Multimedia Devices
The first category of devices we’ll discuss is multimedia devices. What is multi-
media? The simplest answer is multiple media. That is, it’s a way of communi-
cating information using more than one form, such as some combination of
video, pictures, sound, and text. Several devices are included in the category,
including CD-ROM drives, sound cards, speakers, and microphones.
CD-ROM Drives
In Chapter 4, we discussed the way CD-ROM drives work. Let’s talk a bit about
the format compatibility of CD-ROM drives. Because all CD-ROM drives work
in more or less the same manner, the companies that manufactured them came
up with standards to allow the various types of CD disks to work in the different
drives made by different vendors. The International Standards Organization
(ISO) came up with several standards that specify what type of information can
be saved on a CD and how it’s recorded.
The first CD standard, called the Red Book standard, is the standard for
recording digital audio (audio CDs that you play in your home CD player). It
specifies the recording level as 16-bit, 44.1KHz, and that the entire disk will have
an index of the music tracks stored on it. The Yellow Book standard defines the
main requirements for data storage on a CD-ROM. This standard supports both
PC (ISO9660) and Mac (HFS) file system formats as well as file system formats
from other vendors (DEC and VMS).
The Green Book standard is primarily for CD-I (Compact Disk Interactive)
CDs. These disks have interactive functionality written right to the CD. Orange
Book is for the “writable” CDs that are only now becoming affordable for the
common user.
Sound Cards
Just as there are devices to convert computer signals into printouts and video
information, there are devices to convert those signals into sound. These devices
are known as sound cards. There are many different manufacturers making
sound cards, but the standard has been set by Creative Labs with their Sound-
Blaster series of cards. As a matter of fact, the MPC standards specify a Sound-
Blaster-compatible sound card.
When installing a sound card, usually you set the IRQ, DMA, and I/O
addresses with software (although some of the older, ISA cards use jumpers).
Table 6.2 details the default settings of a typical SoundBlaster sound card.

TABLE 6.2 Default SoundBlaster Configuration Settings
Parameter Default Setting
IRQ 5
Sound Card I/O Address 220
DMA 1
MIDI port I/O Address 330
Musical Instrument Digital Interface

In addition to producing sound, sound cards have another capability that is often
overlooked. The Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI—usually pro-
nounced “middy”) technology incorporated into most sound cards allows PCs to
talk with (and in some cases, control) musical devices. With the addition of a spe-
cial adapter cable that plugs into the game port on most sound cards, a PC can
use external sound modules to produce sounds. MIDI technologies are used by
most electronic keyboard players and professional musicians. However, you
don’t need to have an electronic keyboard or external sound module to play
MIDI sounds. Most sound cards include a set of ICs that incorporate some of the
sound-generating circuitry found in most electronic keyboards.
Communication Devices
In this section, we will be discussing communication devices and the various
types of cables they use. Before we can discuss them, however, we must explain
the two major types of communication: synchronous and asynchronous.
Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Communications

When two computers want to communicate, they must first agree on the rules of
communication. One of those rules concerns whether or not they are going to
communicate using a synchronous or an asynchronous process. As the magician
said when asked about his magic trick, “It’s all in the timing.” Synchronous com-
munications use a clock signal that’s separate from the data signal (either on a
separate wire or on a completely separate cable). Communication can only hap-
pen during a “tick” of the timing signal. Synchronous communications work

great when large amounts of data must be moved around quickly. However,
even if there’s no data, the timing signal still gets sent, which wastes bandwidth
on the transmission medium.
But what if the computers had only a little data to exchange? In this case, they
might use asynchronous transmission methods. Asynchronous transmissions
don’t use a constant clock signal. Instead, they add special signaling bits to each
end of the data (see Figure 6.21). The bit at the beginning of the information sig-
nals the start of the data and is known as the start bit. The next few bits are the
actual data that needs to be sent. Those bits are known as the data bits. Finally,
you have one or more stop bits that indicate that the data is finished. These spe-
cial “frames” of information are transmitted at irregular intervals until all the
information has been exchanged.
FIGURE 6.21 An asynchronous data “frame”
When devices for asynchronous communication are configured, both devices

must agree on the number of data bits and stop bits and on whether or not parity
checking should be used. If both sender and receiver aren’t set to the same values,
communication can’t take place. The values are usually set in the software of
both the sending and receiving hardware.
Modems
Modems are devices used by computers to communicate over long distances.
The word modem is actually a partial acronym; it stands for MOdulator-
DEModulator. It got this name from the way it works. When a computer wants
to send data, it uses a digital signal (fluctuations in voltage, representing 1s and
0s). The problem is that these signals can attenuate (decrease in strength) over
long distances. For example, if you want to transmit the binary number
10110101 as a series of voltages, you might say to both computers, “A 1 is rep-
resented by a voltage of +5.0 volts; a 0 is any voltage less than that.” If you try
to transmit that number over a distance of only a few feet, +5.0 volts (repre-
senting the 1s) will still be +5.0 volts when it comes out the other end of the
wire. However, if you try to transmit that same number over a distance of a
mile or more, after the first few hundred feet, the +5.0 voltages might drop to
4.5 volts, which of course is below +5.0 volts. This voltage will get lower as the
distance gets longer. When the signals get to the other end, the number will be
00000000 because all the voltages will be less than +5.0 volts.

Analog signals, on the other hand, don’t suffer from this problem because
analog values are typically many values in a range, like sound waves. As a matter
of fact, sound waves travel very well over long distances in wires. The sound
waves are converted to pulses of voltages. Over long distances, the pulses get
weaker, but the sound is just the same. It can be said, then, that analog signals
are more reliable over longer distances.
Wouldn’t it be great to have the best of both worlds? You can—with the
modem. Modems convert digital signals into analog signals by using variations
of tones to represent 1s and 0s (this is the MOdulation). The modem then sends
these sounds over a phone line. At the other end, the tones are converted back
into 1s and 0s (this is the DEModulation). Using two modems and a phone line,
you transmit digital data through an analog medium.
The only downside to modems is that this process is relatively inefficient.
Because modem communications are so sporadic, they use asynchronous com-
munications, which have their overhead of start and stop bits. Also, today’s
phone lines are limited to a maximum throughput of 56Kbps.
Bits vs. Baud
The most confusing terms used to describe modem speed are bits per second
(or bps) and baud. Actually, it’s a very easy distinction. The bps value of a
modem is how much data is being transmitted in one second. Baud is how
many signal (tone) changes are happening in one second. Through a process
known as encoding, several bits can be transmitted using only a few signal
changes. Modern phone lines are limited to 9600 baud. If you increase the baud
rate any higher, the modem on the other end starts to have difficulty distin-
guishing the individual tonal changes. However, with modern encoding tech-
niques, it is possible to get up to 56 kilobits per second (Kbps) transmitted with
9600 baud.
There are two types of modems: internal and external. Internal modems are
installed as expansion cards inside a computer. External modems have their own
power supplies and connect to an external COM port with an RS-232 cable.
There are advantages and disadvantages to each.
Internal modems are usually smaller and cheaper than their external counter-
parts. However, they are more difficult to configure. You need to configure them
to use an unused COM port. Table 6.3 lists the IRQ and I/O port addresses of
the standard COM ports installed.
External modems use an existing serial port, so they don’t have the config-
uration problem with IRQs and I/O addresses. However, they don’t interface
directly with the computer’s expansion bus, so data transfers may be slowed

(especially if the modem is faster than 9600bps). If this is the case, the serial
port must use a higher-speed UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Trans-
mitter). The UART is the chip that manages the serial data that’s moving in and
out through the serial port. If the modem is 9600bps or faster, you need to use
a 16-bit UART (for example, the 16450 or 16550 model). Most computers
come with 16550 UARTs, so you don’t have to worry about this. However,
some older computers came with the old, 8-bit 8550 UART and may need to
be upgraded.
TABLE 6.3 Standard COM Port and IRQ Addresses
COM Port IRQ Address I/O address
COM 1 4 3F8-3FF
COM 2 3 2F8-2FF
COM 3 4 3E8-3EF
COM 4 3 2E8-2EF
An additional benefit of external modems is that the status lights on the modem
are visible. It’s sometimes helpful to know when the modem has hung up or is
transmitting data. Here’s a quick little guide to the common abbreviations found
next to the lights on a modem:
OH Off Hook. The modem is dialing or otherwise has the phone off the hook.
SD(TX) Transmit Data. The modem is sending data.
RD(RX) Receive Data. The modem is receiving data.
AA Auto Answer. The modem is set to automatically pick up after a few rings.
Cables
Cables are used to connect two or more entities together. They are usually con-
structed of several wires encased together in a rubberized outer coating. The
wires are soldered to modular connectors at both ends. These connectors are
used to allow the cables to be quickly attached to the devices they connect. A

listing of common cable types used in PCs, their descriptions, their maximum
effective lengths, and their most common uses is given in Table 6.4.
TABLE 6.4 Common PC Cable Descriptions
Application 1st Connector 2nd Connector Max. Length
Null modem DB-9F DB-9F 25 feet
Null modem DB-25F DB-25F 25 feet
RS-232 (modem DB-9F DB-25M 25 feet

cable)
RS-232 (modem DB-25F DB-25M 25 feet

cable)
Parallel printer DB-25M Male 10 feet

Centronics 36
External SCSI Male Male 10 feet (total

cable Centronics 50 Centronics 50 SCSI bus length)
VGA extension DB-15M DB-15M 3 feet

cable
UTP Ethernet RJ-45 Male RJ-45 Male 100 meters

cable
Thinnet Ethernet BNC Male BNC Male 100 meters

cable
Telephone wall RJ-11 Male RJ-11 Male N/A

cable
It should be noted that some manufacturers have made cables that are much
longer than the maximum length listed in the table. Although they might work,
these cables may occasionally cause communication delays or dropouts and
therefore should not be used. Using a 50-foot printer cable is not a good way to
connect a computer to a printer 50 feet away. Unless you use low-capacitance
cable (which might cost as much as $100), you’re far better off moving the printer
close enough to use a 10-foot printer cable!

Summary 261
One cable that deserves special mention is the null modem cable. It is used to
allow two computers to communicate with each other without using a modem.
This cable has its transmit and receive wires crossed at both ends, so when one
entity transmits on its TD line, the other entity is receiving it on its RD line. The
most popular application for a null modem cable is playing games, believe it or
not. A null modem cable is required to play games like Doom and Descent in
multiplayer mode if you aren’t playing them over a network or a modem con-
nection. It does have more useful purposes, however. For example, there are
some data transfer programs (like LapLink 3, from Traveling Software) that can
transfer files over a null modem cable between two computers. This can be very
useful when upgrading computers.
More cables and connectors are covered in Chapter 1.
Summary
P eripherals expand the capabilities of computer systems. In this chapter,
you learned about the various peripherals commonly attached to computer sys-
tems. Additionally, you learned about the technical configuration challenges that
each presents. Finally, you learned the proper way to connect each peripheral to
its host computer. The A+ exam will test your ability to identify the various
peripherals and the cables and connectors used to connect them.
In the first section, we discussed the various types of input devices that are
available for computers. We also discussed how each device is used to get data
into the computer as well as exactly how each device works. Finally, we covered
the basic service concepts that relate to each input device.
The next section covered the most common output devices used with com-
puters today (e.g., monitors, printers, and modems) and how they differ from
one another. You learned exactly how most of the devices work (although print-
ers are covered in more detail in Chapter 7). You also learned how these devices
are used to get output from the computer and the basic service concepts that
relate to each device.
There are a number of other, miscellaneous peripherals that can be attached
to a PC, such as multimedia and communications devices. As in the other sec-
tions, you learned how each device works as well as how it’s commonly con-
nected to a PC. You also learned how to install and service these devices.

Key Terms
bus mouse laser printers
charge-coupled device (CCD) monochrome
daisy-wheel printer null modem
debouncing optical scanners
dot pitch pixels
dot-matrix printer PS/2 mouse interface
electron gun puck
graphical user interface (GUI) refresh rate
graphics mode stylus
impact printers text mode
interlacing trackball

Review Questions
1. “Debouncing” refers to ___________________ .
A. Stopping a mouse ball from bouncing
B. Cleaning up keyboard signals and preventing multiple characters from a
single keypress
C. Keeping the keyboard keyswitches from bouncing up and down
D. Making sure that service customers’ checks don’t bounce
2. COM 1 shares an IRQ with which other COM port?

A. COM 1
B. COM 2
C. COM 3
D. COM 4
3. Which IRQ does COM 1 share with COM 3?

A. 4
B. 2
C. 3
D. 10
4. What are the two major types of mice in use today?

A. Capacitive
B. Resistive
C. Optical
D. Opto-mechanical
5. You find a cable in a box of old computer parts. It has a DB-25F connector on
both ends. What kind of cable is it most likely to be?
A. Printer cable
B. Modem cable
C. Null modem cable
D. VGA cable

6. Which type of computer communication uses a separate timing signal to

dictate transmission times?
A. Synchronous
B. Asynchronous
C. Standard
D. Modem
7. What are the two major types of keyboards in use today?

A. Standard
B. Keyswitched
C. Capacitive
D. Resistive
8. If a display adapter is a VGA adapter in the standard configuration, which one

of the following would be the default resolution/color choice?
A. 640 × 480 with 256 colors
B. 640 × 480 with 16 colors
C. 640 × 480 with 65,536 colors
D. 1,024 × 768 with 256 colors
9. Which of the following monitors has the highest resolution?

A. VGA 640 × 480
B. CGA 320 × 200
C. SVGA 800 × 600
D. XGA 1,024 × 768
10. Which types of mouse interface technology use an interrupt (other than the
ones a PC is normally using)?
A. Bus
B. PS/2
C. Serial
D. Microsoft
11. Which type of signal degrades the most over longer distances?
A. Serial
B. Analog
C. Digital
D. Parallel

12. What is the maximum practical length of a standard parallel printer cable?
A. 6 feet
B. 10 feet
C. 25 feet
D. 50 feet
13. Which type of scanner gives the best quality and highest resolution?
A. Flatbed
B. Handheld
C. Photo
14. Which of the following types of output devices puts computer data on paper?
A. Modems
B. Monitors
C. LCDs
D. Printers
15. Which type of output device has the highest resolution (and therefore the best
quality)?
A. Impact printers
B. Sprayed-ink printers
C. EP printers
D. Modems
16. A VGA extension cable will have ___________________ .

A. DB-9F to DB9F
B. DB-25F to DB-25M
C. DB-15M to DB-15M
D. DB-25M to DB25-F
17. Which LCD matrix screen works in a manner similar to an LCD watch?
A. Active matrix
B. Passive matrix
C. Parallel matrix
D. Serial matrix

18. Which type of output device draws the image with a pen one shape at a time
and uses CAD software to produce blueprints or technical diagrams?
A. Impact printers
B. Sprayed-ink printers
C. Electrophotographic printers
D. Plotters
19. All of the following can be considered video technologies except _________ .
A. EGA and CGA
B. VGA
C. XGA
D. SVGA
E. DVGA
20. Which type of mouse interface is a small, round PS/2 connector and is attached
to an 8-bit interface card that is installed directly onto the computer’s bus?
A. Serial bus interface
B. Bus mouse interface
C. PS/2 mouse interface


1. B . Debouncing works by having the keyboard controller constantly scan the
keyboard for keystrokes. The controller registers only those keystrokes that
are pressed for more than two scans and ignores all others.
2. C. Because of the configuration of the original 8-bit bus (which supported

only 8 IRQs and had only COM 1 and COM 2), when COM 3 was added
later, it shared the IRQ with COM 1.
3. A. Because of the configuration of the original 8-bit bus that supported only
8 IRQs, when COM 3 was added, it had to share IRQ4 with COM 1.
4. C, D. The mice most commonly found today are the optical and
opto-mechanical.
5. C. A cable with both ends having a DB-25F connector is classified as a null

modem cable.
6. A. Synchronous communications uses a clock signal that is separate from the

data signal; communication can only happen during a tick of the timing signal.
7. B, C. The most common types of keyboards in use today are the keyswitched
and the capacitive.
8. B. This video technology had 256Kb of video memory on board and could dis-
play 16 colors at 640 x 480 pixels.
9. D. XGA could support 256 colors at 1,024 × 768 pixels and therefore has the
highest resolution.
10. A, B. The PS/2 and bus mouse technology use a separate interrupt.
11. C. Of the signal types listed, digital is least suited for long distances because it
degrades the most.
12. B. Although you can buy standard printer cables longer than 10 feet, it is not
recommended that you use them because there can be problems with data loss
over 10 feet.
13. A. The flatbed scanner gives the best quality and highest resolution over a
handheld scanner. This is due to several reasons, such as that the scanning
hardware is enclosed in a special casing and the scanning arm is moved by a
motor instead of by a human hand.
14. D. Of the devices listed, printers are the only output devices capable of putting
computer data on paper.
15. C. The images produced by electrophotographic (EP) printers are of the very
best quality and they produce these images at higher speeds.

16. C. The VGA extension cable will have a DB-15M on both connectors.
17. A. The LCD watch was the precursor technology to active matrix LCD
screens.
18. D. Plotters draw the image with a pen one shape at a time and use CAD soft-
ware to produce blueprints or technical diagrams.
19. E. EGA, CGA, XGA, and SVGA can all be considered video technologies.
20. B. The bus mouse interface is a small, round PS/2 connector and is attached
to an 8-bit interface card that is installed directly onto the computer’s bus.

Chapter How Printers Work

THIS CHAPTER:

peripheral devices.
Monitor/Video Card
Modem
IEEE-1284
IEEE-1394
External storage
Portables
Docking stations
PC cards
Port replicators
Infrared devices
5.1 Identify basic concepts, printer operations, and printer
components.
Paper feeder mechanisms
Types of Printers
Laser
Inkjet
Dot Matrix
Types of printer connections and configurations
Parallel
Network
USB
Infrared
Serial

L et’s face it. We are a society that is dependent on paper. When we
conduct business, we use different types of paper documents. Contracts, letters,
and of course, money are all used to conduct business. As more and more of
those documents are created on computers, printers will become increasingly
important.
Printers are electro-mechanical output devices that are used to put information
from the computer onto paper. They have been around since the introduction of
the computer. Other than the display monitor, the printer is the most popular
peripheral purchased for a computer, because most people need to have paper cop-
ies of the documents they create.
In this chapter, we will discuss the details of each major type of printer. We
will cover the following A+ exam topics:
Impact printers
Bubble-jet printers
Laser printers (page printers)
Interfaces and print media
For complete coverage of objective 1.7, please also see Chapters 5 and 9.
Take special note of the section on laser and page printers. The A+ exams test
these subjects in detail, so we’ll cover them in as much detail.
Impact Printers
T here are several categories of printers, but the most basic type is the cate-
gory of printers known as impact printers. Impact printers, as their name suggests,
use some form of impact and an inked ribbon to make an imprint on the paper. In

Impact Printers 271
a manner of speaking, typewriters are like impact printers. Both use an inked rib-
bon and an impact head to make letters on the paper. The major difference is that
the printer can accept input from a computer.
There are two major types of impact printers: daisy wheel and dot matrix.
Each type has its own service and maintenance issues.
Daisy-Wheel Printers
Although not really covered on the A+ exam, the first type of impact printer
we’re going to discuss is the daisy-wheel printer. These printers contain a wheel
(called the daisy wheel because it looks like a daisy) with raised letters and sym-
bols on each “petal” (see Figure 7.1). When the printer needs to print a character,
it sends a signal to the mechanism that contains the wheel. This mechanism is
called the printhead. The printhead rotates the daisy wheel until the required
character is in place. An electromechanical hammer (called a solenoid) then
strikes the back of the “petal” containing the character. The character pushes up
against an inked ribbon that ultimately strikes the paper, making the impression
of the requested character.
FIGURE 7.1 A daisy-wheel printer mechanism
Daisy-wheel printers were one of the first types of impact printer developed.
Their speed is rated by the number of characters per second (cps) they can print.
The early printers could only print between two and four characters per second.
Aside from their poor speed, the main disadvantage to this type of printer is that
it makes a lot of noise when printing—so much, in fact, that special enclosures
were developed to contain the noise.
The daisy-wheel printer has a few advantages, of course. First, because it is an
impact printer, you can print on multipart forms (like carbonless receipts), assum-
ing they can be fed into the printer properly. Second, it is relatively inexpensive

272 Chapter 7 How Printers Work
compared to the price of a laser printer of the same vintage. Finally, the print qual-
ity is comparable to a typewriter because it uses a very similar technology. This
typewriter level of quality was given a name: letter quality (LQ).
Dot-Matrix Printers
The other type of impact printer we’re going to discuss is the dot-matrix
printer. These printers work in a manner similar to daisy-wheel printers, except
that instead of a spinning, character-imprinted wheel, the printhead contains a
row of “pins” (short sturdy stalks of hard wire). These pins are triggered in pat-
terns that form letters and numbers as the printhead moves across the paper
(see Figure 7.2).
FIGURE 7.2 Formation of images in a dot-matrix printer
The pins in the printhead are wrapped with coils of wire to create a solenoid.
Also, the pins are held in the rest position by a combination of a small magnet
and a spring. To trigger a particular pin, the printer controller sends a signal to
the printhead, which energizes the wires around the appropriate print wire. This
turns the print wire into an electromagnet, which repels the print pin, forcing it
against the ink ribbon and making a dot on the paper. It’s the arrangement of the
dots in columns and rows that creates the letters and numbers we see on the page.
Figure 7.2 shows this process.
The main disadvantage to dot-matrix printers is their image quality, which
can be quite poor compared to the quality produced with a daisy wheel. Dot-
matrix printers use patterns of dots to make letters and images, and the early
dot-matrix printers used only 9 pins to make those patterns. The output quality
of such printers is referred to as “draft quality”—good mainly for providing
your initial text to a correspondent or revisor. Each letter looked “fuzzy”
because the dots were spaced as far as they could be spaced and still be per-
ceived as a letter or image. As more pins were crammed into the printhead

Bubble-Jet Printers 273
(17-pin and 24-pin models were eventually developed), the quality increased
because the dots were closer together. Dot-matrix technology ultimately
improved to the point where a letter printed on a dot-matrix printer was almost
indistinguishable from typewriter output. This level of quality is known as near
letter quality (NLQ).
Dot-matrix printers are still noisy, but the print wires and printhead are cov-
ered by a plastic dust cover, making them quieter than daisy-wheel printers.
Also, dot-matrix printers use a more efficient printing technology, so the print
speed is faster (typically in the range of 36 to 72cps). Some dot-matrix printers
(like the Epson DFV series) can print at close to a page per second! Finally,
because dot-matrix printers are also impact printers, they can also use multipart
forms. Because of these advantages, dot-matrix printers quickly made daisy-
wheel printers obsolete.
Bubble-Jet Printers
T he next category of printer technology is one of the most popular in use
today. This category of printers is actually an advanced form of an older tech-
nology known as ink-jet printers. Both types of printers spray ink on the page,
but ink-jet printers use a reservoir of ink, a pump, and an ink nozzle to accom-
plish this. They were messy, noisy, and inefficient. Bubble-jet printers work
much more efficiently.
Bubble-jet printers are very basic printers. There are very few moving parts.
Every bubble-jet printer works in a similar fashion. First of all, every bubble-jet
printer contains a special part called an ink cartridge (see Figure 7.3). This part
contains the printhead and ink supply, and it must be replaced as the ink supply
runs out.
FIGURE 7.3 A typical ink cartridge (size: approximately 3 inches by 11/2 inches)
Inside this ink cartridge are several small chambers. At the top of each cham-
ber is a metal plate and tube leading to the ink supply. At the bottom of each
chamber is a small pinhole. These pinholes are used to spray ink on the page
to form characters and images as patterns of dots (similar to the way a dot-
matrix printer works, but with much higher resolution).

When a particular chamber needs to spray ink, an electric signal is sent to the
heating element, energizing it. The elements heat up quickly, causing the ink to
vaporize. Because of the expanding ink vapor, the ink is pushed out the pinhole
and forms a bubble of ink. As the vapor expands, the bubble eventually gets large
enough to break off into a droplet. The rest of the ink is pulled back into the
chamber by the surface tension of the ink. When another drop needs to be
sprayed, the process begins again.
When the printer is done printing, the printhead moves back to its mainte-
nance station. The maintenance station contains a small suction pump and ink-
absorbing pad. To keep the ink flowing freely, before each print cycle, the main-
tenance station pulls ink through the ink nozzles using vacuum suction. This
expelled ink is absorbed by the pad in the maintenance station. The stations
serves two functions: to provide a place for the printhead to rest when the printer
isn’t printing, and to keep the printhead in working order.
Laser Printers (Page Printers)

L aser printers are referred to as page printers because they receive their
print job instructions one page at a time (rather than receiving instructions one
line at a time). There are two major types of page printers: those that use the
Electrophotographic (EP) print process and those that use the light-emitting
diode (LED) print process. Each works in basically the same way, with slight
differences.
Electrophotographic (EP) Laser Printer Operation

When Xerox and Canon developed the first laser printers in the late 1980s, they
were designed around the Electrophotographic (EP) process (a technology devel-
oped by scientists at Xerox). This technology uses a combination of static electric
charges, laser light, and a black powdery substance called toner. Printers that use
this technology are called EP process laser printers, or just laser printers. Every
laser printer technology has its foundations in the EP printer process.
Let’s discuss the basic components of the EP laser printer and how they oper-
ate so you can understand the way an EP laser printer works.
Basic Components
Any printer that uses the EP process contains eight standard assemblies. These
assemblies are the toner cartridge, fusing assembly, laser scanner, high-voltage
power supply, DC power supply, paper transport assembly (including paper
pickup rollers and paper registration rollers), corona, and printer controller cir-
cuitry. Let’s discuss each of the components individually before we discuss how
all the components work together to make the printer function.

Laser Printers (Page Printers) 275
The Toner Cartridge

The EP toner cartridge (Figure 7.4), as its name suggests, holds the toner. Toner
is a black, carbon substance mixed with polyester resins (to make it “flow” bet-
ter) and iron oxide particles (to make the toner sensitive to electrical charges).
These two components make the toner capable of being attracted to the photo-
sensitive drum and capable of melting into the paper. In addition to these com-
ponents, toner contains a medium called the developer (also called the carrier),
which “carries” the toner until it is used by the EP process. The toner cartridge
also contains the EP print drum. This drum is coated with a photosensitive mate-
rial that can hold a static charge when not exposed to light (but cannot hold a
charge when it is exposed to light—a curious phenomenon, and one that EP
printers exploit for the purpose of making images). Finally, the drum contains a
cleaning blade that continuously scrapes the “used” toner off the photosensitive
drum to keep it clean.
FIGURE 7.4 An EP toner cartridge
In most laser printers, “toner cartridge” means an EP toner cartridge that contains
toner and a photosensitive drum in one plastic case. In some laser printers, how-
ever, the toner and photosensitive drum can be replaced separately instead of as
a single unit. If you ask for a “toner cartridge” for one of these printers, all you will
receive is a cylinder full of toner. Consult the printer’s manual to find out which
kind of toner cartridge your laser printer uses.

The Laser Scanning Assembly

As we mentioned earlier, the EP photosensitive drum can hold a charge if it’s not
exposed to light. It is dark inside an EP printer, except when the laser scanning
assembly shines on particular areas of the photosensitive drum. When it does
that, the drum discharges, but only in that area. As the drum rotates, the laser
scanning assembly scans the laser across the photosensitive drum. Figure 7.5
shows the laser scanning assembly.
FIGURE 7.5 The EP laser scanning assembly (side view and simplified top view)
Laser light is damaging to human eyes. Therefore, it is kept in an enclosure

and will operate only when the laser printer’s cover is closed.
High-Voltage Power Supply (HVPS)

The EP process requires high-voltage electricity. The high-voltage power supply
(HVPS) provides the high voltages that are used during the EP process. This com-
ponent converts house AC current (120 volts, 60 Hertz) into higher voltages that
the printer can use. This high voltage is used to energize both the corona wire and
transfer corona wire.
DC Power Supply (DCPS)

The high voltages used in the EP process can’t power the other components in the
printer (the logic circuitry and motors). These components require low voltages,
between +5 and +24Vdc. The DC power supply (DCPS) converts house current

into three voltages: +5Vdc and –5Vdc for the logic circuitry and +24Vdc for the
paper transport motors. This component also runs the fan that cools the internal
components of the printer.
Paper Transport Assembly

The paper transport assembly is responsible for moving the paper through the
printer. It consists of a motor and several rubberized rollers that each perform a
different function.
The first type of roller found in most laser printers is the feed roller, or paper
pickup roller (Figure 7.6). This D-shaped roller, when activated, rotates against
the paper and pushes one sheet into the printer. This roller works in conjunction
with a special rubber pad to prevent more than one sheet from being fed into the
printer at a time.
FIGURE 7.6 Paper transport rollers
Another type of roller that is used in the printer is the registration roller (also
shown in Figure 7.6). There are actually two registration rollers, which work
together. These rollers synchronize the paper movement with the image forma-
tion process in the EP cartridge. The rollers don’t feed the paper past the EP car-
tridge until the cartridge is ready for it.
Both of these rollers are operated with a special electric motor known as an
electronic stepper motor. This type of motor can accurately move in very small
increments. It powers all of the paper transport rollers as well as the fuser rollers.
The Transfer Corona Assembly

When the laser writes the images on the photosensitive drum, the toner then
sticks to the exposed areas; we’ll cover this in the next section, “Electrophoto-
graphic (EP) Print Process.” How do you get the toner from the photosensitive
drum onto the paper? Well, the transfer corona assembly (Figure 7.7) is charged
with a high-voltage electrical charge. This assembly charges the paper, which
pulls the toner from the photosensitive drum.

FIGURE 7.7 The transfer corona assembly
Included in the corona assembly is a static-charge eliminator strip that drains

away the charge imparted to the paper by the corona. If you didn’t drain away
the charge, the paper would stick to the EP cartridge and jam the printer.
There are two types of corona assemblies, those that contain a corona wire
and those that contain a corona roller. The corona wire is a small diameter wire
that is charged by the high-voltage power supply. The wire is located in a special
notch in the “floor” of the laser printer (underneath the EP print cartridge). The
corona roller performs the same function as the corona wire, except that it’s a
roller rather than a wire. Because the corona roller is directly in contact with the
paper, it supports higher speeds. It is for this reason that the corona wire isn’t
used in laser printers much any more.
Fusing Assembly
The toner in the EP toner cartridge will stick to just about anything, including
paper. This is true because the toner has a negative static charge and most objects
have a net positive charge. However, these toner particles can be removed by
brushing any object across the page. This could be a problem if you want the
images and letters to stay on the paper permanently!
To solve this problem, EP laser printers incorporate a device known as a fuser
(Figure 7.8), which uses two rollers that apply pressure and heat to fuse the plas-
tic toner particles to the paper. You may have noticed that pages from either a
laser printer or a copier (which uses a similar device) come out warm. This is
because of the fuser.
FIGURE 7.8 The fuser

The fuser is made up of three main parts: a halogen heating lamp, a Teflon-
coated aluminum fusing roller, and a rubberized pressure roller. The fuser uses
the halogen lamp to heat the fusing roller to between 165 degrees C and 180
degrees C. As the paper passes between the two rollers, the pressure roller pushes
the paper against the fusing roller, which melts the toner into the paper.
Printer Controller Circuitry

The final component in the laser printer we need to discuss is the printer con-
troller assembly. This large circuit board converts signals from the computer
into signals for the various assemblies in the laser printer, using the process
known as rasterizing. This circuit board is usually mounted underneath the
printer. The board has connectors for each of the types of interfaces and cables
to each assembly.
When a computer prints to a laser printer, it sends a signal through a cable to
the printer controller assembly. The controller assembly formats the information
into a page’s worth of line-by-line commands for the laser scanner. The control-
ler sends commands to each of the components telling them to “wake up” and
start the EP print process.
Ozone Filter
Your laser printer uses various high-voltage biases inside the case. As anyone
who has been outside during a lightning storm can tell you, high voltages create
ozone. Ozone is a chemically reactive gas that is created by the high-voltage coro-
nas (charging and transfer) inside the printer. Because ozone is chemically reac-
tive and can severely reduce the life of laser printer components, most laser
printers contain a filter to remove ozone gas from inside the printer as it is pro-
duced. This filter must be removed and cleaned with compressed air periodically
(usually whenever the toner cartridge is replaced is sufficient).
Electrophotographic (EP) Print Process

The EP print process is the process by which an EP laser printer forms images on
paper. It consists of six major steps, each for a specific goal. Although many dif-
ferent manufacturers call these steps different things or place them in a different
order, the basic process is still the same. Here are the steps in the order you will
see on the exam:
1. Cleaning
2. Conditioning
3. Writing
4. Developing
5. Transferring
6. Fusing

Before any of these steps can begin, however, the controller must sense that
the printer is ready to start printing (toner cartridge installed, fuser warmed to
temperature, and all covers are in place). Printing cannot take place until the
printer is in its “ready” state, usually indicated by an illuminated Ready LED
light or a display that says something like “00 READY” (on HP printers).
Step 1: Cleaning
In the first part of the laser print process, a rubber blade inside the EP cartridge
scrapes any toner left on the drum into a used toner receptacle inside the EP car-
tridge, and a fluorescent lamp discharges any remaining charge on the photosen-
sitive drum (remember that the drum, being photosensitive, loses its charge when
exposed to light). This step is called the cleaning step (Figure 7.9).
FIGURE 7.9 The cleaning step of the EP process
The EP cartridge is constantly cleaning the drum. It may take more than one
rotation of the photosensitive drum to make an image on the paper. The cleaning
step keeps the drum “fresh” for each use. If you didn’t clean the drum, you
would see “ghosts” of previous pages printed along with your image.
The actual amount of toner removed in the cleaning process is quite small. The
cartridge will run out of toner before the used toner receptacle fills up.
Step 2: Conditioning
The next step in the EP process is the conditioning step (Figure 7.10). In this step,
a special wire (called a charging corona) within the EP toner cartridge (above the
photosensitive drum) gets a high voltage from the HVPS. It uses this high voltage
to apply a strong, uniform negative charge (around –600Vdc) to the surface of
the photosensitive drum.

FIGURE 7.10 The conditioning step of the EP process
Step 3: Writing
The next step in the EP process is the writing step. In this step, the laser is turned
on and “scans” the drum from side to side, flashing on and off according to the
bits of information the printer controller sends it as it communicates the individ-
ual bits of the image. The areas where the laser “touches” severely reduce the
photosensitive drum’s charge from –600Vdc to a slight negative charge (around
–100Vdc). As the drum rotates, a pattern of exposed areas is formed, represent-
ing the images to be printed. Figure 7.11 shows this process.
FIGURE 7.11 The writing step of the EP process
At this point, the controller sends a signal to the pickup roller to feed a piece
of paper into the printer, where it stops at the registration rollers.
Step 4: Developing
Now that the surface of the drum holds an electrical representation of the image
being printed, its discrete electrical charges need to be converted into something
that can be transferred to a piece of paper. The EP process step that accomplishes
this is the developing step (Figure 7.12). In this step, toner is transferred to the
areas that were exposed in the writing step.

FIGURE 7.12 The developing step of the EP process
There is a metallic roller called the developing roller inside an EP cartridge

that acquires a –600Vdc charge (called a bias voltage) from the HVPS. The
toner sticks to this roller because there is a magnet located inside the roller and
because of the electrostatic charges between the toner and the developing
roller. While the developing roller rotates toward the photosensitive drum, the
toner acquires the charge of the roller (–600Vdc). When the toner comes
between the developing roller and the photosensitive drum, the toner is
attracted to the areas that have been exposed by the laser (because these areas
have a lesser charge, of –100Vdc). The toner also is repelled from the unex-
posed areas (because they are at the same –600Vdc charge and like charges
repel). This toner transfer creates a “fog” of toner between the EP drum and
the developing roller.
The photosensitive drum now has toner stuck to it where the laser has written.
The photosensitive drum continues to rotate until the developed image is ready
to be transferred to paper in the next step, the transferring step.
Step 5: Transferring
At this point in the EP process, the developed image is rotating into position. The
controller notifies the registration rollers that the paper should be fed through.
The registration rollers move the paper underneath the photosensitive drum, and
the process of transferring the image can begin, with the transferring step.
The controller sends a signal to the corona wire or corona roller (depending
on which one the printer has) and tells it to turn on. The corona wire/roller then
acquires a strong positive charge (+600Vdc) and applies that charge to the paper.
The paper, thus charged, pulls the toner from the photosensitive drum at the line
of “contact” between the roller and the paper because the paper and toner have
opposite charges. Once the registration rollers move the paper past the corona
wire, the static-eliminator strip removes all charge from that “line” of the paper.
Figure 7.13 details this step. If the strip didn’t bleed this charge away, the paper
would attract itself to the toner cartridge and cause a paper jam.

FIGURE 7.13 The transferring step of the EP process
The toner is now held in place by weak, electrostatic charges and gravity. It
will not stay there, however, unless it is made permanent, which is the reason for
the next step, the fusing step.
Step 6: Fusing
In the final step, the fusing step, the toner image is made permanent. The regis-
tration rollers push the paper toward the fuser rollers. Once the fuser grabs the
paper, the registration rollers push for only a short time more. The fuser is now
in control of moving the paper.
As the paper passes through the fuser, the 350-degree F fuser roller melts the
polyester resin of the toner and the rubberized pressure roller presses it perma-
nently into the paper (Figure 7.14). The paper continues on through the fuser
and eventually exits the printer.
FIGURE 7.14 The fusing step of the EP process
Once the paper completely exits the fuser, it trips a sensor that tells the printer
to finish the EP process with the next step, the cleaning step. At this point, the
printer can print another page and the EP process can begin again.
Summary of the EP Print Process

Figure 7.15 summarizes all the EP process printing steps. First, the printer uses
a rubber scraper to clean the photosensitive drum. Then the printer places a
uniform, negative, –600Vdc charge on the photosensitive drum by means of a

charging corona. The laser “paints” an image onto the photosensitive drum,
discharging the image areas to a much lower voltage (–100Vdc). The develop-
ing roller in the toner cartridge has charged (–600Vdc) toner stuck to it. As it
rolls the toner toward the photosensitive drum, the toner is attracted to (and
sticks to) the areas of the photosensitive drum that the laser has discharged.
The image is then transferred from the drum to the paper at its line of contact
by means of the corona wire (or corona roller) with a +600Vdc charge. The
static-eliminator strip removes the high, positive charge from the paper, and
the paper, now holding the image, moves on. The paper then enters the fuser
where a fuser roller and the pressure roller make the image permanent. The
paper exits the printer and the printer starts printing the next page or returns
to its ready state.
FIGURE 7.15 The EP print process
To help you remember the steps of the EP print process, in order, remember them
by the first letters of each step, or CCWDTF. The most often used mnemonic sen-
tence for this combination of letters is “Charlie Can Walk, Dance, and Talk French.”
LED Page Printers

Another laser printer we’re going to discuss is the LED page printer. This tech-
nology is primarily developed and used by Okidata and Panasonic. Because the
A+ exam does not currently cover LED page printers, we will discuss only the dif-
ferences between them and laser printers.
The two main differences between a LED page printer and a laser printer are
the toner cartridges and the print process.

LED Page Printer Toner Cartridges

One problem with laser printers is that the toner usually runs out before the
photosensitive drum needs to be replaced. But because they’re both housed in the
same replaceable unit, every time you replace the toner, you’re also replacing the
drum, whether it needs replacing or not. So, the designers of the LED page print-
ers made the photosensitive drum and toner separate, replaceable items.
The main parts of the LED page printer toner cartridge are actually integrated into
the printer. Additionally, the charging corona (or roller) and erasing lamps are
integrated into the printer. These items cannot be replaced by the average user.
An authorized service technician must remove them.
When replacing the photosensitive drum, you swing the photosensitive drum/
toner cartridge out of the printer first. Then you remove the drum from its carrier
and install the new one (this also replaces the waste toner receptacle).
Filling the toner hopper is fairly easy. On most LED page printers, you place
the new toner cartridge over the toner hopper and lock it in place. Between the
new toner cartridge and the toner hopper is a lever and door. When the lever is
slid over, it opens the door and allows the toner to fall through the opening.
Once all the toner is out of the cartridge and hopper, the lever is slid back, closing
the door. You can then remove the cartridge and throw it away.
The LED Page Printer Process

The LED page printer uses the same process as any other laser printer, with one
major exception. It uses a row of small LEDs held very close to the photosensitive
drum to expose it. Each LED is about the same size as the diameter of the laser
beam used in laser printers. These printers are basically the same as EP process
printers, except that in the exposure step, they use LEDs instead of a laser.
There are several benefits to LED page printers over laser printers. First of all,
because they use LEDs instead of lasers, LED page printers are much cheaper
than a similar laser printer—they’re about half the cost. Also, because the LEDs
are very close to the drum, the whole printer is smaller—about two-thirds the
size of a comparable laser printer. Finally, LEDs aren’t as dangerous to the eye
as lasers (you could probably damage your eyes if you stared at one long enough,
but it’s unlikely you’d do such a thing).
If they have so many advantages, why isn’t everyone using them? Mainly
because LED technology isn’t as advanced as laser technology. The resolutions
of LED page printers have yet to break the 800 dots-per-inch (dpi) mark.
Another reason is that the toner system in an LED printer, although more effi-
cient, is also messier. Because of its slight static charge, toner isn’t easy to
remove from surfaces.

Never ship a printer anywhere with a toner cartridge installed! If the printer is a
laser printer, remove the toner cartridge first. If it’s an LED page printer, there is a
method to remove the photosensitive drum and toner hopper (check your manual
for details).
Printer Interfaces and Supplies

B esides understanding the printer’s operation, for the exam you will
need to understand how the printer talks to a computer and all the items
involved in that process. Also, you must understand how the different types of
print media affect the print process. These two concepts will complete our dis-
cussion of printers.
Interface Components
A printer’s interface is the collection of hardware and software that allows the
printer to communicate with a computer. Each printer has at least one interface,
but some printers have several, in order to make them more flexible in a multi-
platform environment. If a printer has several interfaces, it can usually switch
between them on the fly so that several computers can print at the same time.
There are several components to an interface, including its communication
type as well as the interface software. Each aspect must be matched on both the
printer and the computer. For example, an HP LaserJet 4L only has a parallel
port. Therefore, you must use a parallel cable as well as the correct software for
the platform being used (e.g., a Macintosh HP LaserJet 4L driver if you connect
it to a Macintosh computer).
Communication Types
When we say “communication types,” we’re actually talking about the hardware
technologies involved in getting the printed information from the computer to
the printer. There are four major types: serial, parallel, Universal Serial Bus
(USB), and network.
Serial
When computers send data serially, they send it one bit at a time, one after
another. The bits “stand in line” like people at a movie theater, waiting to get in.
We’ve already discussed serial (asynchronous) communication in Chapter 6. Just
as with modems, you must set the communication parameters (baud, parity, start
and stop bits) on both entities—in this case the computer and its printer(s)—
before communication can take place.

Printer Interfaces and Supplies 287
Parallel
When a printer uses parallel communication, it is receiving data eight bits at a
time over eight separate wires (one for each bit). Parallel communication is the
most popular way of communicating from computer to printer, mainly because
it’s faster than serial.
A parallel cable consists of a male DB-25 connector that connects to the com-
puter and a male 36-pin Centronics connector that connects to the printer. Most
of the cables are shorter than 10 feet long.
Keep printer cable lengths to less than 10 feet. Some people try to run printer
cables more than 50 feet. After 10 feet, communications can become unreliable
due to cross talk (which is described in Chapter 1).

The most popular type of printer interface as this book is being written is the Uni-
versal Serial Bus (USB). It is actually the most popular interface for just about
every peripheral. The convenience for printers is that it has a higher transfer rate
than either serial or parallel and it automatically recognizes new devices.
Network
Some of the newer printers (primarily laser and LED printers) have a special
interface that allows them to be hooked directly to a network. These printers
have a network interface card (NIC) and ROM-based software that allow them
to communicate with networks, servers, and workstations.
The type of network interface used on the printer depends on the type of net-
work the printer is being attached to. For example, if you’re using a Token Ring
network, the printer should have a Token Ring interface.
Infrared
With the explosion of Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), the need grew for
printing under the constraints they provide. The biggest hurdle faced by PDA
owners who need to print is the lack of any kind of universal interface. Most
interfaces were too big and bulky to be used on handheld computers like PDAs.
The solution was to incorporate the standardized technology used on some
remote controls: infrared transmissions. Infrared transmissions are simply wire-
less transmissions that use radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Many laser printers (and some computers) come with infrared trans-
mitter/receivers (transceivers) so that they can communicate with the infrared
ports on many handhelds. This allows the user of a PDA, handheld, or laptop to
print to that printer by pointing the device at the printer and initiating the print
process.

As far as configuring the interface is concerned, very little needs to be done.

The infrared interfaces are enabled by default on most computers, handhelds,
and printers equipped with them. The only additional item that must be config-
ured is the print driver on the PDA, handheld, or computer. The driver must be
the correct one for the printer to which you are printing.
Interface Software
Computers and printers can’t talk to each other by themselves. They need inter-
face software to translate software commands into commands that the printer
can understand.
There are two factors to consider with interface software: the page descrip-
tion language and the driver software. The page description language deter-
mines how efficient the printer will be at converting the information to be
printed into signals the printer can understand. The driver software under-
stands and controls the printer. It is very important that you use the correct
interface software for the printer you are using. If you use either the wrong
page description language or the wrong driver software, the printer will print
garbage, or possibly nothing at all.
Page Description Languages

A page description language works just as its name says it does. It describes the
whole page being printed by sending commands that describe the text as well as
the margins and other settings. The controller in the printer interprets these com-
mands and turns them into laser pulses (or pin strikes).
Life without a Page Description Language
The most basic page description language is no page description language. The
computer sends all the instructions that the printer needs in a serial stream, like
so: Position 1, print nothing; Position 2, strike pins 1 and 3; Position 3, print noth-
ing. This type of description language works great for dot-matrix printers, but it
can be very inefficient for laser printers. For example, if you wanted to print a
page using a standard page description language and there was only one char-
acter on the page, there would be a lot of wasted signal for the “print nothing”
commands.
Also, with graphics, the commands to draw a shape on the page are relatively
complex. For example, to draw a square, the computer (or printer) has to calcu-
late the size of the square and convert that into lots of “strike pin x” (or “turn on
laser”) and “print nothing” commands. This is where the other types of page
description languages come into the picture.

The first page description language was PostScript. Developed by Adobe, it

was first used in the Apple LaserWriter printer. It made printing graphics fast
and simple. Here’s how PostScript works: The PostScript printer driver
“describes” the page in terms of “draw” and “position” commands. The page is
divided into a very fine grid (as fine as the resolution of the printer). When you
want to print a square, a communication like the following might take place:
POSITION 1,42%DRAW 10%POSITION 1,64%DRAW10D% . . .
These commands tell the printer to draw a line on the page from line 42 to line
64 (vertically). In other words, a page description language tells the printer to
draw a line on the page, gives it the starting and ending points, and that’s that.
Rather than send the printer the location of each and every dot in the line and an
instruction at each and every location to print that location’s individual dot,
PostScript can get the line drawn with fewer than five instructions. As you can
see, PostScript uses more or less English commands. The commands are inter-
preted by the processor on the printer’s controller and converted into the print
control signals.
Another page description language is the Printer Control Language, or PCL.
Currently in revision 5 (PCL 5), it was developed by Hewlett-Packard for its
LaserJet series of printers as a competitor to PostScript. PCL works in much the
same manner as PostScript, but it’s found mainly in Hewlett-Packard printers
(including its DeskJet bubble-jet printers). Other manufacturers use PCL, how-
ever. In fact, some printers support both page description languages and will
automatically switch between them.
The main advantage to page description languages is that they move some of
the processing from the computer to the printer. With text-only documents, they
don’t offer much benefit. However, with documents that have large amounts of
graphics or that use numerous fonts, page description languages make the pro-
cessing of those print jobs happen much faster. This makes them an ideal choice
for laser printers. However, other printers can use them as well (e.g., the afore-
mentioned DeskJets, as well as some dot-matrix printers).
Driver Software
The driver software controls how the printer processes the print job. When you
install a printer driver for the printer you are using, it allows the computer to
print to that printer correctly (assuming you have the correct interface config-
ured between the computer and printer).
When you need to print, you select the printer driver for your printer from a
preconfigured list. The driver you select has been configured for the type, brand,
and model of printer as well as the computer port to which it is connected. You
can also select which paper tray the printer should use, as well as any other fea-
tures the printer has (if applicable). Also, each printer driver is configured to use
a particular page description language.

If the wrong printer driver is selected, the computer will send commands in the
wrong language. If that occurs, the printer will print several pages full of garbage
(even if only one page of information was sent). This “garbage” isn’t garbage at
all, but in fact the printer page description language commands printed literally as
text instead of being interpreted as control commands.
Printer Supplies
Just as it is important to use the correct printer interface and printer software,
you must use the correct printer supplies. These supplies include the print media
(what you print on) and the consumables (what you print with). The quality of
the final print job has a great deal to do with the print supplies.
Print Media
The print media is what you put through the printer to print on. There are two
major types of print media: paper and transparencies. Of the two types, paper is
by far the most commonly used.
Paper
Most people don’t give much thought to the kind of paper they use in their print-
ers. It’s a factor that can have tremendous effect on the quality of the hard copy
printout, however, and the topic is more complex than people think. For exam-
ple, if the wrong paper is used, it can cause the paper to jam frequently and pos-
sibly even damage components.
There are several aspects of paper that can be measured; each gives an indi-
cation as to the quality of the paper. The first factor is composition. Paper is
made from a variety of substances. Paper used to be made from cotton and was
called rag stock. It can also be made from wood pulp, which is a cheaper way of
making it. Most paper today is made from the latter or a combination of the two.
Another aspect of paper is the property known as basis weight (or simply
weight for short). The weight of a particular type of paper is the actual weight,
in pounds (lb), of 500 sheets of 17-by-221⁄2-inch paper made of that material.
The most common paper used in printers is 20lb paper.
The final paper property we’ll discuss is the caliper (or thickness) of an indi-
vidual sheet of paper. If the paper is too thick, it may jam in feed mechanisms
that have several curves in the paper path. (On the other hand, a paper that’s too
thin may not feed at all.)
These are just three of the categories that we use to judge the quality of the
paper. Because there are so many different types and brands of printers as well
as paper, it would be impossible to give the specifications for the “perfect” paper.

However, the documentation for any printer will give specifications for the
paper that should be used in that printer.
For best results with any printer, buy the paper that has been designated specifi-
cally for that printer by the manufacturer. It will be more expensive, but you’ll have
fewer problems related to having the wrong type of paper for the printer. Also, the
print quality will be the best it could possibly be.
Transparencies
Transparencies are still used for presentations made with overhead projectors,
even with the explosion of programs like PowerPoint (from Microsoft) and
peripherals like LCD computer displays, both of which let you show a whole
roomful of people exactly what’s on your computer screen. Actually, though,
PowerPoint still has an option to print slides, and you can use any program you
want to print anything you want to a transparent sheet of plastic or vinyl for use
with an overhead projector. The problem is, these “papers” are exceedingly dif-
ficult for printers to work with. That’s why special transparencies were devel-
oped for use with laser and bubble-jet printers.
Each type of transparency was designed for a particular brand and model of
printer. Again, check the printer’s documentation to find out which type of
transparency works in that printer. Don’t use any other type of transparency!
Never run transparencies through a laser printer without first checking to see if
it’s the type recommended by the printer manufacturer. The heat from the fuser
will melt most other transparencies and they will wrap themselves around it. It
is impossible to clean a fuser after this has happened. The fuser will have to be
replaced. Use ONLY the transparencies that are recommended by the printer
manufacturer.
Print Consumables
Besides print media, there are other things in the printer that run out and need
to be replenished. These items are the print consumables. Most consumables
are used to form the images on the print media. There are two main types of
consumables in printers today: ink and toner. Toner is used primarily in laser
printers. Most other printers use ink.
Ink
Ink is a liquid that is used to “stain” the paper. There are several different colors
of ink used in printers, but the majority use some shade of black or blue. Both
dot-matrix printers and bubble-jet printers use ink, but with different methods.

Dot-matrix printers use a cloth or polyester ribbon soaked in ink and coiled
up inside a plastic case. This assembly is called a printer ribbon (or ribbon car-
tridge). It’s very similar to a typewriter ribbon, except that instead of being coiled
into the two rolls you’d see on a typewriter, the ribbon is continuously coiled
inside the plastic case. Once the ribbon has run out of ink, it must be discarded
and replaced with a new one. Ribbon cartridges are developed closely with their
respective printers. It is for this reason that ribbons should be purchased from the
same manufacturer as the printer. The wrong ribbon could jam in the printer as
well as cause adverse quality problems.
Bubble-jet cartridges actually have a liquid ink reservoir. The ink in these car-
tridges is sealed inside. Once the ink runs out, the cartridge must be removed and
discarded. A new, full one is installed in its place. Because the ink cartridge con-
tains ink as well as the printing mechanism, it’s like getting a new printer every
time you replace the ink cartridge.
In some bubble-jet printers, the ink cartridge and the printhead are in separate
assemblies. In this way, the ink can be replaced when it runs out and the print-
head can be used several times. This works fine if the printer is designed to work
this way. However, some people think they can do this on their integrated car-
tridge/printhead system, using special ink cartridge refill kits. These kits consist
of a syringe filled with ink and a long needle. The needle is used to puncture the
top of an empty ink cartridge. The syringe is then used to refill the reservoir.
Don’t use these kits! See the warning about using them for more information.
Do not use ink cartridge refill kits! These kits (the ones you see advertised with a
syringe and a needle) have several problems. First, the kits don’t use the same kind
of ink that was originally in the ink cartridges. The new ink may be thinner, causing
the ink to run out or not print properly. Also, the printhead is supposed to be
replaced around this same time. Just refilling it doesn’t replace the printhead. This
will cause print quality problems. Finally, the hole the syringe leaves cannot be
plugged and may allow ink to leak out. The bottom line: Buy new ink cartridges from
the printer manufacturer. Yes, they are a bit more expensive, but you will actually
save money because you won’t have any of the problems described above.
Toner
The final type of consumable is toner. Each model of laser printer uses a specific
toner cartridge. The different types of toner cartridges were covered in the
discussions of the different types of printers. All we would add here is to check
the printer’s manual to see which toner cartridge it needs.

Summary 293
Just as with ink cartridges, always buy the exact model recommended by the
manufacturer. The toner cartridges have been designed specifically for a particu-
lar model. Additionally, never refill toner cartridges, for most of the same reasons
we don’t recommend refilling ink cartridges. The printout quality will be poor, and
the fact that you’re just refilling the toner means you’re not replacing the photo-
sensitive drum (which is usually inside the cartridge), and it might be that the
drum needs to be replaced. Simply replacing the refilled toner cartridges with
proper, name-brand toner cartridges has solved most laser printer quality prob-
lems we have run across. We keep recommending the right ones, but clients keep
coming back with the refilled ones. The result is that we take our clients’ money to
solve their print quality problems when all it involves is a toner cartridge, our (usu-
ally repeat) advice to buy the proper cartridge next time, and the obligatory min-
imum charge for a half hour of labor, even though the job of replacing the
cartridge takes all of five minutes!
Summary
In this chapter, we discussed how the different types of printers work as
well as the most common methods of connecting them to computers. You
learned how computers use page description languages to format data before
they send it to printers. You also learned about the various types of consumable
supplies and how they relate to each type of printer.
The most basic category of printer currently in use is the impact printer.
Impact printers form images by striking something against a ribbon, which in
turn makes a mark on the paper. You learned how this type of printer works and
the service concepts associated with them.
One of the most popular types of printer today is the bubble-jet printer, so
named because of the mechanism used to put ink on the paper.
The most complex type of printer is the laser printer. The A+ exam covers this
type of printer more than any other. You learned about the steps in the Electro-
photographic (EP) process, the process that explains how laser printers print.
You also learned about the various components that make up this printer and
how they work together.
The final section of this chapter covered two major concepts: the interfaces
used to connect printers to PCs and the consumable supplies used in them. You
learned about parallel, serial, and network interfaces and how they are used and
how printer supplies can affect print output quality.

Key Terms
basis weight laser printers

caliper letter quality (LQ)
characters per second (cps) near letter quality (NLQ)
charging corona network interface card (NIC)
cleaning step page description language
conditioning step paper pickup roller
corona roller print consumables
corona wire print media
daisy-wheel printer printer controller assembly
developing roller printer ribbon
developing step printhead
dot-matrix printer rag stock
driver software rasterizing
electronic stepper motor ribbon cartridge
feed roller solenoid
fuser static-charge eliminator strip
fusing step toner
impact printers transfer corona assembly
interface transferring step
interface software writing step

Review Questions
1. What is the step in the EP print process that uses a laser to discharge selected
areas of the photosensitive drum, thus forming an image on the drum?
A. Writing
B. Transferring
C. Developing
D. Cleaning
2. What is the correct order of the steps in the EP print process?

A. Developing, writing, transferring, fusing, charging, cleaning
B. Charging, writing, developing, transferring, fusing, cleaning
C. Transferring, writing, developing, charging, cleaning, fusing
D. Cleaning, charging, writing, developing, transferring, fusing
3. What is the most basic printer type?

A. Impact printer
B. Bubble-jet printer
C. Laser printer
D. Interfaces and print media
4. Which voltage is used to transfer the toner to the paper in an EP process laser
printer?
A. +600Vdc
B. –600Vdc
C. +6000Vdc
D. –6000Vdc
5. If the static-eliminator strip is absent (or broken) in either an EP process or HP

LaserJet laser printer, what will happen?
A. Nothing. Both printers will continue to function normally.
B. Nothing will happen in EP process printers, but HP LaserJet printers will
flash a “–671 error” message.
C. Paper jams may occur in both types of printers because the paper may curl
around the photosensitive drum.
D. Nothing will happen in HP LaserJet printers, but EP process printers will
flash a “-671 error” message.

6. These particular printers are referred to as page printers because they receive
their print job instructions one page at a time.
A. Daisy wheel
B. Dot matrix
C. Bubble-jet
D. Laser
7. Which of the following are possible interfaces for printers? (Select all that
apply.)
A. Parallel
B. Mouse port
C. Serial
D. Network
8. Which laser printer component formats the print job for the type of printer
being used?
A. Corona assembly
B. DC power supply
C. Printer controller assembly
D. Formatter software
9. Which of the following are page description languages? (Select all that apply.)
A. Page Description Language (PDL)
B. PostScript
C. PageScript
D. Printer Control Language (PCL)
10. The basis weight is the weight in pounds of 500 sheets of what size of paper?
A. 81⁄2 by 11 inch
B. 11 by 17 inch
C. 17 by 221⁄2 inch
D. 81⁄2 by 17 inch
11. Any printer that uses the electrophotographic process contains how many
standard assemblies?
A. Five
B. Six
C. Four
D. Eight

12. Which type(s) of printers can be used with multipart forms?

A. Bubble-jet
B. EP process laser printers
C. HP process laser printers
D. Dot-matrix printers
13. LED page printers differ from EP process laser printers in which step?
A. Writing
B. Charging
C. Fusing
D. Cleaning
E. Developing
F. Transferring
14. What part of both EP process and HP LaserJet process printers supplies the
voltages for the charge and transfer corona assemblies?
A. High-voltage power supply (HVPS)
B. DC power supply (DCPS)
C. Controller circuitry
D. Transfer corona
15. With EP process laser printers, the laser discharges the charged photosensitive
drum to ____________________ Vdc.
A. +600
B. 0
C. –100
D. –600
16. Which impact printer has a printhead that contains a row of pins that are trig-
gered in patterns that form letters and numbers as the printhead moves across
the paper?
A. Laser printer
B. Daisy-wheel printer
C. Dot-matrix printer
D. Bubble-jet printer

17. Which printer contains a wheel that looks like a petal with raised letters and
symbols on each petal?
A. Bubble-jet printers
B. Daisy-wheel printer
C. Dot-matrix printer
D. Laser printer
18. Which of the following is not an advantage of the daisy-wheel printer?

A. Can print multipart forms
B. Relatively inexpensive
C. Print quality is comparable to a typewriter
D. Speed
19. This printer part gets the toner from the photosensitive drum onto the paper.
A. Laser scanner assembly
B. Fusing assembly
C. Corona assembly
D. Drum
20. Which of the following is not an advantage of a Universal Serial Bus (USB)
printer interface?
A. It has a higher transfer rate than a serial connection.
B. It has a higher transfer rate than a parallel connection.
C. It automatically recognizes new devices.
D. It allows the printer to communicate with networks, servers, and
workstations.


1. A. The writing step uses a laser to discharge selected areas of the photosensitive
drum, thus forming an image on the drum.
2. D. The correct sequence in the EP print process is cleaning, charging, writing,

developing, transferring, fusing.
3. A. Of the types listed above, the impact printer is the most basic printer.
4. A. Because the toner on the drum has a slight negative charge (–100Vdc), it
requires a positive charge to transfer it to the paper. +600Vdc is the voltage
used in an EP process laser printer.
5. C. If the static-eliminator strip is absent (or broken) in either an EP process or

HP LaserJet laser printer, this will cause the paper to maintain its positive
charge. Should this occur, paper jams may result due to the paper curling
around the photosensitive drum.
6. D. Laser printers receive their print job instructions one page at a time.
7. A, C, D. Printers can communicate via parallel, serial, and network

connections.
8. C. The printer controller assembly is responsible for formatting the print job
for the type of printer being used.
9. B, D. Of those listed, only PostScript and PCL are page description languages.
10. C. The basis weight is the weight in pounds of 500 sheets of 17-by-221⁄2-inch
paper.
11. D. There are eight standard assemblies in an electrophotographic process

printer.
12. D. Of the choices listed, only dot-matrix printers are impact printers and
therefore can be used with multipart forms.
13. A. LED page printers differ from EP process laser printers in the writing step.
They use a different process to write the image on the EP drum.
14. A. The high-voltage power supply is the part of both EP process and HP
LaserJet process printers that supplies the voltages for the charge and trans-
fer corona assemblies.
15. C. With EP process laser printers, the laser discharges the charged photosen-
sitive drum to –100Vdc.
16. C. The dot-matrix impact printer has a printhead that contains a row of pins
that are triggered in patterns that form letters and numbers as the printhead
moves across the paper.

17. B. The daisy-wheel printer gets its name because it contains a wheel with
raised letters and symbols on each petal.
18. D. The daisy-wheel printer is much slower when compared to the dot-matrix
printer and therefore speed is a disadvantage.
19. C. The corona assembly gets the toner from the photosensitive drum onto the
paper. For some printers, this is a corona wire, and for others, it is a corona
roller.
20. D. The rate of transfer and the ability to automatically recognize new devices
are two of the major advantages that make USB the current most popular type
of printer interface. However, it is the network printer interface that allows the
printer to communicate with networks, servers, and workstations.

Chapter Networking
Fundamentals
8 THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVE IS ARE COVERED IN
THIS CHAPTER:

System board
Storage device
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Input devices
Hard drive
Keyboard
Video board
Mouse
Portable system components:
AC adapters
DC controllers
LCD panel
PC card
Pointing devices
2.1 Identify common symptoms and problems associated with
each module and how to troubleshoot and isolate problems.
Mouse
Floppy drive

Parallel ports
Hard Drives
CD-ROM
DVD
Sound Card/Audio
Monitor/Video
Motherboards
Modems
BIOS
USB
NIC
CMOS
Power supply
Slot covers
Large LBA, LBA
Cables
Keyboard
Peripherals
6.1 Identify basic networking concepts, including how
a network works and the ramifications of repairs on the
network.
Installing and configuring network cards
Network access
Full-duplex, half-duplex
Cabling—Twisted-Pair, Coaxial, Fiber Optic, RS-232
Ways to network a PC
Physical Network topographies
Increasing bandwidth
Loss of data
Network slowdown
Infrared
Hardware protocols

I magine 20 years ago working in an office with little or no computer
equipment. It’s hard to imagine now, isn’t it? One could say that we take for
granted a lot of what we have gained in technology the past few decades. Now,
imagine having to send a memo to everyone in the company. Back then we used
interoffice mail; today we use e-mail. This is one form of communication that
only became available due to the introduction and growth of networks.
This chapter focuses on the basic concepts surrounding how a network
works, including the way it sends information and what it uses to send informa-
tion. This information is covered only to a minor degree by the A+ certification
exam. However, if you have interest in becoming a service technician, this infor-
mation will prove to be very useful, as you will in all likelihood find yourself
asked to troubleshoot both hardware and software problems on existing net-
works. Included in this chapter is information on:
What is a network?
Network types
Media types
Connectivity devices
complete coverage of objective 2.1, please also see Chapters 1, 4, 6, and 10.
If you find that the material in this chapter interests you, you might consider study-
ing for, and eventually taking, CompTIA’s Network+ exam. It is a generic networking
certification (similar to A+, only it is for network-related topics). You can study for it
using Sybex’s Network+ Study Guide materials available at www.sybex.com.

304 Chapter 8 Networking Fundamentals
What Is a Network?
S tand-alone personal computers, first introduced in the late 1970s, gave
users the ability to create documents, spreadsheets, and other types of data and
save them for future use. For the small business user or home computer enthu-
siast this was great. For larger companies, however, it was not enough. The
larger the company, the greater the need to share information between offices,
and sometimes over great distances. The stand-alone computer was not enough
for the following reasons:
Their small hard drive capacities were inefficient.
To print, each computer required a printer attached locally.
Sharing documents was cumbersome. People grew tired of having to save
to a diskette, then taking that diskette to the recipient. (This procedure
was called “sneakernet.”)
There was no e-mail. Instead, there was interoffice mail, which was not
reliable and frequently was not delivered in a timely manner.
To address these problems, networks were born. A network links two or more
computers together to communicate and share resources. Their success was a
revelation to the computer industry as well as businesses. Now, departments
could be linked internally to offer better performance and increase efficiency.
You have heard the term “networking” in the business context, where peo-
ple come together and exchange names for future contact and to give them
access to more resources. The same is true with a computer network. A com-
puter network allows computers to link to each other’s resources. For example,
in a network every computer does not need a printer connected locally to print.
Instead, one computer has a printer connected to it and allows the other com-
puters to access this resource. Because they allow users to share resources, net-
works offer an increase in performance as well as a decrease in the outlay for
new hardware and software.
LANs vs. WANs

Local area networks (LANs) were introduced to connect computers in a single
office. Wide area networks (WANs) came to expand the LANs to include net-
works outside of the local environment and also to distribute resources across dis-
tances. Today, LANs can be seen in many businesses, from small to large. WANs
are becoming more widely accepted as businesses are becoming more mobile and
as more of them are spanning across greater and greater distances. It is important
to have an understanding of LANs and WANs as a service professional, because
when you’re repairing computers you are likely to come in contact with problems
that are associated with the computer being connected to a network.

What Is a Network? 305
Local Area Networks (LANs)

The 1970s brought us the minicomputer, which was a smaller version of the
mainframe. Whereas the mainframe used centralized processing (all programs
ran on the same computer), the minicomputer used distributed processing to
access programs across other computers. As depicted in Figure 8.1, distributed
processing allows a user at one computer to use a program on another computer
as a “back end” to process and store the information. The user’s computer is the
“front end,” performing the data entry. These allowed programs to be distrib-
uted across computers rather than centralized. This was also the first time com-
puters used cable to connect rather than phone lines.
FIGURE 8.1 Distributed processing
By the 1980s, offices were beginning to buy PCs in large numbers. Also, por-
tables were introduced, allowing computing to become mobile. Neither PCs nor
portables, however, were efficient in sharing information. As timeliness and
security became more important, diskettes were just not cutting it. Offices
needed to find a way to implement a better means to share and access resources.
This led to the introduction of the first type of PC LAN: ShareNet by Novell.
LANs are simply the linking of computers to share resources within a closed
environment. The first simple LANs were constructed a lot like Figure 8.2.
FIGURE 8.2 A simple LAN
After the introduction of ShareNet, more LANs sprouted. The earliest LANs
could not cover a great distance. Most of them could only stretch across a single
floor of the office and could support no more than 30 users. Further, they were

still simple, and only a few software programs supported them. The first soft-
ware programs that ran on a LAN were not capable of permitting more than one
user at a time to use a program (this constraint was known as file locking). Now-
adays, we can see multiple users accessing a program at one time, limited only by
restrictions at the record level.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)

By the late 1980s, networks were expanding to cover ranges considered geo-
graphical in size and were supporting thousands of users. Wide area networks
(WANs), first implemented with mainframes at massive government expense,
started attracting PC users as networks went to this whole new level. Businesses
with offices across the country communicated as if they were only desks apart.
Soon the whole world would see a change in its way of doing business, across not
only a few miles but across countries. Whereas LANs are limited to single build-
ings, WANs are able to span buildings, states, countries, and even continental
boundaries. Figure 8.3 gives an example of a simple WAN.
FIGURE 8.3 A simple WAN
Networks of today and tomorrow are not limited anymore by the inability of
LANs to cover distance and handle mobility. WANs play an important role in
the future development of corporate networks worldwide. Although the primary
focus of this chapter is LANs, we will feature a section on WAN connectivity.
This section will briefly explain the current technologies and what you should
expect to see in the future. If you are interested in more information on LANs or
WANs, or if you plan on becoming a networking technician, check your local
library resources or the Internet.

Primary Network Components

Putting together a network is not as simple as it was with the first PC network.
You can no longer consider two computers cabled together a fully functional net-
work. Today, networks consist of three primary components:
Servers
Clients or workstations
Resources
No network would be complete without these three components working together.
Servers
Servers come in many shapes and sizes. They are a core component of the net-
work, providing a link to the resources necessary to perform any task. The link
it provides could be to a resource existing on the server itself or a resource on
a client computer. The server is the “leader of the pack,” offering directions to
the client computers regarding where to go to get what they need.
Servers offer networks the capability of centralizing the control of resources
and can thus reduce administrative difficulties. They can be used to distribute
processes for balancing the load on the computers and can thus increase speed
and performance. They can also offer the departmentalizing of files for improved
reliability. That way, if one server goes down, then not all of the files are lost.
Servers perform several tasks. For example, servers that provide files to the
users on the network are called file servers. Likewise, servers that host printing
services for users are called print servers. (There are other tasks as well, such as
remote access services, administration, mail, etc.) Servers can be multi-purpose
or single-purpose. If they are multi-purpose, they can be, for example, both a file
server and a print server at the same time. If the server is a single-purpose server,
it is a file server only or print server only.
Another distinction we use in categorizing servers is whether they are dedi-
cated or nondedicated:
Dedicated Servers These are assigned to provide specific applications or ser-
vices for the network, and nothing else. Because a dedicated server is special-
izing in only a few tasks, it requires fewer resources from the computer that
is hosting it than a nondedicated server might require. This savings in over-
head may translate to a certain efficiency and can thus be considered as having
a beneficial impact on network performance.
Nondedicated Servers These are assigned to provide one or more network
services and local access. A nondedicated server is expected to be slightly
more flexible in its day-to-day use than a dedicated server. Nondedicated
servers can be used not only to direct network traffic and perform adminis-
trative actions, but often to serve as a front-end for the administrator to work
with other applications or services. The nondedicated server is not really what

topologies describe how the network messages travel. Deciding which type of
topology to use is the next step when designing your network.
You must choose the appropriate topology in which to arrange your network.
Each type differs by its cost, ease of installation, fault tolerance (how the topol-
ogy handles problems like cable breaks), and ease of reconfiguration (like adding
a new workstation to the existing network).
There are five primary topologies (some of which can be both logical and
physical topologies):
Bus (can be both logical and physical)
Star (physical only)
Ring (can be both logical and physical)
Mesh (can be both logical and physical)
Hybrid (usually physical)
Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages. At the end of this section
check out the table that summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each
topology.
Bus
A bus is the simplest physical topology. It consists of a single cable that runs to
every workstation as shown in Figure 8.6. This topology uses the least amount
of cabling, but also covers the shortest amount of distance. Each computer shares
the same data and address path. With a logical bus topology, messages pass
through the trunk, and each workstation checks to see if the message is addressed
to itself. If the address of the message matches the workstation’s address, the net-
work adapter copies the message to the card’s on-board memory.
FIGURE 8.6 The bus topology

Cable systems that use the bus topology are easy to install. You run a cable from
the first computer to the last computer. All the remaining computers attach to the
cable somewhere in between. Because of the simplicity of installation, and because
of the low cost of the cable, bus topology cabling systems (such as Ethernet) are the
cheapest to install.
Although the bus topology uses the least amount of cabling, it is difficult to
add a workstation. If you want to add another workstation, you have to com-
pletely reroute the cable and possibly run two additional lengths of it. Also, if any
one of the cables breaks, the entire network is disrupted. Therefore, it is very
expensive to maintain.
Star
A physical star topology branches each network device off a central device called
a hub, making it very easy to add a new workstation. Also, if any workstation
goes down it does not affect the entire network. (But, as you might expect, if the
central device goes down, the entire network goes down.) Some types of Ethernet
and ARCNet use a physical star topology. Figure 8.7 gives an example of the
organization of the star network.
FIGURE 8.7 The star topology
Star topologies are easy to install. A cable is run from each workstation to the
hub. The hub is placed in a central location in the office (for example, a utility
closet). Star topologies are more expensive to install than bus networks, because
there are several more cables that need to be installed, plus the cost of the hubs
that are needed.

Ring
A physical ring topology is a unique topology. Each computer connects to two
other computers, joining them in a circle creating a unidirectional path where
messages move workstation to workstation. Each entity participating in the ring
reads a message, then regenerates it and hands it to its neighbor on a different
network cable. See Figure 8.8 for an example of a ring topology.
FIGURE 8.8 The ring topology
The ring makes it difficult to add new computers. Unlike a star topology net-
work, the ring topology network will go down if one entity is removed from the
ring. Physical ring topology systems don’t exist much anymore, mainly because
the hardware involved was fairly expensive and the fault tolerance was very low.
However, one type of logical ring still exists: IBM’s Token Ring technology.
We’ll discuss this technology later in the “Network Architectures” section.
Mesh
The mesh topology is the simplest logical topology in terms of data flow, but it
is the most complex in terms of physical design. In this physical topology, each
device is connected to every other device (Figure 8.9). This topology is rarely
found in LANs, mainly because of the complexity of the cabling. If there are x
computers, there will be (x × (x–1)) ÷ 2 cables in the network. For example, if you
have five computers in a mesh network, it will use 5 × (5 – 1) ÷ 2, which equals
10 cables. This complexity is compounded when you add another workstation.
For example, your five-computer, 10-cable network will jump to 15 cables just
by adding one more computer. Imagine how the person doing the cabling would
feel if you told them you had to cable 50 computers in a mesh network—they’d
have to come up with 50 × (50 – 1) ÷ 2 = 1225 cables!

FIGURE 8.9 The mesh topology
Because of its design, the physical mesh topology is very expensive to install
and maintain. Cables must be run from each device to every other device. The
advantage you gain from it is its high fault tolerance. With a logical mesh topol-
ogy, however, there will always be a way of getting the data from source to des-
tination. It may not be able to take the direct route, but it can take an alternate,
indirect route. It is for this reason that the mesh topology is still found in WANs
to connect multiple sites across WAN links. It uses devices called routers to
search multiple routes through the mesh and determine the best path. However,
the mesh topology does become inefficient with five or more entities.
Hybrid
The hybrid topology is simply a mix of the other topologies. It would be impos-
sible to illustrate it, because there are many combinations. In fact, most networks
today are not only hybrid, but heterogeneous (by heterogeneous I mean they
include a mix of components of different types and brands). The hybrid network
may be more expensive, on the one hand, than some types of network topologies,
but, on the other hand, it takes the best features of all the other topologies and
exploits them. Believe it or not, this is nearly the most popular topology (second
only to the star topology).
Summary of Topologies
Table 8.1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each type of net-
work topology. This table is a good study aid for the A+ exam. (In other words,
memorize it!)

TABLE 8.1 Topologies—Advantages and Disadvantages
Topology Advantages Disadvantages
Bus Cheap. Easy to install. Difficult to reconfigure. Break

in bus disables entire network.
Star Cheap. Easy to install. Easy to More expensive than bus.

reconfigure. Fault tolerant.
Ring Efficient. Easy to install. Reconfiguration difficult. Very

expensive.
Mesh Simplest. Most fault tolerant. Reconfiguration extremely

difficult. Extremely expensive.
Very complex.
Hybrid Gives combination of best fea- Complex (less so than mesh,

tures of each topology used. however).
Network Communications
You have chosen the type of network and arrangement (topology). Now the
computers need to understand how to communicate. Network communications
use protocols. A protocol is a set of rules that govern communications. Protocols
detail what “language” the computers are speaking when they talk over a net-
work. If two computers are going to communicate, they both must be using the
same protocol.
There are different methods used to describe the different protocols. We will
discuss two of the most common: the OSI model and the IEEE 802 standards.
OSI Model
The International Standards Organization introduced the Open Systems Intercon-
nection (OSI) model to provide a common way of describing network protocols.
They put together a seven-layer model providing a relationship between the stages
of communication, with each layer adding to the layer above or below it.
This OSI model is just that: a model. It can’t be implemented. You will never find
a network that is running the “OSI protocol.”
The theory with the OSI model is that as transmission takes place, the higher
layers pass data through the lower layers. As the data passes through a layer,
the layer will tack its information (also called a header) onto the beginning of the

information being transmitted until it reaches the bottom layer. At this point, the
bottom layer sends the information out on the wire.
At the receiving end, the bottom layer receives the information, reads its infor-
mation from its header and removes its header from the information, and then
passes the remainder to the next highest layer. This procedure continues until the
topmost layer receives the data that the sending computer sent.
The OSI model layers from top to bottom are listed here. We’ll describe each
of these layers from bottom to top, however. After the descriptions, we’ll sum-
marize the entire model.
• Application layer • Network layer

• Presentation layer • Data Link layer
• Session layer • Physical layer
• Transport layer
Physical Layer
At the bottom of the OSI model is the Physical layer. This layer describes how the
data gets transmitted over a physical medium. It defines how long each piece
of data is and the translation of each into the electrical pulses that are sent over
the wires. It decides whether data travels unidirectionally or bidirectionally
across the hardware. It also relates electrical, optical, mechanical, and functional
interfaces to the cable.
Data Link Layer

The next layer is the Data Link layer. This layer arranges data into chunks called
“frames.” Included in these chunks is control information indicating the begin-
ning and end of the data stream. This layer is very important because it makes
transmission easier and more manageable as well as allowing for error checking
within the data frames.
Network Layer
Addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical
addresses occurs at the Network layer. The Network layer is something like the
traffic cop. It is able to judge the best network path for the data based on net-
work conditions, priority, and other variables. This layer manages traffic
through packet switching, routing, and controlling congestion of data.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer signals “all clear” by making sure the data frames are error-
free. It also controls the data flow and troubleshoots any problems with trans-
mitting or receiving data frames. This layer’s most important job is to provide
error checking and reliable, end-to-end communications. Secondly, it can also
take several smaller messages and combine them into a single, larger message.
Session Layer
The Session layer allows applications on different computers to establish, use,
and end a session. A session is one virtual “conversation.” For example, all the
procedures needed to transfer a single file make up one session. Once the session
is over, a new process has begun. It enables network procedures such as identi-
fying passwords, logons, and network monitoring. It can also handle recovery
from a network failure.
Presentation Layer
The “look,” or format, of the data, network security, and file transfers is deter-
mined by the Presentation layer. It performs protocol conversion and manages
data compression. Data translation and encryption are handled at this layer.
Also, the character set information is determined at this level. (The character set
determines which numbers represent which alphanumeric characters.)
Application Layer
Finally, the Application layer allows access to network services. This is the layer
at which file services and print services operate. It also is the layer that worksta-
tions interact with, and it controls data flow and, if there are errors, recovery.
Summary of the OSI Model

Figure 8.10 shows the complete OSI model. Note the relation of each layer to one
another and the function of each layer. Also note that when data is sent from one
computer to another, the transmission starts above the Application layer and
passed down to the Physical layer. Each layer, as it receives information from
the layer above, adds its own information and passes the amended packet to the
next layer down. At the bottom, the Physical layer places the packet on the wire.
The receiver does the exact opposite procedure. The Physical layer takes the
packet off the wire, removes the Physical layer header, and transfers the infor-
mation to the layer above. Each layer reads the information given to it by the
transmitting counterpart layer, removes its header, and passes the remained up
the stack until the data being transmitted is received by the Application layer.

FIGURE 8.10 OSI model and characteristics
IEEE 802 Project Models

The Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) formed a subcom-
mittee to create the 802 standards for networks. These standards specify
certain types of networks, although not every network protocol is covered by
the IEEE 802 committee specifications. This model breaks down into the fol-
lowing 12 categories:
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 Logic Link Control
802.3 CSMA/CD LAN
802.4 Token Bus LAN
802.5 Token Ring LAN
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network

802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Group

802.8 Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group
802.9 Integrated Voice/Data Networks
802.10 Network Security
802.11 Wireless Networks
802.12 Demand Priority Access LAN
The IEEE 802 standards were designed primarily for enhancements to the
bottom three layers of the OSI model. The IEEE 802 model breaks the Data Link
layer into two sublayers: a Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer and a Media
Access Control (MAC) sublayer. In the Logical Link Control sublayer, data link
communications are managed. The Media Access Control sublayer watches out
for data collisions, as well as assigning physical addresses.
We will focus on the two predominant 802 models that existing network
architectures have been based on: 802.3 CSMA/CD and 802.5 Token Ring.
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD

The 802.3 CSMA/CD model defines a bus topology network that uses a 50-ohm
coaxial baseband cable and carries transmissions at 10Mbps. This standard
groups data bits into frames and uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Col-
lision Detection (CSMA/CD) cable access method to put data on the cable.
CSMA/CD specifies that every computer can transmit at any time. As some-
times happens, when two machines transmit at the same time, a “collision” takes
place and no data can be transmitted for either machine. The machines then back
off for a random period of time and try to transmit again. This process repeats
until transmission takes place successfully. The CSMA/CD technology is also
called “contention.”
The only major downside to 802.3 is that with large networks (more than 100
computers on the same cable), the number of collisions increases to the point
where there are more collisions than transmissions taking place.
An example of a protocol based on the IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD standard is
Ethernet.
CSMA/CD and Ethernet are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring

The IEEE 802.5 standard specifies a physical star, logical ring topology that uses
a token-passing technology to put the data on the cable. IBM developed this tech-
nology for their mainframe and minicomputer networks. IBM’s name for it was
Token Ring. The name stuck, and any network using this type of technology is
called a Token Ring network.

In token passing, a special chunk of data called a token circulates through the
ring from computer to computer. Any computer that has data to transmit must
wait for the token. A transmitting computer that has data to transmit waits for a
“free” token and takes it off the ring. Once it has the token, this computer modifies
it in such a way that tells the computers who has the token. The transmitting com-
puter then places the token (along with the data it needs to transmit) on the ring
and the token travels around the ring until it gets to the destination computer. The
destination computer takes the token and data off the wire, modifies the token
(indicating it has received the data), and places the token back on the wire. When
the original sender receives the token back and sees that the destination computer
has received the data, the sender modifies the token to set it “free.” It then sends
the token back on the ring and waits until it has more data to transmit.
The main advantage of the token-passing access method over contention (the
802.3 model) is that it eliminates collisions. Only workstations that have the
token can transmit. It would seem that this technology has a lot of overhead and
would be slow. But remember that this whole procedure takes place in a few mil-
liseconds. This technology scales very well. It is not uncommon for Token Ring
networks based on the IEEE 802.5 standard to reach hundreds of workstations
on a single ring.
The story of the IEEE 802.5 standard is rather interesting. It’s a story of “the
tail wagging the dog.” With all the other IEEE 802 standards, the committee
either saw a need for a new protocol on its own or got a request for one. They
would then sit down and hammer out the new standard. A standard created by
this process is known as a de jure (“by law”) standard. With the IEEE 802.5,
however, everyone was already using this technology, so the IEEE 802 com-
mittee got involved and simply declared it a standard. This type of standard is
known as a de facto (“from the fact”) standard—a standard that was being fol-
lowed without having been formally recognized.
Network Architectures
Network architectures define the structure of the network, including hardware,
software, and layout. We differentiate each architecture by the hardware and
software required to maintain optimum performance levels. The major architec-
tures in use today are Ethernet, Token Ring, ARCNet, and AppleTalk.
Ethernet
The original definition of the 802.3 model included a bus topology using a base-
band coaxial cable. From this model came the first Ethernet architecture. Ether-
net was originally codeveloped by Digital, Intel, and Xerox and was known as
DIX Ethernet.
Ethernet has several specifications, each one specifying the speed, communi-
cation method, and cable. The original Ethernet was given a designation of

10Base5. The “10” in Ethernet 10Base5 stands for the 10Mbps transmission
rate. “Base” stands for the baseband communications used. Finally, the “5”
stands for the maximum distance of 500 meters to carry transmissions. This
method of identification soon caught on, and as vendors changed the specifica-
tions of the Ethernet architecture, they followed the same pattern in the way they
identified them.
After the 10Base5, came 10Base2 and 10BaseT. These quickly became stan-
dards in Ethernet technology. Many other standards (including 100BaseF,
10BaseF, and 100BaseT) developed since then. But those three are the most
popular.
Ethernet 10Base2 uses thin coaxial cables and bus topology, and transmits at
10Mbps, with a maximum distance of 200 meters. If that is the case, what does
the Ethernet 10BaseT use? Actually, Ethernet 10BaseT uses twisted-pair cabling,
transmitting at 10Mbps, with a maximum distance of 100 meters, and physical
star topology with a logical bus topology.
Token Ring
Token Ring networks are exactly like the IEEE 802.5 specification because the
specification is based on IBM’s Token Ring technology. Token Ring uses a phys-
ical star, logical ring topology. All workstations are cabled to a central device,
called a multistation access unit (MAU). The ring is created within the MAU by
connecting every port together with special circuitry in the MAU. Token Ring
can use shielded or unshielded cable and can transmit data at either 4Mbps or
16Mbps.
ARCNet (Attached Resource Computing Network)

A special type of network architecture that deserves mention is the Attached
Resource Computer Network (ARCNet). Developed in 1977, it was not based
on any existing IEEE 802 model. However, ARCNet is important to mention
because of its ties to IBM mainframe networks and also because of its popularity.
Its popularity comes from its flexibility and price. It is flexible because its cabling
uses large trunks and physical star configurations, so if a cable comes loose or is
disconnected, the network will not fail. Additionally, since it used cheap, coaxial
cable, networks could be installed fairly cheaply.
Even though ARCNet enjoyed an initial success, it died out as other network
architectures became more popular. The main reason for this was its slow trans-
fer rate of only 2.5Mbps. Thomas-Conrad (a major developer of ARCNet prod-
ucts) did develop a version of ARCNet that runs at 100Mbps, but most people
have abandoned ARCNet for other architectures. ARCNet is also not based
on any standard, which makes it difficult to find compatible hardware from
multiple vendors. Because of its speed and compatibility limitations, ARCNet is
quickly being replaced in networks.

AppleTalk
Another architecture not based on any existing IEEE 802 models is AppleTalk.
AppleTalk is a proprietary network architecture for Macintosh computers. It
uses a bus and typically uses either shielded or unshielded cable. There are a few
things to note about AppleTalk.
First, AppleTalk uses a Carrier Sense-Multiple Access with Collision Avoid-
ance (CSMA/CA) technology to put data on the cable. Unlike Ethernet, which
uses a CSMA/CD method, this technology uses “smart” interface cards to detect
traffic before it tries to send data. A CSMA/CA card will listen to the wire. If
there is no traffic, it will send a small amount of data. If no collisions occur, it will
follow that amount of data with the data it wants to transmit. In either case, if
a collision does happen, it will back off for a random amount of time and try to
transmit again.
A common analogy is used to describe the difference between CSMA/CD
and CSMA/CA. Sending data is like walking across the street. With CSMA/CD
you just cross the street. If you get run over, you go back and try again. With
CSMA/CA you look both ways and send your little brother across the street.
If he makes it, you can follow him. If either of you gets run over, you both go
back and try again.
Another interesting point about AppleTalk is that it’s fairly simple. Most
Macintosh computers already include AppleTalk, so it is relatively inexpensive.
It will assign itself an address. In its first revision (Phase I), it allowed a maximum
of 32 devices on a network. With its second revision (Phase II), it supports faster
speeds and multiple networks with EtherTalk and TokenTalk. EtherTalk allows
AppleTalk network protocols to run on Ethernet coaxial cable (used for Mac II
and above). TokenTalk allows the AppleTalk protocol to run on a Token Ring
network.
Network Media
W e have taken a look at the types of networks, network architectures,
and the way a network communicates. To bring networks together, we use sev-
eral types of media. A medium is the material on which data is transferred one
point to another. There are two parts to the medium, the network interface card
and the cabling. The type of network card you use depends on the type of cable
you are using, so let’s discuss cabling first.
Cabling
When the data is passing through the OSI model and reaches the physical layer,
it must find its way onto the medium that is used to physically transfer data from

Network Media 325
computer to computer. This medium is cable. It is the network interface card’s

role to prepare the data for transmission, but it is the cable’s role to properly
move the data to its intended destination. It is not as simple as just plugging it
into the computer. The cabling you choose must support both the network archi-
tecture and topology. There are four main types of cabling methods: twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless. We’ll summarize all four
cabling methods following the brief descriptions below.
Twisted-Pair
Twisted-pair is one of the most popular methods of cabling because of its flexi-
bility and low costs. It consists of several pairs of wire twisted around each other
within an insulated jacket, as shown in Figure 8.11. Twisted-pair is most often
found in 10BaseT Ethernet networks, although other systems can use it.
FIGURE 8.11 Twisted-pair cable
We usually break twisted-pair cabling into two types: unshielded twisted-pair

(UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). UTP is simply twisted-pair cabling that is
unshielded. STP is the same as UTP except that STP has a braided foil shield
around the twisted wires (to decrease electrical interference).
UTP comes in six grades to offer different levels of protection against electri-
cal interference.
Category 1 is for voice-only transmissions and is in most phone systems
today. It contains two twisted-pairs.
Category 2 is able to transmit data at speeds up to 4Mbps. It contains four
twisted-pairs of wires.
Category 3 is able to transmit data at speeds up to 10Mbps. It contains
four twisted-pairs of wires with three twists per foot.
four twisted-pairs of wires.
four twisted-pairs of copper wire to give the most protection.
Category 5e is able to transmit data at speeds up to 1Gbps. It also contains
four twisted-pairs of copper wire, but they are physically separated and

contain more twists per foot than Category 5 to provide maximum inter-
ference protection.
Each of these six levels has a maximum transmission distance of 100 meters.
Coaxial
The next choice of cable for most LANs is coaxial cable. The cable consists of
a copper wire surrounded by insulation and a metal foil shield, as shown in
Figure 8.12. It is very similar to the cable used to connect cable television.
FIGURE 8.12 Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable comes in many thicknesses and types. The most common use
for this type of cable is for Ethernet 10Base2 cabling. It is known as Thinnet or
Cheapernet.
Fiber-Optic
Fiber-optic cabling has been called one of the best advances in cabling. It con-
sists of a thin, flexible glass fiber surrounded by a rubberized outer coating (see
Figure 8.13). It provides transmission speeds from 100Mbps up to 1Gbps and
a maximum distance of several miles. Because it uses pulses of light instead of
electric voltages to transmit data, it is completely immune from electric inter-
ference and from wiretapping.
Fiber-optic cable has not become a standard in networks, however, because of
its high cost of installation. Networks that need extremely fast transmission
rates, transmissions over long distances, or have had problems with electrical
interference in the past often use fiber-optic cabling.
FIGURE 8.13 Fiber-optic cable

Network Media 327
RS-232
Occasionally, networks use RS-232 cables (also known as serial cables) to carry
data. The most classic example is in older mainframe and minicomputer terminal
connections. Connections from the individual terminals go to a device known as
a multiplexer that combines the serial connections into one connection and con-
nects all the terminals to the host computer. This cabling system is seen less and
less as a viable LAN cabling method, however, because LAN connections (like
twisted-pair Ethernet) are faster, more reliable, and easier to maintain.
Wireless Networks
One of the most fascinating cabling technologies today—and, actually, it’s one
that doesn’t really use cable—is wireless. Wireless networks offer the ability to
extend a LAN without the use of traditional cabling methods. Wireless transmis-
sions are made through the air by infrared light, laser light, narrow-band radio,
microwave, or spread-spectrum radio.
Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly popular as businesses are becoming
more mobile and less centralized. You can see them most often in environments
where standard cabling methods are not possible or wanted. However, they are
still not as fast or efficient as standard cabling methods. Also, they are more sus-
ceptible to eavesdropping and interference than standard cabling methods.
Summary of Cabling Types

Each type of cabling has its own benefits and drawbacks. Table 8.2 details the
most common types of cabling in use today. As you look at this table, pay
particular attention to the cost, length, and maximum transmission rates of each
cabling type.
TABLE 8.2 Cable Types
Characteristics Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber-Optic Wireless
Cost Least expen- More than Expensive Most

sive twisted-pair expensive
Maximum 100 meters 185 meters >10 Miles 2 miles

Length (328 feet) (607 feet) to
500 meters
(1640 feet)
Transmission 10Mbps to 10Mbps 100Mps or 10Mbps

Rates 100Mbps more
Flexibility Most flexible Fair Fair Limited

TABLE 8.2 Cable Types (continued)
Characteristics Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber-Optic Wireless
Ease of Very easy Easy Difficult Somewhat

installation difficult
Interference Susceptible Better than Not suscep- Susceptible

UTP, more tible
susceptible
than STP
Special Often pre- Easiest Supports Very

features installed; Installation voice, data, flexible
similar to and video at
wiring used highest
in telephone transmis-
systems sion speeds
Preferred uses Networks Medium-size Networks of WANs and

networks any size radio/TV
with high requiring communi-
security high speed cations
needs and data
security
Connector RJ-45 BNC-T and Special Dish or

AUI transceiver
Physical Star Bus Star Bus or star

Topology (typically)
Other Info Five RG-58 and Requires Most must

categories RG-59 special comply
of quality family; also training to with FCC
called configure regulations
Thinnet and
Thicknet,
respectively
The Network Interface Card (NIC)

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical interface between com-
puter and cabling. It prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data. It can
also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to understand. It communi-
cates at the Physical layer of the OSI model and comes in many shapes and sizes.
Different NICs are distinguished by the PC bus type and the network for
which they are used. This section describes the role of the NIC and how to choose

Network Media 329
the appropriate one. The following factors should be taken into consideration
when choosing a NIC:
Preparing data
Sending and controlling data
Configuration
Drivers
Compatibility
Performance
Preparing Data
In the computer, data moves along buses in parallel, as on a four-lane interstate
highway. But on a network cable, data travels in a single stream, as on a one-
lane highway. This difference can cause problems transmitting and receiving
data, because the paths traveled are not the same. It is the NIC’s job to translate
the data from the computer into signals that can flow easily along the cable. It
does this by translating digital signals into electrical signals (and in the case of
fiber-optic NICs, to optical signals).
Sending and Controlling Data

For two computers to send and receive data, the cards must agree on several
things. These include the following:
The maximum size of the data frames
The amount of data sent before giving confirmation
The time needed between transmissions
The amount of time needed to wait before sending confirmation
The amount of data a card can hold
The speed at which data transmits
If the cards can agree, then the sending of the data is successful. If the cards
cannot agree, the sending of data does not occur.
In order to successfully send data on the network, you need to make sure the
network cards are of the same type (i.e., all Ethernet, all Token Ring, all ARCNet,
etc.) and they are connected to the same piece of cable. If you use cards of different
types (for example, one Ethernet and one Token Ring), neither of them will be able
to communicate with the other (unless you use some kind of gateway device, such
as a router).
Additionally, network cards can send data either full-duplex or half-duplex
modes. Half-duplex communication means that between the sender and receiver,
only one of them can transmit at any one time. In full-duplex communication,
a computer can send and receive data simultaneously. The main advantage to

full-duplex over half-duplex communication is performance. Network cards

(specifically Fast Ethernet network cards) can operate twice as fast (200Mbps) in
full-duplex mode than they do normally in half-duplex mode (100Mbps).
Configuration
The NIC’s configuration includes things like a manufacturer’s hardware address,
IRQ address, Base I/O port address, and base memory address. Some may also
use DMA channels to offer better performance.
Each card must have a unique hardware address. If two cards have the same
hardware addresses, neither one of them will be able to communicate. For this
reason, the IEEE committee has established a standard for hardware addresses,
and assigns blocks of these addresses to NIC manufacturers, who then hard-wire
the addresses into the cards.
Configuring a NIC is similar to configuring any other type of expansion card.
The NIC usually needs a unique IRQ channel and I/O address, and possibly a
DMA channel. Token Ring cards often have two memory addresses that must be
excluded in reserved memory to work properly.
Drivers
For the computer to use the network interface card, it is very important to install
the proper device drivers. These drivers communicate directly with the network
redirector and adapter. They operate in the Media Access Control sublayer of the
Data Link layer of the OSI model.
PC Bus Type
When choosing a NIC, use one that fits the bus type of your PC. If you have more
than one type of bus in your PC (for example, a combination ISA/PCI), use an
NIC that fits into the fastest type (the PCI, in this case). This is especially impor-
tant in servers, as the NIC can very quickly become a bottleneck if this guideline
isn’t followed.
Refer back to Chapter 5, “PC Bus Architectures,” to refresh your memory about
the bus architectures mentioned in this discussion.
Performance
The most important goal of the network adapter card is to optimize network per-
formance and minimize the amount of time needed to transfer data packets across
the network. There are several ways of doing this, including assigning a DMA
channel, use of a shared memory adapter, and deciding to allow bus mastering.
If the network card can use DMA channels, then data can move directly from
the card’s buffer to the computer’s memory, bypassing the CPU. A shared memory

Network Media 331
adapter is an NIC that has its own RAM. This feature allows transfers to and from
the computer to happen much more quickly, increasing the performance of the
NIC. Shared system memory allows the NIC to use a section of the computer’s
RAM to process data. Bus mastering lets the card take temporary control of the
computer’s bus to bypass the CPU and move directly to RAM. This is more expen-
sive, but can improve performance by 20 to 70 percent. However, EISA and MCA
cards are the only ones that support bus mastering.
Each of these features can enhance the performance of a network interface
card. Most cards today have at least one, if not several, of these features.
Media Access Methods

You have put the network together in a topology. You have told the network
how to communicate and send the data, and you have told it how to send the
data to another computer. You also have the communications medium in place.
The next problem you need to solve is how do you put the data on the cable?
What you need now are the cable access methods, which define a set of rules for
how computers put data on and retrieve it from a network cable. The four meth-
ods of data access are
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Token Passing
Polling
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD)
As we’ve already discussed, NICs that use CSMA/CD listen to or “sense” the
cable to check for traffic. They compete for a chance to transmit. Usually, if
access to the network is slow, it means that there are too many computers trying
to transmit, causing traffic jams.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

(CSMA/CA)
Instead of monitoring traffic and moving in when there is a break, CSMA/CA
allows the computers to send a signal that they are ready to transmit data. If the
ready signal transmits without a problem, the computer then transmits its data.
If the ready signal is not transmitted successfully, the computer waits and tries
again. This method is slower and less popular than CSMA/CD.
Token Passing
As previously discussed, token passing is a way of giving every NIC equal access
to the cable. A special packet of data is passed from computer to computer. Any

computer that wants to transmit has to wait until it has the token. It can then
transmit its data.
Polling
An old method of media access that is still in use is polling. There aren’t very
many topologies that support polling anymore, mainly because it has special
hardware requirements. This method requires a central, intelligent device (mean-
ing that the device contains either hardware or software “intelligence” to enable
it to make decisions) that asks each workstation, in turn, if it has any data to
transmit. If the workstation answers “yes,” the controller allows the workstation
to transmit its data.
The polling process doesn’t scale very well. That is, you can’t take this method
and simply apply it to any number of workstations. Additionally, the high cost of
the intelligent controllers and cards has made the polling method all but obsolete.
Connectivity Devices
I
t’s the cabling that links computer to computer. Most cabling allows net-
works to be hundreds of feet long. But what if your network needs to be bigger
than that? What if you need to connect your LANs to other LANs to make a
WAN? What if the architecture you’ve picked for your network is limiting the
growth of your network along with the growth of your company? The answer to
these questions is found in a special class of networking devices known as con-
nectivity devices. These devices allow communications to break the boundaries
of local networks and let your computers talk to other computers in the next
building, the next city, or the next country.
There are several categories of connectivity devices, but we are going to dis-
cuss the six most important and frequently used. They are
Repeaters
Hubs
Bridges
Routers
Brouters
Gateways
These connectivity devices have made it possible to lengthen the distance of the
network to almost unlimited distances.
Repeaters
Repeaters are very simple devices. They allow a cabling system to extend
beyond its maximum allowed length by amplifying the network voltages so

Connectivity Devices 333
they travel farther. Repeaters are nothing more than amplifiers and, as such,
are very inexpensive.
Repeaters operate at the physical layer of the OSI model. Because of this,
repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between similar network seg-
ments. I can, for example, extend an Ethernet 10Base2 network to 400 meters
with a repeater. But I can’t connect an Ethernet and Token Ring network
together with one.
The main disadvantage to repeaters is that they just amplify signals. These
signals not only include the network signals, but any noise on the wire as well.
Eventually, if you use enough repeaters, you could possibly drown out the
signal with the amplified noise. For this reason, repeaters are used only as a
temporary fix.
Hubs
Hubs are devices used to link several computers together. They are most often
used in 10BaseT Ethernet networks. They are also very simple devices. In fact,
they are just multiport repeaters. They repeat any signal that comes in on one
port and copy it to the other ports (a process that is also called broadcasting).
There are two types of hubs: active and passive. Passive hubs simply connect
all ports together electrically and are usually not powered. Active hubs use elec-
tronics to amplify and clean up the signal before it is broadcast to the other ports.
In the category of active hubs, there is also a class called “intelligent” hubs,
which are hubs that can be remotely managed on the network.
Bridges
Bridges operate in the Data Link layer of the OSI model. They join similar topol-
ogies and are used to divide network segments. Bridges keep traffic on one side
from crossing to the other. For this reason, they are often used to increase per-
formance on a high-traffic segment.
For example, with 200 people on one Ethernet segment, the performance will
be mediocre, because of the design of Ethernet and the number of workstations
that are fighting to transmit. If you divide the segment into two segments of 100
workstations each, the traffic will be much lower on either side and performance
will increase.
Bridges are not able to distinguish one protocol from another, because higher
levels of the OSI model are not available to them. If it is aware of the destination
address, it is able to forward packets; otherwise a bridge will forward the packets
to all segments. They are more intelligent than repeaters but are unable to move
data across multiple networks simultaneously. Unlike repeaters, bridges can fil-
ter out noise.
The main disadvantage to bridges is that they can’t connect dissimilar net-
work types or perform intelligent path selection. For that function, you would
need a router.

Routers
Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types and
determine the best path for sending data. They can route packets across multiple
networks and use routing tables to store network addresses to determine the best
destination. Routers operate at the Network layer of the OSI model.
The advantage of using a router over a bridge is that routers can determine the
best path that data can take to get to its destination. Like bridges, they can seg-
ment large networks and can filter out noise. However, they are slower than
bridges because they are more intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every
packet, causing packet-forwarding delays. Because of this intelligence, they are
also more expensive.
Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another. Typically, when
a WAN is set up, there will be at least two routers used.
Brouters
Brouters are truly an ingenious idea because they combine the best of both
worlds—bridges and routers. They are used to connect dissimilar network
segments and also to route only one specific protocol. The other protocols are
bridged instead of being dropped. Brouters are used when only one protocol
needs to be routed or where a router is not cost-effective (as in a branch office).
Gateways
Gateways connect dissimilar network environments and architectures. Some
gateways can use all levels of the OSI model, but frequently are found in the
Application layer. It is there that gateways convert data and repackage it to
meet the requirements of the destination address. This makes gateways slower
than other connectivity devices and more costly. An example of a gateway is
the NT Gateway Service for NetWare which, when running on a Windows NT
Server, can connect a Microsoft Windows NT network with a Novell NetWare
network.

Summary 335
Summary
I n this chapter, you learned about the various network hardware topics that
you will be tested on in the A+ exam. A few years ago, you never saw many com-
puters with network cards come in for service. Networks were found only in
offices and large companies. Now networks can be found in many homes. For
this reason, the A+ exam requires that you have at least a basic understanding of
network hardware.
In the first section you learned to define exactly what is a network. You also
learned what components make up a network, what the network resource mod-
els are, and what a network topology is. You also learned about the OSI model
and the IEEE 802 committee and their impact on networks. Finally, you learned
about the various network architectures in use today.
In the next section, you learned about the different kinds of network media
used to connect computers into a network. Some of these media include copper
cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless media. In addition to the different types of
media, you learned about the different kinds of Network Interface Cards (NICs)
used to connect computers to the network media. Finally, in this section, you
learned what method of network access (e.g., contention, token passing, etc.)
each major network technology uses to gain access to the network media.
In the last section of this chapter, you learned to differentiate between the dif-
ferent types of devices that connect to networks. These devices, called network
connectivity devices, are very important to facilitating communications on a net-
work. You learned how each device (including hubs, routers, bridges, brouters,
etc.) works and how it relates to network communications.

Key Terms
802.3 file locking physical topology

802.5 full-duplex communication Presentation layer
active hub gateway protocol
Application layer half-duplex communication resource
Attached Resource Computer header router
Network (ARCNet)
bridge hub RS-232 cable
broadcasting local area network (LAN) serial cable
cable access methods logical topology server
centralized processing mesh topology Session layer
client computer multiplexer single-purpose server
client software multi-purpose sever site license
connectivity device multistation access unit (MAU) token passing
Data Link layer network interface card (NIC) Token Ring
de facto Network layer topology
de jure network Transport layer
dedicated server nondedicated server wide area network (WAN)
distributed processing Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) workstations
DIX Ethernet passive hub
Ethernet Physical layer

Review Questions
1. Which connectivity device transmits packets the fastest?
A. Gateway
B. Router
C. Brouter
D. Bridge
2. Which IEEE 802 standard uses a bus topology and coaxial baseband cable and
is able to transmit at 10Mbps?
A. 802.4
B. 802.3
C. 802.2
D. 802.1
3. ____________________ is immune to electromagnetic or radio-frequency

interference.
A. Broadband coaxial cabling
B. Fiber-optic cabling
C. Twisted-pair cabling
D. CSMA/CD
4. Printers, files, e-mail, and groupware can all be categorized as ____________.

A. Office equipment
B. Peer-to-peer networking
C. Resources
D. Protocols
5. Which OSI layer signals “all clear” by making sure the data frames are
error-free?
A. Application layer
B. Session layer
C. Transport layer
D. Network layer
6. Which topology is the easiest to modify?

A. Star
B. Bus
C. Ring
D. Token Ring

7. The ___________________ layer is responsible for logical addressing.

A. Physical
B. Data Link
C. Network
D. Transport
8. Which layer of the OSI model has the important role of providing error
checking?
A. Session layer
B. Presentation layer
C. Application layer
D. Transport layer
9. Which type of cabling has the easiest installation?

A. Twisted-pair
B. Coaxial
C. Fiber-optic
D. Wireless
10. ___________________ is the type of media access method used by NICs that
listen to or “sense” the cable to check for traffic and send only when they hear
that no one else is transmitting.
A. Token passing
B. CSMA/CD
C. CSMA/CA
D. Demand priority
11. A physical star topology consists of several workstations that branch off a cen-
tral device called a ____________________.
A. Repeater
B. Brouter
C. Router
D. Hub
12. A _________________ links two or more computers together to communicate

and share resources.
A. Server
B. Resource
C. Network
D. Client

13. Which access method asks the other workstations for permission to transmit
before transmitting?
A. CSMA/CD
B. CSMA/CA
C. Token passing
D. Demand priority
14. ___________________ offers the longest possible segment length.

A. Unshielded twisted-pair cabling
B. Coaxial cable
C. Fiber-optic cabling
D. Shielded twisted-pair cabling
15. ___________________ uses a thin baseband coaxial cable, bus topology,

transmits at 10Mbps, with a distance up to 185 meters.
A. Token Ring
B. Ethernet 10BaseT
C. Ethernet 10Base5
D. Ethernet 10Base2
16. Which topology uses the least amount of cabling, but also covers the shortest
amount of distance?
A. Bus
B. Star
C. Mesh
D. Hybrid
17. Which layer describes how the data gets transmitted over a physical medium?
A. Session layer
B. Data link layer
C. Physical layer
D. Application layer
18. What is another name for IEEE 802.3?

A. Logic link control
B. Token passing
C. CSMA/CD LAN
D. Token Ring LAN

19. What type of cabling looks similar to the cable used to connect cable television?
A. Twisted-pair
B. Coaxial
C. Fiber-optic
D. Wireless
20. What devices transfer packets across multiple networks and use tables to store
network addresses to determine the best destination?
A. Brouters
B. Routers
C. Gateways
D. Bridges


1. D. Bridges keep traffic on one side from crossing to the other. For this reason
they are often used to increase performance on a high-traffic segment.
2. B. The IEEE 802.3 standard specifies the use of a bus topology, typically using
coaxial baseband cable, and can transmit data up to 10Mbps.
3. B. For those companies who wish to ensure the safety and integrity of their
data, fiber-optic cable should be used, because it cannot be affected by
electromagnetic or radio-frequency interference.
4. C. Resources are any items that can be used on a network by multiple people.
Therefore, printers, files, and e-mail are all considered resources when they are
available on a network.
5. C. It is the responsibility of the Transport layer to signal an “all clear” by

making sure the data frames are error-free. It also controls the data flow and
troubleshoots any problems with transmitting or receiving data frames.
6. A. The star topology is the easiest to modify. A physical star topology

branches each network device off a central device called a hub, making it easy
to add a new workstation.
7. C. The Network layer is responsible for logical network addressing as well as

route determination.
8. D. The most important role of the Transport layer is to provide error checking.
The Transport layer also provides functions such as: reliable end-to-end
communications, segmentation and reassembly of larger messages, and combi-
nation of smaller messages into a single larger message.
9. A. Of the choices listed above, twisted-pair cabling is generally considered the

easiest to install due to the fact that it is lighter than coaxial and doesn’t
require a lot of special tools or knowledge like fiber-optic cable.
10. B. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access Method with Collision Detec-
tion), specifies that the NIC pause before transmitting a packet to ensure that
the line is not being used. If no activity is detected, then it will transmit the
packet. If activity is detected, then it will wait until it is clear. In the case of two
NICs transmitting at the same time, called a collision, both NICs pause to
detect, and then retransmit the data.
11. D. The hub provides the central connecting device in a star topology. All
workstations must, therefore, connect to the hub in order to gain access to
each other or any other resources present on the network. The one disadvan-
tage of this is that the hub becomes a single point of failure. If the hub stops
working, no one connected to the hub has network connectivity.

12. C. The purpose of a network is to link computers together so that they can
communicate and share available resources such as printers, data, and
applications.
13. B. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance), is

slightly more sophisticated than CSMA/CD. What it will do is transmit a very
small packet on the network. If it is successful, then the NIC will transmit the
actual data. This initial transmission can be viewed as a “Is it OK for me to
send?” message. Therefore, it is said to avoid causing collisions.
14. C. Fiber-optic cable can span distances of several kilometers, because it has
higher bandwidth and much lower crosstalk and interference in comparison to
copper cables.
15. D. The names of each of these tells you exactly what they are. In the case of
Ethernet 10Base2, the “Ethernet” part states that it is of Ethernet architecture,
the “10” means that it can transmit up to 10Mbps, “Base” signifies baseband
transmission, and the “2” is the distance and, in this case, equates to the
185-meter limitation of coaxial Thinnet cable.
16. A. Due to its design, which includes a central trunk that runs the distance
between the two most distant computers (as long as it does not exceed the
maximum distance allowed for the cabling), a bus topology requires the least
amount of cable.
17. C. The Physical layer is responsible for formatting the final packet of data for
transmission (length being the most important format property, because the
upper layers are not concerned with the fact that Ethernet and Token Ring
packets are not the same size). Once it has done this, it is responsible for taking
this digital data and transforming into electrical impulse representations and,
finally, the actual transmission of the data. The Physical layer on the receiving
side then has to do this in reverse: remove the signal from the wire, convert the
electrical impulses to digital data, reconstruct the packet based on the proper
size of that network (Ethernet or Token Ring, for example), and then pass the
packet up to the Data Link layer.
18. C. As a part of the IEEE 802.3 specification, it was stated that CSMA/CD is
the standard access method for Ethernet networks.
19. B. Coaxial cable and television cable are very similar in appearance.
Because of this, you need to make sure you have the proper RG rating:
RG-58 for Thinnet, RG-59 for Thicknet, so that you can ensure proper
data transmission.
20. B. Routers are designed to route (transfer) packets across networks. They are
able to do this routing, and determine the best path to take, based on internal
routing tables they maintain.

Chapter Installation and
Upgrades
THIS CHAPTER:

System board
Storage device
Power supply
Processor/CPU
Memory
Input devices
Hard drive
Keyboard
Video board
Mouse
Network interface card (NIC)
Portable system components
AC adapters
DC controllers
LCD panel
PC card
Pointing devices

1.3 Identify available IRQs, DMAs, and I/O addresses and
procedures for configuring them for device installation and
configuration.
Standard IRQ settings
Modems
Floppy drive controllers
Hard drive controllers
USB port
Infrared ports
Hexidecimal/addresses
peripheral devices.
Monitor/video card
Modem
IEEE-1284
IEEE-1394
External storage
Portables
Docking stations
PC cards
Port replicators
Infrared devices
1.8 Identify hardware methods of upgrading performance,
procedures for replacing basic subsystem components,
unique components, and when to use them.
Memory
Hard drives
CPU
Upgrading BIOS
When to upgrade BIOS

Portable systems
Battery
Hard drive
Types I, II, III cards
Memory
4.4 Identify the purpose of CMOS (Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor), what it contains, and how to change
its basic parameters.
Example basic CMOS settings:
Printer parallel port—Uni., bidirectional, disable/enable,
ECP, EPP
COM/serial port—memory address, interrupt request,
disable
Floppy drive—enable/disable drive or boot, speed,
density
Hard drive—size and drive type
Memory—parity, nonparity
Boot sequence
Date/Time
Passwords
Plug-and-Play BIOS

A t some point, every computer will need to be upgraded. Upgrad-
ing usually means one of two things: replacing old technology with new tech-
nology or adding functionality to an existing system. An example of upgrading
old technology is replacing a slower, older modem with a faster, newer one. An
example of adding functionality to an existing system is adding more RAM to
increase performance. In either case, upgrading usually involves adding a new
component. This process consists of several basic steps, each of which must be
carefully followed. In this chapter we will cover the following steps:
Disassembly
Inspection
Installation and upgrades
Reassembly
complete coverage of objective 1.3, please also see Chapter 1. For complete cov-
erage of objective 1.7, please also see Chapters 5 and 7.
Disassembling the Computer

D isassembling a computer can be a complex operation. If you do it too
quickly, you may lose parts or damage something. Further, you have to keep the
reassembly process in mind as you’re taking things apart, because everything you
remove has to be put together again. Several steps need to be followed during the
disassembly in order for the reassembly to be successful. People who take short-
cuts through these steps often find themselves with “extra” parts and a computer
that no longer functions.
Let’s cover each step in detail, starting with the preparation of your work area.

Disassembling the Computer 347
Because portable computers often require a completely different maintenance

philosophy, we’ll discuss them in a separate section near the end of this chapter;
they are also discussed in Chapter 2, “PC Architecture.”
Preparing Your Work Area

For any work you do on a computer, you must have an adequate workspace.
This could mean any number of things. First, the work area must be flat. If it’s
not, small parts could roll around and possibly get lost or damaged. Second, the
area must be sturdy. A typical computer weighs about 25 pounds. Printers and
other peripherals will add to that weight. Make sure the work surface you are
using can support that weight. In addition, the area must be well lit, clean, and
large enough to hold all pieces (assembled and disassembled) and all necessary
tools. Figure 9.1 shows an adequate workspace for most computers.
FIGURE 9.1 A typical computer workspace
Before you begin, make sure all necessary tools are available and in working
order. It may help to lay out some of the more commonly used disassembly tools
such as screwdrivers and nut drivers so they can be easily found (including sev-
eral antistatic bags in which to place the removed components). Also, make sure
the documentation for the system you are working on is available (including
owner’s manuals, service manuals, and Internet resources). Three tools in par-
ticular that will be very handy aren’t really tools in the traditional sense but are,
rather, timesavers. They are an egg carton and a pen and notepad. An egg carton
is perfect for organizing screws and small parts that might otherwise end up in
the “extra parts” pile. A pen and notepad should be used to record anything that
may easily be forgotten, such as cable positions, DIP switch settings, and the
location from which you removed the components.

348 Chapter 9 Installation and Upgrades
The final guideline to preparing your work area is to set aside plenty of time
to complete the task. To do this, estimate the time required to complete the entire
task (disassembly, installation, reassembly, and testing), and then double it. Too
often, a technician will start a “simple” job and underestimate the time needed
to complete it. When you run out of time, you must come back later to complete
the job. Because of this interruption, you may forget exactly where they left off.
This can lead to the “extra parts” syndrome.
Once you’ve prepared your work area and gathered your tools, you’re ready
to begin the actual disassembly of the computer. The steps are basically the same
for all brands and types of computers.
Disassembly Prerequisites
Let’s start by fulfilling a few prerequisites—things you need to do before you
even move the computer to your work area.
1. Shut down any running programs and turn the computer off.
2. Remove all cables (especially the power cable) that are attached to the
computer. Remember that some cables use special screws to attach them
to their ports.
That second step (removing all the cables before disassembling) is at least as impor-
tant as the first. DON’T ASSUME THAT THERE IS NO POWER TO THE COMPUTER
JUST BECAUSE THE POWER SWITCH IS OFF! Some new computers have a low
power mode that, when active, makes the computer appear to be off. In truth, a com-
puter in this mode is just idle and the video circuitry is shut off. If you disassemble the
computer while it’s plugged in or turned on, you could get electrocuted! Additionally,
components could be damaged if inserted or removed while power is applied.
3. Remove any floppy disks from their respective drives to prevent damage
to either the disk or the drive.
4. After checking once more to see that all the prerequisites have been dealt
with, move the computer to the work surface.
Removing the Case Cover

Next, you are going to remove the computer’s case cover. On many IBM-compatible
PCs this is accomplished by removing some (but usually not all) of the screws at the
back of the computer (see the warning following this paragraph) and slowly pulling
the computer’s case cover back and up to remove it (see Figure 9.2). If you pull too
fast, it is possible to damage cables that may be located close to the top of the case.
If the case doesn’t move, check to see that all the case cover screws were removed.

Don’t just start removing all the screws at the back of the computer! Some of
these screws hold vital components (such as the power supply) to the case, and
removing them will cause those components to drop into the computer. The
computer’s documentation should indicate which screws to remove in order to
remove the case cover.
FIGURE 9.2 Removing the case cover
As more and more technology has become available for PCs, hardware man-
ufacturers have begun to design systems that are easier to maintain. Many of
today’s PCs can be completely disassembled without a single tool. There are as
many different ways to gain access to the PC internals as there are PC manufac-
turers. If you are unsure about how to gain access to a component on your PC,
be sure to take the time to read the manual.
This move toward easier access started quite some time ago with early IBM PCs. As
with many innovations, the first ones are often more a novelty than a convenience.
IBM began using spring-loaded screws in their PC cases to make them easier to ser-
vice. Unfortunately, 90 percent of the time the spring shot across the room and got
lost. Field techs had to carry spares in their travel kit, usually right next to their
screwdriver.

Removing the Expansion Cards

Once you have the case off, you will be able to see the inside of the computer. The
next step in disassembly is to put on an antistatic wrist strap, plugging one end
into the ground plug of an outlet. Then you can start to remove any expansion
cards, mainly because they are the easiest things to remove at this point. There
are four major steps in removing the expansion cards; to do this correctly you
need to follow these steps in order:
1. Remove any internal or external cables or connectors. (You should
already have removed the external ones in the prerequisite steps.) When
you are removing a cable or connector, use your pen and notepad to dia-
gram their installed positions. Also, use the pen to make identifying marks
on the cables to make sure they align correctly when reinstalled.
2. Remove any mounting screws that are holding the boards in place, and
place the screws somewhere where they won’t be lost. If you don’t have an
egg carton, you can put each screw back into its mounting hole as you
remove each expansion board. Just make sure to screw them in all the
way, not just a couple of turns.
3. Grasp the board by the top edge with both hands and gently rock it front
to back (NOT side to side). Figure 9.3 clarifies this procedure. If the
expansion board doesn’t come out easily, don’t force it. You may damage
it. Check to see that the board is not being obstructed.
4. Finally, once the board is out, place it in an antistatic bag to help prevent
ESD damage while the board is out of the computer. Place the board aside
and out of the way before continuing.
Repeat the procedure for each card. At the same time, be sure to note which
slot it came out of since some bus types (EISA, MCA, and PCI) keep track of
which slot expansion boards are installed in.
FIGURE 9.3 Removing an expansion board

Once again, many manufacturers have moved to a screwless design. IBM

high-end servers, for instance, use a plastic tab to hold boards in place. This pre-
vents a metal screw from falling into the case and shorting out the motherboard.
If your computer still uses screws to secure expansion boards, keep a running
count of the number of screws you have removed—and make sure that you can
account for every screw before you plug the power cord back in!
Removing the Power Supply

The next component that should be removed is the power supply. You can easily
access it with the expansion cards out of the way. Before you remove the power
supply from the computer, however, you must do two things: disconnect the
power supply connectors from the internal devices, and remove the mounting
hardware for the power supply.
Disconnecting the connectors from the devices is a very easy process. Before
removing any power connectors, note their positions and connections on your
notepad (and make any marks on them to indicate their installed positions).
Then, simply grasp the connector (NOT THE WIRES) and gently wiggle it out
of its receptacle. Then, proceed to the next connector. The system board and disk
drives both use power connectors. Make sure all of them are removed, including
(if they exist) the cable and connector that run to the power switch at the front
of the case. Figure 9.4 illustrates these procedures.
FIGURE 9.4 Removing power supply connectors
The standard PC power supply has two connectors to the motherboard. These
plug into receptacles that are side by side. Document the positioning of these con-
nectors before removing them to make it easier to put them back when you are
done. If, for some reason, you get confused as to which connector goes where,
the general rule is black-to-black. Grab the connectors so that the black wires are
side by side, and you will be holding them the way they should be installed.
Once all the power supply connectors are disconnected from their devices, you
can remove the mounting hardware for the power supply. In most PCs, you can
detach the power supply from the case by removing four screws (see Figure 9.5).

FIGURE 9.5 Removing power supply screws
Some power supplies don’t need to have screws removed; instead, they are
installed on tracks or into slots in the case and need only to be slid out or lifted out.
Removing the Disk Drives

Most disk drives are installed in IBM-compatible computers with rails that are
attached to the drives with screws. These rails allow the drive to be slid into the
computer’s drive bays like a drawer. The drives are then secured with at least two
screws on the sides (see Figure 9.6).
FIGURE 9.6 Removing the hard drive
Many desktop computers (such as Compaqs, IBM PS/2s, and Hewlett-Pack-

ards) use a special drive carrier that holds the drive in place and can be easily
removed without tools, thus eliminating the need for special rails. With most
drives, however, you can just remove the mounting screws and slide the drive
out. Consult the computer’s documentation to see exactly how to remove your
specific type of drive.

Installation and Upgrades 353
To remove drives from higher-end computers, you should also consult the
documentation. It is possible on many higher-end machines to swap drives
while the computer is still running (this is known as a hot-swap); to prevent
damage to the drive (or maybe even other components), you will want to know
the correct procedure.
Removing the Motherboard

All that’s left in your computer is the motherboard (also known as the logic
board). The only time the motherboard should need to be removed is when it
needs to be upgraded or replaced. Otherwise, you should leave the motherboard
in the PC’s case to prevent either physical or ESD damage.
The motherboard is held away from the metal case using plastic spacers and
is secured and grounded using mounting screws. To remove the motherboard,
you must remove the screws holding the motherboard to the mounting brackets.
Then, you must slide the motherboard to the side to release the spacers from their
mounting holes in the case (see Figure 9.7).
FIGURE 9.7 Removing the motherboard
Installation and Upgrades

A t some point, every computer will require the installation of a new com-
ponent. Whether it’s a new sound card, a memory upgrade, or the replacement
of a failed component, installation is a procedure that every computer goes
through in its lifetime. Throughout this section, we’ll use the example of a sound

card for our discussions. The installation for other types of expansion boards
will follow the same basic steps.
The installation of new or replacement components in most computers is a
simple process if you follow a few basic steps. These steps are very general but
should cover the installation of most components.
1. Determine available resources. (If you’re installing a Plug-and-Play com-
ponent, you may not have to do this.)
2. Configure the new devices, using the provided instructions. (Again, with
Plug and Play, you might not need to do this.)
3. Install the component and its supporting software.
4. Test the component’s operation.
Determining Available Resources

If this is the first time the particular component has been installed in this computer,
you must determine if there are any available resources (IRQ channels, DMA
channels, memory addresses, and so on). If the part you are installing is a replace-
ment part, you simply set the jumpers or DIP switches the same as they were on the
component you removed. (You did remember to diagram these settings, right?)
The best way to determine the PC’s available resources is by using hardware
configuration discovery utilities. These software programs talk to the PC’s BIOS
as well as the various pieces of hardware in the computer and display which IRQ,
DMA, and memory addresses are being used. There are numerous commercial
packages that do a very good job of determining which resources are in use and
which are available. Most operating systems, however, include some way of
determining this information. MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, and Windows 95
included a tool named MSD.EXE. Windows 98 has a graphical utility called the
Device Manager. Windows NT includes a program known as NT Diagnostics.
Since all of these tools report the same type of information, we’ll use MSD.EXE as
our example.
One advantage of MSD.EXE over the other programs listed is that it can be included
on a boot floppy. In the event that a resource conflict is preventing your system from
booting properly, you can boot to the DOS floppy and troubleshoot your problem.
When you run MSD.EXE, it can display information about the computer’s
memory, I/O ports, IRQs that are being used, and many other PC resources that
you want to see. Figure 9.8 shows the main menu that appears when you first run
the program.

FIGURE 9.8 The main menu of MSD.EXE
From the main menu, you can use the menu options to display information
about the various resources. For example, if you want to find out if there are
any IRQ channels available, press Q to bring up a screen similar to the one in
Figure 9.9 (your screen may show something different).
FIGURE 9.9 MSD IRQ status screen
As you can see, the computer in Figure 9.9 has IRQs 3, 5, 10, 11, 12, and 15
available. (You can tell this because either the IRQ Status Detected column indi-
cates No or the Description column indicates Reserved for these IRQ channels.)
If you want to install a device that requires an IRQ channel, you can set it to any
of these channels and there should be no IRQ conflicts. You perform the same
procedure to find out if any of the other resources are available.

Don’t rely completely on the report you get from MSD if you’re running it under
Windows 3.x (or Windows 95). In that situation, MSD simply gives the information
that it gets from Windows. This may be somewhat incorrect and could prove to be
a problem. For best results, run MSD in DOS only (or in MS-DOS mode under Win-
dows 95). Actually, regardless of which operating system you’re using, the oper-
ating system can “color” the performance of a software diagnostic program. For
this reason, it’s best to always verify the settings the program reports against the
settings as published in your computer documentation and device manuals.
Besides addressing resources, there is one other resource you need to make
sure is available: physical space. There must be adequate space in the computer
for the device you are installing. If you are installing a disk drive, there must be
an open disk bay available. If you are installing an expansion card (for example,
a sound card), you must make sure that you have an open slot available. Also, in
the case of computers that use multiple bus types (ISA/PCI for example), the
available slot must be of the same type as the card being installed.
Understanding Computer Resources

The various tools that you can use to discover the available resources on a PC can
make installing new hardware a lot easier. Unfortunately, the tools are not much
use unless you understand the information that they present. In this section, we
will discuss the various resources that can be used by PC components (including
that new sound card you are installing) and how those resources are used.
In general, there are four main types of PC resources that you might need to
be aware of when installing a new component: interrupt request (IRQ) lines,
memory addresses, direct memory access (DMA), and I/O addresses.
Interrupt Request (IRQ) Lines

IRQs, or interrupt requests, are appropriately named. Interrupts are used by
peripherals to interrupt or stop the CPU and demand attention. When the CPU
receives an interrupt alert, it stops whatever it is doing and handles the request.
This is one of the techniques used to make it appear as if the computer were actu-
ally doing multiple things simultaneously (this is also known as multitasking). In
reality, the CPU does one thing at a time; it just does it (and moves to the next
task) so quickly that it appears as if it is handling multiple tasks simultaneously.
Each device is given its own interrupt to use when alerting the CPU. AT-based
PCs have 16 interrupts available. (You wouldn’t want too many things to inter-
rupt the CPU or it would never get anything done.) Given the limited number of
available interrupts, it is critical that you assign them wisely! For each of the 16
interrupts available on an AT PC, Table 9.1 lists the standard use and other uses
associated with it.

TABLE 9.1 AT Interrupts
Interrupt Most common use Other common uses
0 System timer. Nothing else uses (or should use)

interrupt 0.
1 Keyboard. Nothing else uses (or should use)

interrupt 1.
2 None. This interrupt is Modems; COM 3, COM 4.

used to cascade to the
higher 8 interrupts (see
note following this table).
3 COM 2. COM 4, network interface cards, sound

cards, and just about anything else.
4 COM 1. COM 3, network interface cards, sound

cards, and just about anything else.
5 Sound card. LPT2, LPT3, COM 3, COM 4, disk con-

trollers on older XT-based computers.
6 Floppy disk controller. Tape controllers.
7 LPT1. LPT2, COM 3, COM 4, network inter-

face cards, sound cards, and just
about anything else.
8 Real time clock. Nothing else uses (or should use)

interrupt 8.
9 SCSI controllers, PCI cards, and just

about anything else.
10 Secondary IDE channel, SCSI control-

lers, PCI cards, and just about any-
thing else.
11 Third or fourth IDE channel, SCSI con-

trollers, PCI cards, and just about any-
thing else.
12 PS/2-style mouse. Just about anything.
13 Floating point None.

coprocessor.

TABLE 9.1 AT Interrupts (continued)
Interrupt Most common use Other common uses
14 Primary IDE channel. SCSI controllers.
15 Secondary IDE channel. SCSI controllers, network adapters.
Interrupt 2 is a special case. In earlier (XT-based) PCs, there were only eight inter-
rupts because those computers used an 8-bit bus. With the development of the
AT, eight more interrupts were created (to match the 16-bit bus), but no mecha-
nism was available to use them. Rather than redesign the entire interrupt process,
AT designers decided to use interrupt 2 as a gateway, or cascade, to interrupts
9–15. In reality, interrupt 2 is the same as interrupt 9. You should never configure
your system so that both interrupt 2 and 9 are used.
Configuring interrupts is so common that most experienced field technicians

have the standards (as listed in Table 9.1) memorized.
Memory Addresses
Many components use blocks of memory as part of their normal functioning.
Network interface cards, for instance, often buffer incoming data in a block of
memory until they can be processed. This prevents the card from being over-
loaded if a burst of data is received from the network.
When the device driver loads, it lets the CPU know which block of memory
should be set aside for the exclusive use of the component. This prevents other
devices from overwriting the information stored there. (Of course, it also sets us
up for hardware conflicts since two components cannot be assigned the same
address space.) Certain system components also need a memory address. Some
of the more common default assignments are listed in Table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2 Common Memory Address Assignments
Address Assignment
F0000–FFFFF System BIOS
E0000–EFFFF In use on true IBM compatibles
CA000–DFFFF Available on most PCs

TABLE 9.2 Common Memory Address Assignments (continued)
Address Assignment
C8000–C87FF Hard disk controller on an XT system
C0000–C7FFF EGA/VGA display
B8000–BFFFF CGA/EGA/VGA display
B0000–B7FFF Monochrome display
A0000–AFFFF EGA/VGA display
00000–9FFFF System memory
Direct Memory Access (DMA)

When a device stores information in a memory address, this process is controlled
by the CPU. In other words, if a network card needs to buffer data, it requests
that the CPU write that data to its assigned memory address. Since the CPU
knows which area of memory is dedicated to each device, it can help prevent any
other process from overwriting the information in memory (the CPU denies any
request to write to that area of memory except those that come from the proper
device). Using memory addresses is a safe, stable way to for a peripheral to store
data in memory, it is also rather processor intensive and inefficient.
Direct memory access (DMA) is a method used by peripherals to place data
in memory without utilizing (or bothering) the CPU. As an example, a sound
card can buffer music in memory while the CPU is busy recalculating a spread-
sheet. The DMA peripheral has its own processor to move the data. It uses dead
time on the ISA bus to perform the transfer. At the hardware level, DMA is quite
complex, but the important feature to remember is that the transfer of data is
accomplished without intervention from the CPU.
All DMA transfers use a special area of memory set aside to receive data from
the expansion card (or CPU if the transfer is going the other direction) known as
a buffer. The basic architecture of the PC DMA buffers are limited in size and
memory location.
DMA transfers are made using a predefined DMA channel. The PC supports
up to eight DMA channels, although not all are compatible with all expansion
cards. Each channel is dedicated to a specific device—no DMA channel can be
used by more than one device. If you accidentally choose a DMA channel that
another card is using, the usual symptom is that no DMA transfers will take
place (in other words, for our example, no sound would play).

Certain DMA channels are assigned to standard AT devices. Table 9.3 lists
the eight DMA channels and their default assignments.
TABLE 9.3 DMA Assignments
DMA Channel Default assignment
0 Dynamic RAM refresh
1 Hard disk controller
2 Floppy disk controller
3 Available on all PCs
4–7 Available on AT and Micro Channel PS/2 computers
I/O Addresses
I/O (input/output) addresses, also known as port addresses, are a specific area
of memory that a component uses to communicate with the system. As such,
they sound quite a bit like the memory addresses discussed above. The major
difference is that memory addresses are used to store information that will be
used by the device itself. I/O addresses are used to store information that will
be used by the system. In other words, it is information waiting to be processed
rather then information waiting to be prepared for processing.
A perfect example of how I/O addresses are used is the keyboard. When you
type, the information (such as which letters you typed and in which order) is
stored in a specific area of memory (an I/O address). The CPU knows to look at
this address to find information from the keyboard. Each I/O address acts as a
mail stop for information being exchanged between the CPU and a device and
also acts as a reserved place to drop off data to be picked up (either by the device
or the CPU depending upon which way the transfer is going). Since they are
reserved for a particular device, no two devices can share an I/O address.
Certain system devices are automatically assigned an I/O address. Table 9.4
lists some of the common default assignments.
TABLE 9.4 Common I/O Address Assignments
Address Assignment
000–0FF Reserved for the system itself
1F0–1F8 Hard disk controller

TABLE 9.4 Common I/O Address Assignments (continued)
Address Assignment
200–207 Game port
278–27F Second parallel port (LPT2)
2F8–2FF Second serial port (COM 2)
378–37F First parallel port (LPT1)
3F0–3F7 Floppy disk controller
3F8–3FF First serial port (COM 1)
Configuring New Devices

Now that you know what resources are available, you can begin configuring the
device. If you installed the device without configuring it, the device probably
won’t work (although you might get lucky and the default settings of the card
will work). There are two major steps in the configuration: reading the instruc-
tions and setting the configuration of the device.
Reading the Instructions

The saying “If all else fails, read the directions” exists because most people
assume they know how to do something, even if they’ve never done it before.
This statement is especially true for service technicians. Most technicians think
that if they’ve installed one sound card, they’ve installed them all. Even worse,
they won’t admit that they don’t know how to repair something.
It is for this reason we have instructions. Of the two steps for configuring
devices, this is the most important. Every component should come with instruc-
tions (although I have certainly found some components that require you to
guess how to configure them). These instructions usually have diagrams that
indicate where the jumpers or DIP switches are and what positions they need to
be in to set the device so that it uses the resources you specify.
When looking through the instructions for this information, you need to
find the section of the installation manual that deals with configuration (you
may need to look in the index or table of contents to find it). Once you find it,
see if you can match the resources that you have to a set of jumper settings. For
example, if you have IRQ 5 and I/O address 220 available, you need to see if
your sound card can support those settings. If it can support them, find out
which jumpers need to be moved. If it can’t, you have to go back and pick a dif-
ferent set of available resources and repeat the process.

Setting the Configuration

Setting the configuration of a device on many older expansion cards involves fol-
lowing the instructions and moving jumpers and DIP switches.
These settings might be contained in a configuration table in the documenta-
tion. Examples of a sound card’s configuration tables are shown in Tables 9.5
and 9.6. We’ll assume that there are two sets of jumpers: one for the IRQ setting;
another for the I/O address (labeled J1 and J2, respectively). Each set has five
pairs of pins each.
TABLE 9.5 Sample IRQ Settings Table
IRQ Jumper These Pins on Jumper J1
3 1
5 (default) 2
7 3
10 4
11 5
TABLE 9.6 Sample I/O Address Settings Table
I/O Address Jumper These Pins on Jumper J2
220H (default) 1
240H 2
260H 3
280H 4
300H 5
If you know that you have I/O address 220H and IRQ 5 available, you can
tell by the tables that you will have to jumper pin 2 on jumper J1 and pin 1 on
jumper J2.
However, most expansion cards made today don’t use DIP switches or jumpers.
Instead, those that don’t utilize Plug-and-Play technology (discussed below) use a

software setup program. When installing a new sound card that uses a software
setup program, you only set one jumper: the one that controls the I/O address set-
ting (which is usually set to 220H for sound cards). As long as it doesn’t conflict
with any other devices, the software setup program can be used. Other types of
expansion cards will have their own default settings (Ethernet network cards, for
instance, are usually set to IRQ 3 and I/O Port 300 at the factory.) Once again,
read the documentation before attempting to configure any expansion board.
Some expansion cards have no physical jumpers or settings at all. These cards can
be a hassle to install if the default setting conflict with hardware already in place.
You usually end up taking out the old hardware, installing the new, and using the
software to change its settings. Then you can place the old expansion board back.
Once you run the software setup program, it will present menu choices for
each of the settings for that expansion card. You can use these menus to choose
the IRQ, the DMA channel, and the memory addresses for the card.
Another type of configuration program that is used is the Plug-and-Play tech-
nology developed by several manufacturers, including Intel and Microsoft. This
technology consists of a special BIOS that checks the configuration of every
expansion card at startup. When a new card is inserted, the PC will detect that
a change has occurred to the system and will configure the card to settings that,
hopefully, do not conflict.
Plug and Play is a good idea, but the problem is that this technology doesn’t
work all of the time. Sometimes the settings the BIOS chooses will conflict, and
these cards have no easy way of reconfiguring the settings. It is often called “Plug
and Pray” because of this.
This problem manifests itself most often when the newer Plug-and-Play
cards are mixed with older, legacy expansion cards in the same computer. The
term legacy usually applies to previous-generation hardware or software (e.g.,
older 8-bit and ISA cards).
However, Plug-and-Play technology has become much more reliable over the
last few years. As the number of legacy components dwindles, so do the number
of problems. And when it works, Plug and Play beats the old system of manually
configuring every device, hands down!
Installing the Component

Now that your sound card is configured, you can finally mount the device into
the computer. Mounting a device usually means attaching it to the computer’s
case with some kind of fastener and attaching the device to an interface. In
this case, it means installing an expansion card into an expansion slot and secur-
ing it with a screw.
Most expansion cards can be inserted in the same way. First of all, make sure
the power is off! This step is very important because if the power is applied and
you try to install a card into a slot that has power, you will most likely destroy
the card, the motherboard, or both!

Second, if the place you are installing the device has a blank (a piece of plastic
or metal that covers that space where the device is going to go), remove it. Don’t
throw these blanks away. If you ever want to remove a component, you will need
to replace the blank so that dirt, dust, and other contaminants can be kept out.
I have a small box full of blanks that I keep handy, just in case I need them when
removing components.
Many technicians ignore the need for a blank when they remove a component—
do not make this mistake! The most important function of a blank is to promote
proper airflow over the internal components of your PC. PC manufactures have
spent hours determining the proper placement of fans and air holes for their com-
puters. Adding a new hole in the back of your computer will often result in less air-
flow rather than more as you might assume. The end result is often a computer
that overheats and burns out components.
Next, align the connector on the bottom of the card with the connector on the
motherboard and insert the card into its connector. You should feel a slight
amount of resistance. Push the card firmly into place with an even pressure on
the front and back of the card. Stop pushing when all of the card’s connectors are
making contact with the “fingers” in the expansion slot.
If the card doesn’t go in easily, don’t force it. You could break the card or the
connector.
Finally, install the mounting screws to secure the device in place. In this case,
you only have one screw to install, and it’s located at the back of the computer.
This screw will hold the metal tab on the expansion card to the computer’s case.
PS/2 computers have tabs that lock the board into place, so you can skip this step
for PS/2 computers.
Most people would begin to reassemble the computer at this point. However, you
don’t want to do that just yet. I’ve found that Murphy’s Law applies quite often
when installing computer components. So leave the case off while performing the
next steps: installing the software and testing the component. If something goes
wrong, you won’t have to remove the case again to get at the component.
Installing the Software

I’ve got good news and bad news. The good news is that the new component is
installed. The bad news is that it doesn’t work yet. You have one thing left to do
before the component will be fully functional. All components require some kind

of software in order to function. You must install software drivers so that the
operating system can communicate with the new hardware component. At the
same time, other utility software is usually installed. These utilities are what the
user employs to interact with the device.
If you are installing a Plug-and-Play device, Windows 95/98 or Windows 2000
will often sense the new device and run an installation Wizard to walk you through
the process of installing the device driver. If this doesn’t happen, read the instruc-
tions that came with the device.
Many operating systems come with default drivers for numerous peripherals.
Windows 95/98, for example, might automatically install a driver from its own
CD-ROM. Do not assume that since it came with the operating system it must
be the best driver. The drivers on the operating system CD-ROM are often out
of date! Check the disks that came with the device or the manufacture’s Web site
for the latest drivers.
In our case (continuing with our sound card example), you need to install the
sound card drivers and software for the sound card you just installed. Find the
disks that came with the sound card (they will probably be in a white envelope
inside the sound card’s box). Plug all the cords back in and turn the computer on.
After the computer is done booting, insert the first disk into the X: drive (where
X: is whatever drive you place the disk in) and, depending on whether the pro-
gram uses DOS or Windows, do one of the following:
From a DOS prompt: type A:INSTALL on a command line.
From Windows 3.x, select File Run, or from Windows 9x select Start
Run, and then type A:SETUP.
Your installation manual will tell you which of the two methods you need to use.
Follow the on-screen prompts and complete the software installation. When you
finish, you may need to reboot the computer.
Testing the Components

The component should now be functional. To make sure that it’s functioning
properly, you need to test it. There are three ways to test components: through
observation, by using software diagnostics, or, depending upon the operating
system you are using, by checking with tools provided with your OS.
Observation is the simplest method of testing. It involves observing the device
and seeing if the device functions as it’s supposed to. For example, if your sound
card is installed properly, you should be able to hear sounds when you play your
favorite games. Or you should be able to play sound files with the utility that
came with your sound card.
The second method of testing components is to run any diagnostics that may
have come with the device. These are very simple software programs that are
designed to test the functions of only that device. You can run these programs
during the installation process or later.

These programs usually give their results in the form of pass/fail. For example,
the diagnostic program will test the sound-generating capabilities of your sound
card and return “pass” if the diagnostics found no problem with that aspect of
the card. If there were problems, the diagnostics will return “fail” for the partic-
ular part of the sound card that wasn’t functioning.
If you are using Windows 95/98 or Windows NT/2000, you can check for
conflicts by accessing the Device Manager utility included with each operating
system. Any components that are not functioning correctly will be marked with
a yellow exclamation point.
As a general rule of thumb, use at least two of the three methods when testing
your new component. Conflicts will often not manifest themselves until the two
devices that are in conflict with each other try to access a resource simultaneously.
Once you have tested the component and are confident that your computer is con-
figured correctly, you can turn the computer off and replace the cover.
For more information on diagnostics, see Part II, Chapter 19, “Software
Troubleshooting.”
Reassembling the Computer

I f you followed the steps under “Disassembling the Computer,” you will
have a computer case and several components laid out in front of you. This sec-
tion deals with how to put this collection of parts together into a functioning
computer. We’ll cover the steps in reassembling the computer, as well as a few
tips to make the job easier.
The basic rule to remember when reassembling anything is to reverse the steps
you took when you took it apart. That sounds easy enough, but ask anyone who
has ever taken a watch or clock apart how easy it actually is. Computers are sim-
pler than watches, thankfully, and can be reassembled without too much trouble.
Remember to account for any screws you might have removed. At the least,
there is nothing more irritating then the sound of something rolling around
inside the case every time you move it. In the worst-case scenario, that missing
screw could short out your motherboard!
Installing the Motherboard

The first step in reassembly is sometimes optional. If you didn’t remove the
motherboard during disassembly, you can skip this step. Installing the mother-
board involves positioning it in the case (as shown originally in Figure 9.7) and
securing it with either screws or plastic circuit board fasteners.

Reassembling the Computer 367
Once the motherboard is secured in the case, you must connect the individual
connectors that run to things like the reset switch and the turbo button (if
present). Figure 9.10 details this step.
FIGURE 9.10 Reconnecting the cables
Installing the Disk Drives

The next step in the reassembly of the computer is to install the disk drives. This
involves mounting the drives in the case and connecting the drive cables to the
adapters.
Let’s discuss installing the floppy drives, CD-ROM drives, or floppy
controller–based tape drives first. To install one of these devices, place it into
position and secure it with at least one screw in each side. Once you finish this,
connect the appropriate connector on the floppy cable to the drive and the floppy
controller. Remember to orient the cable so that the red wire in the floppy cable
is positioned toward pin 1. Also remember the rules for connecting floppy drives
when more than one drive exists (i.e., when you have both an A: and a B: drive).
The installation of fixed disk drives follows basically the same procedure.
With hard disks, position the drive (and its installation rails, if used), and secure
it with at least one screw on each side. Once the drive is securely fastened to the
case, connect the drive cable to the drive and to the disk adapter (or motherboard
if your motherboard has an integrated disk adapter), remembering the red wire
guideline mentioned above. Also, don’t forget the rules for connecting disks to
cables as mentioned in Chapter 4, “Disk System Architecture.”
Configuring the CMOS

IDE hard disks get their configuration information from the BIOS’s CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) memory. CMOS contains

settings that determine how the computer is configured. These settings are
user-configurable and can be accessed through the CMOS setup program by
pressing some key combination at startup (such as Shift+F1 or Ctrl+Shift+Esc).
For example, one setting in CMOS controls the boot sequence. The parameter
is usually called boot sequence and can be set to either “A: C:” or “C: A:” (in
most cases).
Every CMOS setup program is different and uses different commands for con-
figuration. Usually, though, the CMOS setup program is menu driven and will
present you with a list of settings that you can configure, as well as the possible
settings for them. When you’re done configuring, you can press Esc and the
CMOS setup program will ask you to press Enter to save the changes and reboot.
After rebooting, the computer will operate with the modified settings.
During the system boot, the computer checks what hardware settings are in the
CMOS versus what is actually installed in the computer. If they are different, the
BIOS will issue a warning and usually bring you right to the CMOS setup screen.
If you run across a computer that doesn’t automatically detect an IDE hard
disk when you install it, you will have to run the CMOS setup program and
change the hard disk definitions. These are usually shown as a series of numbers
under columns such as Cyl, Heads, and Sect. These columns and numbers cor-
respond to the drive’s cylinders, heads, and sectors (in other words, their geom-
etry). By changing the numbers in these columns, you are changing what the
BIOS “knows” about the hard disk. The numbers that must be entered in these
columns can usually be found either on the back of the drive itself or in the doc-
umentation that came with the drive.
Changing the drive geometry without needing to can cause long-term data damage
or loss.
CMOS is used for more than just configuring hard drive information. CMOS,
working in conjunction with the system BIOS, configures the system during the
boot sequence. I’ve mentioned that CMOS contains information about the IDE
hard drives that are installed on the system, as well as information about which
order boot devices should be checked for operating system files during startup.
CMOS also contains the following:
The physical resources used by parallel and serial ports, as well as any
other configuration information needed for those components.
A description of the floppy drive—its speed, density, etc.
Memory configuration.
The date and time.

Any passwords that have been assigned to the hardware. Many computers
require a password to complete the boot sequence.
A list of the resources that have been reserved for use by Plug-and-Play
components (and those that have been set aside for legacy equipment).
BIOS shadowing configuration information.
Installing the Power Supply

At this point, you have the motherboard and disk drives installed. You can now
install the power supply and provide power to these components. To install the
power supply, hold the power supply in position and install the four mounting
screws (if necessary). Then, connect the power connectors to each component
(including the disk drives and motherboard) and make sure they are secure.
Finally, make sure the power switch connector has been connected to the
power supply.
There is a hard way and an easy way to connect the connectors labeled P8
and P9 to the motherboard. The hard way is to push the connectors straight
down onto their pins. This takes considerable effort since the locking tabs are
in the way. It’s easier to position the connectors at a backward tilt, as shown
in Figure 9.11, and then slip them down into position. They slide on much eas-
ier and you won’t damage anything (including yourself).
FIGURE 9.11 Connecting power supply connectors P8 and P9
Installing the Expansion Cards

You are now ready to reinstall the expansion cards that you removed. To rein-
stall an expansion card, consult the diagram you made that shows the position

of each expansion card and locate the slot for the card you are trying to install.
Insert the card into its slot, making certain that all of the card’s connectors are
making contact with the expansion slot. Other than that, reinstalling expansion
boards is the same as installing new ones; see “Installing the Component” earlier
in this chapter for instructions.
Installing Memory
The physical act of installing memory is fairly straightforward and follows the
same basic rules that have been described for installing other peripherals. There
are however, a few specific differences of which you will need to be aware.
The hardest task involved in adding memory to a PC is buying the correct
RAM for your computer. Memory technology has been changing at a rapid pace
to match the changes in CPU and architecture. There are numerous types of
RAM available, and most are not interchangeable. In other words, you must buy
the correct type of memory and all of your memory must be of the same type.
Memory Types
There are two major categories of RAM on the market today: static RAM
(SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). Static RAM is designed so that once
information is placed in it, it will hold that information for as long as power is
supplied to the memory chips. SRAM is usually faster then DRAM but is more
expensive as well. Because of its high cost, SRAM is most often used as system
cache (to take advantage of its high speed) rather than as main system memory.
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually rewritten in order for it to retain
data. The memory is placed on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data hundreds
of times per second. DRAM is relatively inexpensive and fairly fast and is used
as the main memory for most modern computers. The odds are that you will be
replacing or adding DRAM to your computer.
If SRAM and DRAM were the only different technologies to keep track of,
purchasing memory would be a snap. Unfortunately, there are several (incom-
patible) types of DRAM from which you must choose:
Fast Page Mode (FPM) DRAM Contrary to what the name implies, FPM
DRAM is only slightly faster then DRAM due to a more efficient method of
calling data from memory. Since other technologies are faster, FPM DRAM
is not used much anymore, but it is almost universally supported on PC
motherboards.
Extended Data Output (EDO) DRAM EDO memory is slightly faster than
FPM DRAM because it allows one access to begin as another finishes. EDO
memory must be supported by the chipset in use on the motherboard, and you
must confirm this before purchasing it. EDO memory is the most common
form of DRAM in use today.

Burst EDO (BEDO) DRAM Using a pipelining technology, BEDO DRAM

is significantly faster than standard EDO memory but has gained little sup-
port in the industry.
Synchronous DRAM SDRAM works at the same speed as the system bus,
up to 100MHz. While the technology is significantly faster than other forms
of DRAM memory, the speed increase is often not apparent because the sys-
tem cache masks it.
Installation Concerns
Each type of memory and each system BIOS has its own peculiarities in how it
supports memory. You will definitely want to read the system manual before you
purchase and install your new memory. Some of the more common “rules”
include:
When installing memory, many systems require that all slots in a given
memory bank be full. This means that if you have a 4-slot bank free and
you want to add memory, you will have to install four memory modules.
Do not mix memory of different speeds on your system. Many computers
will not even boot if you do this. If your computer does boot, you can rest
assured you’ll have memory-related problems later!
If you are installing memory of different sizes (one 64MB SIMM and
two 32MB SIMMs, for instance), place the largest SIMMs in the first
memory banks.
Installation Procedures
Most memory today is sold in either SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) or
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) format. Each module has a governor that
will prevent it from being installed incorrectly in the memory slot. (Do not force
memory modules! You will break off the governor and need to have your moth-
erboard serviced.)
Line up the module with the slot at a 45-degree angle away from the support
arms. Slide the module into the slot, and stand it up. If you install it properly, you
will hear a click as the module locks into place.
If you accidentally snap off the memory module lock on your motherboard, you
can still use the computer. Just ensure that the memory module is firmly seated
in the slot. Be aware, though, that since the memory is not locked into place, tem-
perature changes can cause it to work its way loose over time (this is known as
chip creep). Have the memory bank fixed at the earliest opportunity!

Installing Universal Serial Bus Peripherals and Hubs

Traditional methods for adding components to a PC usually involved removing
the case and at least a couple of system reboots. These legacy methods for upgrade
were also limited by the very architecture of the PC: the limit of 16 interrupts,
limited DMA channels, even limited bus speed. Typical users do not understand
the various rules and procedures used to install typical PC components.
With this is mind, the Universal Serial Bus (USB) technology was created. It
has actually been around for quite some time, but it did not become popular until
Microsoft included USB support in Windows 95 Second Edition.
USB offers numerous advantages over traditional peripheral architecture. By
design, you can install a USB device while a computer is running, and the device
will be configured automatically (without requiring that the system be restarted).
The configuration is usually done without having to open the case, configure the
device to use available resources, or do much more then plug the device into a
USB port (and maybe supply a driver disk).
Through the use of daisy-chaining and USB hubs, a single USB port can sup-
port (theoretically) 127 devices. The USB can also moves data much faster than
traditional devices do—up to 12MBps (megabytes per second).
The only real concern you might have when installing a USB device is over-
loading the chain. While the specifications state that 127 devices can be con-
nected, those devices will all be competing for that 12MBps bus, and
performance will suffer. This is why most modern computers come with two
USB ports—it helps to split the workload.
Upgrading the System BIOS

The system BIOS (basic input/output system) is software (usually stored on a
ROM chip) that contains all of the code required to control the keyboard, dis-
play screen, disk drives, serial ports, and various other PC components. Basi-
cally, the BIOS determines what a computer can do without accessing any
outside software.
Storing the BIOS on a ROM chip ensures that it will always be available and
will not be damaged by disk failure. The problem with this is that ROM is usu-
ally much slower then RAM, so many systems copy the BIOS to RAM each time
the computer boots (this is known as shadowing).
Since the BIOS determines what devices a computer can utilize before the
operating system loads, there will be times when you might need to update
the BIOS to support a new component. The most common reason to upgrade the
BIOS is to support hard drives that are larger than the limit imposed by BIOS
code. There are two ways to upgrade system BIOS: the old way and the new way.
The old way involves ordering a replacement BIOS chip, opening the com-
puter, removing the old chip, and inserting the new one. In some ways, this is the

least nerve-racking method of upgrading, but you must be careful not to bend or
break the connectors on the BIOS chip.
Most modern computers store their BIOS on an EPROM (Erasable Pro-
grammable Read Only Memory). An EPROM can be updated using flash soft-
ware. In many ways, this method is more dangerous than the old-fashioned
method of replacing a chip. Since the flash software overwrites the information
on the chip, if you make a mistake, your computer can become unbootable.
You will want to follow the instructions very carefully!
Most flash software packages include the ability to back up the current BIOS
before flashing the chip. ALWAYS take advantage of this step before performing
the flash process, EVEN IF YOU HAVE USED THE SOFTWARE BEFORE! Also, do
not assume that because two computers are the same make and model and were
purchased at the same time, you can use the same backup as protection against
errors for both machines. Manufacturers are constantly revising BIOS software.
Perform the backup for every computer that you update!
Installing the Case Cover

If everything is installed correctly, you should only have the case cover and case
cover screws left to install. If you have other components left, you need to
double-check your work. Go back and check to see that you haven’t forgotten
to install a component or mounting screw.
The above reminder (“Check to see that you haven’t forgotten to install a compo-
nent”) may seem unnecessary on the face of it, but I know that a large number of
you, like most auto mechanics, will never have a completely clean workspace to
start with. You probably have bits and pieces of other jobs sitting on the table
you’re working on right now. It’s easy to lose track of which ones go with the cur-
rent job and which ones you’re holding onto for another project. So do strive to
keep all the parts for one project at a time localized to just one area of your work-
space; that way, you’ll be able to see easily whether you’ve finished the job or not.
When you are ready to install the case cover, position the computer on the
work surface so that it won’t move. Slide the case cover onto the computer so
that it rests against its mounting tabs. Insert the mounting screws and tighten
them so that the cover can’t move. If the cover your computer uses has locking
tabs, slide them into place so that the cover is secured.
Finally, hook up all the cables (keyboard, printer, power, and mouse) and
make sure they are secured. When this is finished, you are ready to power up the
computer. Turn on the computer and test your handiwork.

If it doesn’t power up or work correctly, you will have to troubleshoot the

problem. See the sidebar for a few tips to help minimize the chances of running
into a problem.
If these tips don’t work, check Part II, Chapter 19, “Software Troubleshooting,” for
more steps.
General Reassembly Tips
There are several things that you can do to make your reassembly go smoothly.
While this is by no means a comprehensive list, it does outline the most com-
mon problems when reassembling a computer.
Read the Directions This is by far the most commonly ignored task. Everyone
assumes that they know how to do something and only reads the instructions
when they have problems. Besides offering the necessary warnings and guide-
lines, most instructions also contain a “Frequently Asked Questions” (or FAQ)
list that provides answers to the most commonly asked questions. By reading
the instructions before you start, you can avoid the most common pitfalls.
Take Your Time The majority of disassembly/reassembly problems are

caused by rushing. Rushing an installation may cause you to break components
or to drop tools, which will cost you even more time. If you take your time, you
will avoid these problems. Don’t ever expect to perform a job that will “just take
10 minutes.”
Check Cables for Proper Orientation A common problem when putting a

computer back together is putting a cable on upside down (this frequently
happens when installing cables for floppy drives). When this happens, the
computer will get erroneous signals from the device. A rule of thumb for inter-
nal cables is to orient the cable so that the red wire is toward pin 1. A common
indication that the floppy cable is on upside down is that the floppy light will
be on constantly.
Make Sure All Connectors Are Secure When installing any device, make
sure that the connectors are secure. After installing a device, tug lightly on it
to make sure that the connector isn’t just sitting in the slot but is actually
being grasped and held by it. If the connectors aren’t secure, they can cause
component failure or electrical shorts (which may destroy the component, the
motherboard, or both).

Portable Computers 375
Portable Computers
T he maintenance of portable computers has its own set of rules to follow.
Due to the complexity of their design, most manufacturers insist that all
upgrades be performed at an authorized service center. Equipment such as LCD
display screens, DC controllers, video boards, or processors are often unreach-
able in a laptop. Most field service will involve replacing hard drives, adding
memory, configuring PCMCIA cards, or adding a battery to extend useable time.
For more information on portable computers, see Chapter 2, “PC Architecture.”
The following list details the areas that are most likely to need field replace-
ment on a portable computer.
Memory To replace or add memory to a portable computer, you follow the
same rules as adding memory to any other computer. You might, however,
need to read the manual for directions. There are as many ways to access
memory on portable computers as there are manufacturers.
PCMCIA cards There are three types of PCMCIA cards: Type I, Type II,
and Type III. PCMCIA controller software must be installed and running
in order for PCMCIA cards to be initialized into the system. If the control-
ler software is running, PCMCIA cards will load and configure automat-
ically. (You might be asked for a drivers disk the first time a particular
card is initialized.)
Hard drives Many portable computers have an open bay that can be used to
install an extra battery, CD-ROM drive, or hard disk. Read the documentation
to determine the installation process for your brand of portable computer.
Mouse Many people, myself included, dislike the glide pad for controlling
mouse actions. Luckily, most of today’s portable computers have a PS/2 mouse
port available. Plugging in a PS/2 mouse will usually cause the system to auto-
matically configure the port. If a system does not have a PS/2 port, you can
always add a standard serial mouse and load the appropriate drivers.
Docking Stations
As portable computers become faster and more powerful, many individuals are
replacing their desktop systems with them. Unfortunately, portables often have
some distinct disadvantages when used as a desktop replacement: smaller key-
boards, smaller screens, fewer ports (LPT, COM, SCSI, etc.). To overcome these
limitations, many people use a docking station. Most of today’s laptop computers
will automatically sense when they are attached to a docking station and configure

themselves appropriately. On older models, you might need to load special soft-
ware or (in rare cases) change a configuration parameter and reboot the computer.
Summary
I n this chapter, we concentrated on the physical aspects of PC maintenance
and upgrade. We discussed taking the computer apart, adding or replacing com-
ponents, the configuration of those components, and the system BIOS.
We started with a discussion of the proper ways to disassemble a computer—
your work area, the tools you need, and the usual methods for removing major
components.
We then moved to a discussion of installing or upgrading components. We
used a sound card as a specific example, but the process is about the same for
adding or replacing any component to a PC. The biggest piece of this section was
the discussion of PC resources—memory addresses, I/O addresses, IRQs, and
DMA channels. A thorough understanding of these concepts is necessary for
both real-world troubleshooting and success on the exam.
Once we covered the theory of PC resources, we moved on to the physical act
of configuring expansion boards. No book can cover every technique, but we
covered the most common methods used to configure components—jumpers,
DIP switches, software, and Plug-and-Play technology.
We ended with a look at the system BIOS—what it does, how it can be
upgraded, and how to configure it.
Key Terms
BIOS (basic input/output system) legacy

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor memory address
Direct memory access motherboard
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) software driver
expansion card static RAM (SRAM)
I/O (input/output) address Universal Serial Bus (USB)
interrupt request

Review Questions
1. Which of the following are the most important to consider when installing
new expansion cards? (Select all that apply.)
A. ESD effects
B. Capacity of the hard disk
C. Position of expansion cards
D. Removing the cover
2. All of the following are factors to consider when removing a computer case
cover except:
A. If you do it too quickly, you may lose parts or damage something.
B. You have to keep the reassembly process in mind as you take things apart.
C. If you take short cuts, extra parts will appear and the computer may
no longer function.
D. The computer is not a complex machine, therefore it is easy to
reassemble and disassemble whenever you have a problem.
3. During which disassembly step should you take notes?
A. Removing the case
B. Removing the expansion cards
C. Removing the power supply
D. Removing the disk drives
E. Removing the motherboard
F. All of the above
4. You have just installed a new floppy drive. Upon powering up the computer,
you discover that the floppy drive isn’t working properly. The floppy drive light
remains on as long as the computer is powered up. What should you check first?
A. If the floppy drive is in the wrong position on the floppy cable
B. If the floppy cable is installed upside down
C. If the floppy drive is defective
D. If the floppy cable is defective
5. What is the first step in installing a new device?
A. Disassembling the computer
B. Installing software
C. Removing the case
D. Reading the instructions

6. At this time, legacy could correctly be used to refer to which types of

expansion cards?
A. 8-bit
B. ISA
C. MCA
D. All of the above
7. A computer work area should contain which of the following? (Select all
that apply.)
A. An oscilloscope
B. Assorted tools
C. Software
D. Antistatic wrist strap
8. When preparing the work area, all of the following should be considered except:
A. Having a small workspace available to do all the work that has to
be done.
B. That the work area must be flat.
C. That the area must be sturdy.
D. That the area must be well lit and clean.
9. What is the simplest method of testing a component?

A. Software diagnostics
B. Hardware diagnostics
C. Placing a multimeter across the power junction
D. Observing the component and seeing if it operates properly
10. Place the following options in order. The correct sequence in removing
expansion cards is:
1. Once the board is out, place it in an antistatic bag to help prevent
ESD damage.
2. Grasp the board by the top edge with both hands and rock it front
to back.
3. Remove any mounting screws that are holding the boards in place
and place the screws somewhere where they won’t be lost.
4. Remove any internal or external cables or connectors.
A. 4, 3, 2, 1
B. 1, 2, 3, 4
C. 2, 4, 3, 1
D. 2, 3, 1, 4

11. In removing the power supply, all of the following steps should be per-
formed except:
A. Disconnect the power supply connectors from the internal devices.
B. Remove the mounting hardware for the power supply.
C. Do not remove the connectors from the system board as the computer
cannot be powered on.
D. Note the positions of and connections before removing any power
connectors.
12. Before you install a new device in a functioning computer, you should:
A. Disassemble the computer
B. Determine the computer’s available resources
C. Install DOS
D. Install MSD
13. The following steps are required in removing the motherboard except: (Select
all that apply.)
A. After removing the screws, remove the motherboard from the case
because of ESD discharge.
B. Remove the screws holding the motherboard to the mounting brackets.
C. Slide the motherboard to the side to release the spacers from their
mounting holes in the case.
D. Ensuring that you are properly grounded, remove the motherboard
and place in a static-free environment.
14. Which of the following is NOT a prerequisite to disassembling a computer?

A. Disconnecting the power cable
B. Shutting down the computer
C. Disconnecting the monitor and keyboard cables
D. Disassembling the power supply
15. The installation of a new replacement component follows all of these steps except:
A. Determining the available resources
B. Configuring the new devices
C. Installing the component and its supporting software
D. Turning on the computer and letting it run

16. In reassembling the computer, the first step to perform is to:

A. Install the motherboard
B. Install the disk drives
C. Configure the CMOS
D. Install the power supply
17. All of the following are key sequences to access the BIOS except:
A. Shift + F1
B. Ctrl+Shift+Esc
C. Press the Del key
D. Press the F5 key
18. All of the following are good reassembly aids except:

A. Read the directions.
B. Take your time.
C. Check cables for proper orientation.
D. Don’t worry about the connections—once you plug them in
they’re secure.
19. Of all the helpful reassembly hints listed below, which is the most often
overlooked?
A. Read the directions.
B. Take your time.
C. Check cables for proper connections.
D. Make sure all connectors are secure.
20. All of the following steps are performed in the installation and upgrade
process except:
A. Disassembly
B. Inspection
C. Reassembly
D. Preparing the work area


1. A, C. Whenever you remove expansion cards, ESD effects should be foremost in
your mind. Therefore, always remember your ESD wrist strap. Some busses will
“remember” the slot a particular card was in. Therefore, if you will be replacing
it (either with itself or a new card), you should write down which slot it came out
of so that you can put the replacement in the same slot.
2. D. Of all the above factors, the only untrue one is that a computer is not a
complex machine. It looks deceivingly simple, until you have to return all the
parts to the machine.
3. F. You should take notes during each step of disassembly. One mistake can be
fatal when putting the computer back together again. Documentation is the
key to success.
4. B. If the floppy drive isn’t working properly, the first thing to check is to see
if the cable is installed upside down. The cable usually goes in one direction,
and pin 1 should always be closest to the power supply.
5. D. Reading the instructions will give you all the necessary information about
installing the software and hardware items that are a part of the device.
6. D. Legacy is generally used as a term to describe older technology. Therefore,

legacy could correctly be used to refer to 8-bit, ISA, and MCA expansion cards.
7. B, D. A computer work area should contain assorted tools needed to perform

the job and an antistatic wrist strap to prevent ESD.
8. A. The work area should be large enough to work on any computer. The work
area should encompass all of the above criteria except option A.
9. D. As a backup, it is generally also a good idea to run some sort of software

diagnostic to confirm that there is no conflict.
10. A. The correct sequence for removing the expansion cards is:
1. Remove any internal or external cables or connectors.

2. Remove any mounting screws that are holding the boards in place
and place the screws somewhere where they won’t be lost.
3. Grasp the board by the top edge with both hands and rock it front
to back.
4. Once the board is out, place it in an antistatic bag to help prevent
ESD damage.
11. C. In removing the power supply, it is also necessary to remove the connectors
from the system board (and all disk drive connectors) so that the power supply
can be removed.

12. B. Before you install a new device in a functioning computer, you should
determine the computer’s available resources so that when installing a new
device you have the necessary resources to support the device.
13. A. After removing the screws you should never remove the motherboard from
the case because of ESD discharge. If you need to remove the motherboard
(due to a replacement or upgrade situation), it will be necessary to remove the
original motherboard so that the new one may be installed.
14. D. The step that is NOT a prerequisite to disassembling a computer is disas-

sembling the power supply. Only a service technician who has been specially
trained to operate on power supplies should attempt to disassemble one. This
is due to the fact that there are many components that can be fatally dangerous
to an unknowing technician.
15. D. While you will have to turn the computer on and use it sooner or later, once
you get to this point you have completed the installation process (and have
moved to the testing and maintenance process).
16. A. The basic rule to remember when reassembling anything is to reverse the
steps you took when you took it apart. If you removed the motherboard dur-
ing the last step, the first step in reassembling the computer is to install the
motherboard.
17. D. The BIOS can be activated by any key except the F5 key. Generally, upon
booting, your computer will display the proper key sequence for accessing
your computer’s BIOS.
18. D. You should always check all your cable connections to make sure they
are secure before putting on the cover. This prevents having to do the same
thing twice.
19. A. Reading the directions is the step most overlooked when reassembling the
computer, yet it is the most important because the directions tell you every-
thing that is required for each device.
20. D. Preparing your work area should be done prior to the actual installation
and upgrade process. This process includes disassembly, inspection, installa-
tion and upgrade, and reassembly.

Chapter Troubleshooting
Techniques
10 2.1 Identify common symptoms and problems associated with
each module and how to troubleshoot and isolate the problems.
Processor/memory symptoms
Mouse
Floppy drive
Parallel ports
Hard drives
CD-ROM
DVD
Sound card/audio
Monitor/video
Motherboards
Modems
BIOS
USB
NIC
CMOS
Power supply
Slot covers
Troubleshooting tools (e.g., multimeter)
Large LBA, LBA
Cables
Keyboard
Peripherals

2.2 Identify basic troubleshooting procedures and how to
elicit problem symptoms from customers.
Troubleshooting/isolation/problem determination
procedures
Determine whether hardware or software problem
Gather information from user regarding; e.g.,
Customer environment
Symptoms/error codes
Situation when the problem occurred
5.2 Identify care and service techniques and common
problems with primary printer types
Feed and output
Errors (printed or displayed)
Paper jam
Print quality
Safety precautions
Preventive maintenance

T roubleshooting is the process of identifying a computer problem
so that it can be fixed. Until you’ve had the opportunity to troubleshoot several
computers with several different types of customers, the only way to gain the trou-
bleshooting skills you will rely on as a certified technician is to learn from other
people’s experiences. In this chapter, I’ll try to summarize for you some of the
experience that my colleagues and I have gained over the course of our careers as
service technicians, and I’ll attempt to organize these experiences by providing you
with guidelines and general tips for approaching the task of troubleshooting. This
chapter will cover the following A+ troubleshooting topics in detail:
Troubleshooting methodology
Hardware troubleshooting
Software troubleshooting
Printer troubleshooting
For complete coverage of objective 2.1, please also see Chapters 1, 4, 6, and 8.
Pay special attention to the last section, “Printer Troubleshooting,” because there
are quite a few questions on the exam that deal with printer problems.
Troubleshooting Resources
J ust as an artist has paintbrushes, paints, and a vision of how things should
work together, a great troubleshooter has several tools to make their job easier.
And, like the artist’s brushes, palette, and vision, a technician’s resources can be
put into service to accomplish a complex goal: the identification of a problem.

386 Chapter 10 Troubleshooting Techniques
Intellectual Resources
Most technicians actually relish computer problems, because they know it’s a
chance to find a solution and maybe to brag to their colleagues. It can feel almost
like being the first to discover a star or a comet, although very seldom do you get
to name a problem or its solution (like “The Roger Smith General Protection
Fault Solution” or “The Dan Jones AUTOEXEC.BAT Conundrum”). Each time
a technician solves a new problem, they know that if they ever run into that
problem again, they’ll be able to fix it easily (or at least have a starting point
for troubleshooting).
The first major resource that you can use for troubleshooting a problem is
your own brain. Your brain can hold lots of information. We remember almost
everything we’re exposed to. For this reason, the best troubleshooters are usually
the people who have been exposed to the most problems. They have seen several
different types of problems and their solutions. If they run into a particular prob-
lem, they may have seen it before and can quickly fix the problem.
Service documentation is another important intellectual resource, and we
might point out that it’s not used as often as it should be. As soon as a new prod-
uct is released, several things are released at the same time (or very shortly there-
after). These include items like the owner’s manual, the buyer’s guide, and (most
importantly) the service and replacement parts manuals. These books can be a
valuable source of troubleshooting information. They can also contain replace-
ment parts information, such as which part(s) should be replaced when a par-
ticular component is found to be bad. Also, they usually contain exploded
diagrams of the model being repaired.
The Internet, of course, has become an extremely valuable resource for trou-
bleshooting. Almost every technology company now has a Web site. One feature
of most companies’ Web sites is the “knowledge base” (many have a different
name for this feature), an area that contains several pieces of information that
can be very valuable to technicians working with its products. First of all, the
knowledge base usually contains one or more Frequently Asked Questions
(FAQ) files. The files are summaries of the questions that technical support tech-
nicians get and their answers. Second, this is a good place to look for reports of
“bugs” that have been discovered or suspected in the company’s products. You
may have to go to the company’s support page (or some similarly purposed sec-
tion of the Web site) to ask your question directly or perform a search on the
knowledge base or FAQ to determine if there’s a specific question or problem
that relates to your situation, but in many cases, a problem you’re spending time
trying to solve has already been solved by someone else and reported.
Yet another intellectual resource that is seldom used, except in the most dif-
ficult cases, is a coworker. If you don’t have the knowledge to troubleshoot or
repair the component, a coworker might. (The reason this is the most seldom
used is that people hate to admit that they don’t know something. But as the say-
ing goes, “The beginning of wisdom is ‘I don’t know.’”)

Software Troubleshooting 387
Hardware and Software Resources

In addition to the intangible resources, you have other items you can use to
troubleshoot the computer. These items fall into two categories: hardware and
software.
There are several hardware resources you can use in the troubleshooting pro-
cess. First, you have your computer toolkit. When troubleshooting, though, the
only tools you should really need from the toolkit are the ones for removing the
case, because most troubleshooting is done with the computer on and “as is.”
After all, you need to see what’s happening before you start making changes.
See Chapter 1, “Basic Computer Service Concepts,” for more information on the
tools used to service a computer.
Another example of a hardware resource is a resource discovery expansion

card. These cards, when installed into any expansion slot, will tell you what
resources are being used in the computer and will indicate any possible conflicts.
Several companies make these cards.
Software Troubleshooting
T his section deals with a canvas that the troubleshooting artist may have to
paint often: software problems. More than half of all computer problems are soft-
ware related. The problems usually don’t stem from the software itself, but rather
the interaction of that software with other software that may be running on that
machine. However, before you can start troubleshooting, you must determine if
the problem is hardware related or software related. In order to determine the
source of a problem (hardware or software), you have a few things you can do to
narrow it down:
1. In DOS/Windows computers, boot the computer “clean.” Booting it
“clean” means starting the computer with no software drivers loading.
The only things that should be in the AUTOEXEC.BAT or CON-
FIG.SYS (the two DOS configuration files) are the necessary memory
managers and settings to get the computer up and running. Leave out
sound card, CD-ROM, network, and other device drivers. You can also
boot “clean” by using a bootable floppy disk (see the sidebar “Making a
Bootable Diskette”). If the computer functions normally, then the prob-
lem is usually software related, although it could be a hardware problem
and the device driver just enabled the device, causing the conflict to
show itself.

2. Check the operating system error messages. Every operating system has
built-in error-detection routines. These routines are designed to intercept
problems and notify the user. If there is a major problem, these routines
will display an error message for the software or hardware component
that caused the problem. For example, when you try to print to a printer
connected to your primary parallel port (LPT1) and the system returns an
error like “Error writing to device LPT1,” that is more than likely a
hardware-related problem because a hardware device was mentioned
(or alluded to) in the error message.
3. Uninstall and then reinstall the application that’s having problems. This
ensures that you have the correct version of all the application’s compo-
nents and that there are no missing files that may be required by the appli-
cation. (For example, many applications today are intelligent enough to
tell you when they’re missing a necessary file to complete an operation—
perhaps a spell-checker’s dictionary files, or a library of programming
objects, or even a file created by a coworker but stored in the wrong place
on the network. The solution to this problem is very simple: If the missing
file is a program file, reinstall that program from the original disks. Or, if
the file is a data file, restore the data file from a backup.)
If you are using Windows 2000, you can take advantage of a new set of features
known as Intellimirror. Intellimirror and its associated tools can automatically
maintain applications—replacing missing files, updating INI or Registry files, or
doing a complete installation—automatically!
4. Look for ways to repeat the problem. If it is a phantom problem, ask the
user to help you out by finding a way to repeat the problem or looking for
some type of pattern to the problem.
5. Make sure you are using the latest patches. This is especially important
with machines that are on a network; having a buggy network client (the
software that communicates with the network server and network
resources) can cause a host of strange application problems. Also, make
sure that all the machines running on the network are using the latest bug
fixes to the application itself. You should be able to obtain these by look-
ing on the application company’s Web site.
6. Check the Internet. This is related to the previous point. Often software
publishers will post FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) and have a
searchable knowledge base on the Internet with useful resources for
troubleshooting problems with their products.
7. Compare and isolate. It can be difficult to determine if an application
problem is caused by the software or hardware. The best troubleshooting

tools in this case are the twins, comparison and isolation. Try comparing
how the application behaves on the problem machine and on a machine
that you know is working fine; then remove and/or replace hardware
components from the two machines to eliminate possible causes and iso-
late the solution.
These indicators, along with your experience, should help you narrow the
problem to either a hardware or software problem.
Making a Bootable Diskette
A DOS bootable diskette is a valuable tool for troubleshooting. The creation

process is very simple. Insert a blank 1.44MB or 720KB diskette into your
floppy drive and type the following at a DOS prompt:
FORMAT A: /S
(You can replace A: with the drive letter that represents your floppy drive.) The
/S parameter instructs DOS to include the DOS “system files” on the floppy
after formatting it. If the disk is already formatted, you can add the system files
to a disk and make it bootable by typing the following at a DOS prompt:
SYS A:
When the computer is done, the “System Transferred” message will appear,
telling you that the computer has finished making the disk bootable. This disk,
when inserted before turning the computer on, will allow the computer to be
booted because it contains the smallest portion of DOS necessary to start the
computer.
Windows 9x offers several other ways of creating a bootable diskette using

graphical tools.
DOS Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting DOS problems is a fundamental skill that most technicians get
several chances to practice. Understanding and being able to modify the two
main configuration files of DOS—AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS—can
solve most DOS problems.
These topics apply to both MS-DOS and PC-DOS versions.

The DOS Configuration Files: CONFIG.SYS and

AUTOEXEC.BAT
DOS is a simple operating system. It requires very few system resources to
operate. It is also simple to operate. Unless you’ve damaged or misplaced part
of DOS itself, you just type the command you want the computer to execute,
and it does it. Despite the fact that it can take a lot of study to familiarize your-
self with all the commands that DOS has to offer, you don’t need to know very
many of them to take advantage of its most useful capabilities. For these rea-
sons, it stands as the most popular operating system of all time.
DOS uses two main configuration files, CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT. Each file is a simple ASCII text file that contains commands
and variables that set up the user environment in DOS.
The CONFIG.SYS file is the main configuration file that DOS uses and, as
such, it can be the source of several problems with DOS. The problems
that are normally experienced are things like insufficient conventional
memory, incorrect drivers loading, and not enough file handles. The
CONFIG.SYS also has a detailed role in the logical mapping of the PC’s
memory. It loads memory drivers (like EMM386.EXE and HIMEM.SYS)
as well as specifying the location of the DOS files (with statements like
DOS=HIGH, UMB). It can also load device drivers by using lines that
start with a “DEVICE=” statement.
The AUTOEXEC.BAT, on the other hand, is a special batch file that exe-
cutes automatically at system startup. This configuration file establishes
the user environment and loads system drivers. Because it’s a batch file,
you can add statements to it that can automatically start other programs.
If either file becomes damaged or corrupt (with incorrect entries), the best two
tools you have are the REM statement and backup files.
REM Statements
Let’s say that the PC we’re working on is inconsistently locking up. Further, let’s
say that you have already determined that the problem is software related,
because when you boot “clean” with a boot diskette, the computer functions
normally. This would mean that one of the statements in the CONFIG.SYS or
AUTOEXEC.BAT is causing the problem.
In order to solve the problem, you must remove (or change) the line that is
causing the problem. However, first you must find the offending line. This can
be accomplished through the use of REM statements. The REM command is
short for remark; by placing it at the beginning of any command line, you ensure
that DOS will skip that line when running the file. The initial purpose for the
REM command was to insert remarks or comments into batch files, so that the
programmer or curious user could annotate what was going on in different sec-
tions of the file without requiring the computer to “run” the comment. However,

you can also use it to remove suspect commands one at a time in order to test the
effect of booting with and without them. By editing both the CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT and “REMming out” one command at a time (and rebooting
between each change), you can progressively eliminate statements that might be
the cause of the problem.
There is another way to “step” through the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT

files to determine which line is causing the problem. During the boot process,
press the F8 key when you see the words, “Starting MS-DOS.” This will allow you
to choose whether to execute a particular line in either of these files.
Let’s take a look at a sample computer problem:

The computer is randomly locking up. The CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT are as follows (the lines are numbered to facilitate our discus-
sion here; the real files would not have the numbers):
CONFIG.SYS
1.DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS
2.DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE
3.DOS=HIGH
4.FILES=40
5.BUFFERS=9,256
6.DEVICE=C:\SB16\DRV\CTSB16.SYS /UNIT=0
/BLASTER=A:220 I:5 D:1 H:5
7.DEVICE=C:\SB16\DRV\DRV\SBCD.SYS /D:MSCD001 /P:220
AUTOEXEC.BAT
1.@ECHO OFF
2.SET BLASTER=A220 I5 D1 T4
3.C:\DOS\MSCDEX.EXE /D:MSCD001
4.SET PATH=C:\DOS;C:\;C:\WINDOWS;C:\MOUSE
5.SET TEMP=C:\TEMP
6.C:\WINDOWS\SMARTDRV.EXE
When troubleshooting a software problem the first thing I always check is the
non-DOS items in either configuration file. Lines 6 and 7 of the CONFIG.SYS and
line 2 of the AUTOEXEC.BAT are from a recent sound card installation. To check
if one of these drivers is the problem, always start by REMming out the non-DOS
items. So, if you edit both the configuration files and REM out the non-DOS items,
the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT will look like so:
CONFIG.SYS
1.DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS
2.DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE

3.DOS=HIGH
4.FILES=40
5.BUFFERS=9,256
6.rem DEVICE=C:\SB16\DRV\CTSB16.SYS /UNIT=0
/BLASTER=A:220 I:5 D:1 H:5
7.rem DEVICE=C:\SB16\DRV\DRV\SBCD.SYS /D:MSCD001 /P:220
AUTOEXEC.BAT
1.@ECHO OFF
2.rem SET BLASTER=A220 I5 D1 T4
3.C:\DOS\MSCDEX.EXE /D:MSCD001
4.SET PATH=C:\DOS;C:\;C:\WINDOWS;C:\MOUSE
5.SET TEMP=C:\TEMP
6.C:\WINDOWS\SMARTDRV.EXE
If the computer boots and operates normally with this configuration, you can
assume that the problem was related to one of the non-DOS entries—that is, a
driver for a peripheral (if not the peripheral itself). It should be noted that REM-
ming out the statements (as we did above) would cause the devices that the state-
ments were intended to configure to not function at all. This is not a failure, but
simply the way computers work.
Sherlock Holmes said it best: “When you have eliminated the impossible,
whatever remains, no matter how improbable, must be the truth.” In our
example, the only device drivers were for the sound card, so it’s probable that
the sound card was configured improperly. If you had multiple device drivers
in the configuration files, you would have to test each possibility separately to
find out. Troubleshooting with REM statements is a process of elimination.
One by one, you must eliminate the impossible, so that you can find the
improbable.
Backups
Whenever you install drivers for a hardware device, the installation program
will ask you if you want it to modify the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT
for you or if you would like to modify the files yourself. When the installation
program modifies these files, it makes duplicates, or backups, of them just in
case the drivers it installs cause problems. That way, if there is a problem, you
can reboot using the backup files instead of the ones modified during the instal-
lation process.
To reboot using the backup files, first you need to rename the new CONFIG.SYS
and AUTOEXEC.BAT (to anything other than those names). A good way to

keep track of them is to replace the SYS and BAT filename extensions with your
initials. Then you need to rename (to CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT, of
course) the backups that the installation process created.
Of course, before you can rename your backups to CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT as directed above, you have to find them. Installation pro-
grams usually name the backup file for the CONFIG.SYS with a name like CON-
FIG.BAK or CONFIG.OLD, or, if you already have files with those names, by
providing a numbered filename extension, like CONFIG.001 or CONFIG.002,
etc. Similarly, they rename the backup file for the AUTOEXEC.BAT with a BAK,
OLD, or numbered filename extension.
Since it’s possible that over a matter of months a system will contain numerous
backups from different installations, it can be very helpful to view the list of files
according to date (in some listings this is given by clicking on the option named
“Last Modified”) to make it easy to find the most recently changed files—i.e., the
configuration files created and modified by the problem installation.
Windows Troubleshooting
Windows problems are the most troublesome of all software-related problems,
mainly because there are several components working together in Windows. If
any of these components develops a problem or corruption, it can bring Win-
dows to a screeching halt. There are three primary areas you can check for find-
ing troubleshooting information in Windows: system resources, General
Protection Faults, and the Windows configuration files.
These topics apply to Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11, and Windows 95/98.
System Resources
When Windows runs out of memory, hard disk space, or both, we say it has run
out of system resources. Windows 3.1 has an About window (in the Windows
Program Manager screen, select Help About) that can be used to check the
amount of available system resources (see Figure 10.1). For optimal Windows
performance, the available system resources should be above 80 percent. If they
are below 80 percent you will need to add RAM, disk space, or both.

FIGURE 10.1 Windows 3.1 system resources
You can check the system resources in Windows 95/98 by using the Resource
Meter (select Start Programs Accessories System Tools, if you have installed
the Microsoft Plus! pack). The resource meter will show up as a small bar graph
on your Taskbar at the bottom of the screen. If you double-click the bar graph, it
will bring up a screen that shows the available system resources (similar to the
Windows 3.1 statistics). Figure 10.2 shows this window.
FIGURE 10.2 Checking Windows 95 system resources
General Protection Faults

A misbehaving Windows program may overstep its bounds and try to take mem-
ory from another application. When it does this, Windows will halt the misbe-
having program and display an error called a General Protection Fault (GPF).
This type of error is one of the most common Windows errors as well as the most
frustrating. Such errors are generally the result of nonstandard programming.
The programmer took shortcuts in their programming and left out the “safety
nets” that would prevent a program from taking memory away from another,
running program.

There is no way to make a system 100 percent GPF-free. You can, however,
reduce the number of GPFs that occur by taking a couple of precautions. First of
all, monitor your system resources carefully. When Windows starts running out
of available memory, it means the programs that are running are tightly packed
in memory. In a system with only a little space available, the likelihood is rela-
tively great that a program will use another program’s memory when it goes
looking for more memory, and thus cause a GPF. (By way of comparison, when
a program tries to take more memory in a system that has plenty of available
memory, the chances are good that it will find memory that is not being used by
some other program.) This underscores the guideline, “You can never have
enough closet space or RAM.”
Second, exercise some discipline: use only the “released” versions of soft-
ware—the retail version, the one available commercially. Software goes through
three major steps of development: Alpha, Beta, and Release. In the Alpha release,
the program is intended only for testing within the software company itself, and
it may not include all the features that are intended to be included in the eventual
release. Also, the software at this stage will still have many errors (called “bugs”)
that need to be worked out. The Beta release includes all the features that will be
included in the Release version, as well as the installation program (often missing
in the Alpha version), and is ready for consumer testing. The features may have
changed significantly between Alpha and Beta, based on the feedback generated
in-house by the Alpha testers and management. There may be numerous Alpha
cycles before the software is ready for outside (i.e., Beta) testing; and Betas them-
selves frequently undergo numerous “builds” during a Beta cycle, as platform
issues and bugs are found and addressed. By the final Beta, although some of the
“loose ends” may need to be tightened up, the software is basically ready. When
the software is released commercially (“Final Release”), the developers consider
it to be more-or-less “bug-free.” There may be a few, minor bugs that crop up
after the initial release, but the software will be stable for use.
NEVER use Alpha or Beta software on your computer. These software programs
are buggy and will cause problems, as well as GPFs.
There are two ways of fixing the bugs that do appear after the initial release
of the software. You can either use a “patch” (a type of software “Band-Aid” to
fix the problem until the next release) on the software or wait until the next
release of the software. Which brings us to our next tip: Try to avoid version 1.0
of any piece of software. Because this version is the first release, it will usually
contain the most bugs. Wait until the software has been released for a few
months and has gone through a few revisions before buying it and installing it on
your computer. By Revision 1.2, most of the bugs have been worked out and the
software can be considered stable.

How to Read the Version Numbers on Software
When reading the version number of most software titles, you can deduce a few
things by the version number. The leftmost number in a version number indi-
cates the major release version. Each major release introduces several new fea-
tures and may completely change the way the software operates.
The first number to the right of the decimal point is the revision number. When a
single feature (or small set of features) needs to be introduced, along with several
bug fixes, a new revision of the software is released. Revision numbers increment
until the software developers decide to release another major release.
Any numbers to the right of the revision number can be considered patch levels.
When software is released with a second number to the right of a decimal point,
it usually means that it is a bug-fix only. No new features would be released in
this version.
For example, let’s examine the following revision number: FURBLE 1.24. This
would indicate that the software contains all the features of the first major
release of the FURBLE program and is the second revision of that release and
the fourth patch at that level. This software should therefore be quite stable by
this stage.
It also should be noted that some vendors (mainly Microsoft) have abandoned
this convention in favor of naming the software with the year it was released
(i.e., Windows 95, Office 97, etc.). However, production schedules fall behind
and sometimes software is released the following year.
Windows Configuration
When Windows 3.x programs are installed, their files are copied to the hard disk
and entries are made into the Windows configuration files: the INI files and the
System Registry. The entries that are made into these files control various set-
tings and tell the program (or Windows itself) how to operate. Let’s discuss each
of them.
INI Files
Primarily used for Windows 3.x programs, INI files (short for initialization files)
are made for each program as well as for Windows. When a new application is
installed, the installation program will create an INI file that contains the new
application’s settings. INI files are text files that can be edited with any text edi-
tor if necessary.
The three primary INI files that Windows uses are: SYSTEM.INI, WIN.INI,
and PROGMAN.INI. Each of them should be backed up before changes are

made. The SYSTEM.INI has settings for the drivers that Windows uses. It is
probably the most critical of the three. Changes made to this file affect Windows’
resource usage as well as resource availability.
The WIN.INI controls the Windows operating environment. There are entries
for the programs that Windows starts automatically, screensaver settings, desk-
top color schemes, wallpaper, and system compatibility information. Changes
made to this file can be critical (your screen might come up in a different color,
for example), and you should take care when modifying the [Compatibility] sec-
tion, as that could cause problems with programs designed to run under older
versions of Windows.
Finally, the PROGMAN.INI contains settings for the Program Manager. The
settings control the number and file names of the program groups in the Program
Manager. Changing these settings modifies which program groups appear in the
Program Manager. You can also control Program Manager security (such as
what menu options appear or are grayed out in the Program Manager) by mod-
ifying the [Restriction] section.
If you delete the INI file of some programs, they will create a new one with the
default settings.
A problem can be tracked to an INI file if a setting was made in a Windows 3.1
program and now the program doesn’t function properly or if it “GPFs” fre-
quently. To solve this type of problem it is best to rename an old INI file to
replace the corrupt one (like WINWORD.OLD to WINWORD.INI). Just like
with DOS installation programs, Windows setup programs make backups of the
configuration files they change and name them with .BAK or .OLD extensions or
with number extensions (.001, .002, etc.). If you have a problem with a new INI
file, you can rename one of the backups (preferably the most recent one) to the
.INI extension to make it the active INI file.
The Registry
With the introduction of Windows 95, Microsoft did away with the practice of
using several INI files to contain program configuration information. They intro-
duced a special database called the Registry to provide a single common location
for all configuration and program setting information. Every Windows 95/98
program, upon installation, will “register” itself so that Windows 95/98 knows
about it. When other programs need information about what printers and devices
are available in Windows 95/98, they query the Registry to get this information.
The Registry can be viewed and edited with REGEDIT.EXE. When you run
this program, it presents the view shown in Figure 10.3. Each folder represents
a section or “key” that contains specific information. It is within these keys that
the settings for the Windows programs are kept.

FIGURE 10.3 Viewing the Registry with REGEDIT.EXE
Generally speaking, you should not make changes to the Registry. Registry
changes can be exceedingly complex and are not covered on the A+ core exam,
so we won’t devote any more space to it here.
Hardware Troubleshooting
W hen you’re troubleshooting hardware, there are a few common prob-
lems that any experienced technician should know about. These common
problems usually have simple solutions. Knowing these problems (and their
respective solutions) will make you a more efficient troubleshooter.
POST Routines
The first item we’re going to discuss isn’t really a hardware problem, but a hard-
ware troubleshooting aid. Every computer has a diagnostic program built into its
BIOS called the power on self-test (POST). When you turn on the computer, it
executes this set of diagnostics. These tests go by pretty quickly, so we’ll detail
them here.
The POST described below is typical of IBM-brand PCs; other manufacturers have
similar POSTs, but they may differ in certain aspects.
1. The processor is tested. POST runs checks on the CPU. If the tests fail, the
system stops with no error message (usually).

Hardware Troubleshooting 399
2. The ROMs are checked. POST computes a checksum for the BIOS
ROMs. If the checksums do not match, the system halts with no error
message.
3. The DMA controller is tested. Again, if there are problems, the system halts.
4. The Interrupt controller is checked. If there is a problem with this com-
ponent, the system will give a long beep, then a short beep, then the system
will stop.
5. The system timing chip is tested. This is not the chip that tells time, but
rather the chip that provides timing signals for the bus and processor. If this
chip fails, the system will give a long beep, then a short beep, then halt.
6. The BASIC ROMs are tested (if they exist). Most computers since the
IBM AT have not included BASIC, so this step is usually not part of their
POST routines. However, on older computers, if the BASIC ROMs fail
the POST test, it does another long beep, then a short beep, and then halts.
7. The video card is checked. At this point the system runs the diagnostics for
the video card. If it fails, the system issues one long beep and two short
beeps and halts. If successful, the video ROM BIOS is copied into RAM
and you will usually see a message about the type of video card that the
computer is using.
8. Expansion boards are initialized. During this part of the POST routine,
any expansion boards that need to can initialize and copy their ROMs
into upper memory, if necessary.
9. RAM is counted and tested. The system tests and counts all RAM that’s
installed in the machine by writing a bit to each bit of memory. If a 1 is
written and read back successfully, the counter increments. A failure dur-
ing this portion of the POST will generate a “201 — Memory Error” mes-
sage on the screen. (Here’s a free tip for you: Any POST error numbers
starting with 2 are memory-related errors.)
10. The keyboard is tested. The keyboard controller is contacted and signals
are sent to detect the presence of a keyboard. Checks for stuck keys are
also made. If this test fails, a “301 — Keyboard Failure” error is generated
along with a short beep. Some systems may halt, others may not. (Some
systems also ask you to press the F1 key, which is kind of silly if the key-
board isn’t working, huh?)
11. The cassette interface is checked. This is another POST routine only valid
on IBM PCs and XTs. If the cassette interface doesn’t work, a “131 —
Cassette Interface” error is generated. The system does not halt.
12. Test floppy drives. The floppy disk adapter is contacted and asked to acti-
vate the drive motors of any floppy disks, in order (A:, then B:). If there are
problems, a “601 — Floppy Disk” error is generated and the system will
try to load cassette BASIC (if it’s present, on an IBM PC or XT).

13. Check resources and boot the computer. The POST routine queries any
remaining devices (LPT ports, serial ports, etc.), makes a short beep, and
then queries the disk drives looking for an operating system. If one is
found on either a floppy drive or hard disk, it is loaded and the computer
is functional. If an operating system can’t be found, most systems will
issue an “Operating system not found” error (or something to that effect).
The POST routines are a great tool for troubleshooting. They will usually
give English descriptions of any problems that they find. Some BIOS POST rou-
tines may actually give suggestions on how to fix the problem (don’t expect this
kind of friendliness on an IBM AT, though; it only gives cryptic error codes).
Tables 10.1 and 10.2 summarize the POST beep and error codes, respectively,
most often seen on computers today.
TABLE 10.1 Common POST Beep Codes
Beep Code Problem
No Beep, system dead Power supply bad, system not plugged in,
or power not turned on
Continuous beeps Power supply bad, not plugged into

motherboard correctly, or keyboard stuck
Repeating short beep Power supply problem
1 short beep, nothing on screen Video card failure
1 short beep, video present, but Bad floppy drive, cable, or controller
system won’t boot
2 short beeps Configuration error (on most PS/2 systems)
1 long, 1 short System board bad
1 long, 2 short Video card failure
TABLE 10.2 Common POST Error Codes
Error Number Explanation
1** Any number starting with 1 usually indicates a system board

problem.
161 CMOS battery failure.

TABLE 10.2 Common POST Error Codes (continued)
Error Number Explanation
164 Memory size error. Always happens after memory has been
added. Running the BIOS setup program will allow the sys-
tem to recognize the memory and the error should go away.
2** Any number starting with 2 usually indicates a memory-

related problem.
201 Memory test failed. One or more portions of RAM were found
to be bad. Any numbers following this error code may indicate
which RAM chip is bad. See the computer’s documentation for
information on interpreting those codes.
3** Any error number starting with 3 usually indicates a problem

with the keyboard. Problems include a missing or malfunc-
tioning keyboard, as well as stuck keys.
301 Keyboard error. Usually means a missing or malfunctioning

keyboard or a key has been pressed too long during startup
(are you resting your hand on the keyboard? is something
leaning against one of the keys?). Also happens if a key
remains depressed during the POST keyboard test.
4** Monochrome video problems.
5** Color video problems.
6** Floppy disk system problems.
601 Floppy disk error. Either the floppy adapter or the floppy
drive failed. Check to see that the floppy cable isn’t on
upside down and that the power to the floppy drive(s) is
hooked up correctly.
17** Hard disk problems. The hard disk geometry might not be
set correctly or the disk adapter can’t communicate with the
hard disk.
1780 Drive 0 (C:) drive failure. The C: drive or controller isn’t func-
tioning. The disk might not be configured or the adapter isn’t
installed correctly.
1781 Drive 1 (D:) drive failure. The D: drive or controller isn’t func-
tioning. The disk might not be configured or the adapter isn’t
installed correctly.

Motherboard Problems
The motherboard’s (or logic board’s) functions are tested, for the most part, by
the POST routines. The 1** errors and beep codes during startup indicate the
biggest problems. So there are very few problems that don’t show up in the
POST. The occasional “phantom” problem does happen, however.
One problem becomes visible when the system constantly loses its clock. The
time will reset to 12:00 on 12/01/83, for example. At the same time, you may
start seeing “1780 — Hard Disk Failure” problems. When you try to reset the
time, it will set correctly. But as soon as you turn off the computer and turn it
back on, the time has been lost.
These symptoms indicate that the system’s CMOS is losing the time, date, and
hard disk settings (as well as several other system settings). The CMOS is able to
keep this information when the system is shut off because there is a small battery
powering this memory. Because it is a battery, it will eventually lose power and
go dead.
Some systems use a special chip called a “Dallas chip” to provide the same func-
tionality as the CMOS, but, like the CMOS, it too will “die” eventually.
When the CMOS battery (or Dallas chip) is replaced, the system settings must
be reset. But they will be retained when the power is shut off. Some people imme-
diately think “system board problem” when the answer is a cheap little battery
and 10 minutes of labor. Because of the simplicity of this repair, most service
professionals replace these batteries as a courtesy service for their customers.
Consider it an “outpatient” repair.
Hard Disk System Problems

Hard disk system problems usually stem from one of three causes:
The adapter is bad.
The disk is bad.
The adapter and disk are connected incorrectly.
The first and last causes are easy to identify, because in either case the symp-
tom will be obvious: the drive won’t work. You simply won’t be able to get the
computer to communicate with the disk drive. (You can further narrow it down
as to whether it’s a configuration problem or not by checking to see if the drive
is connected correctly. If it is, then the problem is usually a bad or misconfigured
disk adapter.)
However, if the problem is a bad disk drive, the symptoms aren’t as obvious.
As long as the BIOS POST tests can communicate with the disk drive, they are
usually satisfied. But the POST tests may not uncover problems related to storing

information. For example, even with healthy POST results, you may find that
you’re permitted to save information to a bad disk, but of course when you try to
read it back you get errors. Or the computer may not boot as quickly as it used
to because the disk drive can’t read the boot information successfully every time.
Bad disk drives could be the cause of the problems in both of these examples, but
neither one of them would be indicated by a POST test. Keep in mind, then, that
a successful POST test doesn’t necessarily mean a “happy” computer.
In some cases, reformatting the drive can solve the problems described in the
preceding paragraph. In other cases, reformatting only brings the drive back to
life for a short while. The bottom line is that read and write problems usually
indicate that the drive is “going south” and should be replaced soon. Never
expect a “Band-Aid”-type repair like reformatting to cover a “major trauma”
problem like disk failure.
Never low-level format IDE or SCSI drives! They are low-leveled from the factory
and you may cause problems by using low-level utilities on these types of drives.
Peripheral Problems
The biggest set of peripheral problems are those related to modem communica-
tions. The symptoms of these problems include the following:
The modem won’t dial.
The modem keeps hanging up in the middle of the communications session.
The modem spits out strange characters to the terminal screen.
If the modem won’t dial, first check that it has been configured correctly,
including its IRQ setting (as discussed in Chapter 6, “Peripheral Devices”). If the
configuration is correct, then the problem usually has to do with initialization
commands. These are the commands sent to the modem by the communications
program to “initialize” it. These commands tell it things like how many rings to
wait before answering, how long to wait between when the last keystroke was
detected for it to disconnect, and at what speed to communicate.
For a while, each manufacturer had its own set of commands, and every com-
munications program had to have settings for every particular kind of modem
available. In particular, every program had commands for the Hayes line of
modems (mainly because Hayes made good modems and their command lan-
guage was fairly easy to program). Eventually, other modem manufacturers
began using the “Hayes-compatible” command set. This set of modem initial-
ization commands became known as the “Hayes command set.” It is also known
as the “AT command set,” since each Hayes modem command started with the
letters AT (presumably calling the modem to ATtention).

Each AT command does something different. The letters AT by themselves

(when issued as a command) will ask the modem if it’s ready to receive com-
mands. If it returns “OK,” that means that the modem is ready to communicate.
If you receive “error,” it means there is an internal modem problem that may
need to be resolved before communication can take place.
Table 10.3 lists a few of the most common AT commands, their functions, and
the problems that they can solve. These commands can be sent to the modem by
opening a terminal program (such as the Windows Terminal or HyperTerminal
[supplied with Windows 3.x and Windows 95, respectively], WINTERM.EXE, or
ProCOMM) and typing them in. All commands should return “OK” if they were
successful.
If you can’t type anything, you either don’t have the right COM port selected for
the modem or you have half-duplex mode enabled. To address this problem, you
must enter “ATF1,” then press Enter. The modem should return the message
“OK” and you will now be able to see your commands.
TABLE 10.3 Common AT Commands
Command Function Usage
AT Tells the modem that Used to precede most commands.

what follows the let-
ters “AT” is a com-
mand that should be
interpreted.
ATDT nnnnnnn Dials the number Used to dial the number of another
nnnnnnn as a tone- modem if the phone line is set up
dialed number. for tone dialing.
ATDP nnnnnnn Dials the number Used to dial the number of another
nnnnnnn as a pulse- modem if the phone line is set up
dialed number. for rotary dialing.
ATA Answers an incoming Places the line off-hook and starts

call manually. to negotiate communication with
the modem on the other end.
ATH0 (or +++ Tells modem to hang Places the line on-hook and stops
and then up immediately. communication. (Note: The “0” in
ATH0) this command is a zero, not the
letter O.)

TABLE 10.3 Common AT Commands (continued)
AT&F Resets modem to This setting works as the initializa-

factory default tion string when others don’t. If
settings. you have problems with modems
hanging up in the middle of a
session, or failing to establish
connections, use this string by
itself to initialize the modem.
ATZ Resets modem to Almost as good as AT&F, but may

power-up defaults. not work if power-up defaults have
been changed with S-registers.
ATS0-n Waits n rings before Sets the default number of rings

answering a call. that the modem will detect before
taking the modem off-hook and
negotiating a connection. (Note:
The “0” in this command is a zero,
not the letter O.)
ATS6-n Waits n seconds for If the phone line is slow to give a

a dial tone before dial tone, you may have to set this
dialing. register to a number higher than 2.
" '" Pauses briefly. When placed in a string of AT com-

mands, the comma will cause a
pause to occur. Used to separate
the number for an outside line
(many businesses use 9 to connect
to an outside line) and the real
phone number (e.g., 9,555-1234).
*70 or 1170 Turns off call waiting. The “click” you hear when you
have “call waiting” (a feature
offered by the phone company)
will interrupt modem communica-
tion and cause the connection to
be lost. To disable call waiting for
a modem call, place these com-
mands in the dialing string like so:
*70,555-1234. Call waiting will
resume after the call is hung up.

TABLE 10.3 Common AT Commands (continued)
CONNECT Displayed when a You may have to wait some time

successful connection before this message is displayed.
has been made. If this message is not displayed, it
means the modem couldn’t
negotiate a connection with the
modem on the other end of the
line, due possibly to line noise.
BUSY Displayed when the If displayed, some programs will

number dialed is busy. wait a certain amount of time and
try again to dial.
RING Displayed when the When someone is calling your

modem has detected modem, the modem will display
a ringing line. this in the communications
program. You would type “ATA”
to answer the call.
If two computers can connect, but they both receive garbage to their screens,
it’s a good chance that both computers aren’t agreeing on the communications
settings. Settings like data bits, parity, stop bits, and compression must all agree
in order for communication to take place. When both computers have different
settings it’s a lot like two people from different countries trying to communicate.
They can meet and shake hands, but from there they can’t communicate, because
they are both speaking different languages.
Keyboard and Mouse Problems

Keyboards are simple devices. Therefore, they either work or they don’t. There
are rarely any “phantom” problems with keyboards. Usually, keyboard prob-
lems are environmental. They get dirty and the keys start to stick. This problem
is easily avoided: DON’T EAT OR DRINK NEAR THE COMPUTER. It is my
personal opinion that anyone who drinks near a computer keyboard should be
made to clean one that has had a soft drink spilled in it. That person will never
drink near a keyboard again. The liquid works its way into the plungers under
the key caps, and, instead of drying, turns into a sticky, syrupy substance that
doesn’t easily wash away.
To clean a keyboard, it’s best to use the keyboard cleaner sold by electronics
supply stores. This cleaner foams up quickly and doesn’t leave a residue behind.
Spray it liberally on the keyboard and keys. Work the cleaner in between the keys
with a stiff toothbrush. Blow the excess away with a strong blast of compressed

air. Repeat until the keyboard functions properly. If you do have to clean a key-
board that’s had a soft drink spilled on it, remove the key caps before you per-
form the cleaning procedure. It makes it easier to reach the sticky plungers.
A friend of mine told me about his way of cleaning keyboards: Remove the elec-
tronics and then place the keyboard in a dishwasher in the rinse cycle! Then, let
them air dry. I wouldn’t recommend this for some of the newer, capacitive key-
boards. However, this will actually work for the older keyswitch keyboards (as
long as the water isn’t hard enough to leave residue inside the key switches or hot
enough to melt the keys). Jet-Dry, anyone? My friend actually had a part-time
business—PM PM (Preventative Maintenance at night) and offered keyboard
cleanup services for $20 each! (In the late ‘70s this was easy money!)
With mechanical keyboards, you can de-solder a broken key switch and
replace it. However, most of the time, the labor to replace one key is more expen-
sive than a new keyboard. New keyboards can be had for less than 50 bucks, so
keep the one with the single malfunctioning key as a spare and replace it with a
new one.
To clean the key caps on a keyboard, spray keyboard cleaner on a soft, lint-
free cloth and rub it briskly onto the surface of each key. Be careful not to rub
too hard; some of the cheaper keyboards use decals on their keys and you might
rub them right off!
Display System Problems

Two types of video problems: no video and bad video. No video means that there
is no image on the screen when the computer is powered up. Bad video means
that the quality is substandard for the type of display system being used.
No Video
Any number of things can cause a blank screen. The first two are the most com-
mon: either the power is off or the contrast or brightness is turned down. It’s sur-
prising how many people get stuck on that first one. I’ve gotten panicked phone
calls (some even from experienced technicians) that go like this: “I can’t get the
monitor working!” or “I don’t get any video on my screen!” Usually the techni-
cians tell me they’ve even checked the video card’s ROM address and changed it
a couple of times just to be sure. I love this part.
Me: “Is it turned on?”
Them: (long pause) “Oh. Never mind.” <click>
Or, if they verify that it’s turned on:
Me: “Are the brightness and contrast turned down?”
Them: “Where do I check that?”

Me: “Can you see the knobs or buttons that have a picture of a sun on one
and a picture of a circle with half dark and half light on the other?”
Them: “Found ’em. Now what?”
Me: “Turn them one direction and then the other, and see if the screen gets
brighter.”
Them: “Okay.…Oh! Wow! Cool!…Sorry about that.”
If they really did check the power as well as the brightness and contrast settings,
then it’s either a bad video card or blown monitor. An easy way to determine
which is to turn on the computer and monitor, then touch the monitor screen.
The high voltage used to charge the monitor will leave a static charge on a work-
ing monitor, and it’s a charge that can be felt. If there’s no charge, there’s a good
chance the flyback transformer has blown and the monitor needs to be repaired.
If there is a charge, the video card or cable are suspect.
This charge drains away fairly quickly after power-up, so this test only works
immediately after power-up. Also, it’s not a conclusive test, but it gives a good
indication.
Be VERY careful when working with monitors! Monitors contain capacitors that
store a charge used when starting up. The power in the capacitor dissipates fairly
quickly, but if the timing is right (or wrong) you could end up with a nasty shock!
Bad Video
You may have seen a monitor that has a bad data cable. This is the monitor
nobody wants; everything has a blue (or red, or green) tint to it, and it gives
everyone a headache. This monitor could also have a bad gun, but more often
than not, the problem goes away if you wiggle the cable (indicating a bad cable).
You may have also seen monitors that are out of adjustment. Their pictures
don’t fill the screen (size adjustment), the images “roll” (vertical or horizontal
hold), or they are distorted (angle and pincushion adjustments). With most new
monitors this is an easy problem to fix. Old monitors had to be partially disas-
sembled to change these settings. New monitors have push-button control panels
for changing these settings.
The earth generates a very strong magnetic field. This magnetic field can cause
swirls and fuzziness even in high-quality monitors. Most monitors have metal
shields that can shield against magnetic fields. But eventually these shields can
get “polluted” by taking on the same magnetic field as the earth, and the shield
becomes useless. To solve this problem, these monitors have a built-in feature
known as the “degauss” feature. This feature removes the effects of the magnetic

field by creating a stronger magnetic field with opposite polarity that gradually
fades to a field of zero. A special “degauss” button activates it. It only needs to
be pressed when the picture starts to deteriorate. The image will shake momen-
tarily during the degauss cycle, then return to normal.
The degauss feature should not be used every day. Once a month is usually suf-
ficient if you are having color or clarity problems that get worse with time. You
would only have to degauss every day if you lived in a place where high magnetic
fields are a problem. If that’s the situation you find yourself in, you might need to
purchase a special, heavily shielded monitor for those conditions.
Floppy Drive Problems

Today the floppy drive is almost unnecessary—most applications, hardware
drivers, and utilities ship on CD-ROMs. Besides, most of the things we want to
back up and carry away are too large for the traditional floppy media (thus the
proliferation of Zip, Jazz, and other removable media storage devices). Even so,
the floppy is still a mainstay of the PC—and when you need it, it had better work!
Most floppy “drive” problems result from bad media. For some reason,
people will not admit that a 10-cent floppy disk can (and will) go bad over
time. Personally, I do not use a floppy disk more than twice—once to write to
it and once to read from it. (Of course, being a computer geek, I’ve got other
options for long-term storage.) Your first troubleshooting technique with
floppy drive issues should be to try a new disk.
One of the most common problems that develop with floppy drives is mis-
aligned read/write heads. The symptoms are fairly easy to recognize—you can
read and write to a floppy on one machine but not on any others. This is usually
caused by the mechanical arm in the floppy drive becoming misaligned so that
the format it creates is not properly positioned on the disk (thus preventing other
floppy drives from reading it).
There are numerous commercial tools available to realign floppy drive read/
write heads. They use a floppy drive that has been preformatted to reposition the
mechanical arm. In most cases, though, this fix is temporary—the arm will just
move out of place again fairly soon. Given the inexpensive nature of the prob-
lem, the best solution is to spend a few dollars and replace the drive.
Sound Card Problems

Sound cards are traditionally one of the most problem-ridden components in a PC.
They demand a lot of PC resources and are notorious for being very inflexible in
their configuration. The most common sound card–related problems will involve
resource conflicts (IRQ, DMA, or I/O address).

Luckily, most sound card vendors are quite aware of the problems and ship
very good diagnostic utilities to help resolve them. Use your PC troubleshooting
skills to determine the conflict, and then reconfigure until you have found an
acceptable set of resources that are not in use.
BIOS Issues
Computer BIOSs don’t really go bad; they just become out of date. This is not
necessary a critical issue—they will continue to support the hardware that came
with the box. It does, however, become an issue when the BIOS doesn’t support
some component that you would like to install—a larger hard drive, for instance.
Most of today’s BIOSs are written to a Flash EPROM and can be updated
through the use of software. Each manufacturer has its own method for accom-
plishing this. Check out the documentation for complete details.
One warning: If you make a mistake in the upgrade process, the computer can
become unbootable. If this happens, your only option often is shipping the box
to a manufacturer-approved service center! BE CAREFUL!
Power Supply Problems

Power supply problems are usually easy to troubleshoot—nothing happens
when you flip the switch! When that happens (and it will), open the case, remove
the power supply, and replace it with a new one. No one “services” power sup-
plies anymore; replacement is so much cheaper and easier!
Be aware that different cases have different types of on/off switches. The pro-
cess of replacing a power supply is a lot easier if you purchase a replacement with
the same mechanism. Even so, remember to document exactly how the power
supply was connected to the on/off switch. (I’ve spent hours trying various com-
binations of connections trying to get the on/off switch to work!)
Miscellaneous Problems
There are a couple of problems that really don’t fit well into any category but
“Miscellaneous.” So, we’ll cover them here.
Dislodged Chips and Cards

The inside of your computer is a fairly harsh environment. The temperature
inside the case of some Pentium computers is well over 100˚F! When you turn
your computer on, it heats up. Turn it off, it cools down. After several hundred
cycles of this, some components can’t handle the stress and start to move out
of their sockets. This phenomenon is known as “chip creep” and can really be
frustrating.

Chip creep can affect any socketed device, including ICs, RAM chips, and
expansion cards. The solution to chip creep is simple. Open the case and reseat
the devices. It’s surprising how often this is the solution to “phantom” problems
of all sorts.
Environmental Problems
I’ll never forget the time I had to work on a computer that had been used on the
manufacturing floor of a large equipment manufacturer. The computer and key-
board were covered with a black substance that would not come off. (I later
found out it was a combination of paint mist and molybdenum grease.) There
was so much diesel fume residue in the power supply fan that it would barely
turn. Also, the insides and components were covered with a thin, greasy layer of
“muck.” To top it all off, it smelled terrible!
Despite all this, the computer still functioned. However, it was prone to reboot
itself every now and again. The solution was (as you may have guessed by now) to
clean every component thoroughly and replace the power supply. The “muck” on
the components was actually able to conduct a small current. Sometimes that cur-
rent would go where it wasn’t wanted and zap!—a reboot. Also, the power supply
fan is supposed to partially cool the insides of the computer. In this computer, it
was actually detrimental to the computer since it got its cooling air from the shop
floor, which contained diesel fumes, paint fumes, and other chemical fumes. Need-
less to say, those fumes aren’t good for computer components.
Computers are like human beings. They have similar tolerances to heat and
cold (although computers like the cold better than we do). In general, anything
comfortable to us is comfortable to a computer. They need lots of clean, moving
air to keep them functioning. They don’t, however, require food or drink (except
maybe a few RAM chips now and again!). Keep food and drink away from the
computer.
The worst thing you can do is eat or smoke around your computer. The smoke par-
ticles contain tar that can get inside the computer and cause similar problems to
those I’ve described earlier.
One way to ensure that the environment has the least possible effect on your
computer is to always leave the “blanks” in the empty slots on the back of your
box. These pieces of metal are designed to keep dirt, dust, and other foreign mat-
ter from the inside of the computer. They also maintain proper airflow within the
case to ensure that the computer does not overheat.
FRUs
When a component has been deemed to be “bad,” it needs to be replaced. That’s
where the FRU comes in. FRU stands for field replaceable unit.

FRUs can be individual parts (such as gears, springs, and shafts) or whole
assemblies (like monitors, power supplies, and keyboards). In most cases you
don’t (or can’t) replace individual parts. Most companies have gone to the strat-
egy of using whole assemblies for FRUs. For example, you can’t order a #2415
capacitor for a Compaq power supply from Compaq anymore. Instead you
order a #A5123G power supply assembly. The individual assembly costs more,
but there is less labor involved in replacing a whole power supply than a single
capacitor, so it’s actually cheaper for the customer as well as the service centers.
When you have determined that a particular component needs to be replaced,
you will look in some kind of catalog (usually produced by the manufacturer) for
the particular part number of the FRU that you need. These catalogs may also
indicate the FRU’s cost and shipping information. Some FRUs require an
exchange of the old, broken component (called a “core” or “exchange” FRU). In
this case, the catalog will indicate two prices: one for the FRU alone, and another
for the FRU with an exchange. The price of the single FRU is usually double
(sometimes triple) the price of a core FRU.
Printer Troubleshooting
O ther than the monitor, the most popular peripheral purchased for com-
puters today is the printer. They are also the most complex peripheral, as far as
troubleshooting is concerned. In this section, we will cover the most common
types of printer problems you will run into. We will break the section into three
areas, for the three different types of printers that exist.
Dot Matrix Printer Problems

Dot matrix printers are relatively simple devices. Therefore there are only a few
problems that usually arise. We will cover the most common problems and their
solutions here.
Low Print Quality

Problems with print quality are easy to identify. When the printed page comes
out of the printer, the characters are too light or have dots missing from them.
Table 10.4 details some of the most common print quality problems, their
causes, and their solutions.

Printer Troubleshooting 413
TABLE 10.4 Common Dot Matrix Print Quality Problems
Characteristics Cause Solution
Consistently faded or Worn-out print ribbon Replace ribbon with

light characters a new, vendor-
recommended ribbon.
Print lines that go Print ribbon advance Replace ribbon advance

from dark to light as gear slipping gear or mechanism.
the print head moves
across the page
A small, blank line Print head pin stuck Replace the print head.
running through a line inside the print head
of print (consistently)
A small, blank line A broken, loose, or Secure or replace the

running through a line shorting print head print head cable.
of print (intermittently) cable
A small, dark line Print head pin stuck in Replace the print head.
running through a line the “out” position (Pushing the pin in may
of print damage the print head.)
Printer makes printing Worn, missing, or Replace ribbon

noise, but no print improperly installed cartridge correctly.
appears on page ribbon cartridge
Printer prints “garbage” Cable partially Hook up cable correctly,

unhooked, wrong driver select correct driver,
selected, or bad printer or replace PCB
control board (PCB) (respectively).
Printout Jams Inside the Printer

(a.k.a. “The Printer Crinkled My Paper”)
Printer jams are very frustrating because they always seem to happen more than
halfway through your 50-page print job, requiring you to take time to remove
the jam before the rest of your pages can print. A paper jam happens when some-
thing prevents the paper from advancing through the printer evenly. Print jobs
jam for two major reasons: an obstructed paper path and stripped drive gears.
Obstructed paper paths are often difficult to find. Usually it means disassem-
bling the printer to find the bit of crumpled-up paper or other foreign substance
that’s blocking the paper path. A very common obstruction is a piece of the
“perf”—the perforated sides of tractor-feed paper—that has torn off and gotten

crumpled up and then lodged into the paper path. It may be necessary to remove
the platen roller and feed mechanism to get at the obstruction.
Use extra caution when printing peel-off labels in dot matrix printers. If a label or
even a whole sheet of labels becomes misaligned or jammed, DO NOT roll the roller
backward to realign the sheet. The small plastic paper guide that most dot matrix
printers use to control the forward movement of the paper through the printer will
peel the label right off its backing if you reverse the direction of the paper. And once
the label is free, it can easily get stuck under the platen, causing paper jams. A label
stuck under the platen is almost impossible to remove without disassembling the
paper feed assembly. If a label is misaligned, try realigning the whole sheet of labels
slowly using the feed roller, with the power off, moving it in very small increments.
Stepper Motor Problems

A stepper motor is a motor that can move in very small increments. Printers use
stepper motors to move the print head back and forth as well as to advance the
paper (these are called the carriage motor and main motor, respectively). These
motors get damaged when they are forced in any direction while the power is on.
This includes moving the print head over to install a printer ribbon as well as
moving the paper feed roller to align paper. These motors are very sensitive to
stray voltages. And, if you are rotating one of these motors by hand, you are
essentially turning it into a small generator, damaging it!
A damaged stepper motor is easy to detect. Damage to the stepper motor will
cause it to lose precision and move farther with each “step.” Lines of print will
be unevenly spaced if the main motor is damaged (which is more likely). Char-
acters will be “scrunched” together if the print head motor goes bad. In fact, if
the motor is bad enough, it won’t move at all in any direction. It may even make
high-pitched squealing noises. If any of these symptoms show themselves, it’s
time to replace one of these motors.
Stepper motors are usually expensive to replace. They are about half the cost
of a new printer! Damage to them is very easy to avoid, using common sense.
If I had a wish for the service department I worked in, I would wish that all the
dot matrix printers ever bought would be made by Okidata. Okidata dot matrix
printers are a technician’s dream machine. With nothing but a flat-bladed
screwdriver and your hands, you can completely disassemble an Okidata dot
matrix printer in less than 10 minutes. Replacing parts on them is just as easy.
All parts “snap” into place, including the covers. They also have an excellent
reputation. If a customer asks you for a recommendation when buying a dot
matrix printer, you can’t go wrong recommending an Okidata.

Bubble-Jet Printers
Bubble-jet printers are the most commonly sold printers for home use. For this
reason, you need to understand the most common problems with bubble-jet
printers so your company can service them effectively. Let’s take a look at some
of the most common problems with bubble-jet printers and their solutions.
Print Quality
The majority of bubble-jet printer problems are quality problems. Ninety-nine per-
cent of these can be traced to a faulty ink cartridge. With most bubble-jet printers,
the ink cartridge contains the print head and the ink. The major problem with this
assembly can be described by “If you don’t use it, you lose it.” The ink will dry out
in the small nozzles, blocking them if they are not used at least once a week.
An example of a quality problem is when you have thin, blank lines present
in every line of text on the page. This is caused by a plugged hole in at least one
of the small, pinhole ink nozzles in the print cartridge. Replacing the ink car-
tridge solves this problem easily.
Some people will try to save a buck by refilling their ink cartridge when they need
to replace it. If you are one of them, STOP IT! Don’t refill your ink cartridges!
Almost all ink cartridges are designed not to be refilled. They are designed to be
used once and thrown away! By refilling them, you make a hole in them, and ink
can leak out and the printer will need to be cleaned. Also, the ink will probably be
of the wrong type, and print quality can suffer. Finally, a refilled cartridge may void
the printer’s warranty.
If an ink cartridge becomes damaged, or develops a hole, it can put too much
ink on the page and the letters will smear. Again, the solution is to replace the ink
cartridge. (You should be aware, however, that a very small amount of smearing
is normal if the pages are laid on top of each other immediately after printing.)
One final print quality problem that does not directly involve the ink cartridge
occurs when the print goes from dark to light quickly, then prints nothing. As we
already mentioned, ink cartridges dry out if not used. That’s why the manufactur-
ers included a small suction pump inside the printer that “primes” the ink cartridge
before each print cycle. If this “priming pump” is broken or malfunctioning, this
problem will manifest itself and the pump will need to be replaced.
If the problem of the ink going from dark to light quickly and then disappearing
ever happens to you, and you really need to print a couple of pages, try this trick
I learned from a fellow technician: Take the ink cartridge out of the printer. Squirt
some window cleaner on a paper towel and gently tap the print head against the
wet paper towel. The force of the tap plus the solvents in the window cleaner
should dislodge any dried ink, and the ink will flow freely again.

Paper Jams
Bubble-jet printers usually have very simple paper paths. Therefore, paper jams
due to obstructions are less likely. They are still possible, however, so an obstruc-
tion shouldn’t be overlooked as a possible cause of jamming.
Paper jams in bubble-jet printers are usually due to one of two things:
A worn pickup roller
The wrong type of paper
The pickup roller usually has one or two D-shaped rollers mounted on a rotat-
ing shaft. When the shaft rotates, one edge of the “D” rubs against the paper,
pushing it into the printer. When the roller gets worn, it gets smooth and doesn’t
exert enough friction against the paper to push it into the printer.
If the paper used in the printer is too smooth, it causes the same problem.
Pickup rollers use friction, and smooth paper doesn’t offer much friction. If the
paper is too rough, on the other hand, it acts like sandpaper on the rollers, wear-
ing them smooth. Here’s a rule of thumb for paper smoothness: Paper slightly
smoother than a new one-dollar bill will work fine.
Laser and Page Printers

I’ve got good news and bad news. The bad news is that laser printer problems are
the most complex, because the printer is the most complex. The good news is
that most problems are easily identifiable and have specific fixes. Most of the
problems can be diagnosed with knowledge of the inner workings of the printer
and a little common sense. Let’s discuss the most common laser and page printer
problems and their solutions.
Paper Jams
Laser printers today run at copier speeds. Because of this, their most common
problem is paper jams. Paper can get jammed in a printer for several reasons.
First of all, feed jams happen when the paper feed rollers get worn (similar to feed
jams in bubble-jet printers). The solution to this problem is easy: Replace the
worn rollers.
If your paper feed jams are caused by worn pickup rollers, there is something you
can do to get your printer working while you’re waiting for the replacement pickup
rollers. Scuff the feed roller(s) with a Scotch-Brite® pot-scrubber pad (or some-
thing similar) to roughen up the feed rollers. This trick only works once. After that,
the rollers aren’t thick enough to touch the paper.
Another cause of feed jams is related to the drive of the pickup roller. The drive
gear (or clutch) may be broken or have teeth missing. Again, the solution is to

replace it. To determine if the problem is a broken gear or worn rollers, print a test
page, but leave the paper tray out. Look into the paper feed opening with a flash-
light and see if the paper pickup roller(s) are turning evenly and don’t “skip.” If
they turn evenly, the problem is more than likely worn rollers.
Worn exit rollers can also cause paper jams. These rollers guide the paper out
of the printer into the paper-receiving tray. If they are worn or damaged, the
paper may “catch” on its way out of the printer. These types of jams are char-
acterized by a paper jam that occurs just as the paper is getting to the exit rollers.
If the paper jams, open the rear door and see where the paper is. If the paper is
very close to the exit roller, the exit rollers are probably the problem.
The solution is to replace all the exit rollers. You must replace all of them at
the same time since even one worn exit roller can cause the paper to jam. Besides,
they’re cheap. Don’t be cheap and skimp on these parts if you need to have them
replaced.
I was in our local hospital ER recently having my hand looked at (I had cut it
pretty badly on some glass). The receptionist who examined me asked me a few
questions and filled out a report in the medical database on her computer.
When she had finished asking me questions, she got up to get the printout from
her laser printer.
I was shocked to see what she did next. When the paper starting coming out of
the laser printer, she grabbed it and “ripped” it from the printer like you might
do if the paper were in an old typewriter! The printer’s exit rollers complained
bitterly and made a noise that made me cringe. I don’t know what hurt worse,
my hand or my ears. She did this for every sheet of paper that she printed. I
didn’t say anything, since my health was of primary concern at the time.
The following week I noticed a familiar laser printer come in for service from
that very same hospital. As the technician started to work on it, I sauntered over
and said, “I bet you 20 dollars it’s the exit rollers.” He said, “You’re on!” Need-
less to say, I had a really good steak dinner that night with my wife.
I had a word with the person in charge of computer repair at that hospital the
next day. They were surprised at what I had told them, but glad that I pointed it
out. I saved them from many future repairs, and they were very grateful. As far
as I know, the ER receptionist doesn’t rip the pages from the printer anymore,
since we haven’t seen that printer back in for service in a while.

Paper jams can actually be the fault of the paper. If your printer consistently
tries to feed multiple pages into the printer, the paper isn’t dry enough. If you live
in an area with high humidity, this could be a problem. I’ve heard some solutions
that are pretty far out, but that work (like keeping the paper in a Tupperware-
type of airtight container or microwaving it to remove moisture). The best all-
around solution, however, is humidity control and to keep the paper wrapped
until it’s needed. Keep the humidity around 50 percent or lower (but above 25
percent if you can, in order to avoid problems with electrostatic discharge).
Finally, there is a metal, grounded strip called the static eliminator strip inside
the printer that drains the corona charge away from the paper after it has been
used to transfer toner from the EP cartridge. If that strip is missing, broken, or
damaged the charge will remain on the paper and may cause it to stick to the EP
cartridge, causing a jam. If the paper jams after reaching the corona assembly,
this may be the cause.
Blank Pages
There’s nothing more annoying than printing a 10-page contract and receiving
10 pages of blank paper from the printer. Blank pages are a somewhat common
occurrence in laser and page printers. Somehow, the toner isn’t being put on the
paper. There are three major causes of blank pages:
The toner cartridge
The corona assembly
The high-voltage power supply (HVPS)
Toner Cartridge
As we have already discussed in Chapter 7, “How Printers Work,” the toner car-
tridge is the source for most quality problems, because it contains most of the
image-formation pieces for laser and page printers. Let’s start with the obvious. A
blank page will come out of the printer if there is no toner in the toner cartridge.
I know it sounds simple, but some people think these things will last forever. It’s
very easy to check: just open the printer, remove the toner cartridge, and shake it.
You will be able to hear if there’s toner inside the cartridge. If it’s empty, replace
it with a known, good, manufacturer-recommended toner cartridge.
Another problem that crops up rather often is the problem of using refilled or
reconditioned toner cartridges. During their recycling process, these cartridges
may get filled with the wrong kind of toner (for example, one with an incorrect
charge). This may cause toner to be repelled from the EP drum instead of
attracted to it. Thus, there’s no toner on the page because there was no toner on
the EP drum to begin with. The solution once again is to replace the toner car-
tridge with the type recommended by the manufacturer.

A third problem related to toner cartridges happens when someone installs a

new toner cartridge and forgets to remove the sealing tape that is present to keep
the toner in the cartridge during shipping. The solution to this problem is as easy
as it is obvious. Just remove the toner cartridge from the printer, remove the seal-
ing tape, and reinstall the cartridge.
Corona Assembly
The second cause of the “blank page” problem is a damaged or missing corona
wire. If there is a lost or damaged wire, the developed image won’t transfer from
the EP drum to the paper. Thus, no image appears on the printout. To determine
if this is causing your problem, do the first half of the self-test (described later in
this chapter). If there is an image on the drum, but not on the paper, you will
know that the corona assembly isn’t doing its job.
To check if the corona assembly is causing the problem, open the cover and
examine the wire (or roller, if your printer uses one). The corona wire is hard to
see, so you may need a flashlight. You will know if it’s broken or missing just by
looking (it will either be in pieces or just not there). If it’s not broken or missing,
the problem may be related to the HVPS.
The corona wire (or roller) is a relatively inexpensive part and can be easily
replaced with the removal of two screws and some patience.
High-Voltage Power Supply (HVPS)

The HVPS supplies high-voltage, low-current power to both the charging and
transfer corona assemblies in laser and page printers. If it’s broken, neither will
work properly. If the self-test shows an image on the drum but none on the paper,
and the corona assembly is present and not damaged, then the HVPS is at fault.
All Black Pages

Only slightly less annoying than 10 blank pages is 10 black pages. This happens
when the charging unit (the charging corona wire or charging corona roller) in
the toner cartridge malfunctions and fails to place a charge on the EP drum.
Because the drum is grounded, it has no charge. Anything with a charge (like
toner) will stick to it. As the drum rotates, all the toner will be transferred to the
page and a black page is formed.
This problem wastes quite a bit of toner, but can be fixed easily. The solution
(again) is to replace the toner cartridge with a known, good, manufacturer-rec-
ommended one. If that doesn’t solve the problem, then the HVPS is at fault (it’s
not providing the high voltage that the charging corona needs to function).
Repetitive Small Marks or Defects

Repetitive marks occur frequently in heavily used (as well as older) laser printers.
The problem may be caused by toner spilled inside the printer. It can also be

caused by a crack or chip in the EP drum (this mainly happens with recycled car-
tridges). These cracks can accumulate toner. In both cases, some of the toner will
get stuck onto one of the rollers. Once this happens, every time the roller rotates
and touches a piece of paper, it will leave toner smudges spaced a roller circum-
ference apart.
The solution is relatively simple: Clean or replace the offending roller. To help
you figure out which roller is causing the problem, the service manuals contain
a chart like the one in Figure 10.4. To use the chart, place the printed page next
to the chart. Align the first occurrence of the “smudge” with the top arrow. The
next smudge will line up with one of the other arrows. The arrow it lines up with
tells which roller is causing the problem.
Remember that the chart in Figure 10.4 is only an example. Your printer may have
different-sized rollers (and thus need a different chart). Check your printer’s
service documentation for a chart like this. It is valuable in determining which
roller is causing a smudge.
Vertical Black Lines on Page

A groove or scratch in the EP drum can cause the problem of vertical black lines
running down all or part of the page. Since a scratch is “lower” than the surface,
it doesn’t receive as much (if any) of a charge as the other areas. The result is that
toner will stick to it as though it were discharged. Since the groove may go around
the circumference of the drum, the line may go all the way down the page.
FIGURE 10.4 Laser printer roller circumference chart

Another possible cause of vertical black lines is a dirty charge corona wire. A
dirty charge corona will prevent a sufficient charge from being placed on the EP
drum. Since the EP drum will be almost zero, toner will stick to the areas that
correspond to the dirty areas on the charge corona.
The solution to the first problem is, as always, to replace the toner cartridge
(or EP drum if your printer uses a separate EP drum and toner). You can also
solve the second problem with a new toner cartridge, but in this case that would
be an extreme solution. It’s easier to clean the charge corona with the brush sup-
plied with the cartridge.
Vertical White Line on Page

Vertical white lines running down all or part of the page are relatively common
problems on older printers, especially ones that don’t see much maintenance.
They are caused by some foreign matter (more than likely toner) caught on the
transfer corona wire. The dirty spots keep the toner from being transmitted to
the paper (at those locations, that is), with the result that streaks form as the
paper progresses past the transfer corona wire.
The solution is to clean the corona wires. LaserJet Series II printers contain a
small corona wire brush to help in this procedure. It’s usually a small, green-han-
dled brush located near the transfer corona wire. To use it, remove the toner car-
tridge and run the brush in the charge corona groove on top of the toner cartridge.
Replace the cartridge and use the brush to brush away any foreign deposits on the
transfer corona. Be sure to put it back in its holder when you’re finished.
Image Smudging
If you can pick up a sheet from a laser printer, run your thumb across it, and have
the image come off on your thumb, you have a fuser problem. The fuser isn’t
heating the toner and fusing it into the paper. This could be caused by a number
of things—but all of them would be taken care of with a fuser replacement. For
example, if the halogen light inside the heating roller has burned out, that would
cause the problem. The solution is to replace the fuser. The fuser can be replaced
with a rebuilt unit, if you prefer. Rebuilt fusers are almost as good as new fusers,
and some even come with guarantees. Plus, they cost less.
The whole fuser may not need to be replaced. Fuser components can be ordered
from parts suppliers and can be rebuilt by you. For example, if the fuser has a bad
lamp, you can order a lamp and replace it in the fuser.
Another problem similar to this is when there are small areas of smudging that
repeat themselves down the page. Dents or “cold spots” in the fuser heat roller
cause this problem. The only solution is to replace either the fuser assembly or
the heat roller.

“Ghosting”
“Ghosting” is what you have when you can see light images of previously printed
pages on the current page. This is caused by one of two things: bad erasure lamps
or a broken cleaning blade. If the erasure lamps are bad, the previous electro-
static discharges aren’t completely wiped away. When the EP drum rotates
towards the developing roller, some toner will stick to the slightly discharged
areas. A broken cleaning blade, on the other hand, causes old toner to build up
on the EP drum and consequently present itself in the next printed image.
Replacing the toner cartridge solves the second problem. Solving the first
problem involves replacing the erasure lamps in the printer. Since the toner car-
tridge is the least expensive cure, you should try that first. Usually, replacing the
toner cartridge will solve the problem. If it doesn’t, you will then have to replace
the erasure lamps.
Printer Prints Pages of Garbage

This has happened to everyone at least once. You print a one-page letter and ten
pages of what looks to be garbage come out of the printer. This problem comes
from one of two different sources: the print driver software or the formatter board.
Printer Driver
The correct printer driver needs to be installed for the printer you have. For
example, if you have a HP LaserJet III, then that is the driver you need to install.
Once the driver has been installed, it must be configured for the correct page
description language: PCL or PostScript. Most HP LaserJet printers use PCL (but
can be configured for PostScript). Determine what page description your printer
has been configured for and set the print driver to the same setting. If this is not
done, you will get garbage out of the printer.
Most printers that have LCD displays will indicate that they are in PostScript mode
with a “PS” or “PostScript” somewhere in the display.
If the problem is the wrong driver setting, the “garbage” that the printer
prints will look like English. That is, the words will be readable, but they won’t
make any sense.
Formatter Board
The other cause of several pages of garbage being printed is a bad formatter
board. This circuit board takes the information that the printer receives from the
computer and turns it into commands for the various components in the printer.
Usually problems with the formatter board produce wavy lines of print or ran-
dom patterns of dots on the page.

It’s relatively easy to replace the formatter board in a laser printer. Usually this
board is installed underneath the printer and can be removed by loosening two
screws and pulling the board out. Typically, replacing the formatter board also
replaces the printer interface; another possible source of “garbage” printouts.
HP LaserJet Testing
Now that we’ve defined some of the possible sources of problems with laser
printers, let’s discuss a few of the testing procedures that you use with them.
We’ll discuss HP LaserJet laser printers since they are the most popular type of
laser printer, but the topics covered here can be applied to other types of laser
printers as well.
When you troubleshoot laser printers, there are three tests you can perform to
narrow down which assembly is causing the problem. (These tests are internal
diagnostics for the printers and are included with most laser printers.) The three
tests are the engine self-test, the engine half self-test, and the secret self-test.
Self-Tests
There are three significant printer “self-tests”—tests that the printer runs on its
own (albeit when directed by the user). These are the engine self-test, the print
engine half self-test, and the secret self-test.
Engine Self-Test The engine self-test tests the print engine of the LaserJet,
bypassing the formatter board. This test will cause the printer to print a single
page with vertical lines running its length. If an engine self-test can be per-
formed, you will know that the laser print engine can print successfully. To
perform an engine self-test, you must press the printer’s self-test button, which
is hidden behind a small cover on the side of the printer (see Figure 10.5). The
location of the button varies from printer to printer, so you may have to refer
to the printer manual. Using a pencil or probe, press the button and the print
engine will start printing the test page.
Half Self-Test A print engine half self-test is performed the same as the self-
test, but you interrupt it halfway through the print cycle by opening the cover.
This is useful in determining which part of the print process is causing the
printer to malfunction. If you stop the print process and there is part of a
developed image on the EP drum and part has been transferred to the paper,
you know that the pickup rollers, registration rollers, laser scanner, charging
roller, EP drum, and transfer roller are all working correctly. You can stop the
half self-test at various points in the print process to determine the source of
a malfunction.

FIGURE 10.5 Print engine self-test button location. (Location may vary on different printers.)
Secret Self-Test To activate this test you must first put the printer into ser-
vice mode. To accomplish this, you must first turn the printer on while
simultaneously holding down the On Line, Continue, and Enter buttons
(that’s the first secret part, because nobody knows it unless somebody tells
them). When the screen comes up blank, release the keys and press, in order,
Continue, then Enter. The printer will perform an internal self-test, then dis-
play “00 READY.” At this point you are ready to initiate the rest of the
secret self-test by taking the printer offline and pressing the Test button on
the front panel and holding it until you see the “04 Self Test” message.
When you see this message, release the Test button. This will cause the
printer to print one self-test page. (If you want a continuous printout, then
instead of releasing the Test button at the “04 Self Test” message, keep
holding the Test button down until the message “05 Self Test” is displayed.
The printer will print continuous self-test pages until you power off the
printer or hit On Line, or until the printer runs out of paper.)
Error Codes
In addition to the self-tests, you have another tool for troubleshooting HP laser
printers. Error codes are a way for the LaserJet to tell the user (and a service tech-
nician) what’s wrong. Table 10.5 details some of the most common codes dis-
played on an HP LaserJet.

TABLE 10.5 HP LaserJet Error Messages
Message Description
00 Ready The printer is in standby mode and ready to print.
02 Warming Up The fuser is being warmed up before the 00 Ready state.
05 Self-Test Full self-test has been initiated from the front panel.
11 Paper Out The paper tray sensor is reporting that there is no paper in
the paper tray. Printer will not print as long as this error
exists.
13 Paper Jam A piece of paper is caught in the paper path. To fix, open
the cover and clear the jam (including all pieces of the jam).
Close the cover to resume printing. Printer will not print as
long as this error exists.
14 No EP Cart There is no EP cartridge (toner cartridge) installed in the

printer. Printer will not print as long as this error exists.
15 Engine Test An engine self-test is in progress.
16 Toner Low The toner cartridge is almost out of toner. Replacement will
be necessary soon.
50 Service A fuser error has occurred. Most commonly caused by fuser

lamp failure. Power off the printer and replace the fuser to
solve. Printer will not print as long as this error exists.
51 Error Laser scanning assembly problem. Test and replace, if nec-

essary. Printer will not print as long as this error exists.
52 Error The scanner motor in the laser scanning assembly is mal-

functioning. Test and replace as per service manual. Printer
will not print as long as this error exists.
55 Error Communication problem between formatter and DC con-

troller. Test and replace as per service manual. Printer will
not print as long as this error exists.
Troubleshooting Tips for HP LaserJet Printers

There is a set of troubleshooting steps that are usually used by printer technicians
to help them solve HP LaserJet printing problems. Let’s detail each of them to
bring our discussion of laser printer troubleshooting to a close.

1. Is the exhaust fan operational? This is the first component to receive

power when the printer is turned on. If you can feel air coming out of the
exhaust fan, this confirms that AC voltage is present and power is turned
on, that +5Vdc and +24Vdc are being generated by the AC power supply
(ACPS), and that the DC controller is functional. If there is no power to
the printer (no lights, fan not operating), the ACPS is at fault. Replace-
ment involves removing all printer covers and removing four screws. You
can purchase new ACPS modules, but it is usually cheaper to replace it
with a rebuilt unit.
If you are into electronics, you can probably rebuild the ACPS yourself simply and
cheaply. It’s usually the main rectifier that fails in these units; it can easily be
replaced if you know what you’re doing.
2. Do the control panel LEDs work? This means that the formatter board
can communicate with control panel. If the LEDs do not light, it could
mean that the formatter board is bad, the control panel is bad, or the wires
connecting the two are broken or shorting out.
3. Does the main motor rotate at power up? Turn the power off. Remove the
covers from the side of the printer. Turn the printer back on and carefully
watch and listen for main motor rotation. If you see and hear the main
motor rotating, this indicates that toner cartridge is installed, all photo-
sensors are functional, all motors are functional, and the printer can move
paper (assuming there are no obstructions).
4. Does the fuser heat lamp light up after the main motor finishes its rotation?
You will need to have the covers removed to notice. The heat lamp should
light after the main motor rotation and stay lit until the control panel says
“00 Ready.”
5. Can the printer perform an engine test print? A sheet of vertical lines indi-
cates that the print engine works. This test print bypasses the formatter
board and will indicate if the print problem resides in the engine or not.
If the test print is successful, the engine can be ruled out as a source of the
problem. If the test print fails, you will have to further troubleshoot the
printer to determine which engine component is causing the problem.
6. Can the printer perform a control panel self-test? This is the final test to
ensure printer operation. If you can press the “Test Page” control panel
button and receive a test printout, this means the entire printer is working
properly. The only possibilities for problems would be outside the printer
(i.e., interfaces, cables, and software problems).

Top 10 Troubleshooting Steps 427
Top 10 Troubleshooting Steps

J ust as every artist has their own style, every technician has their own way
to troubleshoot. Some people use their instincts; others use advice from other
people. I have condensed the most common troubleshooting tips into a 10-step
process. You try each step, in order. If that step doesn’t narrow the problem
down, you move on to the next step.
Step 1: Define the Problem

If you can’t define the problem, you can’t begin to solve it. You can define the
problem by asking questions of the user. Here are a few questions to ask the user
to aid in determining what exactly the problem is:
Can you show me the problem? This question is one of the best. It allows
the user to show you exactly where and when they experience the problem.
How often does this happen? This question establishes whether or not this
problem is a one-time occurrence (usually indicating a “soft” memory error or
the like) that can be solved with a reboot, or whether the problem has a specific
sequence of events that cause it to happen (usually indicating a more serious
problem that may require software installation or hardware replacement).
Has any new software been installed recently? New software can mean
incompatibility problems with existing problems. This is especially true for
Windows programs. A new Windows program can overwrite a required DLL
file with a newer version of the same name, which an older program may not
find useful.
Have any other changes been made to the computer recently? If the
answer is “Yes,” ask if they can remember approximately when the change
was made. Then ask them approximately when the problem started. If the
two dates seem related, there’s a good chance that the problem is related to
the change. If it’s a new hardware component, check to see that the hardware
component was installed correctly.
Step 2: Check the Simple Stuff First

This step is the one that most experienced technicians overlook. Often, computer
problems are the result of some simple problem. The technician will overlook
them because they are so simple that they assume they couldn’t be the problem.
Some examples of simple problems are
Is it plugged in? And on both ends? Cables must be plugged in on both ends
in order to function correctly. Cables can be easily tripped over and inadvert-
ently pulled from their sockets.

Is it turned on? This one seems the most obvious, but we’ve all fallen victim
to it at one point or another. Computers and their peripherals must be turned
on in order to function. Most have power switches that have LEDs that glow
when the power is turned on.
Is the system ready? Computers must be ready before they can be used.
“Ready” means that the system is ready to accept commands from the user.
An indication that a computer is ready is when the operating system screens
come up and the computer presents you with a menu or a command prompt.
If that computer uses a graphical interface, the computer is ready when the
mouse pointer appears. Printers are ready when the “On Line” or “Ready”
light on the front panel is lit.
Reseat chips and cables. You can solve some of the strangest problems (ran-
dom hang-ups or errors) by opening the case and pressing down on each sock-
eted chip. This remedies the chip creep problem mentioned earlier in the
book. In addition, you should also reseat any cables to make sure that they are
making good contact.
Step 3: Check to See If It’s User Error

One of the more common errors that technicians run into is the “EEOC error”
(Equipment Exceeds Operator Capability). This error is common, but prevent-
able. The indication that a problem is due to user error is when a user says they
can’t perform some very common computer task—i.e., “I can’t print,” “I can’t
save my file,” “I can’t run my favorite application,” etc. As soon you hear these
words, you should start asking questions of the user to determine if it is EEOC
or a real problem. A good question to ask following their statement of the prob-
lem would be, “Were you ever able to perform that task?” If they answer no to
this question, it means they are probably doing the procedure wrong—EEOC. If
they answer yes, you must move on to another set of questions.
This doesn’t mean you should assume “the user is always wrong.” An attitude like
that can come across on the phone, and in person, as arrogance.
The Social Side of Troubleshooting

A few years ago, I attended troubleshooting courses from two different major
vendors (who shall remain nameless) in two back-to-back weeks. In the first
course, the instructor opened by saying “I’m now going to give you the secret to
successful troubleshooting.…Users Lie!” Of course, we were all shocked to hear

Top 10 Troubleshooting Steps 429
this from a representative of a major software vendor, but he was right. Consider
the typical answers to the following questions:
1. Question: So what were you doing when it broke?
Answer: Nothing.
2. Question: What have you changed recently?
Answer: Nothing.
3. When was the last time it worked?
Answer: The last time I touched anything.
The truth is, users DO lie—not intentionally, but the result is the same. As
troubleshooters, our job is to drag the truth out of them.
The second class opened with the instructor saying “I’m going to clue you in
to the secret of successful troubleshooting.…Troubleshooting is more social than
technical.” All of the computer geeks in the room gasped to hear someone belittle
the value of their technical knowledge. Bottom line, though, the instructor was
right. A problem isn’t “fixed” until the user believes it is fixed!
When you combine those two “secrets,” you get to the heart of troubleshoot-
ing. As technicians we need to be able to communicate clearly, use less intimi-
dating questioning techniques (notice the questions above all seem to imply that
the user was at fault), and reassure the user that the problem has been corrected.
When looking for clues to the nature of a problem no one can give you more
information than the person who was there when it happened. They can tell
you what led up to the problem, what software was running, the exact nature
of the problem (“It happened when I tried to print”), and can help you recreate
the problem, if possible.
Use questioning techniques that are neutral in nature. Instead of “What were
you doing when it broke?” be more compassionate and say, “What was going on
when the computer decided not to work?” It sounds silly, but these types of
changes can make your job a lot easier!
Step 4: Reboot the Computer

It is amazing how often a simple computer reboot can solve a problem. Rebooting
the computer clears the memory and starts the computer with a “clean slate.”
Whenever I perform phone support, I always ask the customer to reboot the
computer and try again. If rebooting doesn’t work, try powering down the
system completely, and then powering it up again. More often than not, that will
solve the problem.

Step 5: Determine If the Problem Is Hardware or

Software Related
This step is an important one because it determines what part of the computer
you should focus your troubleshooting skills on. Each part requires different
skills and different tools.
To determine if a problem is hardware or software related, you could do a few
things to narrow the problem down. For instance, does the problem manifest
itself when you use a particular piece of hardware (a modem, for example)? If it
does, the problem is more than likely hardware related.
This step relies on personal experience more than any of the other steps do.
You will without a doubt run into several strange software problems. Each one
has a particular solution. Some may even require reinstallation of the software or
the entire operating system.
Step 6: If the Problem Is Hardware Related, Determine

Which Component Is Failing
Hardware problems are pretty easy to figure out. If the modem doesn’t work,
and you know it isn’t a software problem, it’s pretty safe to say that the modem
is probably the piece of hardware that needs to be replaced.
With some of the newer computers, several components are integrated onto
the motherboard. If you troubleshoot the computer and find a hardware com-
ponent to be bad, there’s a good chance that the bad component is integrated
into the motherboard (for example, the parallel port circuitry) and the whole
motherboard must be replaced. An expensive proposition, to be sure.
Step 7: If the Problem Is Software Related, Boot “Clean”

If you are experiencing software problems, a common troubleshooting technique
with DOS-based computers is to boot “clean.” This means starting the com-
puter with a bootable diskette that uses a CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT
with no third-party drivers in it (for example, no drivers for sound card, CD-
ROM, or network). If the software that’s experiencing the problem is incompat-
ible with something in these clean CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT files, this
will indicate it. Once you have determined that there’s an incompatibility, you
can further determine what your chances are for fixing the problem by using the
“REM” techniques presented earlier in this chapter.

Summary 431
Step 8: Check Service Information Sources

As you may or may not have figured out by now, I’m fond of old sayings. There’s
another old saying that applies here: “If all else fails, read the instructions.” The
service manuals are your “instructions” for troubleshooting and service informa-
tion. Almost every computer and peripheral made today has a set of service doc-
umentation in the form of books, service CD-ROMs, and Web sites. The latter of
the three seem to be growing in popularity as more and more service centers get
connections to the Internet.
Step 9: If It Ain’t Broke…

When doctors take the Hippocratic oath, they promise to not make the patient
any sicker than they already were. Technicians should take a similar oath. It all
boils down to, “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” When you troubleshoot, make one
change at a time. If the change doesn’t solve the problem, change it back to its
original state before making a different change.
Step 10: Ask for Help

If you don’t know the answer, ask one of your fellow technicians. They may have
run across the problem you are having and know the solution.
This solution does involve a little humility. You must admit that you don’t
know the answer. It is said that the beginning of wisdom is, “I don’t know.” If
you ask questions, you will get answers, and you will learn from the answers.
Making mistakes is valuable as well, as long as you learn from them.
Summary
T his book can give you the basic knowledge you need to be a good trou-
bleshooter, but not the instinct you need to be a great one. There are very few
people who have mastered the art of troubleshooting. The reason this is true is
that troubleshooting is an art. And just as with any art, excellence comes only
through experience. The best way to get experience is through reading, practice,
and asking questions.
While experience is key, there are still basic resources and procedures that can
help you troubleshoot while you are gaining that experience. In this chapter we
presented a few of those tools.

We started the chapter with a discussion of some of the intellectual resources

that are available. Product documentation, the Internet, and other technicians
can often be used to answer questions based on your description of a problem.
In the next section we covered the basics of hardware and software utilities that
can be used to help troubleshoot.
We then moved to troubleshooting software issues. Starting with DOS and
moving to Windows, we discussed common configuration files and techniques
that can be used to test their validity.
The next section concentrated on hardware troubleshooting techniques. We
discussed the POST routine (what it is and how it warns you of problems),
motherboard problems, hard disk issues, keyboard and mouse problems, dis-
play system troubleshooting, BIOS issues, power supply problems, and a few
other miscellaneous hardware problems.
We followed with a discussion of one of the most common troubleshooting
tasks in the computer industry—troubleshooting printer problems. We discussed
dot matrix, bubble-jet, and laser printers—their components and some of the
most common problems with each technology.
Finally, we presented our top 10 troubleshooting steps. Following the steps
should lead you to a satisfactory conclusion of your troubleshooting process.
Key Terms
backup initialization command
bootable diskette main motor
bubble-jet printer network client
carriage motor power on self-test
dot matrix printer Registry
field replacement unit REM statement
Field Replacement Unit (FRU) resource discovery expansion card
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) revision number
General Protection Fault (GPF) stepper motor
INI file system resources

Review Questions
1. A customer complains that his hard disk is making lots of noise. After exam-
ining the computer and hearing the noise for yourself, you notice that the high-
pitched noise seems to be coming from the fan in the power supply. Which
component(s) should be replaced? (Select all that apply.)
A. Hard disk
B. Power supply
C. Motherboard
D. Nothing. This is a software problem.
2. When you try to turn the computer on, you notice that the computer will not
activate. The monitor is blank and the fan on the power supply is not active.
Turning the switch off and then back on makes no difference. What is the most
likely cause of this problem?
A. The computer is unplugged.
B. The BIOS on the motherboard needs to be upgraded.
C. The monitor is malfunctioning.
D. Both the fan on the power supply and the video card are bad.
E. The power supply is bad.
3. A laser printer is printing pages that are all black. Replacing the toner car-
tridge has no effect. What are some possible causes of this problem? (Select all
that apply.)
A. The high voltage power supply (HVPS) is bad.
B. The transfer corona assembly is damaged.
C. The main motor assembly is bad.
D. The laser scanner assembly is damaged.
E. The EP cartridge is damaged.
F. The printer has bad feed rollers.
4. What part of an HP LaserJet printer is malfunctioning if you receive a “50

Service” error?
A. Toner cartridge
B. Laser scanner assembly
C. Fuser
D. AC power supply

5. A paper jam on a dot matrix printer can be caused by ___________________.

A. An obstructed paper path
B. The wrong kind of paper
C. A malfunctioning print head assembly
D. The wrong ribbon is installed
6. A customer complains that they can’t get their computer to work. When they
turn it on, they get no video and hear a series of beeps. The beeps are in the
sequence of one long beep, then two short beeps. You tell the customer to
bring the machine in. Upon further examination you are able to reproduce the
problem. What is your next step?
A. Upgrade the PC’s BIOS to the newest version.
B. Replace the motherboard.
C. Replace the video card.
D. Replace the RAM.
E. Upgrade the BEEP.COM file.
F. Boot “clean” to a bootable floppy disk.
7. An HP LaserJet III printer isn’t printing at all. The computer indicates that the
“device on LPT1 isn’t ready.” You perform a service self-test on the printer
and it prints the page of vertical lines with no problems. The front panel self-
test doesn’t work, however. Which component do you suspect is giving you
the problem?
A. Fuser
B. DC controller
C. AC power supply
D. Main motor
E. Formatter
F. Toner cartridge
G. Transfer corona
8. A “201” error at system startup means what?

A. Bad floppy drive
B. Bad system board
C. Bad hard disk system
D. Bad memory
E. Bad keyboard

9. Which Windows error is caused by an application being “greedy” and taking

memory away from other programs?
A. General System Error
B. General Protection Fault
C. System Fault
D. Memory Protection Fault
10. A customer complains that the modem they are using is bad. When they try to
connect to another computer, it connects, but it transmits and receives garbage.
What do you do?
A. Order a new modem for the customer.
B. Change the initialization string to AT&F.
C. Confirm that the data bits, parity, and stop bits are set the same on both ends.
D. Confirm that both computers are using the same modem and software.
11. What two files are used by DOS to configure a computer?

A. INI files
B. AUTOEXEC.BAT
C. CONFIG.BAT
D. CONFIG.SYS
12. A computer is experiencing random reboots and “phantom” problems that

disappear after reboot. What should you do?
A. Tell the customer that it’s normal for the computer to do that.
B. Replace the motherboard.
C. Boot “clean.”
D. Replace the power supply.
E. Open the cover and reseat all cards and chips.
13. A bubble-jet printer produces output that is acceptable. But after an ink car-
tridge replacement, the ink smears and generally looks “heavier” than normal.
What is the problem?
A. The ink cartridge from the factory is bad.
B. A refilled ink cartridge has been used.
C. The printer’s controller circuitry is bad.
D. The paper is too thin.
E. None of the above.

14. A company that hires you to do service for them has just purchased a new laser
printer. After two months and 3,000 copies, “ghosts” of previous pages
appear on the printout. What action will solve the problem?
A. Replace the toner cartridge.
B. Replace the fuser.
C. Replace the transfer corona assembly.
D. Clean the transfer corona assembly.
15. What is the largest cause of computer problems?

A. Hardware failure
B. Software failure
C. ESD
D. Technician inexperience
E. User error
16. A user is getting a “301 error” when they turn on the computer. What is a
possible cause?
A. A virus on the boot sector of the hard disk
B. User error
C. Dust and dirt on the power supply fan
D. A book lying on the keyboard during system start-up
17. You install a newly purchased sound card into your computer, but upon
rebooting you find that the new device is not recognized by the system.
Moreover, your modem, which has always worked perfectly, has stopped
functioning. What is probably the problem?
A. The sound card and modem are using the same slot on the motherboard.
B. The drivers for the sound card need to be updated.
C. The sound card is using the same IRQ as the modem.
D. The modem is 16-bit and the sound card is 32-bit, meaning that they can-
not both be used in the same system.
18. An HP LaserJet starts printing blank pages after you cleaned all of the internal
parts. What is the most probable cause?
A. You broke the transfer corona wire.
B. There is no toner in the toner cartridge.
C. The HVPS is not functioning.
D. The fuser is still dirty.

19. What is the most probable cause of a defect that repeats itself on the page?
A. Bad toner cartridge
B. Bad fuser roller
C. Any dirty or scratched roller
D. Dirty or broken corona wire
20. When troubleshooting a software problem, which of the following items is the
easiest to check first?
A. Non-DOS items in the configuration files
B. System resources
C. Hard drive
D. Perform a clean boot


1. B. The first logical choice, since the noise is coming from the power supply, is
to check the power supply.
2. A. Since turning the switch on and off makes no difference, the first item to
check is to see if the computer is properly plugged in.
3. A, E. Since the laser printer is printing pages that are all black and replacing
the toner cartridge has no effect, the probable cause of this problem is the
high-voltage power supply (HVPS) is bad.
4. C. The part of an HP LaserJet printer that is malfunctioning if you receive a

“50 Service” error is the fuser.
5. A. Leftover pieces of paper or other debris that have fallen into the printer can be
the cause of an obstructed paper path and manifest as a paper jam.
6. C. When a computer is turned on and there is no video and a series of beeps, and
the beeps are in the sequence of one long beep, then two short beeps, it means
there is something wrong with the video card. Check first to see that it is seated
properly and in the proper slot for its bus type. If this checks out fine, replace it
with a known good card and turn the machine back on. If this solves the prob-
lem, then the issue was a bad card and it needs to be permanently replaced.
7. E. If after completing the above tests, it fails the self-test, then most likely the
formatter is the problem.
8. D. Most error codes that begin with a 2 indicate a memory error of some sort.
9. B. While there are other factors that might contribute, most General Protec-
tion Fault errors are generated when an application either monopolizes too
much memory or attempts to access inappropriate memory addresses.
10. C. In order for two modems to communicate properly, they must both be
“speaking the same language.” In modem-speak this means that the format of
the data must be the same on each side, and this is controlled by the data-bits,
parity, and stop bits settings for each modem. They must match.
11. B, D. The two files that are used by DOS to configure a computer are
AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS. In general, the CONFIG.SYS file sets
up the operating system environment, and the AUTOEXEC.BAT file sets up
the user environment.
12. E. When a computer is experiencing random reboots and “phantom” problems

that disappear after reboot, you should open the cover and reseat all cards and
chips. Most likely there are some components that have experienced chip creep.

13. B. Generally, this is the mark of a refilled ink cartridge. Most cartridges are
not designed to be reused, as they contain the print head as well as the ink sup-
ply. Each is rated to last a certain number of copies. After that number, they
need to be replaced to be able to produce the level of quality intended. Because
of this, you should not use refilled cartridges.
14. A. Replacing the toner cartridge will solve the problem of “ghosts” of previ-
ous pages appearing on the printout. This is caused by either the drum not
being charged properly or, more likely, not being cleaned correctly.
15. E. Unfortunately, the largest cause of computer problems is user error. These
errors have the potential to be the most difficult to troubleshoot. A technician
must have very good diplomatic skills to obtain all the answers necessary to fix
the problem.
16. D. Errors that begin with 3 are typically keyboard errors. Common suspects to
look for are a keyboard that is not properly connected, or a key that is stuck in
the depressed position; in this case, because a book was lying on the keyboard.
17. C. When two otherwise healthy devices both are malfunctioning, there is a
good chance that they are both trying to use the same system resources, and
the IRQ and DMA settings are the most common culprits.
18. A. If, after cleaning all the internal components of a printer, it starts printing
blank pages, most likely the transfer corona wire is damaged. Care must be
taken when cleaning this, as it is a delicate component.
19. C. The most probable cause of a defect that repeats itself on the page is any dirty
or scratched roller leaving a mark on the paper every time the drum rotates.
20. A. The non-DOS items can always be taken out or REMmed out to see if the
machine is operating properly without that statement placed in the config-
uration files.

A+: Operating PART
System
Technologies
Exam
II

Chapter Introduction to
Computer Operating
11 Systems
“I think there is a world market

for maybe five computers.”
Thomas Watson
Chairman of IBM, 1943

I n previous chapters we have looked at the hardware that composes a
personal computer’s physical components. Hardware is only half of the story
though. When poor Mr. Watson made his prediction 60 years ago, he was looking
at a very different machine from the ones we have today. At that time computers
were bulky—as in room-sized—slow and difficult to use. As recently as the 1970s
most machines were still using punch cards as a primary data input tool, and any-
one wanting to use a computer had to navigate a complex, uninviting interface
with only a keyboard to help them. In such an environment, Watson probably
was correct to believe that few people would go through the time, effort, and
expense to use computers.
After years of training people to pass A+ certification exam, we realize how impor-
tant this material is to passing the test. Even though it doesn't directly cover any
objectives, this chapter provides crucial context for working in the field.
As computer technology has evolved towards smaller, more powerful

machines, the personal computer has made significant strides towards Microsoft’s
grandiose stated goal of “a computer in every home.” The incredible global com-
puter revolution is not due just to hardware, though. In many ways the accelera-
tion of computer usage over the last decade has more to do with the ever-
improving operating systems that humans use to interact with these machines.
Computers require programmed code (called software) to run, and they require an
input-output mechanism to allow users to give the machine instructions and view
the results of those commands. The operating system is the primary software used
to achieve these ends, and the evolution of more powerful and user-friendly oper-
ating systems has made computers less difficult to use and more enjoyable.
In order to understand the emergence of modern personal computer operating
systems, you should know about the technologies that led to our present systems
and about the critical relationship between hardware and software over the
course of the PC’s development. Graphics, speed, GUI interfaces, and multiple
programs running concurrently are all made possible by software designers tak-
ing full advantage of the hardware for which they are designing their software.
Because of this, we will see that as computer hardware has improved, software

Types of Software 445
has improved with it. Because the operating system is the platform on which all
other software builds, it is generally the development of a new operating system
that drives the development of other software. This chapter is therefore the story
of that very special, and crucial, type of software—the personal computer oper-
ating system. This chapter is spent looking at where operating systems have been,
and we will focus the rest of the book looking at where they are currently by
focusing on Microsoft’s Windows 95/98 and Windows 2000 operating systems.
Types of Software
T here are a number of different types of personal computer software, and
each has a specific role in the operation of the machine. Among these are the fol-
lowing major distinctions:
Operating System (OS) Provides a consistent environment for other soft-
ware to execute commands. The OS gives users an interface with the com-
puter so they can send commands to (input) and receive feedback or results
back (output). To do this the operating system must communicate with the
computer hardware to perform the following tasks:
Disk and file management
Device access
Memory management
Output format
Once the operating system has organized these basic resources, users can
give the computer instructions through input devices (such as a keyboard or
a mouse). Some of these commands are built into the operating system,
while others are issued through the use of applications. The OS becomes the
center through which the system hardware, other software, and the user
communicate, and all the rest of the components of the system work
together through the OS, which coordinates their communication.
Processor
Hard disks Devices
OS
Input/output Memory

446 Chapter 11 Introduction to Computer Operating Systems
Network Operating System (NOS) Similar to a standard operating system,

except that the NOS is optimized to provide services to other machines on the
network. NOS software is examined briefly in Part II, Chapter 18, “Config-
uring Network Software,” but is discussed in-depth in Sybex’s Network+
Study Guide.
Application Used to accomplish a particular task, an application is software
that is written to supplement the commands available to a particular operat-
ing system. Each application is specifically compiled (configured) for the
operating system it is going to run on. For this reason, the application relies
on the OS to do many of its basic tasks. Examples of an application might
include complex programs, such as Microsoft Word or Netscape Navigator,
or simple programs, such as a command line FTP program. Either way, when
accessing devices and memory the programs can simply request that the OS
do it for them. This arrangement saves substantially on programming over-
head, as much of the executable code is “shared,” meaning that it is written
into the operating system and can therefore be used by multiple applications
running on that OS.
Driver Extremely specific software written for the purpose of instructing a
particular OS on how to access a piece of hardware. Each modem or printer
has unique features and configuration settings, and the driver allows the OS
to properly understand how the hardware works and what it is able to do.
Types of PC Operating Systems

T his chapter will introduce a few of the major operating systems of the
past 20 years and will briefly describe how they work. These are not the only
operating systems out there but are simply the ones that were accepted by a large
enough segment of the PC market to become de facto standards. As you read
about these different software products, try to think about the ways they differ
from one another and the reasons they were designed in the fashion they were.
The A+ exam focuses only on OS options available on Intel, and it will be those
systems that are given the most time in this chapter. Although Macintosh, for
instance, has a strong following in certain niche markets, it is little used in cor-
porate settings. Intel/Windows machines dominate the corporate market almost
completely. By knowing some of the OS options available to you, it will be easier
to decide which operating system will work best in a particular situation and you
can be better prepared to recommend a particular OS to your customers. The fol-
lowing OSs will be will be discussed over the course of the chapter:
CP/M
DOS

Operating System Terms and Concepts 447
Windows (1–3.x)
OS/2
Windows 95
Windows NT Workstation
Linux
Macintosh OS 9
To understand the emergence of modern graphical operating systems, you
should know about the technologies that led to our present systems and about
the critical relationship between hardware and software. Graphics, speed, GUI
interfaces, and multiple programs running concurrently are all made possible by
software designers taking full advantage of the hardware for which they are
designing their software.
Operating System Terms and Concepts

B efore we actually get too far into our discussion of PC operating systems,
it may be useful to define a few key terms. Below are some terms you will come
across as you study this chapter, and visit with people in the computer industry.
Version A version is a particular revision of a piece of software, normally
described by a number, which tells you how new the product is in relation to
other versions of the product. MS-DOS, for instance, is currently in its sixth
major version. Major revisions are distinguished from minor ones in this man-
ner: DOS 5.0 to 6.0 was a major revision, while 6.0 to 6.2 was a minor revi-
sion. This way of marking changes is now relatively standard in marking
changes in other OS and application software. Additionally, very minor revi-
sions are indicated with an additional decimal point. Upgrading from DOS
version 6.21 to 6.22 involved only a few new files, but it was still an upgrade.
Source The actual code that defines how a piece of software works. Com-
puter operating systems can be “open source,” meaning that the OS can be
examined and modified by users, or it can be “closed source,” meaning users
cannot modify or examine the code.
Shell A shell is a program that runs “on top of” the operating system and
allows the user to issue commands through a set of menus or some other
graphical interface. Shells make using an operating system easier to use by
changing the user interface. The two shells we will be looking at most closely
are Microsoft’s DOS Shell (a menuing system) and Windows (a fully graphical
user interface).

Graphical user interface (GUI) The user interface is the method by which a
person communicates with a computer. GUIs use a mouse, touch pad, or
another mechanism (in addition to the keyboard) to interact with the com-
puter to issue commands.
Network A network is any group of computers that have a physical com-
munication link between them. Networks allow computers to share informa-
tion and resources quickly and securely.
Cooperative multitasking A multitasking method that depends on the appli-
cation itself to be responsible for using and then freeing access to the proces-
sor. This is the way that Windows 3.1 managed multiple applications. If any
application locked up while using the processor, the application was unable
to properly free the processor to do other tasks, and the entire system locked,
usually forcing a reboot.
Preemptive multitasking A multitasking method in which the operating sys-
tem allots each application a certain amount of processor time and then forcibly
takes back control and gives another application or task access to the processor.
This means that if an application crashes, the operating system takes control of
the processor away from the locked application and passes it on to the next
application, which should be unaffected. Although unstable programs still lock,
only the locked application will stall, not the entire system.
Multithreading The ability of a single application to have multiple requests
in to the processor at one time. This results in faster application performance,
because it allows a program to do many things at once. Only 32-bit or higher
operating systems support multithreading.
“Classic” Operating Systems

T he word “classic” sounds so much better than “obsolete”, doesn’t it?
Still, this isn’t exactly the type of heading that makes you want to take notes, is
it? That’s the point, in a lot of ways, as the material in this chapter is not going
to be on the A+ exam. Then why, you may ask, is it in the A+ Complete Study
Guide at all? Two reasons, really. The first is that it is easier to understand the
modern OS versions you will be tested on if you understand where they come
from. The second is that being a technician isn’t just about passing a test, and
these systems will come up in discussions all through your career, as someone
reminisces about the “good old days” of DOS or OS/2. It is important that we
know where we have been and how we have gotten to where we are. Knowing
this background is an essential part of being an informed and effective computer-
support person or service technician and certainly is in accordance with the over-
all goals of certification. Customers and clients will be more confident of your

“Classic” Operating Systems 449
abilities when you can show that you have a solid understanding of your indus-
try. That said, those of you obsessed with certification can skip ahead a few
pages to the “Current Operating Systems” section while the rest of us take a
stroll down memory lane on the 16-bit bus.
CP/M
The Control Program for Microcomputer (CP/M) is an operating system you
may never have heard of because it is not in use on modern PCs. Gary Kildall
wrote this OS in 1973, using his PL/M programming language. It initially ran on
the Intel 8008. It was later ported to the 8080 chip and was, in many ways, very
similar in function to DOS. As a matter of fact, it looks quite similar to DOS, as
you can see in Figure 11.1.
FIGURE 11.1 Control Program for Microcomputer (CP/M)
The following bit of computer folklore, which, despite questionable authen-

ticity, has become well known in the industry, underscores the relationship
between CP/M and DOS: In 1981, IBM decided to begin marketing machines to
home users and small offices. They decided that, for reasons of time and effi-
ciency, they would simply license an operating system rather than develop and
support one of their own. To that end, they scheduled a meeting with Gary
Kildall. The IBM representative arrived for the meeting at Kildall’s house, but
Gary wasn’t there; he was out flying his plane. After an unsuccessful meeting
with Kildall’s wife and lawyer, the IBM representative left without an OS. Not
long after, IBM found a different system, entering into a contract with Bill Gates
by which Gates’ fledgling company Microsoft (you may have heard of them)
agreed to license their DOS operating system to IBM. Kildall says that this story
is not accurate and, in fact, claims that Bill Gates was the first to tell the apoc-
ryphal story. One way or the other, the fact remains that Kildall’s OS lost a huge
opportunity. At the time that IBM allegedly came calling, CP/M was in fact the

industry standard for low-cost computers on the Intel platform. Within a few
years of losing the IBM contract, it was nothing but a memory.
A copy of CP/M itself is as hard to find these days as a baby sauropod, but the good
folks at ZDNet have a great emulator called 22Nice available for download if you
are interested in digging into computer history. Go out to zdnet.com.au/swlib/
Utilities/System_Utilities/0000CB.html to read more about it. Warning:
Downloading and using command line operating systems will quickly earn you
the “geek” label.
MS-DOS and PC-DOS

In the 1980s or early 1990s, the operating system that shipped with most PCs
was a version of the Disk Operating System (DOS) created by Microsoft: MS-
DOS. (There were a number of manufacturers of DOS, but most of them pro-
duced similar versions—they differed only in syntax and a few utilities. The
important differences among DOS variants are to be found from one chronolog-
ical version to the next, not among manufacturers.)
In next section, you will look at the origins of DOS and the way it has evolved,
version by version, over time. After the history lesson, we will also examine some of
the commands and syntax of the DOS OS, as you will need some knowledge of com-
mand line syntax before taking the A+ exam.
The Origins of DOS

The story behind MS-DOS is one of the most often told of all computer fables.
But the intrigue goes further than the mystery of why Gary Kildall missed his
meeting with IBM. As noted, Microsoft contracted with IBM to write the oper-
ating system for their new Intel-based microcomputer project. Although Bill
Gates and his partner, Paul Allen, were both experienced programmers, they
had gained their success through the creation of programming languages, not
operating systems.
Gates and Allen had created the BASIC language in 1976 and had also
released versions of COBOL and FORTRAN for Intel-based machines. How-
ever, they had never created an operating system from scratch, which is exactly
what they promised to do for IBM. In an interesting twist, just as Seattle-based
Microsoft was finishing up a very secretive deal with IBM, Tim Patterson of
Seattle Computer Products began writing an operating system specifically for
use with the 8086-based computer. Patterson was dissatisfied with how long it
was taking for an x86 version of CP/M to be released, so he named his oper-
ating system Quick-and-Dirty Disk Operating System (QDOS), and showed it
to Microsoft, even as they were in the middle of talks with IBM. Paul Allen
soon contracted with Seattle Computer Products to purchase QDOS to then
sell to an unnamed client (IBM, of course). The purchase price of around

$100,000 bought Microsoft an operating system, and a few months later,
Patterson followed his operating system—he quit SCP and took a job with
Gates and Allen. Microsoft soon acquired all rights to QDOS and renamed
it MS-DOS.
From there, MS-DOS was modified for use with the new IBM minicomputer,
and in the fall of 1981, IBM announced the IBM 5150 PC Personal Computer. The
5150 had a 4.77MHz Intel 8088 CPU, 64KB RAM, 40KB ROM, one 5.25-inch
floppy drive, color graphics capability, and an OS called PC-DOS 1.0. PC-DOS,
of course, was simply IBM’s moniker for the MS-DOS they were licensing from
Microsoft.
Before the PC, most computers were sold as kits. This meant that the customer
had to assemble the machine, install the OS, etc. IBM debuted their IBM PC as a
machine that anyone could use, because it was “ready to go” right out of the box.
Gates and Allen had contracted to allow IBM to use their operating system,
rather than allowing IBM to buy it outright. Moreover, IBM had not been
granted any type of exclusivity over DOS, hence Microsoft was also able to
license versions of DOS to other companies, allowing the creation of what were
originally called “IBM clone” machines. These machines ran on the same Intel
chip as the IBM PC and used a similar version of the operating system. From
1981 on, the future of the personal computer was to be largely determined by
the increasingly powerful processors created by Intel and the increasingly
sophisticated operating systems Microsoft wrote to take advantage of Intel’s
enhancements.
MS-DOS Versions
Next we will look at the evolution of the MS-DOS operating system and will
examine the major changes in microcomputer architecture and standards that
are reflected in each revision. Smaller revisions—1.0 to 1.1, 6.0 to 6.1—are not
enumerated, but their changes are included in the overall enhancements made to
the overall version.
You will notice as you read about and use DOS that most of the versions of
this operating system are very similar, as the OS proved to be very stable in its
original design. Although various enhancements or features may or may not be
available to you, depending on the version you are using, in a general sense you
can trust that if you learn one version, you can probably use any of them.
MS-DOS 1
The original version of MS-DOS was, to put it mildly, a “no-frills” operating sys-
tem. It had no provisions for networking, did not include any sort of graphical
shell program, and had limited ability to manage system resources. Approximately

a year after the release of DOS 1.0, a revision—DOS 1.1—added support for
double-sided 320KB floppy drives. Double-sided disks were important, as they
effectively doubled the machine’s storage and retrieval capacity. It is difficult to
grasp this concept today, when a 10- or 20-gigabyte hard drive is standard on
most new desktop machines, but in 1981 internal hard drives were neither easily
available nor supported by DOS. Users generally had only a single 5.25" drive,
so the OS, any programs the users wanted to run, and any data they wanted to
retrieve all had to be accessed through the 5.25" floppies!
MS-DOS 2
In early 1983, IBM introduced the IBM PC XT. The XT featured a 10MB hard
drive, a serial interface, and three additional expansion slots. It also had 128KB
of RAM and a 360KB floppy drive (40KB more capacity than that of single-sided
floppies on the previous PC) and could support a 10MB internal hard drive.
Users of this new PC needed an operating system that would allow them to take
advantage of this new hardware, and Microsoft did not disappoint them.
MS-DOS 3
With DOS 3.0, released in summer 1984, Microsoft continued to include addi-
tional DOS features and to support more powerful hardware. DOS 3.0 sup-
ported hard drives larger than 10MB, as well as enhanced graphics formats.
Three revisions—3.1, 3.2, and 3.3—provided additional innovations. The IBM
PC AT was the first machine shipped with DOS 3. It had 256KB of RAM, an
Intel 80286 processor (6 MHz!), and a 1.2MB 5.25~IN floppy drive. A 20MB
hard drive and color video card were also available. Later upgrades to version 3
of MS-DOS included support for networking and 32MB partition sizes, as well
as 1.44MB floppy drives.
Version 3.1 was notable because it featured the first DOS support for net-
working. The IBM PC Network was a simple local area network structure that
was similar to today’s workgroup networks.
DOS 3.2 introduced the XCOPY command, enabling the user to identify
more than one file at a time to be copied, and it made important modifications
to other DOS commands. It was also the first version to support IBM’s Token
Ring network topology and the first to allow for 720KB 3.5~IN floppies. Ver-
sion 3.3, introduced in 1987, offered additional enhancements to numerous
existing commands and introduced support for 1.44MB floppy disks. Logical
partition sizes could be up to 32MB, and a single machine could support both
a primary and a secondary partition on each disk. It is important to note that
DOS 3 was released in 1984, the same year as Apple’s infamous “1984” ad aired
during the Super Bowl, marking the release of the Apple Macintosh. IBM had a
great thing going with the PC, but they had gotten lazy and just made occasional
improvements to DOS as needed, rather than really trying to make significant
changes to it. As the challenge came in from Apple, whose graphical Macintosh

OS was clearly superior to DOS, Microsoft and IBM announced the creation of
a second PC operating system, OS/2. Unfortunately, “announcing” and “deliv-
ering” are very different things, and the story of OS/2’s production problems is
a long one. We will look at both Apple and OS/2 later in the chapter.
MS-DOS 4
By 1988 it was apparent that the wave of the future was the graphical interface,
and DOS 4 provided users with the DOS Shell, a utility much like the Windows
File Manager. Actually, DOS Shell was simply a scaled-down version of Windows
(which we will look at in a minute) that allowed users to manage files, run pro-
grams, and do routine maintenance, all from a single screen. The DOS Shell even
supported a mouse. (That’s right, there was no ability to use a mouse within DOS
before this version. Oh, how Mac lovers must have mocked Microsofties back in
the dark days of ’88!)
MS-DOS 5
There were several important features introduced in the 1991 release of DOS 5.0.
First of all, the ability to load drivers into reserved (upper) memory was a relief
to those people who were constantly running out of conventional memory. This
feature allowed more complex DOS programs (that took up more conventional
memory) to be developed.
In addition to this feature, several software utilities made their debut. The
most commonly used utility introduced at this time was EDIT.COM. This ASCII
text editor has since become one of the most popular text editors for simple text
files (and a welcomed relief from the single-line view of EDLIN.COM—previ-
ously the only choice for a text editor). Also added in DOS 5 were QBASIC.EXE,
DOSKEY, UNFORMAT, and UNDELETE.
MS-DOS 6
Released in 1993 to excellent sales (and a lawsuit for patent infringement),
DOS 6.0 offered a number of new commands and configurable options. Another
enhancement in DOS 6.0 was EMM386.EXE, which allowed the system to pool
extended and expanded memory. DOS 6.0 has subsequently been revised a num-
ber of times—once (DOS 6.2 to 6.21) because of a court order. Microsoft was
found to have violated Stac Electronics’ patent rights in the creation of the
DoubleSpace utility for 6.0 and 6.1, and the only real difference between 6.2 and
6.21 is that DoubleSpace is removed. Never to be denied, Microsoft soon
released DOS 6.22 with a disk compression program called DriveSpace.
As of this writing, DOS 6.22 is the most current MS-DOS version available
as a stand-alone operating system. Microsoft has included certain DOS-style
command line utilities for use within Windows 95, Windows NT and Win-
dows 2000, but these are actually Windows programs that simply mimic the
familiar, old command-prompt environment of DOS.

Microsoft Windows
Any real understanding of the success of DOS after 1987 requires knowledge of
Windows. In the early years of its existence, Microsoft’s DOS gained great accep-
tance and became a standard as a PC operating system. Even so, as computers
became more powerful and programs more complex, the limitations of the DOS
command-line interface were becoming apparent (as well as the aforementioned
conventional memory limitation).
The solution to the problem was to make the operating system easier to navi-
gate, more uniform, and generally more “friendly” to the user. IBM had under-
stood that the average user did not want to receive their computer in pieces but
preferred to have it ready-to-go out of the box. Oddly, they did not understand
that the same user who wanted their hardware to be ready-to-go also wanted their
software to be the same way. They did not want to edit batch files or hunt through
directories using CD or DIR commands either. Because of this, when Microsoft
came to IBM with a graphical user interface (GUI) based on groundbreaking work
done by Xerox labs, IBM was not interested, preferring to go onward with the
development of OS/2, a project it had already started with Microsoft.
The Xerox Corporation maintained a think-tank of computer designers in Palo

Alto, California called the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). One of the results of
their work was the Alto workstation, which is generally thought to be the forerun-
ner of all modern graphical operating systems. The Alto had a mouse and a GUI
interface, and it communicated with other stations via Ethernet. Oh, and it was fin-
ished in 1974! Although it was never promoted commercially, both Microsoft and
Apple viewed the Alto and incorporated its technology into their own systems.
The accomplishments of the PARC lab in laying the groundwork for modern
graphical computing systems simply cannot be overstated. Check out
www.parc.xerox.com for more information on PARC past and present.
Regardless of IBM’s interest, Microsoft continued on its own with its devel-
opment of the GUI—which it named Windows after its rectangular work areas—
and released the first version to the market in 1985. Apple filed a lawsuit soon
after, claiming that the Microsoft GUI had been built using Apple technology,
but the suit was dismissed. Apple’s Macintosh and Microsoft’s DOS-with-Win-
dows combo have both continued to evolve, but until a recent deal between
Apple and Microsoft, tensions have always been high. Mac and PC users, of
course, still remain adamantly chauvinistic about their respective platforms.
Oh, the stories that have been told around the glow of a monitor about Gates vs.
Jobs. Even so, one of the easiest ways to get a bit of the flavor of the struggle is
through a recent movie called “Pirates of the Silicon Valley,” in which Anthony
Michael Hall of “The Breakfast Club” plays Gates and Noah Wyle of “ER” fame
plays Jobs. More info at tnt.turner.com/movies/tntoriginals/pirates.

The Windows interface to MS-DOS is really just a shell program that allows
users to issue DOS commands through a graphical interface—a prettier extension
of Microsoft’s earlier DOS Shell work. The integration of a mouse for nearly all
tasks—a legacy of the Xerox Alto computer on which both the Macintosh and
Windows GUIs are based—further freed users from DOS by allowing them to
issue common commands without using the keyboard. Word processors, spread-
sheets, and especially games were revolutionized as software manufacturers happily
took advantage of the ease of use and flexibility that Windows added to DOS.
Windows Versions
After the development of Windows, many of the enhancements made to subse-
quent versions of DOS were designed to help free up and reallocate resources to
better run Windows and Windows-based applications. Similarly, PC hardware
continued to evolve far past the limits of DOS’s ability to effectively use the power
available to it, and later versions of Windows would be designed to hide and over-
come the limitations of the operating system. The combination of MS-DOS and its
Windows shell would make Microsoft the industry leader, and spurred the PC
movement to new heights in the early 1990s. Following is a brief examination of
the development of the Windows shell and a look at its different versions.
Windows 1
Version 1 of Windows featured the tiling windows, mouse support, and menu
systems that still drive next-generation operating systems such as Windows 98,
Windows CE, and Windows 2000. It also offered “cooperative multitasking,”
meaning that more than one Windows application could run concurrently. This
was something that MS-DOS, up to this point, could not do.
Windows 1 was far from a finished product. For one thing, it didn’t use icons,
and it had few of the programs we have come to expect as Windows standards.
Windows 1 was basically just an updated, more graphical version of the DOS
SHELL.EXE program.
Windows 2
Version 2, released in 1987, added icons and allowed application windows to
overlap each other, as well as tile. Support was also added for PIFs (program
information files), which allowed the user to configure Windows to run their
DOS applications more efficiently.
Windows 3.x
Windows 3.0 featured a far more flexible memory model, allowing it to access
more memory than the 640KB limit normally imposed by DOS. It also featured
the addition of the File Manager and Program Manager, allowed for network
support, and could operate in “386 Enhanced mode.” 386 Enhanced mode used
parts of the hard drive as “virtual memory” and was therefore able to use disk

memory to supplement the RAM in the machine. Windows today, in fact, is still
quite similar to the Windows of version 3.0.
In 1992, a revision of Windows 3, known as Windows 3.1, provided for bet-
ter graphical display capability and multimedia support. It also improved the
Windows error-protection system and let applications work together more easily
through the use of object linking and embedding (OLE).
Windows after the introduction of version 3.1 took a marked turn for the bet-
ter, because Microsoft started making a serious effort to change to a full 32-bit
application environment. With version 3.11, also known as Windows for Work-
groups, Windows could offer support for both 16-bit and 32-bit applications.
(Windows 3.1 could only support 16-bit applications.) Significant progress on
the 32-bit front was not to be made, however, until very late in 1995, when
Microsoft introduced Windows 95. Since that time the venerable DOS/Windows
team has been largely replaced by newer, more advanced systems. You may occa-
sionally still run into a Windows 3.1 machine, but it is not a common occurrence.
With the introduction of Windows for Workgroups, people speaking generically

about the two “flavors” of Windows—3.1 and 3.11—started referring to them col-
lectively as Windows 3.x, as in the heading of this section.
OS/2
Even as Windows 3.1 was in development, Microsoft was participating in a joint
effort with IBM to create a next-generation operating system for use with 286
and higher processors. This operating system was to be IBM/Microsoft’s second
generation OS, or OS/2, intended to replace DOS. Differing goals for the design
of the new system caused a number of disagreements, though, and the partner-
ship soon broke up. IBM continued the development of OS/2 on their own, while
Microsoft took their part of the technology and began to develop LAN Manager,
which would eventually lead to the development of Windows NT.
With the second version, IBM made OS/2 a 32-bit system that required at
least a 386 processor to run. Although this made it vastly more stable and pow-
erful than Windows 3.1, both it and Microsoft’s NT product had a problem find-
ing a market. The main reason for this was probably that most users simply did
not have powerful enough computers to properly use the system, and few pieces
of software were available that leveraged the new architecture and OS properly.
With version 3 (OS/2 Warp), IBM created a multitasking, 32-bit OS that
required a 386 but preferred a 486. Warp also required a ridiculous 4MB of
RAM just to load. With a graphical interface and the ability to do a great deal
of self-configuration, the Warp OS was a peculiar cross between DOS and a
Macintosh. Warp featured true preemptive multitasking, did not suffer from the
memory limitations of DOS, and had a desktop similar to the Macintosh.

For all of its tremendous features, OS/2 Warp had a funny name and was
badly marketed. It never really established a wide user base. Nonetheless, until
Windows NT 3.51 was released in 1995, OS/2 was the operating system of
choice for high-end workstations, and up until recently the OS retained a small
but faithful following. The last year or so has been harsh on OS/2 fans, though,
as IBM has essentially abandoned the high-end desktop market to Windows NT,
Windows 2000, and Linux. OS/2 has been largely forgotten, and IBM now ships
Windows 2000 Professional with its own desktops. When even the company that
makes an OS stops pushing it, it drops into the “obsolete” section real quick. For
more info on OS/2, including current support options, go out to IBM’s OS/2
information page at www-4.ibm.com/software/os/warp.
Windows 95
Although it dominated the market with its DOS operating system and its add-on
Windows interface, Microsoft found that the constraints of DOS were rapidly
making it difficult to take full advantage of rapidly improving hardware and soft-
ware developments. The future of computing was clearly a 32-bit, preemptively
multitasked system such as IBM’s OS/2, but many current users had DOS-based
software or older hardware that was specifically designed for DOS and would not
operate outside of its Windows 3.1, cooperatively multitasked environment.
Because of this problem, in the fall of 1995 Microsoft released a major upgrade
to the DOS/Windows environment. Called Windows 95, the new product inte-
grated the operating system and the shell. Where previous versions of Windows
simply provide a graphic interface to the existing DOS OS, the Windows 95
graphical interface is part of the OS. Moreover, Windows 95 was designed to be
a hybrid of the features of previous DOS versions and newer 32-bit systems. To
this end, it is a preemptively multitasked system that is able to emulate and sup-
port cooperative multitasking for programs that require it. It also supports both
32-bit and 16-bit drivers as well as DOS drivers, although the 32-bit drivers are
strongly recommended over the DOS ones, as they are far more stable and faster.
Among the most important of the other enhancements debuted by Microsoft
with Windows 95 was support for the Plug-and-Play standard (PnP). This meant
that if a device was designed to be plug-and-play, a technician could install the
device into the computer, start the machine, and have the device automatically
recognized and configured by Windows 95. This was a major advance, but
unfortunately for Plug and Play to work properly, three things had to be true:
1. The OS had to be PnP compatible.
2. The computer motherboard had to support PnP.
3. All devices in the machine had to be PnP compatible.
Unfortunately, at the time Windows 95 came out many manufacturers were
creating their hardware for use in DOS/Windows machines, and DOS did not

support PnP, so most pre-1995 computer components were not PnP compliant.
Because of this, these components—generally referred to as “legacy” devices—
often interfered with the Plug-and-Play environment. Legacy devices are sound
cards, modems, etc. that do not support the Plug-and-Play standard. Such devices
are not able to dynamically interact with newer systems. They therefore require
manual configuration or must be replaced by newer devices, which don’t usually
need manual configuration. Due to problems managing legacy hardware under
Windows 95, many people soured on PnP technology. Worse, they blamed Win-
dows 95 for their problems, not the old hardware. “It worked fine in DOS” was
the standard logic! Now, half a decade later, nearly all PC components are PnP
compliant, and configuring computer systems is far easier than it was under DOS.
The foibles of PnP aside, to say that the new system was a success would be
a major understatement. Within just a few years of its release, the Windows 95–
style GUI had won over nearly all Windows users, and the more resilient archi-
tecture of 95 had won over network administrators and computer technicians.
While it was far from perfect, Windows 95 was a tremendous advance out of the
DOS age. Perhaps the only ones not thrilled were the folks at Apple, who con-
tinued to make a cottage industry out of starting lawsuits against Microsoft. This
time Apple was contending that the Windows 95 interface itself was stolen from
the Macintosh. While it is undeniable that the 95 interface is an evil twin of the
Mac interface, it turned out that Apple themselves had gotten their GUI from
somewhere else…the PARC Alto! Unbelievably, Xerox had evidently not only
designed the first computer GUI, but they had created an interface that could not
be significantly improved upon in over 20 years of OS development, and which
both Apple and Microsoft settled on as the basis for their GUIs! All subsequent
versions of Windows (98, NT, and 2000) use an interface essentially identical to
the Windows 95 GUI.
Part II, Chapter 12, “Introduction to the Windows Interface,” goes into depth
on the nature of the Windows 95/98/NT/2000 interface, and overall Windows
95 OS is only marginally different from its Windows 98 upgrade, which is one
of the operating systems you will be tested on during the A+ exam. As such, Win-
dows 95 will be grouped with 98 for the rest of the book, and we will be more
concerned with the differences between Windows 9x and Windows 2000 than
we will be by differences between Windows 95 and Windows 98.
Other Current Operating Systems

A nd then there were only five. As this book is written, the desktop oper-
ating system market is dominated by one operating system, while four others are
viable options…or pretenders to the throne. Clearly, Windows 95/98 is the pri-
mary desktop OS in the world, with a stranglehold on the desktops of the cor-
porate environment and a strong lead in the home market. It is not, though, the

Other Current Operating Systems 459
only OS you may run across, and many high-end workstations are running one
of the other options listed below. Without further ado, the five current OS
options are
Windows 98
Windows 2000 Professional
Linux (all distributions)
Mac OS 9
We will be talking about Windows 98 and Windows 2000 in depth through-
out the rest of the study guide, as they are the two operating systems that you will
be tested on. As such, the remainder of this chapter will focus on the other OS
options available to the daring PC owner.
On the horizon: Microsoft released Windows Me just as the A+ test objectives

were being finalized. Because of the timing of its debut, Me will not be part of the
exam. Me is an upgrade to Windows 98 and is expected to be the last version of
the Windows 95/98/Me architecture. Plans are for future releases of Microsoft’s
home/low-end desktop product to be based on the more stable Windows 2000
architecture instead of on the Windows 95 architecture.
As previously noted, Windows 98 is currently the most common PC operating
system on the market. Still, for users who need more power, other options are
available. One of these is the Windows NT operating system. NT (which unof-
ficially stands for New Technology) is an OS that was designed to be far more
powerful than any previous Windows version. It uses an architecture based
entirely on 32-bit code and is capable of accessing up to four gigabytes (4,000
megabytes) of RAM.
Windows NT can support huge drive sizes and more than one processor,
and has numerous advantages over Windows 95 and DOS. NT comes in two
varieties—Workstation and Server, each intended for a particular role. NT Server
is designed as the centerpiece of a network and is able to carry out numerous tasks
for organizing and managing networked computers. Windows NT Workstation,
on the other hand, is intended for users who work with large files or complex pro-
grams. CAD (computer-aided design) programs are a good example of the sort of
applications that run better under NT than under other versions of Windows.
Windows NT also allows for better security than previous versions of Win-
dows and is more stable. Naturally, each version of NT that has come out has
been more expensive than the current version of Windows 3.x or 95 and needed

a significantly more powerful machine to run well. A quick rundown of the evo-
lution of NT follows.
Windows NT Workstation 3.x

Windows NT was first released in 1993, under the title of Windows NT 3.1.
Where, you may ask, were Windows NT 1.0 and 2.0? Perhaps in the same closet
at Microsoft where all of the copies of Word 5.0 are hidden.…NT was essentially
a reworking of the LAN Manager software which had come out of Microsoft’s
aborted OS/2 partnership with IBM, but part of the “New Technology” (hence
NT) offering was a workstation option that had not been available on LAN
Manager. Windows NT 3.1 debuted at the familiar 3.1 version number to stay
in line with the rest of the 3.x Windows family. It was subsequently upgraded to
3.5 and then to 3.51.
In 1993 Windows NT 3.1 was definitely a step up from DOS/Windows and
was adopted in many CAD and number-crunching environments. When Win-
dows NT 3.51 arrived in the fall of 1995, it featured a number of improvements,
such as a fully 32-bit OS, file-level security, support for more RAM, and support
for multiple processors.
Windows NT Workstation 4.0

With the release in 1996 of Windows NT 4.0, the NT platform was given a
facelift and now sported the popular Windows 95 GUI. (NT 3.x had used the
Windows 3.x Program Manager GUI.) This and the increasing availability of
NT-compatible application software allowed NT 4.0 Workstation to solidify its
place in the market as a high-end desktop. NT was positioned directly against its
cousin, OS/2 Warp. With the 95 GUI and the power of Microsoft marketing, NT
quickly took over most of the “power user” market. NT workstations are excel-
lent for any of the following tasks:
Database client
Graphics station
CAD station
Probably the only real problem that the Windows NT system had when com-
pared to Windows 95 was that both NT 3.x and NT 4.0 lacked plug-and-play
capabilities, a fact that would irritate many a technician over the next few years.
LINUX
Over the past couple of years the “open-source” movement has been rallying
around Linus Torvalds and his Linux OS. Linux is a Unix-type operating system
that has been released into the public domain and is being developed as an oper-
ating system standard, much as TCP/IP is a protocol standard. There are a num-
ber of computer users who are uncomfortable with Microsoft’s dominance of the

Other Current Operating Systems 461
crucial OS market, and, as a result, Linux has been positioned as an excellent

alternative to the Microsoft juggernaut. There were suspicions that CompTIA
would be adding Linux questions into the A+ exam, but in the end it was decided
that Linux’ time had not yet come.
This was probably the right decision, for two reasons. The first of these is that
while it is making inroads with knowledgeable home users and is even being used
as a server in many corporate environments, Linux has simply not been able to
break into the mass home or corporate desktop markets that the A+ objectives
prepare you to serve. The second reason follows from this. Because most Linux
users are computer junkies themselves, few of them will be taking their comput-
ers in for professional (i.e., paid) configuration or support. As an A+ certified
tech, you will be working for the people who will pay you, and most of them are
still running Windows.
That said, Linux is a nifty idea. The theory behind it is to make core operating
system code available to anyone who wants it, so that the code can then be
explored and enhanced by users. Those who choose to can even create a full
Unix-type OS from the Linux source code, modify it as they see fit, and release
it to the world as a Linux “distribution.” Distributions are similar to versions,
but where versions are chronological enhancements to a single company’s OS,
distributions are variations on a single OS theme. For a list of Linux distribu-
tions, refer to www.linux.org/dist/english.html.
The architecture of Linux is based on Unix, the OS used in mainframes and
other high-end computers, and it is extremely powerful and stable. Linux also is
commonly used as a Web server or e-mail server on the Internet, and can func-
tion as either a network operating system or a desktop operating system, just as
Windows NT can.
There are few creatures more rabid in defense of their cause than Linux fans,
and for good reason. The basic philosophy of Linux is that the people who use
an operating system are the ones who know best what needs to be improved on
it and that user feedback should be respected and acted upon. Linux has not
always been an OS for the masses, as early distributions were complex to install
and had little application support, but through a small army of users sending
suggestions it has improved markedly.
The Linux vs. Microsoft debate is an interesting one in the computer world,
as it is a face-off between idealism and corporate power, open-source and pro-
prietary code. It is a battleground where we will eventually see whether users
prefer a system which gives them power (but requires a bit more work) or one
that makes everything easy (but gives them fewer choices). Should be fun to
watch, if nothing else.
For detailed information of the world of Linux, two Web sites are obvious starting
points: www.linux.org and www.linux.com. Linux.org is probably the better of the
two for those interested in simply learning about what Linux is, and it has a great
online course called “Getting Started with Linux.”

Macintosh OS 9
Finally, we come to the venerable old man of the graphical operating system
world, the Apple Macintosh. Apple was founded by Steve Jobs and Steve
Wozniak. Wozniak built the first Apple, and was the technical wizard. Jobs was
the sales and marketing guy, and together they built and marketed the Apple II,
which Jobs dubbed “the computer for the rest of us.” The Apple II was an imme-
diate success, as it had color graphics, and useful applications such as Visicalc
were available for it. For 1977, it was quite a spiffy machine.
The Apple was a relatively simple computer, though, and was operated via an
OS like CP/M or BASIC. In 1984 all that changed, as Apple unveiled the Mac-
intosh, a new machine with a revolutionary graphic user interface. Or at least an
interface revolutionary to everyone outside the PARC labs. The original Mac
had its faults—it was too expensive, it didn’t have a hard drive, etc.—but none-
theless it laid the groundwork for many Macs (and Windows enhancements) to
come. The Mac II came out in 1987, and included color support (the original
Mac was b/w), but overall the Macintosh was undermined by problems within
Apple (that caused Steve Jobs to be forced out) and limited Macintosh software
development. The Apple philosophy was always one of producing both the hard-
ware and the software for their machines and not licensing anyone else to do
either. Eventually this backfired, as consumers chose cheaper and better-sup-
ported Intel/Microsoft options instead.
Fast forward to 2000, and the Macintosh is relatively popular again after
nearly a decade of decline. A good part of this renaissance is due to the extremely
successful iMac line, and the continuing success of the PowerBook (a Macintosh
notebook). Mac computers are often found in artsy places—design houses, mar-
keting departments, etc.—and are still the choice of people who want their com-
puter to be simple to use and pretty to look at. Mind you, there’s nothing wrong
with that, but thank heavens we aren’t tested on these things.
Choosing an Operating System

N ow that we have sampled the variety of PC operating systems, it is time
to take a more in-depth look at the two systems that dominate the current envi-
ronment: Windows 95/98 and Windows 2000.
If you have users who have older hardware, Windows 95 may be the best bet,
simply because of its low resource usage. Most other home users will be happiest

Summary 463
with Windows 98 (or now Windows Me), and corporate users are generally
divided between Windows 98/Me and Windows NT Workstation/Windows 2000
Professional. As we will see, users who need higher performance or strong security
should be nudged toward NT or 2000 Professional. Really, the choices that you
will probably be dealing with come down to the two OS options dealt with in-
depth in the following chapters: Windows 98 for home/casual users and Windows
NT for high-end systems.
Now that we have discussed the various types of PC operating systems, it is time
to take a quick look at which ones you may want to recommend for users who are
looking to upgrade. First off, Macintosh and Linux are sort of off on their own.
The Mac OS runs on a different processor than Intel PCs, so if you own an Apple
machine, you will be running the Mac OS on it. Linux is a great system, but is only
for the adventurous at this time and is generally not something you want to rec-
ommend to the casual user. Linux will certainly work for anyone, but experienced
computer users will be happier with it than novices will. That leaves us with the
Microsoft family of products. If you have users who have older hardware, Win-
dows 95 may be the best bet, simply because of its low resource usage. Most other
home users will be happiest with Windows 98 or Windows Me, and corporate
users are generally divided between Windows 98/Me and Windows NT Worksta-
tion/Windows 2000 Professional. Users who need higher performance or strong
security should be nudged toward NT or 2000 Pro.
Summary
I n this chapter we have looked at the evolution of the personal computer
and how it has changed over the past two decades. The PC and especially its
ever-improving operating systems have revolutionized the way that comput-
ing is done. From the Xerox Alto GUI to DOS to Macs and Windows, a num-
ber of different solutions have been found to the problem of allowing humans
to communicate with machines. Over the rest of this book, we will leave
behind most of the operating systems, just as CompTIA has done, and focus
on just two platforms—Windows 98 and Windows 2000. The choices that
you will probably face come down to the two OS options dealt with in-depth
in the following chapters, where we will explore Windows 98 for home/
casual users and Windows NT for high-end systems.

Key Terms
Control Program for PC-DOS 1.0

Microcomputer (CP/M)
co-operative multitasking preemptive multitasking
Disk Operating System (DOS) Quick-and-Dirty Disk
Operating System (QDOS)
graphical user interface (GUI) shell
MS-DOS source
multithreading version
network

Review Questions
1. All of the following are important developments in Intel platform PC operating
systems except ___________________.
A. CP/M
B. MS-DOS and PC-DOS
C. Windows Interfaces to DOS
D. OS/1
2. CP/M stands for ___________________.

A. Control Processing Management
B. Control Program for Microcomputer
C. Control Power for Microcomputer
D. Control Processing Microcomputer
3. What was the original version of MS-DOS?

A. MS-DOS 2
B. MS-DOS 3
C. MS-DOS -1
D. MS-DOS -5
4. What was the major innovation that came after MS-DOS -1?
A. The 5.25" disk drive
B. The 3.5" disk drive
C. Double-sided 3.35" disks were created
D. Double-sided 320K floppy drives were created
5. In early 1983 IBM introduced the IBM PC-XT. The PC-XT featured all of the
following except ___________________.
A. DOS 1.25 was the operating system
B. 10MB hard drive
C. Serial interface
D. Three additional expansion slots
E. 128K of RAM
6. The XT shipped with which version of DOS?

A. MS-DOS 3
B. MS-DOS 2
C. MS-DOS 4
D. MS-DOS 1

7. All of the following were features of MS-DOS 3 except ___________________.

A. Supported hard drives larger than 10MB
B. Enhanced graphics formats
C. Support for networking
D. Could not support 1.44MB floppy drives
8. The IBM PC-AT introduced in 1984 featured all but which the following?
A. 128KB RAM
B. An Intel processor 80286
C. 1.25MB floppy drive
D. 20MB hard drive
9. What was the first graphical interface that was introduced with MS-DOS 4?
A. GUI
B. DOSwin
C. DOS Shell
D. DOSini
10. The XCOPY command was introduced with which DOS version?
A. DOS version 3.2
B. DOS Version 3.1
C. DOS Version 3.0
D. DOS Version 4
11. All of the following were features introduced by MSDOS-5 except _________.
A. The ability to load drivers into reserved or upper memory
B. EDIT.COM utility
C. EDLIN.COM
D. QBASIC.EXE
12. What version of MS-DOS was DOSKEY.COM and UNDELETE.EXE

introduced?
A. MS-DOS version 6
B. MS-DOS version 5
C. MS-DOS version 4
D. MS-DOS version 3

13. The ability to pool EMS and XMS memory using EMM386.EXE was intro-
duced in which version of DOS?
A. MS-DOS 5
B. MS-DOS 4
C. MS-DOS 6
D. MS-DOS 3
14. Windows featured tiling windows, mouse support, and menu systems in
which versions?
A. Windows 1
B. Windows 2
C. Windows 3
D. Windows 95
E. All of the Above
15. What was the first Windows version that allowed more memory than the
640KB limit normally imposed by DOS?
A. Windows 1
B. Windows 2
C. Windows 3
D. Windows 95
16. What was the first 32-bit preemptive multitasking system?

A. Windows 2
B. Windows 3
C. Windows 1
D. Windows 95
17. ___________________ is the best of these Microsoft operating system for users
needing to deal with large files or complex programs.
A. Windows NT
B. Windows 95
C. Windows 3.11
D. Windows 2
18. What was the minimum processor that version 2 of OS/2, a 32-bit system,
required?
A. 486
B. 586
C. 686
D. 386

19. Which Windows operating system would provide high performance and file
security?
A. Windows 95
B. Windows 98
C. Windows NT
D. Windows Me
20. Which of these “classic” operating systems can be looked at as the model
on which modern graphical systems such as Windows 2000 and the Apple
Macintosh are based?
A. Windows 1.0
B. OS/2
C. CP/M
D. Alto


1. D. CP/M, MS-DOS and PC-DOS, and Windows Interfaces are all are impor-
tant developments in Intel platform PC operating systems.
2. B. This OS was written in 1973 by Gary Kildall, using Kildall’s PL/M pro-
gramming language, and it initially ran on the Intel 8008. It was later ported
to the 8080 chip and was in many ways very similar in function to DOS.
3. C. This DOS version had a “no-frills” operating system. It had no provisions

for networking, did not include any sort of graphical shell program, and had
limited ability to manage system resources.
4. D. Double-sided 320K floppy drives were created was the major innovation
that came after MS-DOS -1. At the time, hard drives were not easily available;
therefore, all information was stored on 5.25" floppy disk.
5. A. The XT featured a 10MB hard drive, a serial interface, and three additional
expansion slots. It also had 128KB of RAM and a 360KB floppy drive.
6. B. The XT shipped with MS-DOS 2.0, a revision of the DOS operating system
that had to be redone almost from the ground up. It closely fit the machine it was
built for, and it supported 10MB hard drives and the new 360KB floppy disks.
7. D. MS-DOS 3 could not support 1.44MB floppy drives. MS-DOS used 5.25"
floppy drives.
8. A. The IBM PC-AT introduced in 1984 did not feature 128KB RAM. The
IBM PC-AT was the first machine shipped with DOS 3. It had 256KB of
RAM, an Intel 80286 processor (6 MHz!), and a 1.2MB, 5.25" floppy drive.
A 20MB hard drive and color video card were also available.
9. C. MS-DOS 4 introduced the first graphical interface, which was called DOS
Shell. The DOS Shell was simply a scaled-down version of Windows that
allowed users to manage files, run programs, and do routine maintenance all
from a single screen. The DOS Shell even supported a mouse.
10. A. The XCOPY command was introduced with DOS version 3.2. The XCOPY
command enables the user to identify more than one file at a time to be copied.
It also copies file attributes.
11. C. MS-DOS introduced all of the features listed except EDLIN.COM which
was introduced in MS-DOS 3.0 and is a line editor.
12. B. DOSKEY.COM and UNDELETE.EXE were introduced in MS-DOS ver-

sion 5. The DOSKEY.COM command loads the DOSKEY program into
memory. DOSKEY is a program that runs in the background of other pro-
grams. The UNDELETE.EXE command makes it possible to recover a
deleted file if the space on the disk has not been written over by a new file.

13. C. The ability to pool EMS and XMS memory using EMM386.EXE was
introduced in MS-DOS 6. EMS stands for Expanded Memory Specification
and provides access for the microprocessor to the upper memory area. XMS
is Extended Memory Specification and is loaded by HIMEM.SYS.
14. E. Windows featured tiling windows, mouse support, and menu systems in all
Windows versions from Windows 1 through Windows 95.
15. C. Windows 3 substantially increased the size and complexity of programs

that could be executed under DOS/Windows and was a crucial step in making
Windows a viable product.
16. D. The first 32-bit preemptive multitasking system was Windows 95.
Windows 95 is a preemptively multitasked system that is able to emulate
and support cooperative multitasking for programs that require it. It also
supports both 32-bit and 16-bit drivers as well as DOS drivers, although the
32-bit drivers are strongly recommended over the DOS ones, as they are far
more stable and are faster.
17. A. Support for large files or complex programs was the specialty of Windows
NT, and its mantle has now been passed to Windows 2000. These operating
systems are designed to support more and faster hardware and to provide
greater stability and security.
18. D. IBM made version 2 of OS/2 a 32-bit system that required at least a 386
processor to run. This made it immensely more stable and powerful.
19. C. Windows NT is a 32-bit OS that offers file-level security and support for
multiple processors.
20. D. Although all of these systems have had some effect on the composition of
modern GUIs, it was the Xerox Alto that was first with many of the innova-
tions that we now look at as the basis of a GUI system, including the mouse
and windowing capability.

Chapter Using the Microsoft
Operating System GUI
THIS CHAPTER:
1.1 Identify the operating system’s functions, structure, and major
system files to navigate the operating system and how to get to
needed technical information.
Major operating system functions
Create folders
Checking OS version
Major operating system components
Explorer
My Computer
Control Panel
Contrasts between Windows 9x and Windows 2000
Major system files: what they are, where they are located, how
they are used, and what they contain:
System, configuration, and user interface files
IO.SYS
BOOT.INI
WIN.COM
MSDOS.SYS
AUTOEXEC.BAT
CONFIG.SYS
Command line prompt
Memory management
Conventional
Extended/upper memory
High memory
Virtual memory

HIMEM.SYS
EMM386.EXE
Windows 9x
IO.SYS
WIN.INI
USER.DAT
SYSEDIT
SYSTEM.INI
MSCONFIG (98)
COMMAND.COM
REGEDIT.EXE
SYSTEM.DAT
Run command
Command line prompt
Windows 2000
Computer management
BOOT.INI
REGEDT32
REGEDIT
RUN CMD
NTLDR
NTDETECT.COM
NTBOOTDD.SYS
Command prompt procedures (command syntax)
DIR
Attrib
VER
MEM
SCANDISK
DEFRAG
EDIT
XCOPY
COPY
SETVER
SCANREG

A s mentioned in the previous chapter, the Windows 95 graphical
user interface (GUI) has been incredibly successful since its debut. Because of
this, all Microsoft operating system GUIs since then have drawn heavily from
Windows 95. Among these are both Windows 98 and Windows 2000, the two
key operating systems you will need to know for the A+ operating systems exam.
For complete coverage of objective 1.1, please also see Chapter 14. For coverage
of the Memory management subobjectives of objective 1.1, refer back to Part I,
Chapter 3.
The development of the graphical user interface from the Alto to Win-
dows 2000 was discussed in Chapter 11, “An Introduction to Computer Oper-
ating Systems,” and made out to be a major reason the personal computer
industry has taken off in the last decade or two. What exactly is it all about,
though? In this chapter, we will look at the post-Windows 95 Microsoft GUI
from the ground up, beginning with a detailed look at its key components and
ending with an exploration of basic tasks common to both Windows 98 and
Windows 2000. The following general topics will be covered:
Windows GUI components
Using Windows Explorer and Internet Explorer
Using Control Panel
The command prompt
The Windows 9x/2000 Interface

W hen you look at the monitor of a machine running Windows 98 and
then look at the monitor of a machine running Windows 2000, it is difficult to
tell the two apart. If you look closely, you will notice that the names of some
icons have changed, but for the most part the two are identical and look very
much like the screen in Figure 12.1.

474 Chapter 12 Using the Microsoft Operating System GUI
FIGURE 12.1 The Windows interface
As a technician, you will quickly realize that this is very good for you! Because
of Microsoft’s standardization of a single graphical interface for all of its oper-
ating systems, most basic tasks are accomplished in identical fashion on every-
thing from a Windows 95 workstation computer to a Windows 2000 Advanced
Server computer. Also, while the tools that are used often vary between Win-
dows 98 and 2000, the way you use those tools remains remarkably consistent
across platforms.
We will begin by taking an overview look at the common elements of the Win-
dows GUI. We will then look at some tasks that are similar across Windows 98
and 2000. If you have a copy of Windows 9x or Windows NT4/2000 available,
you may want to follow along by exploring each of the elements as they are dis-
cussed. If you are able to follow along, you may also notice that there are numer-
ous additional icons and options we are not mentioning. Some of these will be
covered in later chapters, so for now simply ignore them, or browse through
them on your own and then return to the text.
The Desktop
The Desktop, simply put, is the virtual desk upon which all of your other pro-
grams and utilities run. By default it contains the Start menu, the Taskbar, and
a number of icons. The Desktop can also contain additional elements, such as
Web page content, through the use of the Active Desktop option. Because it is the
base on which everything else sits, how the Desktop is configured can have a
major effect on how the GUI looks and how convenient it is for users.
You can change the Desktop’s background patterns, screen saver, color
scheme, and size by right-clicking any area of the Desktop that doesn’t contain
an icon. The menu that appears allows you to do several things, such as creating

The Windows 9x/2000 Interface 475
new Desktop items, changing how your icons are arranged, or selecting a special
command called Properties, as shown in Figure 12.2.
FIGURE 12.2 The Desktop right-click
The Three Clicks in Windows
Primary mouse click. A single click used to select an object or place a cursor.
Double-click. Two primary mouse clicks in quick succession. Used to open

a program through an icon or for other specific application functions.
Secondary mouse click. Most mice have two buttons. Clicking once on the
secondary button (usually the one on the right side, although that can be
modified) is interpreted differently from a left mouse click. Generally in Win-
dows this displays a context-sensitive menu from which you are given the
ability to perform tasks or view object properties.
When you right-click the Desktop and choose Properties, you will see the
Display Properties screen shown in Figure 12.3. From this screen you can click
the various tabs at the top to move to the different screens of information about
the way Windows looks. Tabs are similar to index cards, in that they are stag-
gered across the top so you can see and access large amounts of data within a
single small window. Each Properties window has a different set of tabs.
Among the tabs in the Display Properties are the following:
Background Used to select an HTML document or a picture to display on
the desktop.
Screen Saver Sets up an automatic screen saver to cover your screen if you
have not been active for a certain period of time. Originally used to prevent
“burned” monitors, they are now generally used for entertainment or to
password-protect user’s desktops. The Screen Saver tab also contains other
power settings.

Appearance Used to select a color scheme for the Desktop or to change the
color or size of other Desktop elements.
Effects Contains numerous options best described as “assorted visual
options.”
Web Allows for configuration of Active Desktop settings.
Settings Used to set color depth or screen size. Also contains the Advanced
button, which leads to graphics driver and monitor configuration settings.
FIGURE 12.3 The Display Properties screen
You can also access the Display Properties settings by using the Display Control
Panel under Start Settings Control Panel.
EXERCISE 12.1
Changing a Screen Saver

To change the Windows screen saver on Windows 98 or Windows 2000,
perform the following steps:
1. Right-click the Desktop.

EXERCISE 12.1 (continued)
2. Choose Properties from the context menu.
3. Click the Screen Saver tab.
4. Choose Starfield Simulation. Click Preview to see the new screen saver.
Move the mouse to cancel the screen saver and return to your Desktop.
5. Click the OK or the Apply button. (OK performs two tasks: Apply and
Exit window, while Apply leaves the window open.)
The Taskbar
The Taskbar (see Figure 12.4) is another standard component of the Windows
interface. It contains two major items: the Start menu and the System Tray. The
Start menu is on the left side of the Taskbar and is easily identifiable by the fact that
it is a button that has the word “Start” on it. The System Tray is located on the
right side of the Taskbar and contains only a clock by default, but other Windows
utilities (for example, screen savers or virus-protection utilities) may put their icons
here when running to indicate that they are running and to provide the user with
a quick way to get access to their features.
FIGURE 12.4 The Taskbar
Besides the Start button and the System Tray, the middle area of the Taskbar
is also used by Windows. Whenever you open a new window or program, it gets
a button on the Taskbar with an icon that represents the window or program. To
bring that window or program to the front (or to maximize it if it was mini-
mized), click its button on the Taskbar. As the middle area of the Taskbar fills
up with buttons, the buttons become smaller in order to display all of them.
You can increase the size of the Taskbar by moving the mouse pointer to the
top of the Taskbar and pausing until the pointer turns into a double-headed
arrow. Once this happens, you can click the mouse and move it up to make the
Taskbar bigger. Or, you can move it down to make the Taskbar smaller. You can
also move the Taskbar to the top or sides of the screen by clicking the Taskbar
and dragging it to the new location.

EXERCISE 12.2
Hiding the Taskbar

You can make the Taskbar automatically hide itself when not being used
(thus freeing up that space for use by the Desktop or other Windows):
1. Right-click the Taskbar.
2. Choose Properties, which will bring up the Taskbar Properties screen.
3. Check the Auto Hide option on the General tab.
4. Click OK.
5. Move your mouse to the top of the Desktop. The Taskbar will retract off
the screen.
6. Move the mouse pointer back to the bottom of the screen, and the
Taskbar will pop up and can be used as normal.
The Start Menu

When Microsoft officially introduced Windows 95 to the world, it bought the
rights to use the Rolling Stones’ song “Start Me Up” in its advertisements and at
the introduction party. They chose that particular song because the Start menu
was the central point of focus in the new Windows interface, and it has been in
all subsequent versions.
To display the Start menu, click the Start button in the Taskbar, as shown in
Figure 12.5. From the Start menu, you can select any of the various options the
menu presents. An arrow pointing to the right means that there is a submenu. To
select a submenu, move the mouse pointer over the submenu title and pause. The
submenu will then appear; you don’t even have to click. (You have to click to
choose an option on the submenu, though.) We’ll discuss each of the default
Start menu’s submenu options and how to use them momentarily.

FIGURE 12.5 The Start menu
One handy feature of the Start menu is that it usually displays the name of the
operating system type along its side when you activate it. This provides an excel-
lent way to quickly see whether you are on Windows 95, 98, NT, or 2000. You
can also check which operating system you are using by right-clicking the My
Computer icon on the Desktop and selecting Properties. The operating type and
version will be displayed on the first tab.
Programs Submenu
The Programs submenu holds the program groups and program icons that you
can use. When you select this submenu, you will be shown yet another submenu,
with a submenu for each program group (see Figure 12.6). You can navigate
through this menu and its submenus and click the program you wish to start.

FIGURE 12.6 Navigating to the Games program group
You can add programs to this submenu in many ways. The three most popular
ways are as follows:
Using the application’s installation program
Using the Taskbar Properties screen
Using the Windows Explorer program
The first (and simplest) way is to use the application’s installation program.
The installation program will not only copy the files for the program, but it will
also automatically make a program group and shortcuts for the programs under
the Programs submenu.
You can add shortcuts to the top of the Start menu (above the Programs submenu)
by clicking a program or shortcut and dragging it onto the Start menu. A shortcut
for that item will then appear in the Start menu above a divider between Programs
and the new shortcut.
Another way to add programs to the Programs submenu is to use the Taskbar
Properties screen. To get to this screen, right-click the Taskbar and choose Properties.
When the Taskbar Properties screen appears, click the Start Menu Programs tab to
bring it to the front. You will then see the screen shown in Figure 12.7. From here, you
can click Add to add a new program or Remove to remove one. A Wizard (a special
sequence of screens designed to walk you through the necessary steps to accomplish
certain tasks) will help you create or delete the shortcut(s).

FIGURE 12.7 Use the Taskbar Properties screen to add and remove programs from the
Programs submenu.
Finally, you can add programs to the Programs submenu on Windows 98 or

Windows 2000 by using another new component introduced in Windows 95:
Windows Explorer (EXPLORER.EXE). We will talk more about using Explorer
later in the chapter.
Documents Submenu
The Documents submenu has one and only one function: to keep track of the last
15 data files you opened. Whenever you open a file, a shortcut to it is automat-
ically made in this menu. To open the document again, just click the document
in the Documents menu to open it in its associated application.
If you want to clear the list of documents shown in the Documents submenu, go
to the Taskbar Properties screen. Then click the Clear button within the Docu-
ments Menu section.
Settings Submenu
The Settings submenu provides easy access to the configuration of Windows.
There are numerous submenus to the Settings submenu including Control Panel,
Printers, and Taskbar & Start Menu. Additional menus are available depending
on which version of Windows you are using. These submenus give you access to
the Control Panel, printer driver, and Taskbar configuration areas, respectively.
You can also access the first two areas from the My Computer icon; they are
placed here together to provide a common area to access Windows settings.

Search (Find) Submenu

The name of this menu changes between Windows 98 and Windows 2000, but
the purpose doesn’t. The Windows 98 Find submenu is used to locate informa-
tion on your computer or on a network. The Search menu of Windows 2000 has
the same functionality.
To find a file or directory, select the Find or Search submenu and then select
Files or Folders (see Figure 12.8). In the Named field in this dialog box, simply
type in the name of the file or directory you are looking for and click Find Now.
Windows will search whatever is specified in the Look In parameter for the file
or directory. Matches will be listed in a window underneath the Find window.
You can use wildcards (* and ?) to look for multiple files and directories. You
can also click the Advanced tab to further refine your search. This will be dis-
cussed in more detail later in the chapter in the “File Management” section.
FIGURE 12.8 Options in the Find submenu
Help Command
Windows includes a very good help system. Not only is it arranged by topic, but
it is fully indexed and searchable. Because of its usefulness and power, it was
placed into the Start menu for easy access. When you select this command, it will
bring up the Windows Help screen (see Figure 12.9). From this screen, you can
double-click a manual to show a list of subtopics and then click a subtopic to
view the text of that topic.

FIGURE 12.9 Windows 98 Help screen
Or, you can click the Index tab to show an alphabetic listing of topics (see
Figure 12.10). To select a topic, type the first few letters of the topic (for exam-
ple, type print to move to the section that talks about printing), then click Dis-
play to display the text on the topic.
FIGURE 12.10 The Index tab on the Help screen
You can also click the Search tab to find any text you want in the help files.
Simply type the text. As you type, Help will display a list of topics that contain
the characters you are typing. You will see the list of topics get shorter as you
type, because the more you type the more you are narrowing down your search.

When the topic you want appears in the list, click the one(s) you want to read
about, then click Display.
Run Command
The Run command can be used to start programs if they don’t have a shortcut
on the Desktop or in the Programs submenu. When you choose Run from the
Start menu, the screen in Figure 12.11 appears. To execute a particular program,
just type its name and path in the Open field. If you don’t know the exact path,
you can browse to find the file by clicking the Browse button. Once you have
typed in the executable name and path, click OK to run the program.
FIGURE 12.11 The Start menu’s Run command
EXERCISE 12.3
Starting a Program from the Run Window

1. Click Start Run.
2. In the Open window, type notepad.
3. Click OK. Notepad will open up in a new window.
If the program you want to run has been run from the Run window before,
you can find it on the Open field’s drop-down list. Click the down arrow to
display the list, then select the program you want by clicking its name and
then clicking OK. More about starting and using applications later.
Shut Down Command

Windows 9x and 2000 are very complex operating systems. At any one time,
there are several files open in memory. If you accidentally hit the power switch
and turn the computer off while these files are open, there is a good chance these
files will be corrupted. For this reason, Microsoft has added the Shut Down com-
mand under the Start menu. When you select this option, Windows presents you
with three choices, as shown in Figure 12.12.

FIGURE 12.12 Shut Down command options
The three Shut Down choices are as follows:

Shut Down the Computer This option will write any unsaved data to disk,
close any open applications, and get the computer ready to be powered off.
When you see a black screen with the message It’s now safe to turn off
your computer in orange text, it is, in fact, safe to power off the computer.
You can also hit Ctrl+Alt+Del to reboot the computer at this point.
Restart the Computer This option works the same as the first option but
instead of shutting down completely, it will automatically reboot the com-
puter with a warm reboot.
Restart the Computer in MS-DOS Mode (Windows 9x only) This option
is special. It does the same tasks as the previous options, except upon reboot,
Windows 9x will execute the command prompt only and will not start the
graphic portion of Windows 9x. You can then run DOS programs as though
the machine were a DOS machine. When you are finished running these pro-
grams, type exit to reboot the machine back into the “full” Windows 9x
with the GUI.
Icons
Icons are not nearly as complex as windows can be, but they are very important
nonetheless. Icons are shortcuts that allow a user to open a program or a utility
without knowing where that program is or how it needs to be configured. Icons
consist of four elements:
Icon label
Icon graphic
Program location
Working directory location
The label and graphic simply tell the user the name of the program and give
a visual hint as to what that program does. Solitaire, for instance, is labeled Sol-
itaire, and its icon graphic is a deck of cards. By right-clicking an icon once, you

make that icon the active icon, and a drop-down menu appears. One of the selec-
tions is Properties. Clicking Properties will bring up the attributes of an icon (see
Figure 12.13) and is the only way to see exactly which program an icon is con-
figured to start.
FIGURE 12.13 The Properties window with its icon to the left
The working directory simply tells Windows where to save documents cre-
ated through this icon. This is default and can be over-ridden.
Standard Desktop Icons

In addition to the options in your Start menu, there are a number of icons that
are placed directly on the Desktop. Two of the most important icons are My
Computer and the Recycle Bin.
The My Computer Icon

If you double-click the My Computer icon, it will display all the disk drives
installed in your computer as well as the Control Panel and Printers folders (see
Figure 12.14), which can be used to configure the system. If you double-click a
disk drive, you will see the contents of that disk drive.

FIGURE 12.14 Using My Computer to open folders
You can delve deeper into each disk drive and open a window for each sub-
directory by double-clicking it. You can also copy and move files between drives
and between directories using these windows.
In addition to allowing you access to your computer’s files, the My Computer
icon allows you a view of your machine’s configuration and hardware, also
called the System Properties, as shown in Figure 12.15. The following exercise
shows you how to view these properties.
FIGURE 12.15 System Properties screen

EXERCISE 12.4
Viewing System Properties

1. Right-click the My Computer icon.
2. Choose Properties.
3. On the System Properties screen, look to see what type of processor

your computer uses and how much RAM is installed. It also will tell you
what version of Windows is being used.
The Recycle Bin

All files, directories, and programs in Windows are represented by icons and are
generally referred to as objects. When you want to remove an object from Win-
dows, you do so by deleting it. Deleting doesn’t only remove the object, though.
It also removes the ability of the system to access the information or application
that the object represents. Because of this, Windows includes a special directory
where all deleted files are placed: the Recycle Bin. This Recycle Bin holds the files
until it is emptied and allows users the opportunity to recover files that they
deleted accidentally.
You can retrieve a file that you have deleted by opening the Recycle Bin icon,
then dragging the file from the Recycle Bin back to the disk it came from. To per-
manently erase the file, you need to empty the Recycle Bin, thereby permanently
deleting any items in it and freeing up the hard drive space they took up. If the
Recycle Bin has files in it, its icon will look like the full trash can shown on the left
of Figure 12.16; after it is emptied, its icon will reflect this, as shown on the right.
Deleting a file from the Recycle Bin frees up space on the drive by simply delet-
ing the file’s record from the drive’s File Allocation Table (FAT). The information
in the file will actually remain on the drive until it has been overwritten by new
information.
FIGURE 12.16 A full (left) and empty (right) Recycle Bin

What’s in a Window? 489
EXERCISE 12.5
Emptying the Recycle Bin

1. Right-click the Recycle Bin.
2. Choose Empty Recycle Bin.
3. A window appears asking if you are certain you want to permanently

delete the objects. Click Yes.
What’s in a Window?
W e have now looked at the nature of the Desktop, the Start menu, and
the Taskbar. Each of these was created for the primary purpose of making access
to user applications easier, and these applications are in turn used and managed
through the use of windows, the rectangular application environments for which
the Windows family of operating systems is named. We will now examine how
windows work and what they are made of.
Program Windows
A program window is a rectangular area created on the screen when an applica-
tion is opened within Windows. This window can have a number of different
forms, but most windows include at least a few basic elements. Figure 12.17
shows the Control box, Title bar, Minimize button, Restore button, Close but-
ton, and resizable border in a text editor called Notepad (NOTEPAD.EXE) that has
all of the basic window elements and little else!
FIGURE 12.17 The basic elements of a window

Elements of a Window
Control box In the upper-left corner of the window. Used to control the state
of the application. It can be used to maximize, minimize, and close the applica-
tion. Clicking it once brings into view a selection menu. Double-clicking it
closes the window and shuts down the application.
Minimize and Restore buttons Used to change the state of the window on
the Desktop. They will be discussed in the “States of a Window” section later
in this chapter.
Close button Used to easily end a program and return any resources it was
using to the system. It essentially does the same thing as double-clicking the
control box, but with one less click.
Title bar The area between the Control box and the Minimize button. It
simply states the name of the program and in some cases gives information as
to the particular document being accessed by that program. The color of the
Title bar indicates whether or not a particular window is the active window.
Menu bar Used to present useful commands in an easily accessible format.
Clicking one of the menu choices will display a list of related options you may
choose from.
Active window The window that is currently being used. It has two
attributes: first, any keystrokes that are entered are directed there by default.
Second, any other windows that overlap the active window will be pushed
behind it.
Border A thin line that surrounds the window in its restored state that
allows it to be widened and shortened.
These elements are not all found on every window, as programmers can
choose to eliminate or modify them. Still, in most cases these will be constant,
with the rest of the window filled in with menus, toolbars, a workspace or other
application-specific elements. For instance, Microsoft Word, the program with
which this book was written, adds an additional control box and minimize and
maximize buttons for each document. It also has a menu bar, a number of
optional toolbars, scroll bars at the right and bottom of the window, and a status
bar at the very bottom. Application windows can become very cluttered.
Notepad is a very simple Windows program. It has only a single menu bar and
the basic elements seen previously in Figure 12.17. Figure 12.18 shows a
Microsoft Word window. Both Word and Notepad are used to create and edit
documents, but Word is far more configurable and powerful and therefore has
many more optional components available within its window.

What’s in a Window? 491
FIGURE 12.18 A window with more components
States of a Window
There is more to the Windows interface than the physical parts of a window
itself, though. Windows also are movable, stackable, and resizable, and they can
be hidden behind other windows (often unintentionally!).
When an application window has been launched, it will exist in one of
three states:
Maximized A maximized window is one that takes up all available space on
the screen. When it is in front of the other programs, it is the only thing visible—
even the Desktop is hidden. In Figure 12.19, note that Microsoft Word is max-
imized; it takes up the entire space of the Desktop, and the middle button in the
upper-right corner displays two rectangles rather than one. The sides of the
window no longer have borders. The window is flush with the edges of the
screen. Maximizing a window provides the maximum workspace possible for
that window’s application, and the window can be accessed actively by the user.
In general, maximized mode is the preferred window size for most word pro-
cessing, graphics creation, and other user applications.
Restored A restored window is one that can be used interactively and is
identical in function to a maximized window, with the simple difference that
it does not necessarily take up the entire screen. Restored windows can be very
small, or they can take up almost as much space as maximized windows. Gen-
erally, how large the restored window becomes is the user’s choice. Restored
windows display a restore box (the middle button in the upper-right corner)
with a single rectangle in it; this is used to maximize the window. Restored
windows have a border. Figure 12.19 shows an example of Notepad in a
restored state.

Minimized The last window state is minimized. Minimized program win-

dows are represented by nothing but an icon on the Taskbar, and they are not
usable until they have been either maximized or restored. The only difference
between a minimized program and a closed program is that a minimized pro-
gram is out of the way but is still taking up resources and is therefore ready
to use if you need it. It will also leave the content of the window in the same
place when you return to it as when you minimized it. In Figure 12.19, Adobe
Photoshop is minimized.
When a program is open and you need to open another program (or maybe
need to stop playing a game because your boss has entered the room), you have
two choices. First, you can close the program and reopen it later. If you do this,
however, your current game will be lost and you will have to start over. Min-
imizing the game window, on the other hand, will remove the open window
from the screen and leave the program open but display nothing more than an
icon in the lower-left corner of the Taskbar, as with my Photoshop icon in Fig-
ure 12.19. Later, you can restore the window to its previous size and finish the
game in progress.
FIGURE 12.19 Windows in different states
Using the Command Prompt

T he Microsoft Disk Operating System, or MS-DOS, was never meant to
be extremely friendly. It had its roots in CP/M, which, in turn, had its roots in
UNIX. Both of these older operating systems were command line–based, and so
was MS-DOS. In other words, they all used long strings of commands typed in

Using the Command Prompt 493
at the computer keyboard to perform operations. This type of interaction with

the computer is preferred by some people, most often folks with technical
backgrounds (including yours truly). Although Windows has now left the full
command-line interface behind, there is still a bit of DOS in Windows, and
the way to get to it is through the command prompt.
We will look at a number of graphical utilities in the next few chapters and,
believe it or not, the command prompt is one of them. Although you can’t tell
from looking at it (see Figure 12.20), the crazy thing about the Windows com-
mand prompt is that it is actually a 32-bit Windows program that is intentionally
designed to have the look and feel of a DOS command line!
Because it is, despite its appearance, a Windows program, the command
prompt provides all of the stability and configurability that you would expect
from Windows.
FIGURE 12.20 The Windows command prompt
Running a Utility or Program from the Command Prompt

Windows includes a number of command-line utilities. Among these is the
IPCONFIG utility of Windows 2000. If you are running Windows 2000, this is the
utility that allows you to check on the TCP/IP settings of the machine. (TCP/IP
is the protocol which allows networked computers to use the Internet, and as
such is something you will probably see a lot of. It will be discussed further in
Chapter 18, “Configuring Network Software.”)
Other than that, there are very few actual text-based applications in newer
versions of Windows. For a bit of a taste of the old days, though, check out the
EDIT program (See Figure 12.21), still provided free of charge with both
Windows 98 and Windows 2000. EDIT is still often used to modify batch files
and text configuration files.

FIGURE 12.21 The EDIT program
EXERCISE 12.6
Using the EDIT Program

1. Open a command prompt. To do this in Windows 98, click Start
Programs MS-DOS Prompt. In Windows 2000, click Start Pro-
grams Accessories Command Prompt.
2. Type EDIT.
3. The EDIT utility will open. In the text area, type hello.
4. To save the file, press Alt+F. This brings up the File menu. From this,
press A.
5. In the Save As window, type hello.txt and click OK.
6. To exit from EDIT, press ALT+F and press X for Exit.
Issuing Text Commands

In general, Windows 98 uses more text-based commands than Windows 2000,
and a number of standard commands are stored in the Windows 98 command
directory. This can be found in whichever directory (usually Windows) that Win-
dows 98 is installed into. See Table 12.1 for a list of Windows text commands,
some of which are available only in Windows 98, while others are available in
Windows 2000 as well.

Using the Command Prompt 495
TABLE 12.1 Windows Text Commands
Command Purpose
ATTRIB Allows the user to set or remove file attributes.
CD Changes your current folder to another folder.
CHECKDSK Examines the hard drives of the machine.
COPY Copies a file into another directory.
DEFRAG Used to defragment (reorganize) the files on your machine’s

hard drives, which can result in better performance.
DEL Deletes a file from the folder.
DELTREE Deletes files and subdirectories. A more powerful extension of

the DEL command.
DIR Displays the contents of the current folder.
DISKCOPY Duplicates floppy disks.
DOSKEY Lists recently issued commands with a prompt session.
FDISK Creates, deletes, and manages hard disk partitions.
FORMAT Prepares a drive for use.
MD Creates a new folder.
MEM Provides information on how much memory is available to the

system.
MOVE Moves files from one folder to another.
MSCDEX Accesses CD-ROMs.
REN Renames a file.
SCANDISK Similar to CHECKDSK.
SCANREG Scans the Registry by starting a Windows application that checks

for errors and allows you to back up the Registry files.

TABLE 12.1 Windows Text Commands (continued)
Command Purpose
SETVER Sets the version and reports version numbers of DOS utilities.
SYS Prepares a drive to be used to start a computer.
VER Checks the current version of the operating system.
XCOPY Duplicates files and subdirectories. An extension of the COPY

command.
To issue a command from the command prompt, you need to know the struc-
ture that the command uses, generally referred to as its syntax. The following
exercise shows how to learn about a command and then run that command. The
command in the exercise is ATTRIB, which is used to allow a user to set one of
four attributes on a file: Read Only, Archive Needed, System, or Hidden.
If you don’t know the options for a DOS command, you can usually find them
out using the online help for that command. Simply type the command followed
by a forward slash (/) and a question mark (?). This will display all the options
for that command and how to use them properly, as in Figure 12.22.
FIGURE 12.22 Options available for ATTRIB.EXE

Windows Configuration 497
EXERCISE 12.7
Changing a File Attribute on Windows 98

1. Open a command prompt. To do this, click Start Programs
MS-DOS Prompt.
2. Type CD C:\ and press Enter.
3. Type DIR and press Enter. A list of all the files in the root of C: will be
shown.
4. Type ATTRIB /? and press Enter.
5. Type ATTRIB autoexec.bat. The current attributes of the file will be

displayed.
6. Type ATTRIB autoexec.bat +R.
7. Repeat step 5 to view the changed attribute, and then repeat step 6
with a -R to return the file to its original attributes.
Windows Configuration
S imply navigating the Start menu and running EDIT does not an A+
certified tech make! Most of the tasks that you will be called on to deal with
are more complex than minimizing a window. The Windows OS provides
numerous utilities to aid you in changing system configuration elements or
identifying and diagnosing problems. Many of these are specific to the par-
ticular operating system, but nonetheless their location and general usage is
similar on both Windows 98 and Windows 2000. Because of this, system
management in Windows can be loosely grouped into the following areas:
File management
System tools
Control Panel programs
The Registry Editor
File Management
File management is the process by which a computer stores data and retrieves it
from storage. The process of actually preparing drives for storage, called disk
management, is significantly different on Windows 98 and Windows 2000 and

will be dealt with in later chapters. The process of managing files, though, is sim-
ilar across both platforms.
Files and Folders

For a program to run, it must be able to read information off of the disk and
write information back to it. In order to be able to organize and access informa-
tion—especially in larger new systems that may have thousands of files—it is
necessary to have a structure and an ordering process.
Windows provides this process by allowing you to create directories, also
known as folders, in which to organize files. Windows also regulates the way
that files are named and what the properties of the file are. Each file created in
Windows has to follow certain rules, and any program that accesses files
through Windows must comply with these rules. Files created on a Windows
system will follow these rules:
It will have a filename of up to 256 characters.
Certain characters such as a period (.) and a slash (\ or /) are prohibited in
the filename.
An optional extension (generally three or four characters) can be added to
identify the file’s type.
The Windows file system is arranged like a filing cabinet. In a filing cabinet,
paper is placed into folders, which are inside dividers, which are in a drawer of
the filing cabinet. In the DOS file system, individual files are placed in subdirec-
tories that are inside directories, which are stored on different disks. Windows
also protects against duplicate filenames, as no two files on the system can have
exactly the same name and path. A path indicates the location of the file on the
disk; it is composed of the logical drive letter the file is on, and if the file is located
in a directory or subdirectory, the names of those directories. For instance, a file
named AUTOEXEC.BAT is located in the root of the C: drive—meaning it is not
within a directory—so the path to the file is simply C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT. Another
important file, FDISK.EXE, is located in the Command directory under Windows
under the root of C:, so the path to FDISK is therefore C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND\
FDISK.EXE.
The root directory of any drive is simply the place where the hierarchy of that drive
begins. On a C: drive, for instance, C:\ is the root directory of the drive.
Capabilities of the Windows Explorer

Although it is technically possible to simply use the command-line utilities pro-
vided within the command prompt to manage your files, this generally is not the
most efficient way to accomplish most tasks. The ability to use drag-and-drop

techniques and other graphical tools to manage the file system makes the process
far simpler, and the Windows Explorer is a utility that allows the user to accom-
plish a number of important file-related tasks from a single graphical interface,
as shown in Figure 12.23.
FIGURE 12.23 The Windows Explorer program
Some of the tasks you can accomplish using the Explorer include:
Viewing files and directories
Opening programs or data files
Creating directories and files
Copying objects (files or directories) to other locations
Moving objects (files or directories) to other locations
Deleting or renaming objects (files or directories)
Searching for a particular file or type of file
Changing file attributes
Formatting new disks (such as floppy disks)
Navigating and Using the Explorer

Using the Windows Explorer is actually pretty simple. Just a few basic instruc-
tions will be all you will need to start working with it. First off, the Explorer
interface itself has a number of parts, each of which serves a specific purpose.
The top area of the Explorer is dominated by a set of menus and toolbars that
allow easy access to common commands. The main section of the window is
divided into two panes. The left pane displays the drives and folders available to

the user, while the right pane displays the contents of the currently selected
folder. Along the bottom of the window, the Status Bar displays information
about the used and free space on the current directory. Some common actions in
Explorer include:
Expanding a folder You can double-click a folder to expand the folder
(i.e., show its subfolders in the left panel) and display the contents of the
folder in the right pane. Simply clicking the “+” sign to the left of a folder
will expand the folder without changing it (see Figure 12.24).
Collapsing a folder Clicking the “–” sign next to a folder will unexpand it.
FIGURE 12.24 The Expand and Collapse symbols
Selecting a file If you click the file in the right pane , Windows will highlight
the file by marking it with a darker color.
Selecting multiple files The Ctrl and Shift keys allow you to select multiple
files at once. Holding down Ctrl while clicking individual files will select
each new file while leaving the currently selected file or files selected as well.
Holding down Shift while selecting two files will select both of them and all
files in between.
Opening a file Double-clicking a file in the right pane will open the pro-
gram if it is an application; if it is a file, it will open it using whichever file
extension is configured for it.
Changing the view type There are four different primary view types: Large
Icons, Small Icons, List, and Details. You can move between these views by
clicking the View menu and selecting the view you prefer.
Finding specific files This is accessed under View Find in Windows 98 or
by using the Search button in Windows 2000. Either way, you can search for
files based on their name, file size, file type, and other attributes, as shown in
Figure 12.25.

FIGURE 12.25 Searching for a file in Windows
EXERCISE 12.8
Searching for a Type of File

1. In Windows 98, click Tools Find Files or Folders. In Windows 2000,
simply click the Search button on the toolbar.
2. Either the Search window (Windows 98) or Search pane (Windows 2000)
will appear. You will be prompted for the Search information.
3. Type *.TXT in the Named field.
4. In the Look In field, enter C:\, and click Find Now.
5. Make sure the Include Subfolders check box is checked, and click OK.
6. Windows will now search the C: drive and will eventually display a
Search Results window with all of the files it has found.
When searching, wildcards can also be used. Wildcards are characters which act
as placeholders for a character or set of characters, allowing, for instance, a search
for all files with text (TXT) extensions. To perform such a search, you’d type an
asterisk (*) as a stand-in for the filename: *.TXT. Asterisks are used to take the
place of any number of characters in a search, while question marks (?) are used
to take the place of a single number or letter, for example, AUTOEX??.BAT would
return the file AUTOEXEC.BAT as part of its results.

Creating new objects To create a new file, folder, or other object, navigate
to the location where you want to create the object, and then right-click in the
right pane. In the menu that appears, select New and then choose the object
you want to create, as shown in Figure 12.26.
FIGURE 12.26 Creating a new folder
Deleting objects Select the object and press the Del key on the keyboard, or
right-click the object and select Delete from the menu that appears.
The simplicity of deleting in Windows makes it very likely that you or one of the
people you support will delete or misplace a file or a number of files that are still
needed. In such a case the Recycle Bin (mentioned earlier) is a lifesaver!
EXERCISE 12.9
Using Windows Explorer

1. Open the Windows Explorer. In Windows 98, click Start Programs
Windows Explorer. In Windows 2000, click Start Programs
Accessories Windows Explorer.

2. To see what applications are installed in the Program Files directory,

navigate the hierarchy from My Computer to C: to Program Files. You
may need to click the “+” sign next to one or more of the folders to
expand them and see their contents.
3. Navigate back to the root of C: and right-click in the right pane. Select
New Folder and type TEST as the name of the folder.
4. Double-click the new TEST folder, and examine the right pane after its
contents are displayed. As the folder was just created, it is empty.
Right-click in the right pane and select New Text Document. Give the
file the name NEW.TXT.
5. To delete the file you just created, select it by clicking it once and then
right-click it. Choose Delete. You are asked whether you are sure you
want to send the file to the Recycle Bin. Click Yes.
Besides simplifying most file management commands as shown above, the

Explorer also allows you to easily complete a number of disk management tasks.
Floppy disks can be formatted and labeled and the Windows system files can be
copied to a floppy so that a disk may be used to boot a machine.
Disk management will be covered more fully in Chapters 13 and 14, “Windows 95/
98” and “Windows 2000,” respectively.
System Tools
Windows 98 and Windows 2000 also include a number of applications that a
user can run to check on the health and performance of their computer. Win-
dows 98 undoubtedly has more of these gadgets, but Windows 2000 has a good
number of them as well. In both cases, these utilities, if installed, can be found in
the same folder on the Start menu: Start Programs Accessories System
Tools, as shown in Figure 12.27. The programs in this folder can be very useful
to a technician. Some common Windows 98 utilities found there, along with
their purpose, are listed in Table 12.2. Some, but not all, of these tools are also
available on Windows 2000.

FIGURE 12.27 The System Tools program group
TABLE 12.2 System Tools
System Tool Function
Backup Makes archival copies of important files.
Character Map Determines which type of letters, numbers, and

nonalphanumeric characters the machine will use.
Clipboard Viewer Allows you to see what has been copied onto the
system clipboard.
Drive Space 3 Allows you to compress the files on a drive to get more
information onto it (although compressing files makes
them slower to access).
Compression Used with Drive Space 3. Allows you to set up

Agent parameters for automatically determining which files
to compress.
Disk Cleanup A utility which goes through the system and deletes
unneeded files to free up drive space.
Disk Arranges data on the computer’s disk drives so that it

Defragmenter will be more easily available.

TABLE 12.2 System Tools (continued)
System Tool Function
Maintenance Sets up a system maintenance plan.

Wizard
Net Watcher Checks the performance of the network.
Resource Meter Gives a quick, graphical display of how heavily basic

system resources are being used.
Scandisk Checks a disk drive for errors or problems
Scheduled Tasks Enables the running of recurring tasks automatically.
System Finds information on the hardware and software

Information installed on a PC.
System Monitor A more complex version of Resource Meter. Monitors

specific resources and watches how they are used in
real time.
Windows 2000 also has a folder called Administrative Tools where many of its sys-
tem configuration utilities are kept. Many of these tools are available in both Win-
dows 98 and Windows 2000 but by different names or in different locations. For
instance, Windows 98’s System Monitor is expanded into a more powerful tool in
Windows 2000 called Performance, which you can access by clicking Start Con-
trol Panel Administrative Tools folder.
EXERCISE 12.10
Scheduling a Disk Cleanup Task

1. Click Start Programs Applications System Tools Scheduled
Tasks.
2. In the Scheduled Tasks window that appears, double-click the Add a

Scheduled Task icon.

3. Read the introduction screen, then click Next. (After filling out any
screen in a Wizard, you must click Next to continue. At the end of a
Wizard, you will need to click Finish.) In the next screen, choose Disk
Cleanup as the application to run, as shown in the graphic.
4. Choose to run it monthly.
5. Click the Day radio button and accept the default times.
6. Choose to view advanced properties and click Finish.
7. Under the Settings tab, check the Wake the Computer to Run This Task
option and click OK. Your task will now run on the first day of each
month with the options you have selected.
8. If you do not want to keep this task, simply delete it.
The Control Panel

Although for the most part the Windows system is functional from the time it is
first installed, Microsoft realized that if someone were going to be using computers
regularly, they would probably want to be able to customize their environment so
that it would be better suited to their needs—or at least more fun to use. Because
of this, the Windows environment has a large number of utilities that are intended
to give the user control over the look and feel of the Desktop.
This is, of course, an excellent idea. It is also a bit more freedom than some
less-than-cautious users seem to be capable of handling, and you will undoubt-
edly serve a number of customers who call you in to restore their configuration
after botched attempts at changing one setting or another.

More than likely, you will also have to reinstall Windows yourself a few times
because of accidents that occur while you are studying or testing the system’s lim-
its. This is actually a good thing since no competent computer technician can say
that they have never had to reinstall because of an error. You can’t really know
how to fix Windows until you are experienced at breaking it. Because of this, it
is extremely important to experiment and find out what can be changed in the
Windows environment, what results from those changes, and how to undo any
unwanted results. To this purpose, we will be examining the most common con-
figuration utility in Windows: the Control Panel.
The Control Panel is the graphical entryway to the heart of Windows’ con-
figurable settings. One of the few applications in Windows that contains icons of
its own, the Control Panel utility houses a number of separate configuration
options. Some standard Control Panel icons are shown in Figure 12.28, but var-
ious applications and add-on products can add others. We will be taking only a
brief look at the uses of these panels, but many of them are worth exploring
closely on your own. Table 12.3 lists a number of common Control Panel
options and what they are used for.
FIGURE 12.28 The Control Panel interface
TABLE 12.3 Selected Windows Control Panel Programs (Windows 2000 Names)
Program Name Function
Add/Remove Hardware Adds and configures new hardware.
Add/Remove Programs Changes, adds, or deletes software.

TABLE 12.3 Selected Windows Control Panel Programs (Windows 2000 Names) (continued)
Program Name Function
Date/Time Sets the system time and configures options such

as time zone.
Display Configures screen savers, colors, display options,

and monitor drivers.
Fonts Adds and removes fonts.
Internet Options Sets a number of options which are discussed in

more detail in Chapter 18, “Configuring Network
Software.”
Multimedia Configures audio and video options. Discussed in

more detail in Chapter 16, “Using and Configuring
Additional Peripherals.”
Network (Network and Sets options for connecting to other computers.

Dial-up Connections) Discussed further in Chapter 18.
Modems (Phone and Sets options for using phone lines to dial out to a
Modem Options) network or the Internet. Again, see Chapter 18.
Printers Configures printer settings and print defaults.
System Allows you to view and configure various system

elements. Very different in Windows 98 and
Windows 2000.
For a quick look at how the Control Panel programs work, the following
exercise looks at some of the settings in the Date/Time program. The Date/Time
program is used to configure the system time, date, and time zone settings, which
can be important for files that require accurate timestamps or to users who don’t
have a watch. Because it is a very simple program, it’s a perfect example to use.
Date/Time includes only two sets of tabs: Date & Time and Time Zone, and only
includes one option, to use Daylight Savings or not.
EXERCISE 12.11
Changing the Time Zone

1. Click Start Settings Control Panel.

2. From Control Panel, double-click the Date/Time icon (by default, the
programs are listed alphabetically).
3. Click the Time Zone tab and use the drop-down menu to select (GMT
–03:30) Newfoundland, as shown in the graphic.
4. Hop a plane to Newfoundland, secure in the knowledge that you will

know what time it is once you get there.
5. If you skipped step 4, change the time zone back to where it should be
before closing the window.
The Registry Editor

Configuration information is also stored in a special configuration database
known as the Registry. This centralized database contains environmental set-
tings for various Windows programs. It also contains what is known as registra-
tion information, which details which types of file extensions are associated with
which applications. So, when you double-click a file in Windows Explorer, the
associated application runs and opens the file you double-clicked.
The Registry was introduced with Windows 95 and is a database of configu-
ration information. Most operating systems up until Windows 95 were based on
text files, which can be edited with almost any text editor. However, the Registry
database is contained in special binary file which can be edited only with the spe-
cial Registry Editor provided with Windows. The Registry Editor program is
called REGEDIT.EXE, and its icon is not typically created during Windows
installation—you must create the icon manually. You can also run the program
manually by selecting Start Run, typing REGEDIT, and clicking OK.

Windows 2000 has two applications which can be used to edit the Registry,
REGEDIT and REGEDT32 (with no I). Both work similarly, but each has slightly
different options for navigation and browsing.
The Registry is broken down into a series of separate areas called hives (see
Figure 12.29). These keys are divided into two basic sections—user settings and
computer settings. In Windows 9x, Registry information is stored in the user
.dat and system.dat files, while in Windows 2000 a number of files are created
corresponding to each of the different hives. The basic hives of the Registry
include:
HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT This hive includes information about which file
extensions map to particular applications.
HKEY_CURRENT_USER This hive holds all configuration information
specific to a particular user, such as their desktop settings and history
information.
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE This hive includes nearly all configuration
information concerning the actual computer hardware and software.
HKEY_USERS This hive includes information on all users who have logged
on to the system. The HKEY_CURRENT_USER hive is actually a subkey of
this hive.
HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG This hive provides quick access to a number
of commonly needed keys that are otherwise buried deep in the HKEY_
LOCAL_MACHINE structure.
Modifying a Registry Entry

If you find it is necessary to modify the Registry, you can modify the values in the
database, or can even create new entries or keys. You will find the options for
adding a new element to the Registry under the Edit menu. To edit an existing
value, simply double-click the entry and modify it as needed. On Windows 2000
systems, you will need administrative-level access to modify the Registry.
Windows extensively uses the Registry to store all kinds of information. Indeed, it
holds most, if not all, of the configuration information for Windows 98 and 2000.
It is a potentially dangerous task to modify the Registry in Windows. The reason
that the Control Panel and other configuration tools are provided for you is so that
you will have graphical tools for modifying system settings. Directly modifying
the Registry can have unforeseen—and unpleasant—results. You should only
modify the Registry when told to do so by an extremely trustworthy source.

FIGURE 12.29 The Registry Editor
Restoring the Registry in Windows 9x

As you may have noticed, the Registry is extremely important to the functioning
of Windows. Because of this, any problems with the Registry can cause system-
wide trouble. If your Windows 9x Registry files (system.dat or user.dat)
become corrupted, there are two primary ways for them to be repaired:
Automatically Windows keeps backups of each of your Registry files and
checks the current Registry for errors each time you boot the system. If errors
are found, the backup copy of the Registry will be located and will be used to
replace the corrupt Registry. As long as you have not purposely deleted the
Windows backup files, this works fine.
Manually If the Registry backups are damaged or lost, you will then need to
use a different plan. In Windows 95, you can manually restore the Registry by
simply replacing the system.dat or user.dat file with the system.da0 or
user.da0 files that hold Windows 95’s Registry backup. Windows 98 stores
the Registry backups differently, and manual restores require that files be
backed up previously using a backup program.
Restoring the Registry in Windows 2000

Windows 2000 also stores Registry information in files on the hard drive. These
can be restored through the use of the Last Known Good Configuration, which
restores the Registry to a backup of its last functional state. To use this option,
simply click F8 during startup, and then select Last Known Good Configuration
from the menu that appears. The Registry files can also be backed up to the
systemroot\repair directory by using the Windows 2000 Backup program, or can
be saved to tape during a normal backup. To repair the Registry from a backup
simply overwrite the Registry files in systemroot\system32\config.

Summary
B ecause Windows is a graphical system, the key to success in learning to
use it is to click every option and examine every window. By exploring the system
to find out what it can do, you will be better prepared to later decipher what a
user has done. Moreover, remember that when you are first learning Windows,
the solution to a support issue is most often found through your eyes, not your
memory. If you have a problem to troubleshoot, begin by looking in all of the
windows you can find that may have settings relating to the problem. Often, the
answer actually is staring you in the face!
With the basic knowledge gained in this chapter, we are now ready to look at
installing and configuring each of the specific applications you will be tested on
during the A+ Operating System exam: the Windows 95/98 and Windows 2000
chapters are next!
Key Terms
directories syntax
icons tabs
path Taskbar
platforms window
Registry Wizard
root directory working directory
Start menu

Review Questions
1. What is the Desktop?
A. The top of the desk where the computer sits
B. The virtual desk upon which all of your other programs and utilities run
C. It keeps track of all the data on disk
D. Where all of a computer’s memory is stored
2. When you right-click with the mouse, a menu appears. This menu allows you
to do all of the following except:
A. Create new icons
B. Create new directories
C. Change the TCP/IP address
D. Arrange icons
3. The screen saver can be changed in the ___________________ dialog box.

A. Properties
B. Taskbar
C. Menu Bar
D. Shortcut Menu
4. There are three types of mouse clicks in Windows. What are they?
A. Primary click, triple-click, and right-left click
B. Double-click, right-left click, and primary click
C. Primary click, left-right click, and triple-click
D. Secondary click, primary click, and double-click
5. The Taskbar can be increased in size by:

A. Right-clicking the mouse and dragging the Taskbar to make it bigger
B. Left-clicking the mouse and double-clicking the Taskbar
C. Moving the mouse pointer to the top of the Taskbar and pausing until the
pointer turns into a double-headed arrow
D. Highlighting the Taskbar and double-clicking in the center
6. Which submenu holds the program groups and program icons that you can use?
A. Programs
B. Document
C. Settings
D. Find

7. Which of the following will not let you add programs to the Programs
submenu?
A. The application program
B. File Manager
C. The Taskbar
D. Windows Explorer
8. The Windows Explorer Program can be accessed by: (Select all that apply.)
A. Selecting Start Run Programs
B. Selecting Start CMD Programs
C. Selecting Start Programs Explorer
D. Right-clicking My Computer with the mouse and selecting Explore
9. How many functions does the Documents submenu have?

A. Three
B. Two
C. One
D. Four
10. Which submenu keeps track of the last 15 data files that you opened?
A. Programs
B. Taskbar
C. Settings
D. Documents
11. Which submenu provides you with easy access to the configuration of
Windows 9x?
A. Settings
B. Programs
C. Documents
D. Find
12. What are three submenus of the Settings submenu?

A. Control Panel, Printers, Start
B. Control Panel, Printers, Taskbar
C. Control Panel, Taskbar, Help
D. Find, Printers, Taskbar

13. You can start programs if they don’t have a shortcut on the Desktop or in the
Programs submenu by:
A. Using the Shut Down command
B. Typing cmd in the Start Run box
C. Using the Run command and typing in the name of the program
D. Typing cmd in the Start box and then the program name
14. The My Computer icon will display all of the following except:
A. All the disk drives installed in your computer
B. Control Panel
C. Dial-up Networking
D. Printers
E. Modems
15. Icons consist of which elements?

A. Icon label, icon graphic, program location, working directory location
B. Working directory location and program assistance
C. Programming, working directory, and program location
D. Programming, program assistance, and program location
16. In Windows 9x, a deleted file can be retrieved using the:

A. My Computer icon
B. Recycle Bin
C. Control Panel
D. Settings panel
17. To turn off a Windows 9x machine you should:

A. Run Shut Down
B. Turn off the switch and unplug the machine
C. Press Ctrl+Alt+Del
D. Select Start Shut Down, choose Shut Down and turn the computer off
18. The Control Panel in Windows 9x is accessed by: (Select all that apply.)
A. Selecting Start Settings Control Panel
B. Selecting Start Control Panel
C. Selecting Start Programs Control Panel
D. Double-clicking My Computer and double-clicking the Control Panel icon

19. How can you find files in Windows 9x?

A. Through the Program Manager
B. By selecting Start Find
C. By using FINDFILE.EXE
D. You cannot search for files in Windows 9x.
20. What file is needed to enable CD-ROM support under MS-DOS?

E. CDLDR
F. MSCDEX.EXE
G. CDLRD.EXE
H. CDEX.EXE


1. B. By default, the Desktop contains the Start menu, the Taskbar, and a number
of icons. Because it is the base on which everything else sits, how the Desktop is
configured can have a major effect on how the GUI looks and how convenient
it is for users.
2. C. The menu that appears when you right-click a mouse allows you to: create
new icons, create new directories, and arrange icons.
3. A. The screen saver can be changed in the Properties dialog box. To access
the Properties dialog box, you can either right-click anywhere on the Desk-
top and choose Properties from the menu that appears or go to the Control
Panel and click Display.
4. D. There are three mouse clicks in Windows. A primary click is used to select
an object or place a cursor. A double-click is used to open a program through
an icon or for other specific application functions. A secondary click (usually
a click on the right mouse button, although that can be modified) is inter-
preted differently than a left mouse click. In Windows, it generally displays a
context-sensitive menu from which you are given the ability to perform tasks
or view object properties.
5. C. The Taskbar can be increased in size by moving the mouse pointer to the top
of the Taskbar and pausing until the pointer turns into a double-headed arrow.
6. A. When you select the Programs submenu, you will be shown yet another
submenu, with a submenu for each program group. You can navigate through
this menu and its submenus and click the program you wish to start.
7. B. You can add programs to the Programs submenu in many ways. The three
most popular ways are through the application’s installation program, the
Taskbar Properties screen, and the Windows Explorer program. If you use the
application’s installation program, it will automatically make a program
group and shortcuts for the programs under the Programs submenu.
8. C, D. The Windows Explorer program can be accessed by clicking Start

Programs Explorer or right-clicking My Computer and selecting Explore.
9. C. The Documents submenu has one function: to keep track of the last 15 data
files you opened.
10. D. Whenever you open a file, a shortcut is automatically made to the file in the
Documents menu. To open the same document again, just click on its name in
the Documents menu.
11. A. The Settings submenu provides you with easy access to the configuration of
Windows 9x. To open it, select Start Settings.

12. B. In Windows 2000, Network and Dial-Up Connections is also a submenu of

Settings.
13. C. To run any program, select Start Run and type in the name of the pro-
gram in the Open field. If you don’t know the exact path to the program, you
can find the file by clicking the Browse button. Once you have typed in the
executable name and path, click OK to run the program.
14. E. To locate your modems, you must go into Control Panel and click the
Modems icon.
15. A. The label and graphic tell the user the name of the program and give a
visual hint as to what that program does. By right-clicking an icon once, you
make that icon the active icon, and a drop-down menu appears. One of the
selections is Properties. Clicking Properties will bring up the attributes of an
icon and is the only way to see exactly which program an icon is configured
to start.
16. B. The Recycle Bin is where all deleted files are placed. Deleted files are held
here until the Recycle Bin is emptied. Users can easily recover accidentally
deleted files from the Recycle Bin.
17. D. To turn off a Windows 9x machine, select Start Shut Down, choose Shut
Down and turn the computer off.
18. A, D. Control Panel in Windows 9x can be accessed by either selecting Start

Settings Control Panel or by double-clicking My Computer and double-
clicking the Control Panel icon.
19. B. Files can be found in Windows 9x by selecting Start Find and selecting
the appropriate drive.
20. B. MSCDEX.EXE, along with the drivers for the particular device, is used to
access a CD-ROM drive from DOS.

Chapter Installing and Using
Windows 95/98
THIS CHAPTER:
2.1 Identify the procedures for installing Windows 9x, and

Windows 2000 for bringing the software to a basic operational
level.
Start Up
Partition
Format drive
Loading drivers
Run appropriate set up utility
2.2 Identify steps to perform an operating system upgrade.
Upgrading Windows 95 to Windows 98
Upgrading Windows NT Workstation 4.0 to Windows 2000
Replacing Windows 9x with Windows 2000
Dual boot Windows 9x/Windows NT 4.0/2000
2.3 Identify the basic system boot sequences and boot methods,
including the steps to create an emergency boot disk with utilities
installed for Windows 9x, Windows NT, and Windows 2000.
Startup disk
Safe Mode
MS-DOS mode
NTLDR (NT Loader), BOOT.INI
Files required to boot
Creating emergency repair disk (ERD)

2.4 Identify procedures for loading/adding and configuring
application device drivers, and the necessary software for
certain devices.
Windows 9x Plug and Play and Windows 2000
Identify the procedures for installing and launching
typical Windows and non-Windows applications (Note:
there is no content related to Windows 3.1.)
Procedures for set up and configuring Windows printing
subsystem.
Setting Default printer
Installing/Spool setting
Network printing (with help of LAN admin)

O ver the past two years, Windows 98 has become the operating
system of choice for thousands of users. Most people who have computers
today have upgraded to Windows 98 so that they can take advantage of its
many features. There is still a significant user base for Windows 95 as well,
though, and as such this section details the steps needed to install Windows 95
on a computer, as well as the steps needed to upgrade to Windows 98 from an
existing Windows 95 system.
In this chapter, we will therefore take a look at what sort of hardware is
required to install Windows 95 and Windows 98 (referred to generically as
Windows 9x hereafter), what you need to know to get each installed and run-
ning, and what some of the major files and boot processes are for each.
For additional coverage of objective 2.1, please see Chapter 14. Additional cover-
age of objective 2.2 can be found in Chapter 14. Objective 2.3 is also covered in
Chapters 14 and 17, and there is additional coverage of objective 2.4 in
Chapters 14, 15, and 16.
Installation Prerequisites
A lthough they are very similar operating systems, Windows 95 and Win-
dows 98 do have some significant differences. For instance, whereas Windows 95
can be installed from either floppy disks or from CD-ROM, Windows 98 is an
extremely large operating system and is generally installed either from CD-ROM
or over a network connection. (It is also technically possible to install Windows 98
using floppy disks, but at over 70 disks, you simply don’t want to go there.)
Hardware Requirements
In an earlier edition of this book, published in 1997, we referred to Windows 95
by saying, “Let there be no doubt about it, Windows 95 is a resource hog.” Ah,

522 Chapter 13 Installing and Using Windows 95/98
how times change. Although it’s true that Windows 95 requires substantially
more RAM, hard disk space, and processor speed than any of its predecessors,
compared to the requirements of Windows 98 and Windows 2000, it seems
extremely compact. As a reference, Table 13.1 lists the hardware requirements
for installing each of the Windows 9x platforms.
TABLE 13.1 Windows Hardware Prerequisites
Hardware 95 Requirement 98 Requirement
Processor 386DX or higher processor (486 386DX or higher processor

recommended). (Pentium recommended).
Memory 4MB (8MB recommended). 8MB (16–32MB recom-

mended).
Free hard 50–55MB for typical install 120MB for typical install.
disk space (40MB if upgrading from a Could go as high as 250MB
previous version of Windows). for a custom install with all
Could go as high as 85MB for a options.
custom install with all options.
Floppy disk One 31⁄2-inch disk drive (if doing One 31⁄2-inch disk drive (if
installation from floppy disks). doing installation from
floppy disks).
CD-ROM Required if installing from CD Required if installing from

(preferred method). CD (preferred method).
Video VGA or better. VGA or better.
Mouse Required. Required.
Keyboard Required. Required.
The installation needs of Windows 2000 will be examined in Chapter 14.
If there is one thing to be learned from Table 13.1, by the way, it is that
Microsoft is nothing if not optimistic. For your own sanity, though, we

Preparing the Computer for Installation 523
strongly suggest that you do not try to run Windows 98 on a 386DX machine
with 8MB of RAM. Windows 95 seems to perform acceptably—in our opin-
ion—if the machine has a Pentium-class processor and at least 16MB of RAM,
but Windows 98 has a few more built-in gizmos and normally should be run
on a 200+ megahertz machine with at least 32MB of RAM. As this book is
being written, machines of that description can be purchased on eBay for about
$75 (with shipping), or less than the price of a copy of the Windows 98
upgrade. If someone comes to you with a 486/33 and 8MB of RAM wanting
to upgrade to Windows 98, do them—and yourself—a favor and direct them
to a hardware upgrade first! Also, anyone who does have better hardware but
is still running Windows 95 should seriously consider upgrading. Windows 98
is better supported by software vendors, and its ability to support more powerful
memory and storage make it preferable on new machines.
Other hardware—sound cards, network cards, modems, video cards, and so
on—may or may not work with Windows 95 or Windows 98. If the device is
fairly recent, you can be relatively certain that it was built to work with Win-
dows 9x, but if it is older, you may need to find out who made the hardware
and check their Web site to see if they have Windows 9x drivers. If they don’t,
you can also use DOS 16-bit “real-mode” drivers, but this should be done only
as a last resort because they are more difficult to configure and are less effective
than Windows 9x 32-bit drivers. We will talk more about this distinction in the
discussion of the hardware detection phase of setup later in this chapter, and in
the chapters on multimedia (Chapter 15) and networking (Chapter 18) later on.
Briefly, a real-mode driver is one that directly accesses hardware, as was the stan-
dard in DOS; 32-bit Windows drivers work through the Windows system, allowing
Windows to optimize and control hardware access. Although they are slow, real-
mode drivers will usually work with Windows 9 x if you cannot obtain updated
drivers for your hardware. Before using an old driver, always search vendor Web
sites for updated versions.
Preparing the Computer for Installation

O nce you have verified that the machine on which you are planning to
install Windows 9x is capable of running it properly and that all hardware is
supported, you will need to make certain that the system is ready for the install.
The primary question here is whether you are planning to perform a fresh

install of Windows or whether you are going to be upgrading an existing sys-

tem. Upgrading will be dealt with later in the chapter; for now, we’ll focus on
new installations.
The Windows Startup Disk

If you are installing Windows 9x onto a system that does not already have a func-
tioning operating system, you have a bit of work to do before you get to the
installation itself. New disk drives need to have two critical functions performed
on them before they are able to be used—partitioning and formatting:
Partitioning The process of assigning part or all of the drive for use by the
computer
Formatting The process of preparing the partition to store data in a par-
ticular fashion
These two procedures are dealt with in Windows 9x by using the FDISK.EXE
and FORMAT.EXE commands. Running any sort of command on a machine that
has no operating system is, well, impossible, though, so in order to do this, you
need to boot the computer using a floppy disk that is bootable to MS-DOS or the
Windows 9x command line. Windows 9x solves this problem through the use of
a startup disk that allows you to boot a computer and run these and other basic
commands. It should be included in the Windows 95/98 package you are install-
ing from, but if it is not, you will need to make one.
Neither the Windows 95 nor the Windows 98 CD-ROM is bootable, which is why
the startup disk is so crucial.
In a paradox every bit as difficult to resolve as the chicken-or-egg debate, you

are only able to make the startup disk (a) during setup or (b) once 95/98 is
installed. If you have lost your startup disk and need to prepare a new drive, your
best bet is to find a machine with an existing installation of Windows 95 or 98
and an create a startup disk off of it. To do this, go to Start Settings Control
Panel and double-click the Add/Remove Programs icon. Within Add/Remove
Programs is a tab called Startup Disk (Figure 13.1).

FIGURE 13.1 The Windows 98 Startup Disk tab
Click the Startup Disk tab to bring it to the front. Click the Create Disk button
to start the startup disk creation process. You will need a single floppy disk for
this, and all information on it will be deleted and replaced. If you can’t find a
floppy disk and even a single machine already running Windows 9x, well, you
may be in the wrong business….
If you are performing the installation via CD, you must also make certain that
the startup disk is capable of accessing the CD-ROM drive on your machine. In
Windows 98, the startup disk automatically loads standard CD-ROM drivers
and presents you with an option to load CD-ROM support on startup. Some
Windows 95 startup disks also have this, but if not, you can modify the
AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS to load a CD-ROM driver. The exact modifi-
cations you will need to make depend on the type and manufacturer of your CD-
ROM drive, but a sample CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT follow:
CONFIG.SYS:
Files=25
Buffers=9,256
DEVICE=C:\PANCD.SYS /B:25 /N:PANCD001
AUTOEXEC.BAT
PATH=C:\;C:\DOS
MSCDEX.EXE /D:PANCD001 /L:D /M:100

Notice that these aren’t big changes, but they are crucial to make the CD-
ROM functional under DOS; once Windows 95 or 98 is loaded, these files won’t
be needed because Windows has its own drivers for accessing the CD drive, and
they will be loaded during the install. These lines can be added to and later
removed from AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS using any text editor.
Once you have a basic Windows startup disk, you will want to continue to make
other small improvements upon it as well by adding tools to allow you to perform
common tasks more easily. SMARTDRV.EXE and XCOPY.EXE are two we recommend
adding. Smart drive (SMARTDRV.EXE) increases file copy speed, and XCOPY.EXE
allows you to copy multiple files and directories easily.
Partitioning Using a Windows 95 Boot Disk

Once you have a DOS or Windows startup disk, it is time to boot the computer
and prepare it for the Windows installation. When the computer first boots up,
the Windows 95 boot disk will simply bring you to an A:\> prompt.
Partitioning refers to establishing large allocations of hard drive space. A par-
tition is a continuous section of sectors that are next to each other. In DOS and
Windows, a partition is referred to by a drive letter, such as C: or D:. Partitioning
a drive into two or more parts gives it the appearance of being two or more phys-
ical hard drives.
When a drive is partitioned in DOS, the first partition you create will be a
primary partition, which is marked active. The active partition is the location
of the boot-up files for DOS or Windows. If there is more than one partition,
the second and remaining DOS partitions are found inside of another partition
type called an extended partition. An extended partition contains one or more
logical partitions; it is the logical partitions that have drive letters associated
with them. Only one primary and one extended partition can be created per
disk using the Windows 95 disk utility, which is called FDISK.
When FDISK is executed, a screen appears that gives four or five options (Fig-
ure 13.2 shows the screen with four options). The fifth option, which allows you
to select a hard drive, appears only when there is more than one physical hard
drive. FDISK will only partition one hard drive at a time.

FIGURE 13.2 The introductory screen in FDISK.EXE
With FDISK, you can create partitions, delete partitions, mark a partition as
active, or display available partitioning information. You must create a primary
partition before you can create any other partitions. If space is still available on
the drive, then a second, extended partition may be created. No drive letter is
assigned to the extended partition. One or more logical partitions must be
defined within the extended partition, and they can then have drive letters
attached to them so users can access them.
It is possible for no partitions to be marked active on a particular drive. In this

case, the machine will not be able to boot to the drive. If this is the case, you must
use FDISK to set an active partition before you will be able to properly install
Windows 9x. One and only one partition can be marked active.
FDISK creates a start and an end to a section of hard drive space. At the begin-
ning of that space, it creates a special file called the Master Boot Record, or
MBR. The MBR contains the partition information about the beginning and end
of the primary and extended partitions. At the beginning of the partitions, this
record is called the DOS Volume Boot Sector.
The size of a partition will determine certain aspects of a file pointer table
called the file allocation table, or FAT for short. The larger the drive partition,
the more space will be wasted on the drive.

Formatting
The next step in management of a hard drive is formatting, initiated by the FOR-
MAT command. Technically the sort of formatting that we are talking about is
high-level formatting. This should not be confused with low-level formatting,
although it can be just as destructive to information on the hard drive. High-level
formatting is, these days, normally the only formatting a technician will do.
When high-level formatting is performed, the following actions take place:
The surface of the hard drive platter is briefly scanned to find any possible
bad spots, and the areas surrounding a bad spot are marked as bad sectors.
Magnetic tracks are laid down in concentric circles. These tracks are
where information is eventually encoded. These tracks, in turn, are split
into pieces of 512 bytes called sectors. Some space is reserved in between
the sectors for error correction information, referred to as CRC, or Cyclic
Redundancy Check, information. The operating system may use CRC
information to re-create data that has been partially lost from a sector.
Additionally, a file allocation table (FAT) is created. This table will con-
tain information about the location of files as they are placed onto the
hard drive. The FAT has a limited number of entries. Therefore, the space
allocated for the partition may need to be divided into clusters of sectors,
where a sector is the smallest part of a hard drive.
Low-level formatting is the first step in preparing to install an operating system

into a computer. It is the process of getting the surface material of the hard drive
platters prepared to accept information. Low-level formatting creates the tracks
and sectors that higher-level processes look for. This formatting process destroys
any information that is already present on the hard drive. For this reason, low-
level formatting is rarely used on IDE hard drives, which contain some special
information written at the factory. SCSI hard drives will occasionally be low-level
formatted; on very rare occasions, an IDE drive will also be low-level formatted.
Fortunately, these days hard drives are usually low-level formatted at the factory
and never need to have this done to them again. For most technicians, this is just
a historical fact of past times.
Optimization
Each FAT has a set number of entries; the number depends on the size of the hard
drive. On a very small hard drive, the FAT could theoretically be large enough
to track all the sectors, but in practice this never occurs. Only high-density floppy
disks have FATs that track individual sectors. Sectors on hard drives will be
clumped together in what is called a cluster or allocation unit. In general, as the
drive or drive partition increases in size, the number of sectors per cluster
increases.

A drive between 16MB and 128MB will have four sectors per cluster. A larger
drive of up to 256MB will have eight sectors per cluster. In fact, every time you
double the hard drive size, you double the number of sectors per cluster. Thus,
drives of up to 512MB will have 16 sectors per cluster, drives of up to 1024MB
will have 32 sectors per cluster, and so on. Clusters of 32 sectors are 16KB in size.
Allocation units may not be used by two different files, thus any empty space
in an allocation unit (any space not filled by the file assigned to that allocation
unit) is wasted. Many files almost fill the last cluster allocated to them, but many
files barely use this last allocated cluster. On the average, files use half of the last
cluster allocated to them.
Imagine large clusters with one cluster per file being only half filled. If these
clusters are 16KB and there are 5,000 files, then roughly 40MB of hard drive
space is designated but unused. For example, if a hard drive has almost 25,000
files on one partition, that translates to 200MB of wasted space.
One solution to optimizing hard drive space is to set up multiple partitions
that are smaller in size and therefore use smaller clusters. It is not unusual for a
1GB drive to regain 200MB or more when split into two partitions. You should
also avoid partition sizes that are just over the limit for cluster sizes. A 528MB
partition has less available space on it than a 512MB partition does, simply
because the clusters are large enough to waste more than the extra space on the
larger partition. As new drives get larger, though, the difference between 528MB
and 512MB becomes largely irrelevant. Because of this, a new file system—
FAT32—solves many of these problems (and will be discussed later).
EXERCISE 13.1
Preparing a New Disk for Windows 95

1. Insert the Windows 95 boot disk and start the computer.
2. At the prompt, type FDISK.
3. In the main FDISK screen, select option 4, Display partition information.
4. If the drive is already partitioned properly, the partitions and their sizes
will be listed.
5. Return to the main screen by clicking the ESC key on your keyboard. If the
partitions were properly created already, click ESC again to leave FDISK.
6. If the disk is not yet partitioned, select 1, Create DOS partition or logical
DOS drive.

7. Click 1, Create a primary DOS partition. You will be asked if you want
to use the maximum space available and make the partition startable.
In most cases, this is best, but if you wish to make the partition a par-
ticular size, you can do so. IMPORTANT: If there are partitions on the
disk already, you must delete them to create new ones. If you do this,
all information currently on those partitions will be lost!
8. After you have created the new C: partition, click ESC until you are
asked to reboot.
9. Reboot, and again use the startup disk to start the system. At the A:
prompt, type FORMAT C: to format the drive with the standard FAT file
system.
10. You will be warned that all information on the drive will be deleted.
Type Y to confirm, and the format will begin. This can take some time.
When the format is completed, you may begin the installation of Win-
dows. You do not need to reboot after a format.
Using the Windows 98 Boot Disk

If you are using a Windows 98 boot disk to prepare a drive, you will notice that
a few things are different. First, when the machine first starts up, you will be pre-
sented with two options: boot with CD-ROM support or boot without it. The
default is to boot with CD support. If you are planning to install from CD-ROM,
this makes life easy because most supported CD drives are simply loaded
automatically.
Second, as you start the Windows 98 FDISK program, you will be presented
with the message about working with large hard drives. Standard FAT (FAT16)
has problems dealing with large drives, both due to its maximum partition size of
4GB and because it uses extremely large cluster sizes for large partitions. As the size
of computer hard drives increased, this became a serious problem, so Microsoft
added support for a second format type—FAT32. Earlier versions of the file allo-
cation tables are known as FAT12 and FAT16 (because the size of the FAT entries
are 12 bits and 16 bits respectively). First implemented in Windows 95 “Revision B,”
FAT32 support became standard in later versions of Windows—98 and 2000. As
a comparison of how the new system saves you space, a 2GB drive with FAT16 has
clusters of 32KB; with FAT32, the cluster sizes are 4KB. Because of this, if you save
a 15KB file, FAT will need to allocate an entire 32KB cluster. FAT32 would use
four 4KB clusters, for a total of 16KB. FAT32 wastes an unused 1KB, while FAT
wastes 15 times as much!
The disadvantage of FAT32 is that it is not compatible with older DOS, Win-
dows 3.x, and Windows 95 operating systems. This means that when you boot

Starting a Windows 9x Installation 531
a Windows 95 Rev B. or Windows 98 FAT32–formatted partition with a DOS

boot floppy, you can’t read the partition.
FAT32 supports drives of up to 2 terabytes. If you have a disk that is over 2,000GB
in size, you will have to create multiple partitions on it.
Starting a Windows 9x Installation

O nce you have the drive prepared, you are ready to start the Windows
install process. To do this, boot to the startup disk and put either the CD-ROM
or the first setup disk into the machine.
The program that performs the installation is called SETUP.EXE, and it’s located
either in the root directory of Disk 1 of the set of installation floppies or in the
WIN95/WIN98 directory of the installation CD-ROM. It examines your hard disk
and makes sure there is enough room to install Windows 95, then copies a few
temporary files to your hard disk. These temporary files are the components of the
Installation Wizard that will guide you through the installation of Windows 9x.
There are a few options that you can use with the Setup program. To use
them, you place them after the SETUP at the command line, separated by a single
space. Table 13.2 details these Setup startup switches.
TABLE 13.2 Windows 95 SETUP Command-Line Options
Option Function
/d Tells Setup to ignore your existing copy of Windows. It only

applies during an upgrade.
<filename> Used without the < and >, specifies the preconfigured setup file
that Setup should use (e.g., SETUP MYFILE.INI causes Setup to
run with the settings contained in MYFILE.INI).
/id Tells Setup to skip the disk space check.
/iq Tells Setup to skip the test for cross-linked files.
/is Tells Setup to skip the routine system check.
/it Tells Setup to skip the check for Terminate and Stay Resident
programs (TSRs) that are known to cause problems with
Windows 95 Setup.

TABLE 13.2 Windows 95 SETUP Command-Line Options (continued)
Option Function
/l Enables a Logitech mouse during setup.
/n Causes Setup to run without a mouse.
/p Tells Setup to skip the check for any Plug-and-Play devices.
/T:C:\tmp Specifies which directory (C:\tmp in this case) Setup will copy
its temporary files to. If this directory doesn’t exist, Setup will
create it.
In this portion of the chapter, we will look at the Windows 95 setup specifics.
To start the installation, you simply change to the drive letter where the instal-
lation files are and type SETUP (with the appropriate startup switches), like so:
C:>D:
D:>SETUP
Setup will tell you that it’s going to check your system and that you must press
Enter to continue. If you want to cancel the installation without continuing, you
can press Esc. When you press Enter, Setup copies a very basic Windows system
to your computer from the CD and starts it. Setup then executes in a Windows
environment and welcomes you to the installation (Figure 13.3).
FIGURE 13.3 Windows 95 Setup Welcome screen

Because Windows may need these files later, it is often a good idea to simply copy
all of the needed files (the Win95 directory on the CD or all of the files on each setup
disk) to a directory on the local drive of the machine. Some folks use a directory
called C:\disks for this purpose.
To begin the installation, click Continue. Setup will then copy some more
files your to computer while it builds the Setup Wizard. The Windows 95 Setup
Wizard guides you through the installation step by step. At each step, you will
be asked questions about how you would like Windows 95 configured. Then
you simply click the Next or Continue button.
The Setup Wizard will ask you questions about three main categories:
Gathering information
Copying files to your computer
Finishing the installation
These three general steps will be presented to you when you begin the installation
and at various times during the installation.
After the Welcome screen, Setup will present you with the text of the license
agreement. The Windows 95 license agreement basically says that you are being
sold a copy of this software for use on one computer and that you won’t give it
away or sell it to anyone else for a profit. There’s a bunch more to it, so you
should read the entire agreement. When you’ve read it, click Yes to accept the
agreement and move on. If you click No, you are telling Setup (and Microsoft)
that you don’t agree to the terms of the contract. This will cancel the installation.
Step 1: Collecting Information about Your Computer

Next you’ll be presented with the screen in Figure 13.4. This screen gives you the
basic outline of the Windows 95 Installation process. In the first step, Setup asks
you questions about how your computer is currently configured and which
options you would like to install.

FIGURE 13.4 Windows Setup start screen
From this point in the setup process on, the Setup screens will have a Back but-
ton and a Cancel button. You click the Back button to go back to the preceding
screen, and click the Cancel button to completely exit the installation. If you exit
the installation before it’s completely finished, Setup will restore your system to
its former state.
To begin the gathering of information, click the Next button (or press Enter).
Choosing the Windows Installation Directory

Setup will allow you to choose where you would like to install Windows 95.
Setup chooses C:\WINDOWS by default. However, if you want to have both Win-
dows 3.x and Windows 95 on the same system, you should install Windows 95
to a directory other than C:\WINDOWS. To do so, click the Other Directory radio
button and then click Next. Setup will then ask you which directory you want to
put Windows 95 in.
For most installations, you will want to install Windows 95 to the
C:\WINDOWS directory. If this is the case, leave C:\WINDOWS checked and click the
Next button to continue. Setup will check to see if you have enough disk space
and memory to install Windows 95. If either of these two requirements are below
the recommendations, Setup will issue an error and quit. If they pass, Setup will
continue to the next step, choosing the type of setup you want to perform.
Choosing the Setup Options

The screen shown in Figure 13.5 allows you to select which type of installation
you want. There are four options, outlined in Table 13.3.

FIGURE 13.5 Selecting the type of setup you want to perform
TABLE 13.3 Windows 95 Setup Types
Setup
Option Description
Typical Allows Setup to choose the most popular features during the
rest of the setup process.
Portable Sets up the most common applications and utilities for

portable computers. This option will install PCMCIA support
and Advanced Power Management (APM).
Compact Installs the minimum components Windows 95 needs to

function.
Custom Allows you to choose which components to install. If you

select this option, Setup will present you with a list of utilities
and programs to install. This option allows you to make the
most choices about how Windows 95 gets installed. This is
the method most commonly used by technicians to install
Windows 95.
Because it’s the most popular option for technicians, select the Custom radio
button. Then click Next to continue the installation.

Entering User Information

In the next screen, you enter information about yourself and your company (if
applicable). This information will be used when you install most other Microsoft
applications. Simply start typing your name in the Name field. Then press the
Tab key to move to the next field, Company. Type in your company name (or the
name of the company that owns the computer) and click Next to continue.
Entering the Product Identification Number

The product identification number helps to ensure that you aren’t illegally
installing Windows 95 from a pirated copy. The number you must enter is usu-
ally found on the back cover of the CD case (look for a yellow sticker with the
words CD KEY). It might also be found on the warranty registration card. You
should send this card in so that you can receive technical support if you ever need
it. From this screen (Figure 13.6), simply type in the number exactly as it appears
on the back of the CD case.
FIGURE 13.6 Entering the product identification number
After you finished typing the number, you can click Next. If you type the
wrong number, Setup will tell you and ask you to enter it again.
Analyzing Your Computer and Setting Up Hardware

Setup is now ready to start looking for the hardware devices it needs to install
drivers for. To let Setup search for the devices, select the Yes (Recommended)
option in the screen that appears. To specify all the hardware that your computer
has manually, select the No, I Want to Modify the Hardware List option. Win-
dows 95 does a pretty good job of detecting hardware in the computer and
installing device drivers for those devices. For most computers, you’ll want to
select the Yes option and click Next.

After you click Next, Setup will present you with a screen like the one shown
in Figure 13.7. If you have a network adapter, sound card, or CD-ROM drive,
mark the appropriate check box(es). A check box will appear to tell Setup to
install drivers and software for those items. When you have finished selecting
hardware drivers from this screen, click Next to continue the installation and
begin the hardware detection process.
FIGURE 13.7 Choosing special setup options
The hardware detection process may take several minutes. During this time,
you will see a screen like the one in Figure 13.8 and you will hear the hard drive
searching for files (or at least you’ll see the hard drive light flash madly). When
Setup finds a piece of hardware, it will make a note of which driver to install; if
it finds something it doesn’t have a driver for, it will ask you whether you want
to provide one or not install the device at all.
FIGURE 13.8 Analyzing the computer’s hardware to determine which drivers to install

If the progress bar stops moving for more than 10 minutes and there is no hard
disk activity, more than likely the machine is locked up. Reboot the computer and
rerun Setup. Setup will detect that a previous installation wasn’t completed and it
will try to resume where it left off. Neat, huh?
After the hardware detection is finished, Setup will automatically move on to

the next step.
Choosing E-Mail and Fax Software to Install

Windows 95 comes with several pieces of software to get you connected to the
rest of the world. From the screen shown in Figure 13.9, you can choose to
install Microsoft’s online service, the Microsoft Network (MSN). In addition,
Windows 95 comes with the software to send and receive faxes (although you
must have a fax modem installed in your computer to use it). This software
is called Microsoft Fax and it’s integrated into Windows 95’s Universal Mailbox
called the Exchange Client (meaning you must have the Exchange Client
installed to use MS Fax). The Exchange Client is actually called Microsoft Mail
in the Setup window. This name, although confusing, stems from the fact that
this mail client has its roots in the old MS Mail software.
FIGURE 13.9 Choosing which online tools to install
If you want to install any of these components, check the appropriate box.
When you’re finished selecting items, click Next to continue.

These check boxes just tell Setup whether you want the e-mail and fax software
installed. Setup doesn’t let you configure these components until after Windows 95
is installed.
Choosing Which Windows 95 Components You Want

Installed
If you choose a Standard installation type, Setup will ask you whether you
want it to choose all the components automatically or see a list of components.
If you choose the latter, the screen in Figure 13.10 appears. If you chose a Cus-
tom installation type, Setup will automatically present you with the screen in
Figure 13.10.
FIGURE 13.10 Custom setup component selection
If a check box is gray with a check mark in it, that means that not all the com-
ponents of that category are going to be installed. If you highlight the category
that has the gray check box and click the Details button, a screen will appear that
will allow you to select or deselect additional components. Figure 13.11 shows
the screen that appears when you highlight Accessories and click Details. Notice
that Games is not checked by default. If you want Solitaire installed (and most
people do), click the check box next to Games and click OK.

FIGURE 13.11 Adding or removing components from an installation group
Once you have selected all the components you want installed, accept all
selections by clicking OK until you get back to the screen shown in Figure 13.10.
Then, click the Next button to continue the installation.
If you make a mistake selecting items, you can click the Reset button (see
Figure 13.10) to reset the selections to the Setup defaults. However, be aware
that the selections made in the e-mail/fax section of the installation will also be
reset to their defaults, which is that they are not installed.
Network Configuration
The next step in the installation of Windows 95 shows up only if there is a net-
work card installed in the machine. From this screen (Figure 13.12), you can cus-
tomize which networking components are installed and how they are configured.
Click Next to continue this installation.

FIGURE 13.12 The Network Configuration screen
Because Windows 95 Networking configuration is covered in Chapter 18, we

won’t cover it again here. Refer to Chapter 18 for information about the details of
configuring the Network Configuration screen.
If you have networking installed, the next screen you will see will be the com-
puter identification screen. This only applies if you have the Client for Microsoft
Networks installed because, on Microsoft networks, each computer has to have
a name and should belong to a workgroup (these concepts will also be discussed
in Chapter 18). After entering the information for Computer Name and Work-
group parameters, click Next to continue to the next step in the installation.
Verifying Computer Settings

Now that Setup has detected all the hardware in your machine in a Custom setup,
the Setup Wizard will present you with a list of the hardware (Figure 13.13) that
it found and allow you to modify which driver Windows 95 will use. If any of the
drivers in the list are incorrect or have the word Unknown next to them, click the
driver description, then click the Change button. Setup will present you with a list
of alternatives. If none of the alternatives fit, leave the driver unchanged and install
a new one after the installation.

FIGURE 13.13 Verifying computer settings
Once you have verified that all hardware drivers are correct, click Next to
continue.
Installing and updating drivers for peripheral hardware is covered in Chapter 16,
and updating current drivers is covered later in this chapter.
Creating a Startup Disk

The next step in the Windows 95 installation is to decide whether you want a
startup disk (see Figure 13.14). This is the same disk we discussed earlier. You
can choose to make one at this time (the Yes option) or to make one at a later
time (the No option). Most technicians make their own Windows 95 startup
disk, copy all their diagnostic utilities to it, and never use this option again.
Because you booted using the one you created earlier, select No and click Next
to continue the installation.

FIGURE 13.14 Choosing not to create a startup disk
Step 2: Copying Files to Your Computer

At this point, you have given the Setup Wizard all the information it needs to
begin installing Windows 95. It will present you with a screen (Figure 13.15) tell-
ing you this and giving you one last chance to cancel before copying files to your
computer. If you think you made any mistakes, you can click the Back button.
You can also click Cancel to abort the entire installation. If you believe you have
entered all information correctly, click Next to start the file copy.
FIGURE 13.15 Starting the file copy

The bottom of the next screen displays a progress bar to indicate how far
along the file copy process is. You can cancel the file copy at any time by clicking
the Exit button in the lower-right corner of the screen or by pressing the F3 key
on your keyboard. The file copy may take several minutes, depending on the
speed of your computer. The nice part is, you don’t have to watch a boring, blue
bar go across the screen. Instead, you get to read several screens that give you
information about the features of Windows 95.
Step 3: Restarting the Computer and Finishing Setup

When the file copy is finished, you will see a screen like the one in Figure 13.16.
This screen is telling you that the majority of the installation is finished. You just
need to reboot the computer and customize the way Windows 95 operates. To
restart the computer and run Windows 95, remove any disks from their respec-
tive disk drives and click Finish. This will cause the computer to reboot.
FIGURE 13.16 Finishing the installation
Upon rebooting, you’ll see a blue screen with the message Getting ready to
run Windows 95 for the first time… in red at the bottom of the screen.

If you have a network client installed, you may see a network login screen. The first
time you run Windows 95, you won’t be able to use your network connection any-
way, so click Cancel for any screens you see that deal with network logins.
Setting Up Hardware and Software After Installation

The next screen you will see will tell you that Windows 95 is setting up hardware
and any Plug-and-Play devices you might have (Figure 13.17). If there are any
devices for which Windows 95 can’t determine the settings (or find drivers), it
will pop up a screen asking you to specify them. It will then pop up another
screen telling you what settings it is configuring. It will automatically continue to
the next screen.
FIGURE 13.17 Setting up hardware
Briefly, a driver is a small program or piece of program code that runs in the back-
ground and translates the information going to and from an application and a
piece of hardware. For example, a program such as WordPerfect doesn’t keep
track of all the different types of printers that are available; instead, it uses a printer
driver. (Windows 95 and DOS applications use their own specific printer drivers.)
WordPerfect is loaded into memory along with a printer driver that is specific to
the user’s printer. If a different printer is attached to that system, then a different
printer driver may be required.
Setting the Date/Time Properties

After you set the hardware and software parameters, Windows 95 will present
you with a screen that will allow you to set the date, time, and time zone
(Figure 13.18) of the computer.

FIGURE 13.18 The Time Zone tab of the Date/Time property box
There are two tabs at the top of the window:

In the Time Zone tab, you can click a map to set your time zone (click your
current location on the map and it will set the time zone to the correct
zone automatically, or if you know it, you can select your time zone from
a drop-down list). You can click the check box next to Automatically
Adjust Clock for Daylight Saving Changes and Windows 95 will set the
clock automatically forward or backward on the appropriate day.
The other tab is the Date & Time tab. From here you can set the current
date and time by clicking the appropriate date in the calendar. You move
to different months by selecting them from the drop-down list. If you need
to move forward or backward a year, click the up or down arrows that are
to the right of the year. To change the time, click the area that indicates the
time and use the arrows to the right to move the hours, minutes, and sec-
onds forward or backward.
When you’ve finished setting the date, time, and time zone, you can click OK
to continue the installation.
Setting Up Your Universal Inbox

If you chose to install either Microsoft Mail or Microsoft Fax, Windows 95 will
ask you to install Microsoft Exchange using the Inbox Setup Wizard. This wiz-
ard will guide you through the setup of the e-mail and fax services. If you have
a modem installed in your computer, the wizard will help you configure it to
work with these services. Because this material isn’t covered on the exam, we’ll
refer you to the Windows 95 Help file that comes on the installation CD.

Upgrading to Windows 98 from Windows 95 547
Setting Up a Printer
The final step to configuring Windows 95 is setting up a printer. To do this,
Windows 95 starts up the Add Printer Wizard. This wizard is designed to guide
you through the installation of a printer. We will cover this in more detail in
Chapter 18, so we won’t devote a great deal of time to discussing it here. If you
don’t want to install a printer now (or don’t have one connected to your com-
puter), click Cancel.
Final Installation Steps

After you configure a printer, Windows 95 is finally fully configured and will
present you with a screen instructing you that it will reboot one final time. To
reboot your computer and bring up Windows 95, click OK. Windows 95 is
installed!
Once Windows 95 opens for the first time (without any wizards), you can
start using it. You can also further customize the interface using the techniques
discussed in Chapter 12 or those covered in “Configuring Windows 9x Soft-
ware” later in this chapter.
Upgrading to Windows 98 from Windows 95

I f you are currently running Windows 95 and want to upgrade to Windows
98, you’re not alone. Most corporate and many home users have upgraded to
Windows 98 at the time this book is being written in late 2000. This is due, in
part, to some of the features that Windows 98 added to enhance Windows 95.
It can also be attributed to the fact that the upgrade process is very easy (almost
painless, in fact) and to the fact that the Microsoft marketing machine did a great
job of selling it as a significant upgrade. Some of the major enhancements with
Windows 98 include the following:
Better Internet support through the integration of Internet Explorer
Year 2000 fixes
Support for newer hardware, such as USB, AGP, and DVD
FAT32
DOS 7 (16-bit) is replaced by DOS32 (32-bit)
Enhancements for MMX processors, better use of RAM and disk
resources
In truth, Windows 98 is a relatively basic upgrade. Besides the fact that most of
the changes were relatively modest, most of them were generally also available to

interested Windows 95 users through free Internet updates. As you will see, for
most configuration and troubleshooting tasks, Windows 95 and 98 are identical.
Still, time marches on, and if you are asked to upgrade a machine from
Windows 95 to Windows 98, the procedure is relatively straightforward. Let’s
run through a typical upgrade.
Starting the Upgrade

For the most part, the major steps that you need to follow when upgrading from
an earlier version of Windows to Windows 98 are the same steps used to install
Windows 98 on a machine without an operating system. These are divided by
Setup into the following areas:
1. Preparing to run Windows 98 setup
2. Collecting information about your computer
3. Copying Windows 98 files to your computer
4. Restarting your computer
5. Setting up hardware and finalizing settings
The Windows 98 installation program, SETUP.EXE, performs these steps. In
order to start the upgrade, you need to start the SETUP.EXE program. If you are
upgrading to Windows 98 using a CD-ROM with a working installation of Win-
dows 95, things couldn’t be much simpler. Insert the disk into the CD drive and
a window similar to the one in Figure 13.19 appears. In addition to this window,
a box will appear noting that you are using an earlier version of Windows and
offering to upgrade you to Windows 98.
FIGURE 13.19 The Windows 98 Autorun window

Simply click Yes, and the SETUP.EXE program will load. You will be able to
see the progress of the setup process along the left side of the window as the Setup
program shows you which part of the install you are in and approximately how
much time is remaining.
Preparing to Run Windows 98 Setup

The first part of the setup routine is pretty basic. All that happens during the ini-
tial preparation is that the drives are given a quick examination and the files
needed to run the setup are loaded. There are a couple of things that Windows
checks for at this time, such as whether you have enough free drive space for the
install and whether you have any programs running that may interfere with the
upgrade.
During a system upgrade, you will generally want to shut down all nonessential
programs, including those that are sitting in your system tray. This will help avoid
conflicts and make it more likely that the install will go smoothly.
Collecting Information about Your Computer

Once the Setup program is convinced that you are ready to install, it will begin
to gather the details needed for this install. A wizard appears and goes through
the following screens:
License agreement This is where you give Bill your firstborn. Few people
bother to read these, and fewer still understand them. The most important
thing that you need to remember is that if you don’t accept the license agree-
ment, you can’t complete the install. That simple.
Product Key These just keep getting longer, and more annoying. Microsoft
keys have gone from 10 keys in Windows 95 to 25 in Windows 98. Remember
that if a user has purchased the software, you need to put in their actual key,
not just any one you have handy.
Install Directory Here you enter the directory in which the Windows 98 files
will be stored. By default, this is the same directory that the current version of
Windows is in—generally C:\WINDOWS. You can change this directory, but if
you do, the upgrade will no longer migrate existing programs and you will
have to install all programs and drivers over again (as in a new install).
At this point, Setup does some system checks and again checks for drive space.
It also looks at the install directory you have specified. If you are upgrading over
an existing Windows install, you’re given the option to save your existing system
files so that you can revert back if you have problems with Windows 98. If you
decide to save these files, they will be saved at this point.

To save the files needed to revert back to Windows 95, you must have about 50MB
of extra disk space. In most cases, you will not need these files and will choose not
to save them. If you have any doubt about the compatibility of the hardware or
software on the machine, though, this is a reassuring option.
Next you are presented with choices as to which Windows components you
wish to install. There are four basic installation types, each of which gives you a
different set of components:
Typical If you are installing a system for someone else, and are not sure
which options to install, this is a good base install of most elements.
Portable This type installs fewer components, but it includes a number
of communication tools left out of the typical install, including Dial-Up
Networking.
Compact The no-frills install. It installs a minimal set of options.
Custom The technician’s special. It allows you to go in and choose exactly
which components you want and which you don’t from the component groups.
Each group generally has a number of options included with it, and you can
choose to install all, some, or none of any component group. The component
groups are Accessibility (used to install options for those with mobility, hearing,
or visual impairments), Accessories, Communications, Desktop Themes, Inter-
net Tools, Microsoft Outlook Express, Multilanguage Support, Multimedia,
Online Services, System Tools, and Web TV for Windows.
If a box is checked, all components for that group will be installed. If it is
clear, none will be. If the box is gray, only some of the components will be
installed. To see exactly which components are selected, use the Details button
(see Figure 13.20).

FIGURE 13.20 The component check boxes
Once you have selected your components, you will be asked for a computer
name, a workgroup, and a description of the machine. The computer name can
be up to 15 characters with no spaces, as can the workgroup name. The Descrip-
tion field can be longer and can include spaces. Their functions are as follows:
Computer Name Used to uniquely identify the machine on a Microsoft net-
work. This name cannot be the same as any other machine’s computer name.
Workgroup Used to organize computers, a workgroup is a group of
machines that participate in a loose grouping on the network. If your work-
group name is different than everyone else’s, you will be the only person in
that workgroup.
Description Simply a text field in which you can describe what the machine
is, where the machine is, or why the machine is. It can also be left blank.
Once these fields have been filled in, Setup confirms keyboard layout and
regional settings, as well as country or regional information. You are then given
the opportunity to make a Windows 98 startup disk. As this is an upgrade, you
may not have a Windows 98 startup disk, and this is an excellent time to create
one. Click Next past the first screen, and then either OK or Cancel, depending on
whether you need a 98 startup disk or not. If you choose to create one, place a
floppy into the A: drive. Any data already on this disk will be completely erased.
After you have completed the startup disk screens, the “collecting informa-
tion about your computer” phase of the installation is over. The next phase of
the install begins immediately.

Copying Windows 98 Files to Your Computer

Not a lot happens during this phase, at least as far as user interaction. Files will
copy from the CD to the hard drive, and during this time, Microsoft marketing
information about various Windows 98 features will be displayed to keep you
occupied. This is an excellent time to wander off and make coffee.
Restarting Your Computer

Once the file copy is complete, you will be asked to reboot the machine. If you
are off making coffee, as recommended, the Setup program will simply reboot
for you after a 15-second delay.
Setting Up Hardware and Finalizing Settings

During the reboot, Windows collects information about the hardware installed
in the machine, exactly as it did during an installation under Windows 95. Plug-
and-Play devices are listed and activated if possible. Setup will load and test driv-
ers to detect other hardware.
Once your hardware has been detected, you will be given the chance to spec-
ify driver locations for any devices that are not supported out of the box by
Windows 98.
If you are upgrading, Windows 98 will generally find and use the device drivers
that were in use under Windows 95. This is good, in that it makes for an easy
install, but you should check vendor Web sites to see if they have updated
Windows 98 drivers. If so, you will need to upgrade to the new driver.
Once Windows has detected and installed drivers for all of the hardware it can
find, it will reboot a second time in order to initialize the new configuration and
present your Desktop.
Windows 98 Setup
After the reboot, you’re almost there. You can be pretty sure that you are nearing
the end of the setup when you see in the Windows 98 Setup window that the
basic settings for each of the following are being configured:
Control Panel
Programs on the Start Menu
Windows Help
MS-DOS Program Settings
Tuning up Application Start
System Configuration

Configuring Windows 9x Software 553
These are user-based settings that are configured for each user the first time
they use Windows 98. Windows 98 sets up the Desktop and other user-specific
system elements according to the system defaults, after which point you are pre-
sented with a Windows 98 Desktop.
That didn’t hurt at all, now, did it? Of course, the setup was completed with-
out any problems, too, which always helps. For more information about what to
do when the setup doesn’t go so well, check out Chapter 19.
If the computer seems to start up fine but Windows 9x doesn’t function properly,
try rebooting in Safe mode. This mode of operation loads Windows 98 with a min-
imal set of drivers and can help you determine if the problem is hardware or soft-
ware related. To boot the computer, turn it on and press the F8 key when you see
the words Starting Windows 98. Doing so will present you with a list of boot-up
choices, the third of which is Boot Computer in Safe Mode. Select this option
(number 3) and press Enter. When Windows 98 comes up, it will be running in
Safe mode, indicated by the words Safe Mode in all four corners of the screen. You
can then check on drivers, conflicts, and so on and make changes to the configu-
ration as needed. To exit Safe mode, restart the computer. If you have fixed the
problem, upon reboot, the computer will be operating normally. For more on Safe
mode, see Chapter 19 on troubleshooting.
Configuring Windows 9x Software

O nce you have the system up and running, you may want to know just
what you have installed. Windows 95 and Windows 98 are pretty much identical
under the hood, so we will simply look at this as a 9x discussion.
Because Windows 9x is a very different operating system than Windows 3.x
(which it replaced), most of its configuration is done using different tools than
were used in Windows 3.x. Even so, Windows 9x shares a few configuration
similarities with its ancestors (Windows 3.x and DOS) for compatibility’s sake.
The AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS are used to a limited extent, but they’re
not needed and remain only for older hardware and software compatibility.
Additionally, INI files are still used for some Windows programs (generally,
older 32-bit apps) to hold configuration settings.
The Registry was completely overhauled between Windows 3.1 and Win-
dows 95 and has taken the place of most INI files. In addition to software
extension information, it also contains software configuration information
and hardware configuration information. Generally speaking, most of the
Windows 9x settings that were previously stored in INI files are now stored in
the Registry.

Let’s discuss some Windows 9x configuration files and the tools used to
edit them.
Important System Files

There are a number of files stored in the root of C:, as well as in the WINDOWS
directory, which can be used to modify your system’s configuration and affect
how your computer works. Some of the files listed in the following subsections
are critical to the functioning of a Windows 9x computer, whereas others are
simply holdovers from earlier operating systems.
Due to the fact that the Registry actually handles most of the startup tasks in
Windows 9x, many system files are there mostly for compatibility with older pro-
grams. Because of that, you may never use them. Regardless, many of these obso-
lete files are listed in CompTIA’s test objectives, so you need to know about them!
Examining the Windows 9x Boot Process

First, let’s look at the process you use when you boot the system. When Windows
9x first starts up, it goes through a number of steps before presenting you with
a Desktop. The basic elements of a Windows 9x startup are as follows:
System self-checks and enumerates hardware resources. Each machine has
a different startup routine, called the POST (power on self-test), which is
executed by the commands written to the motherboard of the computer.
Newer Plug-and-Play boards not only check memory and processors, they
also poll the systems for other devices and peripherals.
MBR loads and finds the boot sector. Once the system has finished with
its housekeeping, the master boot record is located on the first hard drive
and loaded into memory. The MBR finds the bootable partition and
searches it for the boot sector of that partition. Information in the boot
sector allows the system to locate the root directory of C: and to find and
load into memory the IO.SYS file located there.
IO.SYS loads into memory and starts the processor in real mode. The
IO.SYS file performs a number of tasks, each of which is done in real mode.
Real mode is simply a method of accessing the processor in 16-bit mode.
Drivers loaded through the CONFIG.SYS file therefore can continue to func-
tion in real mode even after the next step, unless they are replaced by 32-bit
Windows drivers. The IO.SYS file performs the following tasks:
Provides basic file system access to allow the rest of the boot files to
be found
Accesses the MSDOS.SYS file to obtain boot configuration parameters

Loads LOGO.SYS (Windows bitmap display) and DRVSPACE.BIN

(compressed drive access) if they are present and needed
Loads the Registry file SYSTEM.DAT into memory, but does not access it
Selects a hardware profile (or allows the user to)
Processes the commands in the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files
if they are present
WIN.COM loads and transfers the processor to protected mode. Once the
AUTOEXEC.BAT file is parsed and processed, the WIN.COM file is automat-
ically executed. This file then loads various drivers as instructed by the
Registry. It also examines the SYSTEM.INI and WIN.INI files to obtain
additional configuration information. Once the Registry files have been
loaded, the processor is transferred into 32-bit protected mode.
Virtual device drivers, the Windows kernel, and the GDI load. Once the
system is in 32-bit mode, various 32-bit virtual device drivers load to man-
age hardware resources, often replacing 16-bit real-mode drivers. The Win-
dows kernel, which controls access to the processor from Windows 9x, is
loaded into memory, and once the graphical display interface (GDI) loads
to manage screen I/O, the system is ready to accept customers.
The Explorer shell loads and the user is presented with a Desktop. The
last part of the boot process is the loading of the “shell” program:
EXPLORER.EXE. The Explorer is the program that manages the graphical
interface—the toolbar, the Desktop, and the Start menu. Once this loads,
network connections are restored and programs in the STARTUP folder are
run, all of which is determined by settings read out of the USER.DAT Reg-
istry settings for that user.
Listing the Important Files

Among the things you will have to be familiar with in preparation for the A+
exam are the startup and system files used by Windows 9x. We will now look at
each of these individually, but Windows makes nosing around in the startup
environment difficult, and as such there is a change you’ll need to make first.
To protect them from accidental deletion, and to simply get them out of the
way of the average user, Windows 9x system files are hidden from the user by
default. Because of this, many of the files we are about to talk about will not be
visible to you. To change this, you will need to change the display properties of
the Windows Explorer. To do so, follow these steps:
1. Open the Windows Explorer.
2. Browse to the root of the C: drive. Look for the IO.SYS system file. It
should be hidden and will not appear in the file list.
3. Choose View Folder Options. The Folder Options window opens.

4. Select the View tab, and scroll until you find the Hidden Files option (see
Figure 13.21).
FIGURE 13.21 The Explorer View options
5. Select Show All Files.

6. Also uncheck the Hide File Extensions for Known File Types box.
7. Click OK. You will now be able to see the IO.SYS file and the others dis-
cussed in the following sections. For security, you should set these
attributes back after you’ve read this chapter.
Startup Files
We discussed a number of files in the section “Examining the Windows 9x Boot
Process.” Now we will take a minute to explain each one further (there is an
asterisk next to the names of the files that are required to boot Windows 9x):
MSDOS.SYS* Functions primarily to handle disk I/O, hence the name disk
operating system (DOS). Just like IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS is loaded into memory
at bootup and remains in memory at all times.
EMM386.EXE Provides the operating system with a mechanism to see addi-
tional memory. The memory space that EMM386.EXE controls has come to be
known as upper memory, and the spaces occupied by programs in that region
are known as upper memory blocks (UMBs).
HIMEM.SYS Used to access upper memory.

IO.SYS* Allows the rest of the operating system and its programs to inter-
act directly with the system hardware and the system BIOS. IO.SYS includes
hardware drivers for common hardware devices. It has built-in drivers for
such things as printer ports, serial or communication ports, floppy drives,
hard drives, auxiliary ports, console I/O (input and output), and so on.
WIN.INI Sets particular values corresponding to the Windows environ-
ment. It’s used extensively by 16-bit Windows 3.x applications; it’s almost
entirely replaced by the Registry for Windows 9x 32-bit apps.
WIN.COM* Initiates the Windows 9x protected load phase.
SYSTEM.INI Used in DOS and Windows 3.1 to store information specific to
running the operating system. This and other INI files were used to configure
16-bit DOS and Windows apps.
COMMAND.COM Called the DOS shell or the command interpreter. It provides
the command-line interface that the DOS user sees. This is usually, but not
always, the C:\> prompt.
CONFIG.SYS Loads device drivers and uses the information from the
AUTOEXEC.BAT to configure the system environment. Memory management
tools and DOS peripheral drivers can be added here.
AUTOEXEC.BAT Used to run particular programs during startup. Also
declares variables (such as search paths).
A batch file, named with a .bat extension, is simply a set of commands that
Windows can execute or run. These commands may run utilities, or they may
point toward full-blown applications. The AUTOEXEC.BAT is a batch file that is auto-
matically executed when the system starts up.
Startup Files Configuration Tools

There are a number of ways to modify the INI files on a Windows 9x machine.
First, you can open up a copy of Notepad, or the text editor of your choice, and
go to town. This is still probably the most common method of modifying INI
configuration files. If you prefer to have things a bit easier, though, there are a
couple of tools provided with Windows 9x for dealing with these files. Both Win-
dows 95 and Windows 98 allow you to use a tool called SYSEDIT.EXE to modify
certain files, and Windows 98 has added MSCONFIG.EXE as well.
SYSEDIT
To run SYSEDIT, choose Start Run and type SYSEDIT at the prompt. You
will see a window with a number of key configuration files open, as shown in
Figure 13.22.

FIGURE 13.22 Main SYSEDIT window
From here, you can examine, compare, and if needed, modify any of these
files. All that the SYSEDIT program really does is open multiple text editors,
each of which has one of the key text files in it.
SYSEDIT can be used to view and edit the PROTOCOL.INI, SYSTEM.INI, WIN.INI,
CONFIG.SYS, and AUTOEXEC.BAT files.
MSCONFIG
Provided as a new addition to Windows 98, the System Configuration Utility is
accessed by opening a Run window and typing MSCONFIG. The System Con-
figuration Utility has a number of tabs, each of which has specific options you
can manage (see Figure 13.23).

FIGURE 13.23 The System Configuration Utility
The thing that makes the System Configuration Utility different is that it lets
you use your mouse to browse and modify settings that previously were accessi-
ble only through manual text configuration. You can also enable or disable
Windows 98–specific elements, such as those shown in Figure 13.24. The
MSCONFIG utility therefore merges Windows 98 configuration info with a way
for non–DOS savvy users to work with DOS-era configuration files. Table 13.4
lists the tabs on the System Configuration Utility window.
FIGURE 13.24 The Advanced window from the SCU’s General tab

TABLE 13.4 System Configuration Utility Tabs
Tab Function
General Used to set startup options, as well as to determine which

files to load during startup
Config.sys Used to graphically view and edit the CONFIG.SYS file
Autoexec.bat Used to graphically view and edit the AUTOEXEC.BAT file
System.ini Allows you to modify the SYSTEM.INI file using a Registry-

type interface
Win.ini Allows you to modify the WIN.INI file using a Registry-type

interface
Startup Can be used to enable or disable particular startup options
Note that in the copy of Notepad in Figure 13.25, the contents of the
AUTOEXEC.BAT file are displayed. The Autoexec.bat tab of the System Configu-
ration Utility shows the same information. If you uncheck the last item and then
reopen the AUTOEXEC.BAT file, the REM statement is added to block the execu-
tion of a line without actually deleting the command, in case you need it again
later (Figure 13.26). This is very useful for troubleshooting.
FIGURE 13.25 The AUTOEXEC.BAT file before modification

FIGURE 13.26 The AUTOEXEC.BAT file after modification
The Windows 9x Registry

The two major types of configuration files are the INI files and the Registry. The
INI files are still used in Windows 9x, but as previously mentioned, they have less
responsibility. The Registry, on the other hand, is used almost exclusively for
holding configuration settings. It holds them not only for applications, but also
for the system itself. Additionally, it contains different settings for different users.
The Windows 9x Registry is a database that is made up of two files: USER.DAT
and SYSTEM.DAT. USER.DAT contains environmental settings for each user who
logs in to Windows 9x. SYSTEM.DAT contains information about the hardware
configuration of the computer that Windows is running on.
You can also create a third file—CONFIG.POL—which you can configure to specify
particular security settings for a particular user or group of users. This file is used
to “lock down” the Windows 9x interface so a user can’t change it (useful if you
have a user who is constantly changing their settings and messing up their com-
puter). The CONFIG.POL file is created and edited with a utility called the Policy Edi-
tor, which is available on the Windows 95 and 98 installation CD-ROM. Normally
you do not need to modify the system using the Policy Editor unless you are man-
aging a network environment.
USER.DAT and SYSTEM.DAT cannot be edited with a text editor because they
aren’t ASCII text files (like AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, or the INI files). To edit
the Windows 95 Registry, you need to use a tool specifically designed for that
purpose: the aptly named Registry Editor (REGEDIT.EXE).

To start the editor, choose Start Run and type REGEDIT. Click OK and the
Registry Editor will open, allowing you to view the Registry. The screen shown
in Figure 13.27 shows a typical Registry. On the left side of this screen you will
see the areas of the Registry. Each area (called a key) contains different types of
settings. Table 13.5 explains these six keys and their functions.
FIGURE 13.27 A typical REGEDIT screen
If you make changes to the Registry, you will have to reboot your computer to
have them take effect. The Registry is loaded into memory at start up.
TABLE 13.5 Registry Keys and Their Functions
Key Description
HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT Contains file extension associations. This tells

Windows when a file with a particular extension
should be opened in a particular application.
Much of the data in this key is duplicated in the
HKEY_LOCAL_ MACHINE key.

TABLE 13.5 Registry Keys and Their Functions (continued)
Key Description
HKEY_CURRENT_USER Contains user profile information for the person

currently logged in to Windows. It contains the
preferences for color settings and Desktop config-
uration. It is a subset of the HKEY_USERS key
(described below).
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE Contains settings and information for the hard-

ware that is installed in the computer. When
troubleshooting hardware issues, you might
make changes to this section.
HKEY_USERS Contains the default user profile and the profile

for the current user (HKEY_CURRENT_USER,
described above).
HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG Contains the current hardware configuration. This

key is a subset of the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE
(described above).
HKEY_DYN_DATA Contains the dynamic settings for any Plug-and-

Play devices in your computer. This setting is kept
in RAM and doesn’t require a reboot when
changes are made to it.
Whenever you need to make changes to the Registry, open REGEDIT. The next
step is to locate the subkey (the folders underneath the keys shown) that contains
the setting you want to change. You can find it two ways. You can browse to it by
clicking the plus sign (+) next to a folder to display the subkeys inside. Keep click-
ing until you find the subkey you’re looking for. This can take a while because
there may be several hundred folders to browse through. The other method is
much more logical. In REGEDIT, select Edit Find (Figure 13.28). Then type in
the string of characters you are looking for and click Find Next. REGEDIT will
search the database until it comes across a string that matches what you typed in.
If it isn’t the entry you are looking for, press F3 to find the next entry that contains
the string.

FIGURE 13.28 Performing a Find in REGEDIT
Thankfully, there aren’t many times you need to go into the Registry to make
changes. Most often, when you use the Windows 9x configuration utilities to
make changes, changes will be made to the Registry as well. Let’s discuss three
of the tools that allow you to make these changes: the Properties menu option,
the Control Panels, and the Device Manager.
If it’s not apparent by now, the Registry is very important for correct Windows
9x operation. That’s why every time Windows 9x successfully loads the Regis-
try, it makes a backup of the two Registry files: USER.DAT and SYSTEM.DAT. These
backup files are called USER.DA0 and SYSTEM.DA0, respectively, and can be used
to restore a good Registry over one that’s broken. In case of a Registry corrup-
tion, boot in Safe Mode Command Line by pressing F8 at system start up and
choosing Safe Mode Command Line. Or boot to a Windows 9x startup disk.
Then change the extension of the Registry files from .dao to .dat and reboot the
computer. The Registry will be current as of the last successful boot.
Managing Hardware in Windows 9x

Configuring your software is just half of the work you have to deal with when
working on Windows 9x. The system’s hardware can also be configured, and
there are a number of tools and options for letting you install, update, and con-
figure your system. We will first look at how you can examine the hardware that
is installed on your machine, and then we’ll examine how to install a new device.

Device Manager
The Device Manager is a graphical view of all the hardware installed in your
computer that Windows 9x has detected. You can open it by right-clicking My
Computer, choosing Properties, then clicking the Device Manager tab. Or you
can open the System Control Panel program (from Start Settings Control
Panel) and choose Device Manager. In either case, you will see a screen similar
to the one in Figure 13.29.
FIGURE 13.29 An example of a Device Manager screen
As you can see, one of the devices (COM 2) is marked with a red X. That is because
the COM 2 port needed to be disabled so that the modem (which is installed to use
COM 2) can use it.
The Device Manager is used to display all the hardware that Windows 9x
“knows about” and to configure the hardware settings of those devices. If you
click the plus sign (+) next to a category of devices, it will “tree out” that category
and allow you to see the devices in the category. If you then click a device and
click Properties, you can view the information about that device. Figure 13.30
shows the result of selecting a network card and clicking Properties. Notice that
there are three tabs: General, Driver, and Resources. Most devices will have these
tabs (although some devices may have only one or two). The General tab (shown
in Figure 13.30) shows general information about the device and status informa-
tion. It also allows you disable the device in the current hardware profile.

FIGURE 13.30 Displaying the properties of a device in the Device Manager
For more information about hardware profiles, refer to either the Windows 95 or
98 Help file or the Windows 95 (or 98) Resource Kit by Microsoft. Don’t worry,
hardware profiles aren’t covered on the exam.
Updating a Device’s Properties or Driver

The next tab is usually the Driver tab (Figure 13.31). This tab allows you to see
the driver name for the device as well as the driver version, if available. You can
see in the figure that no drivers have been loaded for this device, or the drivers
specified for the device are not compatible. If you need to load a driver (or update
a driver), click the Update Driver button. Windows 9x will present you with a list
of drivers to select from or allow you to install your own from floppy disk or CD-
ROM. If you have upgraded to Windows 98 from Windows 95, you may find
that a number of updated Windows 98 drivers are available on vendor Web sites.

FIGURE 13.31 The Driver tab of a device in the Device Manager
To add drivers available on the Web, you usually must download the compressed
driver files and then expand them onto a floppy disk or into a hard drive folder. At
that point, you can run the update, and point to the location you extracted the files
to. My personal favorite is www.windrivers.com.
The rightmost tab is usually Resources. From this tab, you can view and con-
figure the system resources that the device is using (Figure 13.32). Most often, the
check box next to Use Automatic Settings is checked, meaning that Windows 9x
Plug-and-Play has determined the settings for the device and is managing it. How-
ever, if the device is not a Plug-and-Play device and needs to be configured manu-
ally, simply uncheck the Use Automatic Settings check box. You can then select the
setting (for example, the Interrupt Request) and click the Change Setting button to
pick the correct setting from a list. When you configure settings manually, Win-
dows 9x will let you know if the setting you have chosen conflicts with another
device. However, if you are in Safe mode, this feature can’t be used and Windows 9x
will not tell you.

FIGURE 13.32 The Resources tab of a device in the Device Manager
Occasionally, Windows will not automatically detect a device that you have
installed. In such a case, you will have to install the device manually. To learn
about more complex peripheral device installs, refer to Chapter 16.
Windows 9x Management
O nce you have the system configured and running, you may also want
to go in and optimize certain settings. We will be focusing on three areas in
which you can view and modify the Windows system to (potentially!) improve
performance:
Disk management
Resource monitoring
DOS application management
Disk Management
Several configuration settings that previously had to be manually adjusted are
now automatic with Windows 9x. Among the most notable of these settings are

Windows 9x Management 569
the swap file and disk drive caching. There are essentially just three resources
that a computer operating system needs to manage: processor, memory, and disk
drives. Two of these three are managed completely automatically in Windows 9x.
The third, disk drives, affects how both of the others perform, though, and can
be configured in a number of ways.
Virtual Memory
The swap file is used to provide “virtual memory” to the Windows 9x system.
What this means is that the swap file is hard drive space that idle pieces of pro-
grams are placed in, while other active parts of programs are kept in or swapped
into main memory. The programs running within Windows believe that their
information is still in RAM, but Windows has simply moved it into “near-line”
storage on the hard drive. When the application needs the information again, it
is “swapped” back into RAM so that it can be used by the processor. When you
are working in your office and need a document, you may have to walk over to
a file cabinet to get it. You then return to your seat and read the document. When
you have finished and need to go on with another task, you need to put down the
current document. If you don’t need it again in the near future, you should get
up and put it back in the file cabinet. If you will be needing it again, though, you
may just set it on your desk for easier access. As with a document, though, when
you need it again you do still have to pick it back up (unless you can remember
what it said without looking again). Generally, you can think of a computer’s
disk drive as the file cabinet and virtual memory as the desk. Real memory
(RAM) is the computer’s memory. The more RAM you put into the machine, the
more things it is able to remember without looking anything up. The larger the
swap file, the fewer times it has to do intensive drive searches.
The moral of the story: As with most things virtual, a swap file is not nearly as
good as actual RAM, but it is better than nothing!
As shown Figure 13.33, the default behavior for virtual memory is that Win-
dows 9x simply handles it for you. This is a good thing, and unless you have a
particular need to modify the file, you are best served by letting the computer
handle it. If a particular application does require extensive virtual memory, you
can modify it easily, though. To find the Virtual Memory button, choose Start
Settings Control Panel. Double-click the System icon and select the Perfor-
mance tab. The Virtual Memory button is along the bottom of the window.

FIGURE 13.33 The Windows 98 Virtual Memory window
Locate the swap file on a drive with plenty of empty space. As a general rule, try
to keep 20 percent of your drive space free for the overhead of various elements
of the operating system, like the swap file.
Do not set the swap file to an extremely low size. Another general rule would be
that the swap file should be at least as big as the amount of RAM in the machine.
If you make the swap file too small, the system can become unbootable, or at least
unstable.
Disk Caching
Disk caching in Windows 9x is no longer handled by SMARTDRIVE, as it was
in earlier versions of Windows. Instead, Windows 9x uses a 32-bit caching
program called VCACHE, originally introduced with Windows 3.11. This
protected-mode driver runs more efficiently than its real-mode predecessor,
SMARTDRIVE. It uses a more efficient set of rules for predicting the needed
hard drive data. Further, it caches data from the network and from the
CD-ROM; thus it is able to speed up the access to data from these devices.
Disk Conversion
Because many users upgraded their systems to Windows 98 from Windows 3.1
or Windows 95 Rev. A, they did not have the opportunity to choose between
FAT16 and FAT32 because those earlier systems only supported FAT16.
Because of this, you may want to convert their existing drives to the newer, faster

file system using the Drive Converter utility. This utility is located in the Start
Programs Accessories System Tools folder and will convert a partition from
FAT16 to FAT32 without destroying the information that is on it.
Although conversion generally works without a hitch, a power outage or acciden-

tal shutdown during the conversion could be very bad. Make sure to back up all
crucial files before the conversion!
Disk Compression
The disk compression utility that comes with Windows 9x is still called
DriveSpace, but unlike the earlier DriveSpace, it is now a protected-mode driver
with faster performance. Older drives that have been doubled in space by using
DriveSpace or DoubleSpace should be switched to the new protected-mode ver-
sion. DriveSpace is automatically loaded, but not activated, when Windows 9x
is installed.
Microsoft has been improving compression over time. Windows 95 used an awful
system with a .CSV file and a host drive (usually H:) to compress information. Win-
dows 98 does much the same, but uses an advanced utility called DriveSpace3
which allows you to set compression levels and to compress just parts of a drive.
Both the Windows 95 and Windows 98 compression utilities work well enough,
but they are difficult to understand and use and have limits. Only FAT16 drives can
be compressed, and as FAT partitions under 9x can only be 2GB, that means any
partition over 2GB cannot be compressed. Moreover, the FAT system itself is rel-
atively inefficient because of its larger cluster sizes on bigger drives. Often a user
can free up a lot of space on a FAT drive simply by converting it to FAT32. Refer
to the next chapter for more advanced compression options in Windows 2000.
Resource Monitoring
Sometimes you just need to know a bit about what a machine is running, and
what its current configuration settings are, before you start to reconfigure it. To
do this, there are a couple of key utilities that you can gather information
through.
Microsoft System Information

This is a great tool! It gives you a ton of information—everything from the user-
name and swap file information to detailed displays of the exact resource usage
of a particular device. You can’t modify anything using this tool, so there isn’t

much else to say, but it is a great troubleshooting/configuration snooping utility

(see Figure 13.34). The following categories are available for browsing:
Hardware Resources
Components
Software Environment
Applications
FIGURE 13.34 MS System Information Display info
System Monitor
If you are interested in finding out what effect a particular application has on a
Windows 9x system, you can use the System Monitor to plot key system resources
in real time. Each resource you choose to monitor will be given a separate line that
you can watch. In Figure 13.35, for instance, you can see that the Reads/second (in
blue) spiked when a Word document was opened from the hard drive.

FIGURE 13.35 Watching resource usage with System Monitor
The general categories you can monitor include the following:

Disk Cache
File System
Kernel
Memory Manager
Microsoft Network Client
Each of these categories then has specific counters beneath them that allow
you to monitor particular elements. You can even change the polling interval
from the default 5 seconds if you would like more specific results.
For a quick look at system resources, you can also just open up the Resource
Meter (also in the SYSTEM TOOLS folder). It has just three counters—System
resources, User resources, and GDI resources. Also, it shows you what is free,
whereas the System Monitor shows you what is used. The Resource Meter is

FIGURE 13.36 The Resource Meter
The Joy That Is Shareware

If, for some reason, you decide that the tools provided with Windows 9x simply
aren’t right for the exact problem you are having, it’s no one’s fault but your own
if you don’t find a better utility. The unending river of free or inexpensive utilities
available is actually enough to dwarf all but the most active imaginations. If you
need it, head out to www.download.com or www.tucows.com, and it’s probably
there. Rarely are any of us blessed with a truly unique problem, and there are lots
of folks out there producing nifty solutions to your problems.
DOS Optimization
Compatibility with older programs is important because people have a signifi-
cant investment in the money spent on their programs and in their time learning
how to use them. Microsoft built a number of features into Windows 9x that
allow previous users of DOS and Windows 3.x to capitalize on their investment
and that allow technicians access to DOS-based troubleshooting.
According to Microsoft (see, for example, the Microsoft Windows 95 Resource
Kit), memory management for conventional memory while running the Windows
9x operating system is the same as for MS-DOS 6.x. This applies to the manage-
ment of conventional memory only because all other memory management in
Windows 9x is essentially automatic. If 16-bit DOS and 16-bit Windows 3.x pro-
grams are not even going to be used, then these techniques are not necessary.
If you do need to use DOS/Windows 3.1 “real-mode” programs, you have
three options:
The user can initiate a DOS shell from inside of Windows 9x. This Virtual
DOS Machine (VDM) is actually a 32-bit Windows application that emu-
lates a DOS environment.
The user can exit from Windows 9x into DOS mode. To do this, simply
choose Start Shut Down Restart in MS-DOS Mode. Any programs
you are currently running will be shut down and a DOS session will be

Summary 575
opened. The advantage of this is that some DOS applications require

actual control of the computer, and will not work through a VDM.
In some cases, the user can boot the computer straight into DOS. This
requires having a copy of MS-DOS installed on the machine and using a
dual-boot scenario, with Windows 9x installed and DOS coexisting as
a totally different, stand-alone system.
In any of these cases, special configuration tasks can potentially make DOS/3.1
programs function more efficiently. To maximize available memory for real-mode
programs, load the extended memory manager, HIMEM.SYS, and the expanded
memory manager, EMM386, in the CONFIG.SYS file. If possible, remove the real-
mode drivers from the AUTOEXEC.BAT file and utilize the protected-mode drivers
that are built into Windows 9x. You should not load SMARTDRIVE because the
VCACHE disk caching that comes with Windows 9x is superior and does not
detract from conventional memory.
MEMMAKER, which came with DOS 6.2x, is found on the Windows 9x CD
in the directory OTHER\OLDDOS. MEMMAKER may be used to optimize the
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files for conventional memory.
If you want to dual-boot to DOS, you must use the FAT file system and keep your
C: partition below 2GB; FAT32 and partition sizes over 2GB are not supported by
DOS. Don’t worry about this too much, though, because finding a machine that is
still running DOS 6.x or lower is extremely rare. Because Windows 95 (DOS 7) and
98 (DOS32) support DOS applications well enough in most cases and have far
more functionality, “real” 6.x and earlier DOS has largely gone the way of the
Atari 2600 and laserdiscs.
Summary
S o that was Windows 9x in a nutshell. We have looked at the hardware
requirements of Windows 95 and 98, how they are installed, and what is
involved in an upgrade. We have also examined the Windows 9x boot process,
and the files needed to start the system. Past that, we looked at the tools provided
by Microsoft to view and configure Windows 9x and the hardware of the com-
puter it is running on.
Installing Windows 9x starts with creating a startup disk and preparing the
drive using the FDISK and FORMAT commands. At that point, you boot to the
CD (or the network) and run the SETUP.EXE program that starts the Windows
9x install routine. You then work through the interactive Setup Wizard and pro-
vide information as needed.

Upgrading to Windows 98 from Windows 95 is pretty straightforward and

usually involves little more than putting the CD into a CD-ROM drive and run-
ning Setup. You will be presented with a wizard that allows you to keep your
current configuration even as you upgrade to the newer OS and update your file
system to FAT32.
Understanding the boot process is crucial to knowing what is going on if
errors occur during start up, and as such, we looked at the files needed for a Win-
dows 9x machine to start and how system start up occurs, including what some
of those files are and what they do.
Once the machine is up and running, getting it to run better, or to support cer-
tain applications, may require additional configuration. Tools such as the Reg-
istry Editor and Device Manager facilitate this, as do configuration options such
as the Virtual Memory settings.
Last, some older DOS/Windows 3.1 programs require additional support,
such as DOS mode. These applications often use configurations that must be spe-
cifically customized for them.
With this chapter, we have looked at one of the big two Microsoft operating sys-
tems. Next up is Windows 9x’s younger—and stronger—brother, Windows 2000.
Key Terms
Active Directory extended partition

allocation unit File Allocation Table (FAT)
cluster key
Device Manager logical partitions
disk operating system (DOS) primary partition
DOS shell Safe mode
driver upper memory blocks (UMBs)

Review Questions
1. Which of the following is not a requirement of installing Windows 95?
A. 386DX or higher processor
B. 2MB of memory
C. 50–55MB free hard disk space
D. One 31⁄2-inch disk drive
E. CD-ROM
F. VGA video card or better
G. Mouse and keyboard
2. Which of the following is not a requirement to install Windows 98?

A. 386 or higher processor; Pentium recommended
B. 8MB of memory; 16 to 32MB recommended
C. 120MB free hard disk space
D. One 31⁄2-inch disk drive
E. CD-ROM
F. VGA or better video card
G. Mouse and keyboard is required
3. A real-mode driver is one that ___________________ .

A. Directly accesses hardware
B. Indirectly accesses hardware
C. Is software configurable
D. Is a 32-bit Windows driver
4. What is the first step when installing Windows 9x onto a system that doesn’t
already have a functioning operating system?
A. Formatting
B. Partitioning
C. Redirecting
D. Installing the operating system
5. The DOS command that partitions the hard drive is called what?
A. FORMAT.EXE
B. XCOPY.EXE
C. FDISK.EXE
D. FDISK.COM

6. When a drive is partitioned, what is the first partition that is created called?
A. Secondary partition
B. Extended partition
C. Expanded partition
D. Primary partition
7. How many primary and extended partitions can be created using the
Windows 95 FDISK utility?
A. Two
B. Three
C. One
D. Four
8. Which option on the FDISK utility allows you to select the hard drive and
appears only when there is more than one physical hard drive?
A. First option
B. Second option
C. Third option
D. Fifth option
9. Which of the following is not performed by formatting the hard drive?

A. Formatting scans the surface of the hard drive platter to find bad spots and
marks the areas surrounding a bad spot as bad sectors.
B. High-level formatting lays down magnetic tracks in concentric circles.
C. The tracks are split into pieces of 512 bytes called sectors.
D. Low-level formatting creates a file allocation table that contains informa-
tion about the location of files.
10. A drive between 16MB and 128MB will have how many sectors per cluster?
A. One
B. Four
C. Three
D. Five
11. Drives up to 1,024MB will have how many sectors per cluster?
A. 24
B. 36
C. 32
D. 45

12. When you use a Windows 98 boot disk when the machine first starts up, what
is the first option?
A. Boot with CD-ROM support or without it.
B. Boot from a floppy disk.
C. Boot from the hard drive.
D. Format the hard drive.
13. What is the disadvantage of FAT32?

A. It supports drives up to 2 terabytes.
B. It’s not compatible with older versions of DOS or with Windows 3.x and
Windows 95 operating systems.
C. It is compatible with all versions of DOS and other operating systems.
D. You don’t have to create multiple partitions.
14. The program that performs the Windows 9x installation is called _________ .
A. INSTALL.BAT
B. SETUP.DAT
C. SETUP.EXE
D. INSTALL.DAT
15. Which switch tells Windows 95’s Setup program to ignore settings from your
current copy of Windows?
A. /is
B. /it
C. /id
D. /d
16. Which switch causes Setup to run without a mouse?

A. /n
B. /l
C. /p
D. iq
17. The Setup Wizard will ask questions about how many main categories?
A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four

18. Which of the following is not a category Setup asks questions about?
A. Gathering information
B. Networking information
C. Copying files to your computer
D. Finishing the installation
19. How many different types of setups are there?

A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four
20. Which setup type allows Setup to choose the most popular options?
A. Typical
B. Portable
C. Compact
D. Custom


1. B. Windows 95 requires 4MB memory (and recommends 8MB).
2. A. To install Windows 98, you must have a 386DX or higher processor;

Pentium is recommended.
3. A. A real-mode driver is one that directly accesses hardware, as was the

standard in DOS. 32-bit Windows drivers work through the Windows
system to access hardware, allowing Windows to optimize and control hard-
ware access.
4. B. New disk drives or PCs with no operating system need to have two critical
functions performed on them before they are able to be used: partitioning and
formatting. These two functions are performed by using two commands,
FDISK.EXE and FORMAT.EXE, which can be copied to a bootable floppy.
5. C. FDISK is usually performed on a computer that has no operating system or

has a new hard drive. FDISK creates a start and an end to a section of hard drive
space. At the beginning of that space, it creates a special file called the Master
Boot Record, or MBR. The MBR contains the partition information about the
beginning and end of the primary and extended partitions.
6. D. When a drive is partitioned, the first partition that is created is called the
primary partition. The primary partition must be named drive C:, must con-
tain the system files, and must be marked active for the system to boot up.
7. C. Only one primary and one extended partition can be created in Windows 95
using FDISK. You can have one of each; however, the extended partition can be
subdivided so you can have 23 logical drives.
8. D. The fifth option on the FDISK utility allows you to select the hard drive and
appears only when there is more than one physical hard drive. The fifth option
is Select Hard Drive.
9. D. The file allocation table is created by high-level formatting, not low-level

formatting.
10. B. A drive between 16MB and 128MB will have four sectors per cluster. Sec-
tors on a hard drive clumped together are called clusters or allocation units. As
the drive or drive partition increases in size, the number of sectors per cluster
increases.
11. C. Drives up to 1,024MB will have 32 sectors per cluster. As the drive or drive
partition increases in size, the number of sectors per cluster increases: 16MB
to 128MB have 4 clusters, 129MB to 256MB have 8 clusters, 256MB to
512MB have 16 clusters, 512MB to 1,024MB have 32 clusters.

12. A. When you use a Windows 98 boot disk when the machine first starts up,
the first option is whether to boot with CD-ROM support or without it. The
default is to boot with CD-ROM support.
13. B. The disadvantage of FAT32 is that it’s not compatible with older versions of
DOS or with Windows 3.x and early Windows 95 operating systems.
14. C. The program that performs the Windows 9x installation is called

SETUP.EXE. You cannot boot from the CD-ROM to install Windows 9x.
15. D. The /d switch in Windows 95 ignores the setup of your existing copy of Win-
dows. The /id switch tells Setup to skip the disk space check, /it tells it to skip
the check for Terminate and Stay Resident programs (TSR) that are known to
cause problems with Windows 95 Setup, and /is skips the routine system
check.
16. A. The /n switch causes Setup to run without a mouse. Use /l if you have a
Logitech mouse and want it enabled during setup. The /p switch tells Setup to
skip the check for any Plug-and-Play devices, and /iq tells Setup to skip the
test for cross-linked devices.
17. C. The Setup Wizard will ask questions about three main categories. The three
main categories are gathering information, copying files to your computer,
and finishing the installation.
18. B. Setup does not ask questions about networking.
19. D . Windows 95 has four different types of setups: Typical, Portable,

Compact, and Custom.
20. A. The Typical option allows Setup to choose the most popular options.

Chapter Installing and Using
Windows 2000
14 Professional

THIS CHAPTER:
1.1 Identify the operating system’s functions, structure, and major
system files to navigate the operating system and how to get to
needed technical information.
Major operating system functions
Create folders
Checking OS version
Major operating system components
Explorer
My Computer
Control Panel
Contrasts between Windows 9x and Windows 2000
Major system files: what they are, where they are located,
how they are used, and what they contain:
System, configuration, and user interface files
IO.SYS
BOOT.INI
WIN.COM
MSDOS.SYS
AUTOEXEC.BAT
CONFIG.SYS
COMMAND LINE PROMPT
Memory management
Conventional
Extended/upper memory
High memory

Virtual memory
HIMEM.SYS
EMM386.exe
Windows 9x
IO.SYS
WIN.INI
USER.DAT
SYSEDIT
SYSTEM.INI
MSCONFIG (98)
COMMAND.COM
REGEDIT.EXE
SYSTEM.DAT
RUN COMMAND
COMMAND LINE PROMPT
Windows 2000
Computer Management
BOOT.INI
REGEDT32
REGEDIT
RUN CMD
NTLDR
NTDETECT.COM
NTBOOTDD.SYS
Command Prompt Procedures (Command syntax)
DIR
ATTRIB
VER
MEM
SCANDISK
DEFRAG
EDIT
XCOPY
COPY
SETVER
SCANREG

1.2 Identify basic concepts and procedures for creating,
viewing, and managing files, directories, and disks. This
includes procedures for changing file attributes and the
ramifications of those changes (for example, security issues).
File attributes—Read Only, Hidden, System, and Archive
attributes
File naming conventions (most common extensions)
Windows 2000 COMPRESS, ENCRYPT
IDE/SCSI
Internal/External
Backup/Restore
Partitioning/Formatting/File System
FAT
FAT16
FAT32
NTFS4
NTFS5
HPFS
Windows-based utilities
ScanDisk
Device Manager
System Manager
Computer Manager
MSCONFIG.EXE
REGEDIT.EXE (View information/backup Registry)
REGEDT32.EXE
ATTRIB.EXE
EXTRACT.EXE
DEFRAG.EXE
EDIT.COM
FDISK.EXE
SYSEDIT.EXE
SCANREG
WSCRIPT.EXE
HWINFO.EXE
ASD.EXE (Automatic Skip Driver)
Cvt1.EXE (Drive Converter FAT16 to FAT32)

2.1 Identify the procedures for installing Windows 9x and
Windows 2000 for bringing the software to a basic
operational level.
Start Up
Partition
Format drive
Loading drivers
Run appropriate set up utility
2.2 Identify steps to perform an operating system upgrade
Upgrading Windows 95 to Windows 98
Upgrading Windows NT Workstation 4.0 to Windows
2000
Upgrading Windows 9x with Windows 2000
Dual boot Windows 9x/Windows NT 4.0/2000
2.3 Identify the basic system boot sequences and boot
methods, including the steps to create an emergency boot
disk with utilities installed for Windows 9x, Windows NT,
and Windows 2000.
Startup disk
Safe Mode
MS-DOS mode
application device drivers and the necessary software for
certain devices.
Identify the procedures for installing and launching
typical Windows and non-Windows applications (Note:
there is no content related to Windows 3.1)
subsystem.

W hile most users will find that Windows 98 is sufficient for
their needs, Microsoft does have a more powerful desktop operating system
option, which we will look at over the course of this chapter. This advanced OS
is called Windows 2000 Professional, and it is designed as the preferred OS for
corporate users or home power users. The rationalization for the extra expense
of Windows 2000 Pro is that it provides the following enhancements to the Win-
dows platform:
Advanced security
Support for more hardware
Greater application stability
For complete coverage of objective 1.1, please also see Chapter 12. For complete
coverage of objective 2.1, please also see Chapters 13 and 16. For complete cov-
erage of objective 2.2, please also see Chapter 13. For complete coverage of objec-
tive 2.3, please also see Chapters 13 and 17. For complete coverage of objective
2.4, please also see Chapters 13, 15 and 16.
For coverage of the Memory management subobjectives of objective 1.1, please

refer back to Part I, Chapter 3.
Over the course of this chapter we will look at these enhancements, along
with examining the basic steps needed to install and configure Windows 2000
Professional. In the process, we will also look at a number of the critical files used
to start and run Windows 2000.

588 Chapter 14 Installing and Using Windows 2000 Professional
Although the A+ objectives talk almost exclusively about Windows 9x and Win-
dows 2000, you may see exam questions on Windows NT as well. Because NT and
2000 are very similar in their architecture and key files, you should be able to
answer most NT questions by simply providing the answer that would be appro-
priate in Windows 2000. This is not always the case, however. To cover all your
bases (for the exam and in the real world), you may want to read up on Windows
NT a bit more before the test.
Installing Windows 2000

W indows 9x and Windows 2000 may look a lot alike when they are run-
ning, but one of the most important concepts you will have to deal with in
becoming a computer technician is that no two operating systems are completely
alike. As such, the installation process we used for Windows 9x is completely dif-
ferent than the installation process for Windows 2000. We will begin this chapter
by looking into the 2000 installation process and, in doing so, cover the following
topics:
Installation requirements
Accessing the Setup files
Running the Setup program
Partitioning
Formatting
Customizing Setup
Installation Prerequisites
As with last chapter, we will start off by looking at what you will need to con-
sider before installing or upgrading to Windows 2000. Because of the fact that
it is a “power workstation,” the hardware requirements for Windows 2000 are
higher than that of Windows 9x, and it also is less forgiving of older, less efficient
software.
Hardware Requirements
The hardware requirements to install Windows 2000 Professional are actually
rather low—a Pentium 133 and 32MB of RAM. Almost any machine that is still
being used in a corporate environment will meet these basic requirements. More

Installing Windows 2000 589
than any other OS we have looked at, though, more is better for Windows 2K,
and as such your clients will be far happier with their system performance if you
ensure that they have PII-class machines with 64MB–128MB of RAM.
The “recommended” levels are simply a guideline from Microsoft. Remember the
hardware levels in the first column of Table 14.1 are the ones you need for the test!
TABLE 14.1 Windows 2000 Hardware Prerequisites
Hardware Required Recommended
Processor Pentium 133 Pentium II or higher
Memory 64MB 128MB or higher
Free hard 2GB 2GB plus what is needed for your

disk space applications and storage
Floppy disk Required only if installing Yes

from the boot disks
CD-ROM Required only if installing Yes

from CD
Video VGA SVGA
Mouse Yes Yes
Keyboard Yes Yes
Once you have found hardware that you feel is going to run Professional
acceptably, your next step is to determine whether this hardware is compatible
with the OS. There are a number of ways to do this, but probably the most
dependable is to go to www.microsoft.com/windows2000 to download a copy
of the most recent Hardware Compatibility List (HCL). This list will tell you
which hardware has been tested with Windows 2000 and should run properly.
If your hardware is not on the HCL, contact your vendor for compatibility infor-
mation and updated Windows 2000 drivers. Many Windows NT drivers will
work with 2000, while Windows 95 or 98 drivers will NOT work!

Most hardware on the HCL also has drivers that ship with Windows 2000, so the
hardware should be installed and configured automatically with the new drivers
by plug-and-play during setup. If your hardware is extremely new or if your ven-
dor did not submit the hardware to Microsoft for testing, you may find that you
need to supply your own drivers.
Accessing the Setup Files

Unlike Windows 9x Setup, which must run from a functioning operating sys-
tem (an earlier version of DOS or Windows or a boot disk), Windows 2000 will
generally be a breeze to install on a machine. To start the install process, simply
place the Windows 2000 Professional CD into the CD-ROM drive and restart
the computer. After the POST routine for the computer has completed, a mes-
sage will appear that says, “Press any key to boot from CD…” Hit a key, any
key, and the Windows 2000 Setup program will start.
That is a “perfect world” situation, and sometimes reality intrudes. If the mes-
sage discussed above does not appear, that generally means that your PC is not
configured to boot from CD-ROM or does not have that capability. In such a
case, you will need to do one of two things:
1. Go into the BIOS to set the machine to boot to its CD drive. Consult your
computer’s user guide for more information on examining and making
changes to the BIOS.
2. Create and use Windows 2000 boot disks to start the setup.
The Windows 2000 Boot Disks

Although most modern machines support booting from CD-ROM, you may
occasionally need to use a boot disk to start Setup. This disk can either be a Win-
dows Boot Disk with CD-ROM support or the startup disk set that can be made
from the Windows 2000 CD. To create the 2000 boot disks, you will need access
to the Windows 2000 CD and a computer with a CD-ROM drive. There is a
directory on the CD called BOOTDISK. In this directory is an executable file
called MAKEBOOT, which is used to make Windows 2000 startup disks from
any version of DOS or Windows.
The above information should be only informational, as starting Setup from boot
disks is slow and requires changing disks. If you need to use a boot disk, use a
Windows 98 startup disk with the CD-ROM support option, and then run SETUP
from the root of the CD or WINNT from the i386 directory.

Starting a Windows 2000 Installation

The startup options listed above all eventually lead you to the same point: exe-
cuting the setup routine for Windows 2000 Professional. Professional has two
different executables used to start Setup, depending on the OS you are using to
start the install. These executables are WINNT (used from DOS or Windows 9x)
and WINNT32 (used from Windows NT or 2000). These commands have var-
ious options associated with them, as shown in Tables 14.2 and 14.3.
TABLE 14.2 Common WINNT.EXE Options
Option Function
/s:sourcepath Allows you to specify the location of the Windows 2000

source files.
/t:tempdrive Allows you to specify the drive the setup uses to store
temporary installation files.
/u:answer Used in an unattended installation to provide responses to

file questions the user would normally be prompted for.
/udf:id If you are installing numerous machines, each must have a

[,UDB_file] unique computer name. This setting lets you specify a file
with unique values for these settings.
/e:command Allows you to add a command (such as a batch script) to

execute at the end of Setup.
/a Tells Setup to enable accessibility options.
TABLE 14.3 Common WINNT32.EXE Options
Option Function
/s:sourcepath Allows you to specify the location of the Windows 2000

source files.
/tempdrive: Allows you to specify the drive Setup uses to store

drive_letter temporary installation files.
/unattend Used to run install without user intervention.
/unattend[num]: Allows you to specify custom settings for machines

[answer_file] during an unattended installation.

TABLE 14.3 Common WINNT32.EXE Options (continued)
Option Function
/cmd: Executes a command (such as a batch file at the end of

command_line Setup).
/debug[level]: Used to troubleshoot problems during an upgrade.

[filename]
/udf:id Allows certain values that need to be unique to be set

[,UDB_file] separately for each machine installed.
/checkupgradeonly Performs all the steps of an upgrade, but only as a test.

The results are saved to an upgrade.txt file that can be
examined for potential problems.
/makelocalsource Specifies that the i386 installation directory from the CD

should be copied to the hard drive, allowing for easier
updates later.
If you simply start the install from CD-ROM or create the Windows 2000
boot disks, WINNT.EXE will start the install by loading a number of files, and
then present you with a screen that says, “Welcome to Setup.”
If you use a Windows 98 boot disk, change to the i386 directory and run WINNT
from that directory.
Partitioning the Drive

To start Setup, click Enter at the welcome screen, and you will be shown a list of
the partitions currently configured on the machine. If one of these is acceptable,
simply select that partition, then click Enter. If you wish to create a new parti-
tion, you can do so using the Setup program itself, which replaces FDISK as a
way to set up the system’s hard drive(s).
To delete an existing partition, highlight the partition and press D. You will
be asked to confirm your choice and will be reminded that all information on the
partition will be lost. If the disk is new or if the old information is no longer
needed, this is fine.
If you are not sure what is on the drive, find out before you repartition it!

To create a new partition, highlight some free space, and click C. You will be
asked how big you want the partition to be. Remember that Windows 2000 Pro-
fessional wants you to have about 2GB as a minimum, but can be as large as the
entire drive.
Formatting
Once you have created or decided on a partition to use, you will be asked to for-
mat that partition. In doing so, you will need to choose between the NTFS file
system and the FAT file system. FAT is the file system of DOS, and its advantages
include the following:
Compatible with DOS and Windows 9x dual-boot configurations
Excellent speed on small drives
Accessible and modifiable with many standard DOS disk utilities
The NTFS file system, as one might expect, comes from Windows NT and is
a more sophisticated file system that has a number of enhancements that set it
apart from FAT:
Supports larger partition sizes than FAT
Allows for file-level security to protect system resources
Supports compression, encryption, disk quotas, and file ownership
In most cases, you will find that it will be better to go with the newer and more
advanced NTFS system.
When you choose one of the format options, the machine will go out and format
the installation partition. This generally takes a few minutes, even on a fast PC.
Advanced Attributes
NTFS gives you a number of options that are not available on FAT or FAT32
drives. A number of these are implemented through the use of the Advanced
Attributes window, shown in Figure 14.1. To reach these options, simply right-
click the folder or file you wish to modify and select Properties from the menu.
On the main properties page of the folder or file, click the Advanced button in
the lower right corner.

FIGURE 14.1 The Advanced Options window
On the Advanced Attributes screen you will have access to the following settings:
Archiving Identical to the Archive attribute on a FAT or FAT32 drive. This
tells the system whether the file has changed since the last time it was backed
up. Technically it is known as the “Archive Needed” attribute; if this box is
selected, the file should be backed up. If it is not selected, a current version of
the file is already backed up.
Indexing Windows 2000 implements an Index Service to catalog and
improve the search capabilities of your drive. Once files are indexed you can
search them more quickly by name, date, or other attributes. Setting the index
option on a folder will cause a prompt to appear, asking whether you want
the existing files in the folder to be indexed as well. If you choose to do this,
Windows 2000 will automatically reset this attribute on subfolders and files.
If not, only new files created in the directory will be indexed.
Compression Windows 2000 supports advanced compression options first
introduced in Windows NT. NTFS files and folders can be dynamically com-
pressed and uncompressed, often saving a great deal of space on the drive. As
with Indexing, turning on Compression for a folder will result in your being
prompted as to whether you want the existing files in the folder to be com-
pressed. If you choose to do this, Windows 2000 will automatically compress
the subfolders and files. If not, only new files created in the directory will be
compressed.

Compression works best on files such as word processing documents and uncom-
pressed images. Word files or MS Paint bitmaps can be compressed to up to 80
percent using compression. Files that are already packed well do not compress as
effectively; EXE and Zip files generally compress only about 2 percent. Similarly
GIF and JPG images are already compressed (which is why they are used in Inter-
net Web pages), so they compress little or not at all.
Encryption This last advanced attribute is totally new to Windows 2000.

Encryption allows a user to secure their files against anyone else being able to
view them by actually encoding the files with a key that only the user has
access to. This can be useful for those who are worried about extremely sen-
sitive information, but in general, encryption is not necessary on the network.
NTFS local file security is usually enough to provide users access to what they
need and prevent others from getting to what they shouldn’t. If users do want
to encrypt a file, they simply go through the same process as they would in
indexing or compressing.
If a user forgets their password or is unable to access the network to authenticate

their account, they will not be able to open encrypted files. If the user’s account is
lost or deleted, the only other user who is able to decrypt the file is the Adminis-
trator account.
Yet another file type—HPFS—is mentioned in the exam objectives. HPFS is the
advanced file system for OS/2, and, due to Microsoft’s desire to replace OS/2 in the
market, they added support for HPFS into Windows NT. Windows 2000 no longer
supports HPFS, though.
Installing Windows 2000

After the installation partition is formatted, the system checks the new partition
for errors, and then begins to copy files.
While the files are being copied, a progress indicator will display on the
screen showing you how far along the process is. Windows will install files into
temporary installation folders on the drive and will ask you to reboot once
the copy is complete. If you do not reboot within 15 seconds of the end of the
file copy, the system will automatically reboot for you.

If Setup detects any problems during the partition check, it will attempt to fix the
problem and will immediately ask you to reboot. At that point the install will need
to start over. If problems are found, this can often be an indicator that there are
problems with the hard drive, and you may want to run a full scandisk before
returning to the install.
The Graphical Phase of Setup

When Windows 2000 Professional reboots, it will automatically bring you into
a graphical setup, which resembles a massive Windows wizard (as shown in
Figure 14.2). This is generally referred to as the “graphical phase” of Win-
dows 2000 Setup. This is due to the contrast between this phase and the earlier
blue-background and text “non-graphical” phase where we configured parti-
tions and copied temporary files.
FIGURE 14.2 The Windows 2000 Setup Wizard
During this phase Windows will attempt to identify and configure the hard-
ware in the computer, which may take a few minutes. One of the more unsettling
parts of Setup occurs during this time, as the screen flickers—and often goes
completely black—while monitor detection occurs.
Windows 2000 comes packaged with an impressive array of drivers and is able to
identify and load most modern hardware. Still, not all devices have compatible
drivers on the Windows 2K CD-ROM, so if your hardware is not detected during
startup, you can install additional device drivers after Setup completes, as shown
later in the chapter.

After hardware detection is completed, the ever-polite Windows 2000 Setup

Wizard welcomes you once again. To move through the wizard, simply click on
the Next and Back buttons along the bottom of the window. The screens of the
setup process are as follows:
Regional Settings The first screen rarely needs to be modified if you are con-
figuring the machine for use in the U.S., but users in other countries will find
that this is where they can change keyboard and language settings.
Personalize Your Software This is used to enter the name (required) and
organization (optional) of the person to whom the software is registered. Both
fields are just text boxes. Enter any values that apply.
Computer Name and Administrator Password The computer name is the
name by which a machine will be known if it participates on a network. This
name is generally 15 characters or less. The administrator password is used to
protect access to the powerful Administrator account. Unlike Windows 9x,
where usernames and password security is optional, all users must log on with
a username and password to use a Windows 2000 Professional desktop.
Modem Dialing Information If a modem has been detected, you will be
asked for country, area code, and dialing preference information. If you do
not have a modem, this screen will be skipped.
Date and Time Settings The Date and Time dialog box also has time zone
and daylight savings time information. Any data on this screen can easily be
changed later as well.
Networking Settings/Installing Components After the date and time, you
will be waiting for a minute or two as Windows 2K installs any networking
components that it has found and prepares to walk you through the config-
uration of the network. As you are waiting, you will see which components
are being installed in the Status area.
Performing Final Tasks Once you have made it through the component
install, the setup process is in the home stretch. The Final Tasks page reports
on the setup’s progress while it does the following:
Installs Start menu items This is where shortcuts are created to the
applications and options installed during the setup.
Registers components The Registry is updated with setup information.
Saves settings Configuration information is saved to disk, and other
defaults and user selections are applied (such as area code, time zone, etc.).
Removes any temporary files used The temporary files saved to the
hard drive at the start of Setup and used to install Windows are removed
to free drive space.

This last screen can take quite a long time to complete, and in general the install
of Windows 2000 takes about twice as long as an install of Windows 9x.
Eventually, the wizard will complete, and you will be asked to reboot by click-
ing the Finish button. When the system restarts, Windows 2000 Professional
Setup will be complete, and the standard 2000 boot process will initiate.
Upgrading to Windows 2000

I f the machine that you want to install Windows 2000 on already has Win-
dows 9x or Windows NT up and running, you may want to upgrade to the
advanced security and performance of Windows 2000 without losing your
installed programs or system configuration. Windows 2000 allows for this by
providing a very sophisticated upgrade mechanism that can check your hard-
ware and software, and then update an existing Windows 9x install while pre-
serving the look, feel, and functionality of your current environment.
Windows 2000 can not upgrade Windows 3.1 or DOS systems to 2000 Profes-
sional. Most machines running 3.1 or DOS probably will be running older hard-
ware, but if you do want to upgrade such a system, you will need to perform a new
full install rather than an upgrade. All programs or drivers that were installed on
DOS or Windows 3.x will then need to be reinstalled under 2000.
Starting Setup
Compared to the work involved in setting up a new Windows 2000 install, run-
ning the 2000 upgrade is almost completely effortless. The basic requirements
are the same for an upgrade as they are for a new install, and again you will have
the option of either doing a CD-based install or a network-based install.
Generally, the simplest option is to place the Windows 2000 Professional
disk into the CD-ROM drive of the machine to be upgraded. A window (see
Figure 14.3) should automatically appear asking if you want to upgrade to
Windows 2000.

Upgrading to Windows 2000 599
FIGURE 14.3 The Windows 2000 Upgrade Autorun screen
When a compact disc is inserted into a drive, it often automatically starts a pro-
gram, such as an install routine. This is done through the Autorun option.
Upgrading to Windows 2000 Professional from Windows 9x and Windows NT

Workstation is essentially the same process. Just pop the disk in and go. One of
the big advantages of the Windows NT upgrade is that because it is a very similar
OS to Windows 2000, you should have fewer compatibility issues. Also, Windows
NT drivers can be used in Windows 2000, where Windows 9x drivers cannot,
meaning more hardware may be automatically detected and installed.
If you click Yes to accept the offered upgrade, the Windows 2000 Setup Wiz-
ard will begin. This wizard will perform a number of pre-upgrade tasks and will
then start the upgrade itself. The screens you may see during the Upgrade Wizard
include the following:
Welcome to the Windows 2000 Setup Wizard The first choice of the wiz-
ard is also probably the most important. The screen (shown in Figure 14.4) is
where you decide whether to perform an upgrade to your existing system or
to simply install a fresh copy of Windows 2000 onto the drive. Both of these
have their advantages.
Upgrade to Windows 2000 (Recommended) The upgrade allows you
to keep your existing programs, but it also retains any existing problems.
Because of this, any system configuration glitches or files that are no
longer used will continue to plague you in the new install, just like they
had in Windows 9x.

Install a new copy of Windows 2000 (Clean Install) A clean install has
two major advantages. First, it allows you to start fresh without the bag-
gage of your Windows 9x Setup. Second, it allows you to “dual boot”
back to your original Windows 9x OS. The disadvantage, of course, is
that you will have to re-install all of your programs in this scenario.
FIGURE 14.4 The Upgrade or Install Option
Windows 2000 and Windows 9x can’t exist on the same partition in a dual-boot sce-
nario, since certain drive locations (such as the location of Internet Explorer) are
hard-wired to the same directory for both. To install a new copy of Windows 2000
and dual-boot to Windows 9x, you need to have a second partition on your disk or
a second disk. Windows 9x should be installed on the C partition first, and then Win-
dows 2000 can be installed afterwards on the D partition. The installation of Win-
dows 9x after Windows 2000 is not supported as a dual-boot scenario.
If you choose to upgrade, you will continue through the wizard. If you choose
to install a new copy of the OS, you will be immediately funneled into the process
described in the “Installing Windows 2000” section.
In most cases, I use upgrades as an opportunity to clean up a system. In order to

do this I generally back up any needed data and then simply reformat the
machine’s drives and start over from ground zero. It takes a bit more time, but it
is often worth it. Before doing this, though, make sure you still have installation
disks for all of the applications and other software you will need to reinstall.

License Agreement and Product Key Assuming you have continued the
upgrade, you’re required to complete the next two screens, License Agreement
and Product Key. They allow you to accept the Microsoft licensing terms and
ask you for a Windows 2000 product key. As with the regular install, this key
is an obscene 25 characters in length and can usually be found on the case of
the CD.
Preparing to Upgrade to Windows 2000 With the bookkeeping out of the
way, you can now get down to the business of the upgrade itself. Before you
start copying files, the Upgrade Wizard will examine your existing configu-
ration to see whether there are any problems that will make upgrading dif-
ficult. Figure 14.5 illustrates this. The Upgrade Wizard provides a link to
Microsoft’s Windows Compatibility Web site for product updates and com-
patibility information.
FIGURE 14.5 Preparing to Upgrade to Windows 2000
During the upgrade, Setup will try to contact Microsoft’s site for information and
updates, including the upgrade packs it’s looking for on the next page of the wiz-
ard. If you do not have a connection to the Web as you are upgrading, you will be
asked to connect, but you can choose to continue to work offline. If you do work
offline, any updates must be applied manually later. If you have an Internet con-
nection, it is recommended to go out to the Web site and look for updates.
Provide Upgrade Packs If you do work offline, one of the things you may
need to provide are application upgrade packs. Most 32-bit applications will
continue to function without any problems. If you have any 16-bit DOS or
Windows 3.x applications, though, they may not work. Also, any new or odd
hardware may not be upgraded properly, as we will see in the next section. If

you have been out to the Microsoft upgrade site of a vendor site and have
obtained updated files for 2000, you may add them now by choosing the Yes,
I Have Upgrade Packs option. If not, simply select the No, I Don’t Have Any
Upgrade Packs option. In such a case you can still apply upgrades later if
applications do not function after the upgrade.
Upgrading to the Windows 2000 NTFS File System Another upgrade
option you will be given is to upgrade your drive’s file system to Win-
dows 2000’s advanced NTFS. The upgrade to NTFS enables increased file
security, disk quotas, and disk compression. NTFS also makes better use of
large drives by using a more advanced method of saving and retrieving data.
To enable NTFS and sever all ties to Windows 9x, select the Yes, Upgrade My
Drive option. To retain your links to the past and allow for dual-boot scenar-
ios, select the No, Do Not Upgrade My Drive option.
While upgrading to NTFS has a number of advantages, the file system is only under-
stood by Windows NT and Windows 2000. If you want to reinstall Windows 9x on
the drive, you will have to completely reformat.
Preparing an Upgrade Report Once you have made your choices, Setup will
finally go through and examine your system for compatibility issues. This
involves checking all hardware and software that is currently installed can be
found, and it also involves creating a detailed upgrade report. Once it is fin-
ished you will be allowed to do two things: provide updated files for any
incompatible hardware and view a report of what the compatibility check has
found.
Provide Updated Plug-and-Play Files In upgrading any system there is a
chance that incompatible hardware may be found. In upgrading certain sys-
tems, such as older machines or laptops, the chances are even greater. IBM’s
ThinkPad series, for example, has hardware support for DVD playback avail-
able through an MPEG-2 Decoder Card. This is an optional piece of hard-
ware which is specifically built by IBM for IBM, and as such it is not common
enough to be recognized by the setup process. In order for this device to work,
updated files must be obtained from IBM.
If you don’t have updated files at present for any unsupported hardware, you
can still continue with the install but will have to update the files before the
hardware will function under Windows 2000. If the functioning of the hard-
ware is essential to the operation of the system (network card, video card, etc.)
you may want to stop the install and get the new drivers before continuing. For
non-essential hardware such as a DVD decoder, you can continue and simply
fix the problem later, but it is a good idea to at least verify that the hardware is
compatible with Windows 2000, just so you won’t be surprised later.

As noted earlier, you cannot use the same Windows 9x or Windows NT drivers
that are currently installed.
Upgrade Report Once you have added any plug-and-play drivers, the Setup
Wizard will provide you with a detailed report (see Figure 14.6) of what it
thinks may cause you “issues” as you upgrade. The following topics are
included:
Hardware Any devices that cannot be confirmed as compatible with
Windows 2K will be listed here.
FIGURE 14.6 The completed upgrade report
Software Programs that do not work with Windows 2K are listed here. The
ThinkPad upgrade, for instance, found that not only was the DVD decoder
not supported, but the installed DVD player also will not work. In these cases
you are directed to uninstall the program before the upgrade, because it will
not function and may not uninstall properly after the upgrade.
This particular IBM DVD player should be expected to fail, as it was designed to
link directly to the IBM DVD decoder card. Such direct access of hardware is
explicitly restricted in Windows NT and 2000, and as such this software will be
prevented from executing without an acceptable Windows 2000 driver.
Program Notes Besides incompatibilities, some programs simply need to be

reconfigured to work with Windows 2000. The Program Notes area details

some of these known issues, such as how Microsoft Outlook 2000 works with
Windows 2000 but must be reinstalled after the upgrade.
General Information This section details information best described as
“other.” Some of the upgrade issues that came up during a recent upgrade
included notes on issues concerning hardware profiles, backup files, and the
recycle bin.
If you wish to save the upgrade report information for later use, you have two
options: print it or save it to a file. If you feel that the machine has major com-
patibility issues, you should probably save or print the report, and visit the
www.microsoft.com/windows2000/compatible and www.hardwareupdate.com
for information or updates.
Once you have checked out the upgrade report, you have to choose whether
to proceed with the upgrade immediately or to exit from the upgrade in order to
regroup and obtain needed updates. If you are ready to proceed, click Next to
continue with the install. If you would rather wait, click Cancel, and the upgrade
will end without affecting your existing Windows 9x or NT install.
Ready to Install Windows 2000 If you have made it this far, the tough part
is now over. As the wizard states, “This process is completely automatic, and
you will not have to answer any additional questions.”
All you need to do is click the Next button and head off to get some coffee,
or preferably some lunch. About one hour and three restarts later you should
find that the process has completed, and a Windows 2000 logon screen should
be waiting for you when you return.
After the first reboot the existing Windows install will be deleted, and Windows 2000
files will be copied to the drive. After that a second graphical setup will start, and
your settings from Windows 9x or NT will be automatically reapplied.
Logging On to Windows 2000

A s shown in Figure 14.7, users are presented with a number of options
when they start Windows 2000. The user logon system comes up immediately at
the end of the Windows 2000 startup process, and the system requires, at the
very least, a username and password, but it allows for other choices. This is due
to the fact that its security structure requires that every user on a Windows 2000
Professional system have a unique name and password to identify them and their
configuration.

Logging On to Windows 2000 605
FIGURE 14.7 The Windows 2000 Logon screen
The options available on this screen include the following:

Username The username is the name that defines a particular individual on
the computer. Each user has their own desktop and personal settings and can
be given or restricted from particular files or tasks. This field displays your let-
ters as you type them and is not case sensitive.
Password A password is a personal identifier that is used to verify that the
user is who they say they are. Without a verified username and password set, a
user cannot log onto a Windows 2000 Professional workstation. The password
field displays only asterisk (*) characters as you type, and the field is case
sensitive.
From This allows the user to set the security context from which they will
be authenticated. Windows 2000 Professional workstations have their own
user database, but they can also authenticate using a shared database, such as
the Windows 2000 Server Active Directory. You cannot type new informa-
tion into the From field, but if you have multiple authentication options con-
figured, you will be able to select from among them using the down arrow.
Logon using Dial-Up Networking Allows a user to establish a dial-up con-
nection to a remote network, and then authenticate against a database over that
connection. This option is rarely used, but it may be needed in high-security
environments.
For now we will only discuss logging on to the local computer. In Chapter 18,
“Configuring Network Software,” we will look into other logon options during an
examination of Windows 2000 Professional networking options.
In order to log on you will need to enter valid credentials. You may have cre-
ated an administrator account and password during the setup, or you may need
to get this information from a network administrator.

Once you have entered your credentials, Windows 2000 will configure your
desktop and will load any personal settings and any user policy settings associated
with your account. At that point you will be able to begin using Windows 2000.
If it is your first time logging on to the system as a particular user, it may take
a minute or two for your initial system environment to be set up. A number of
wizards will run and an introduction screen will be displayed, as in Figure 14.8.
FIGURE 14.8 The Getting Started screen
Windows 2000 System Information

O nce you have completed the upgrade, you will immediately notice that
Windows 2000 has some differences from Windows 9x. Windows 2K uses differ-
ent startup procedures and different startup files. In this section we will discuss
how Windows 2000 boots and what files are needed to keep it healthy and happy.
Key Boot Files

Almost all of the files needed to boot Windows 3.1 or 9x are unnecessary for
Windows 2000. Windows 2K requires, in fact, only a very few files, each of
which performs specific tasks:
NTLDR This file “bootstraps” the system. In other words, it is the file that
starts the loading of an operating system on the computer.
BOOT.INI Holds information about what operating systems are installed
on the computer.
BOOTSECT.DOS In a dual-boot configuration this keeps a copy of the
DOS or Windows 9x boot sector so that the Windows 9x environment can be
restored and loaded as needed.

Windows 2000 System Information 607
NTDETECT.COM Parses the system for hardware information each time

Windows 2000 is loaded. This information is then used to create dynamic
hardware information in the Windows 2000 Registry.
NTBOOTDD.SYS On a system with a SCSI boot device, this file is used to
recognize and load the SCSI interface. On EIDE systems this file is not needed
and is not even installed.
System files Besides the previously listed files, all of which are located in the
root of the C partition on the computer, Windows 2000 also needs a number
of files from its system directories, including the hardware abstraction layer
(HAL.DLL) and the Windows 2000 command file (WIN.COM).
Numerous other DLL (dynamic link library) files are also required, but usu-
ally the lack or corruption of one of these will simply produce a non-critical
error, while the absence of WIN.COM or HAL.DLL will cause the system to be
nonfunctional.
The Boot Process

When Windows 2000 starts, the computer’s BIOS performs a number of system
checks, and then it looks for an operating system to load. What it finds is Win-
dows 2000’s NTLDR (NT loader) file, which is then read into memory. The
NTLDR prepares the system for the boot process and invokes a rudimentary file
system access that allows it to read the BOOT.INI file in the root of C. This file
is then used to construct a menu from which a user may select an operating sys-
tem. If Windows 2000 is the only OS installed on the machine, the choice is
moot, but if the system dual-boots, you may choose your OS at this point and
boot directly into your selected OS. You may also make additional selections by
pressing the F8 key.
The system waits a predetermined amount of time for a user choice, and then simply
loads the default OS. Both the default option and the time can be configured in Win-
dows 2K’s System properties.
Using the F8 Options

In most cases you will be able to just boot into Windows 2000 without worrying
about the advanced options. Occasionally, though, problems may arise. If you
have a problem which makes it difficult to get 2000 up and running, the
advanced options offer a number of useful tools.
Safe Mode Starts Windows 2000 using only basic files and drivers (mouse,
except serial mice; monitor; keyboard; mass storage; base video; default sys-
tem services; and no network connections). Once in Safe Mode, you can
restore files that are missing or fix a configuration error.

Safe Mode with Networking Same as Safe Mode, but tries to load network-
ing components as well.
Safe Mode with Command Prompt Similar to Safe Mode, but doesn’t load
the Windows GUI. Presents the user with a Windows 2000 command prompt
interface.
Enable Boot Logging Logs all boot information to a file called ntbtlog.txt.
This file can be found in the \WINNT directory. You can then check the log for
assistance in diagnosing system startup problems.
Enable VGA Mode Starts Windows 2000 using the basic VGA driver, but
loads the rest of the system as normal. If you happen to install an incorrect
video driver or a video driver corrupts, this allows you to get into the system
to fix the problem.
Last Known Good Configuration This option is useful if you have changed a
configuration setting in the Registry, which then causes the system to have seri-
ous problems. LKGC will not save you from a corrupt file or a deleted file error.
Debugging Mode A sort of advanced boot logging, Debugging Mode
requires that another machine be hooked up to the computer through a serial
port. The debug information is then passed to that machine during the boot
process. This is rarely used and should not be bothered with in most cases. If
it comes to this, reinstalling is far faster!
For more on Safe Mode and Windows troubleshooting, refer to Chapter 19,
“Software Troubleshooting.”
Starting Windows 2000

Once you have chosen to start Windows 2000 Professional, NTLDR will
invoke NTDETECT.COM to check the system’s hardware, and will load
NTBOOTDD.SYS if the system uses a SCSI boot device. Once this is com-
plete, NTLDR will then pass control of the system to WIN.COM, and the
graphical phase of startup will begin.
During this time you will be presented with a series of screens that show the
system’s progress during startup; the interface is initiated and network connec-
tions and computer policies (if present) are loaded. Once this has completed,
Windows 2000 presents you with a Logon screen as discussed earlier, (see
Figure 14.7), and you can now start to use the system.
If you choose to boot back to a previous OS, NTLDR will immediately pass control
to BOOTSECT.DOS, and the other files mentioned will not be used.

Modifying Windows 2000 Settings 609
Modifying Windows 2000 Settings

O nce Windows 2000 Professional is up and running, you probably will
have relatively few additional configuration options that need to be set, but there
are a few things that may need to be done. With Windows 2000 Professional,
Microsoft has provided a one-stop shopping environment for finding system
information in the Computer Management tool, while most system-wide config-
uration changes are made using the System icon in the Control Panel. In this sec-
tion we will look at each of these.
The 2000 Professional Administrative Tools

Windows 2000 includes a number of tools for administration and management
of the system. These can be found in the Administrative Tools icon in the Control
Panel, which has a number of utilities. Component Services, Data Sources, and
Telnet Server Administration are beyond the scope of this book, as is the local
security policy. The rest of these tools are available through Computer Manage-
ment, and that is where we will examine them.
Computer Management
The Computer Management tool (see Figure 14.9) is new to Windows 2000, and
combines many Windows-based administrative tools into a single interface.
There are three basic classes of tasks available from this console:
System Tools
Storage
Services and Applications
FIGURE 14.9 The Computer Management interface

System Tools
The System Tools area provides access to a number of different utilities, many of
which are also available elsewhere on the system. Even so, this provides a central
interface for the following information:
Event Viewer Logs data about the computer. It is also accessible through
Computer Management.
System Information Allows you to poll the system to find out information
on installed hardware and software.
Performance Logs and Alerts Used to monitor system resource usage in real
time or to log performance.
Shared Folders A place to get a quick look of what is being shared on
your computer. Sharing will be discussed more fully in Part II, Chapter 18,
“Configuring Network Software.”
Device Manager Used to view and modify information about system hard-
ware. We will look at this more in the “Hardware” section.
Local Users and Groups As the Windows 2000 Professional station main-
tains its own list of security accounts, this is where those accounts are stored
and modified. For a user to log onto a Windows 2000 station, they must have
a user account defined in the Local Users and Groups utility or they must
use a network security provider, such as a Windows 2000 Active Directory or
Novell’s NetWare Directory Services.
Storage
The storage tools are used to manage and maintain the hard drives and other
storage devices on your machine.
Disk Management Known as Disk Administrator in Windows NT 4, Disk
Management is Windows 2000’s replacement for FDISK. You can use it to
create or delete partitions and even modify drive types.
Windows 2000 includes an enhanced disk type called a “dynamic disk.” Dynamic
disks can be used to create additional partitions and can also allow you to create
advanced disk configurations. Dynamic disks can only be used by Windows 2000
machines, so this change should only be made if Windows 2K is the only OS that
will be running on the machine.
Disk Defragmenter Nearly identical to the Disk Defragmenter program in

Windows 9x, this checks the drive for errors, and rearranges (defragments)
files so that they are more efficiently arranged on the drive.

Removable Storage This option allows you to manage a backup tape drive
or a ZIP-type removable disk drive with your system. It also is the place where
you can go to check up on your CD-ROM or DVD drive, as they are also con-
sidered to be removable storage.
Services and Applications

The last of the options, the Services and Applications tree, contains only one
option that most of you will use, that being the Services option. WMI Control
and Indexing Service almost never need to be modified.
WMI Control Used to configure and control the Windows Management
Instrumentation service.
Services Used to start and stop services that are on the machine. A service is
simply an application or a function that the computer runs in the background.
Services are also accessible through Computer Management. If a service is
unable to start, any of a number of things could be the problem. For more on
this refer to Part II, Chapter 19, “Software Troubleshooting.”
Indexing Service In order to speed searches of your drives or information,
the Indexing Service keeps an index of your drive. From this location, you can
configure how the Indexing Service is carried out.
We simply don’t have the time to go into each of these in great depth, but if you
have access to a Windows 2000 Professional machine, I highly recommend that
you go through and examine each of these tools.
The System Properties Icon

While many of the tools in Computer Management are informational, the Sys-
tem Properties control panel (see Figure 14.10) is nearly all business. From
within this one relatively innocuous panel you can make 90+ percent of all con-
figuration changes that need to be done to a Windows 2000 Professional
machine. The System Properties panel is divided into five tabs: General, Network
Identification, Hardware, User Profiles, and Advanced. The General tab simply
gives you an overview of the system, such as OS version, registration informa-
tion, and basic hardware levels (Processor and RAM). For the rest of the tabs, we
will look a bit more closely at their functionality.

FIGURE 14.10 The System Properties window
Network Identification
This tab is used to define whether the machine is in a workgroup or a domain
environment. We will talk more about networking in Part II, Chapter 18,
“Configuring Network Software,” but in general terms, the difference between
a workgroup and a domain is this:
Workgroup Loosely associated computers, each of which is their own
security authority.
Domain A group of computers that is tightly connected, due to the fact that
they have a single authority (called a domain controller) which manages secu-
rity for all of them.
As a trainer, I am always looking for analogies to help explain things, and it seems
that the best way to think of this is in relation to the difference between the United
States and Europe. In the U.S. a single authority (the Federal Government) con-
trols our military and has a strong degree of control over the individual states of
the Union. In Europe, the European Union is a far weaker bond, and each country
in the EU still maintains their own armies and more independent governments.
The EU, essentially, is a workgroup model; the US Federal system is a domain
model, at least it has been since the Civil War. But that is a completely different
argument…

Hardware
This tab includes a number of tools, all of which allow you to change how the
hardware on your machine is used. Because Windows 2000 is a plug-and-play
system, it does many hardware-related functions similarly to Windows 9x. As it
is a more advanced system, though, certain things are different.
Hardware Wizard
The Hardware Wizard is used, as it says, to “install, uninstall, repair, unplug,
eject, and configure” hardware in the system. What this essentially means is that
if you want to add a new device into the system or to uninstall drivers that are
already there, this is the place to go. You can also use this to temporarily eject PC
Card devices or other removable components.
Even in a plug-and-play system, it is important to properly unplug a device if you

wish to remove it while the system is running. If you don’t do this, nothing may go
wrong at all, but you can sometimes damage the device or cause the system to
become unstable.
Driver Signing
This is an option new to Windows 2000. In order to minimize the risks involved
with adding third-party software to your Windows 2000 Professional machine,
Microsoft has come up with a technique called driver signing (see Figure 14.11).
Installing new hardware drivers onto the system is a situation in which both viruses
and badly written software can threaten your system’s health. To minimize the
risks of this, you can choose to only use drivers which have been “signed.” The
signing process is meant to ensure that you are getting drivers that have been checked
with Windows 2000 and that those drivers have not been modified maliciously.
FIGURE 14.11 Driver signing options

Device Manager
Although many hardware changes can be made through the Hardware Wizard,
it is often easier to use the Device Manager, which provides a very simple and
well-organized method to manage hardware in the system. In Figure 14.12, for
instance, a modem can be disabled or uninstalled simply through a right-click.
FIGURE 14.12 Device Manager
You can also go into a device’s properties and modify other information,
including the device’s software drivers. If a new driver is made available for a
device, you will want to update your existing driver to the newer (and purportedly
better) software.
UPDATING DRIVERS
If you have upgraded to Windows 2000 from Windows NT this can be especially
important, as 2000 can use Windows NT drivers, but prefers drivers specifically
written for it. If you are upgrading, you should collect as many Windows 2000–
specific drivers as possible and upgrade them either during or soon after the
upgrade. To upgrade an existing driver, simply open the Device Manager and
find the hardware you want to update drivers for. Right-click the device and
select Properties from the menu. On the Properties window that appears, select
the Drivers tab, and you should see an Update Drivers button. Clicking it will
start the Update Device Driver Wizard, which will then require that you provide
the location of the new Windows 2000 drivers for the device.

Hardware Profiles
A hardware profile is used to allow you to start the computer with different hard-
ware configurations. This is most useful on laptops, which often have docking
stations, or at the very least are moved from place to place often. These are very
similar (i.e., exactly the same) as the hardware profiles discussed for Windows 9x.
User Profiles
Unlike Windows 9x, where user profiles are an optional setting, in Windows 2000
every user will automatically be given a user profile when they log on to the work-
station. This profile is stored in the Documents and Settings folder on the drive that
2000 is installed on, and it contains information about the user’s settings and pref-
erences. Although this does not happen often, occasionally a user profile will
become corrupt or will need to be destroyed. Alternatively, if a particular profile
is set up exceptionally well, you can copy it so that it is available for other users as
well. To do either of these, use the User Profiles tab (as shown in Figure 14.13) to
select the user profile that you want to work with. At that point you will be given
three options:
Delete Use this to remove the user’s profile entirely. When that user logs on
again they will be given a fresh profile taken from the system default. Any set-
tings that they have added will be lost, as will any profile-related problems
that they have caused themselves.
FIGURE 14.13 The User Profiles tab
Change Type This is used to configure a profile as local (the default) or roam-
ing. In a standard Windows 2000 Professional Setup, if a user works at two
machines, each of them will use a different profile. Updates to one machine will

not be reflected on the other. If you have a network, though, roaming profiles
can be configured to allow a user to have a single profile anywhere on the net-
work. Getting into this any further is beyond the scope of this book.
Copy To Used to copy a profile from one user to another. Often the source
profile is a template set up to provide a standard configuration.
Advanced
Finally we arrive at the Advanced tab, which has three subheadings, each of
which can be configured separately. This could also be called the “Etc.” tab
rather than the Advanced tab. Among its options are the following:
Performance
Environment Variables
Startup and Recovery
Performance
Although it is hidden away in the backwaters of Windows 2000’s system config-
uration settings, the Performance button holds some of the most important settings
you may need to configure on a 2000 Professional system. Among the settings in
the Performance window are the size of your virtual memory and the maximum
size of the Registry.
The initial Performance window has two options: application response and
virtual memory. Application response is normally not something you will need
to modify. It is set by default to optimize the system for foreground applications,
making the system most responsive to the user who is running programs. This is
generally best, but it does mean that any applications (databases, network ser-
vices, etc.) that are run by the system are given less time by the system.
If the Windows 2000 Professional machine is going to be primarily working as a

network server, you may want to change this to background services. Otherwise
leave it as is.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
The virtual memory settings (see Figure 14.14) tell you how much hard drive space
is allocated to the system as a swap file. For a review of what virtual memory is,
return to Part II, Chapter 13, “Windows 95/98.” Windows 2000 recommends a
particular virtual memory level, but you can add to or subtract from this as you
need. Often, certain applications (SQL Server for instance) will need to have Win-
dows 2000 Professional’s virtual memory limit raised in order to work properly.
Graphics and CAD applications also require raising the virtual memory level, but
if this is the case, the setup instructions for the application will generally tell you
what modifications need to be made.

Adding to the pagefile size is not always helpful and can sometimes actually slow
down the system. Only modify this setting if you have been instructed to or if you
are testing to see whether the change speeds up or slows down the computer.
Reducing the pagefile size is generally not recommended and can have serious
consequences on performance.
FIGURE 14.14 The Virtual Memory window
REGISTRY SIZE
Another option that is available in the Virtual Memory window is the ability to
change the maximum Registry size. In most cases the default size is fine, but if a
number of users are on a machine each of their settings must be stored separately,
and the Registry can fill up. To prevent this, you can allow the Registry to con-
tinue to grow using this setting.
Letting the Registry fill up is a serious problem. If you think this may happen,
you should change this option. An extra 10MB today could save a lot of pain
tomorrow….
Environment Variables
There are two types of environment variables, and each can be added through
the Environmental Variables button.
User Variables These specify settings that are specific to an individual user,
and do not affect others who log on to the machine.

System Variables These are set for all users on the machine. System vari-
ables are used to provide information needed by the system when running
applications or performing system tasks.
System and user variables were extremely important in DOS and Windows 3.1. If
you are going to try to run DOS/Win3.1 applications on Windows 2000, you will
likely have to add additional variables in this window to support those applications.
Startup and Recovery

The Windows 2000 Startup and Recovery options are relatively straightforward
(Figure 14.15). They involve two areas: what to do during system startup and
what to do in case of unexpected system shutdown.
FIGURE 14.15 The Startup and Recovery window
System Startup
The System Startup option defaults to Windows 2000 Professional when you
install Windows 2000 Professional, but you can change this default behavior if
you would like. Unless you are dual-booting, there is only one option available,
but if you have another OS installed, you can change the Windows 2000 boot
manager to load that as the default. You can also reduce the time that the menu
is displayed or remove the menu entirely.

Summary 619
If you choose to completely disable the menu on a dual-boot system, you will
find that this may cause you annoyance in the future when you want to boot into
a different OS but no longer have a choice to do so. Even if you almost always
boot into Professional, you will still want to let the boot menu appear for at least
2–5 seconds if you are dual booting.
System Failure
A number of options are available in the Startup and Recovery screen for use in the
case of problems as well. These include writing an event about the problem, send-
ing out an alert of the network, and saving information about the problem to disk.
These options only come into play in case of a major system problem, though.
Your options for handling system failures will be covered along with the trouble-
shooting information in Part II, Chapter 19, “Software Troubleshooting.”
Summary
A lthough similar in many ways to Windows 9x, Windows 2000 is also
very different in significant ways. The installation process for Windows 2000 is
far more straightforward, as it allows booting to set up directly from the CD and
integrates disk preparation tools into the setup process.
Upgrading from Windows 9x to Windows 2000 is, similarly, a relatively
simple task, although you will have to take into account that not all applications
that run on Windows 9x will also run on 2000, and hardware may need to be
pumped up a bit for the newer OS.
In this chapter, we looked at how you will soon find that, once you have
installed Windows 2000 Professional, the startup process, the logon process, and
the process of changing settings are different in 2000 than in 9x. Also, we looked
at additional features that are available in 2000, such as the Administrative Tools.

Key Terms
Administrative Tools password

Autorun PC card
computer name power users
driver signing product key
dual-booting service
environment variables user profiles
Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) username
network security provider virtual memory
NTFS

Review Questions
1. What three basic classes of tasks are available in the Computer Management
tool in Windows 2000? (Select all that apply.)
A. Storage
B. Network
C. System Tools
D. Services and Applications
2. When installing Windows 2000, you realize that you need to create a new par-
tition. What would your next step be?
A. Exit Setup, reboot the computer with a system disk, and use the DOS pro-
gram FDISK to create your partition.
B. Exit Setup, open the control panel of your current operating system, click
the device applet, and choose the Disk Partition option.
C. Create new partitions from within the Setup program itself.
D. There is nothing that can be done. Once Setup has begun, there is no
stopping it.
3. You want to change the size of your virtual memory and the maximum size of
the Registry. Within Windows 2000, how can you accomplish your goal?
A. You can change the size of virtual memory and the maximum size of the
Registry by accessing the Control Panel, clicking System Panel, selecting
the Advanced tab, clicking the Performance button, and making your
changes.
B. You can change the size of virtual memory and the maximum size of the
Registry by accessing the Control Panel and clicking the Virtual Memory
icon. Registry size may also be changed within that option.
C. Virtual memory and Registry size are changed during the setup process.
From that point on, they automatically change based upon the user profile.
D. Virtual memory and Registry size should not be modified.
4. Which of the following is NOT required hardware for Windows 2000?

A. Pentium 133
B. 64MB of RAM
C. 2GB hard drive
D. SVGA video

5. You have successfully completed the installation of Windows 2000 Profes-

sional on a machine with minimum hardware requirements. Upon accessing
one of your older graphics programs and opening a large BMP file, your com-
puter seems sluggish and it takes many seconds for the image to be displayed.
What can you do to improve performance?
A. Nothing, short of adding more RAM.
B. Open the Control Panel, click the System Panel button, select the
Advanced tab, click the Performance button, and then increase the size
of your virtual memory.
C. Open the Control Panel, select the Hardware tab, and then change the size
of your virtual memory.
D. Reinstall the graphics program.
6. You successfully install Windows 2000 Professional and want to check your
drives for errors. What is one way this can be accomplished?
A. Open the Control Panel, click Administrative Tools, click Computer
Management, and within the Storage tab, click Disk Defragmenter.
B. Open the Control Panel, click Administrative Tools, click Computer
Management, and within the Storage tab, click Disk Management.
C. Open the Control Panel, select the Systems tab, and click Device
Manager.
D. Type C:\defragment at the DOS prompt.
7. The Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) lists hardware that has been tested with
Windows 2000. If your hardware is NOT on the HCL, what should you do?
A. Reload your Windows 95 or 98 drivers.
B. Reinstall the device. The correct driver will load automatically.
C. Contact the vendor and get updated Windows 2000 drivers.
D. Download an updated HCL from Microsoft, which will then include the
drivers for any device on your PC.
8. You want to set up a dual-boot scenario between Windows 98 and Win-

dows 2000. Which option would work?
A. Install Windows 2000 in the same partition as Windows 98 for efficient use
of disk space.
B. Partition your hard drive. Install Windows 2000 first. Once it is working,
install Windows 98 in a second partition.
C. Partition your hard drive. Install Windows 98 first. Then install Windows
2000 in a second partition.
D. It is not possible to set up a dual-boot between Windows 98 and Win-
dows 2000.
E. Answer: C.

9. During Setup, all system hardware and software is tested. When the test is
complete, a detailed upgrade report is generated. Which of the following
topics are included as part of the upgrade report? (Select all that apply.)
A. Hardware
B. Software
C. Program Notes
D. General Information
10. Windows 2000 was installed and running on a PC. After making a change in
the Registry, the system failed to reboot properly. Which troubleshooting
option would work best?
A. Reboot the computer using the F8 option, choose Safe Mode, reopen the
Registry, and try to undo your change.
B. Reboot the computer using the F8 option, choose the Last Known Good
Configuration option, and complete the boot sequence.
C. Reboot the computer using the F8 option, choose the Debugging Mode
option, and complete the boot sequence. The system will debug itself.
D. Reinstall your operating system. Any change made to the Registry is
irreversible.
11. Logging onto a Windows 2000 system requires, at the very least, which of the
following? (Select all that apply.)
A. A username
B. The Windows 2000 product key
C. A password
D. A remote access account
12. During the Windows 2000 Setup, you are asked to choose between the NTFS
file system and the FAT file system. Which of the following is NOT an advan-
tage of NTFS?
A. NTFS supports compression, encryption, disk quotas, and file ownership.
B. NTFS can be accessed and modified with standard DOS disk utilities.
C. NTFS supports larger partitions than FAT.
D. NTFS allows for file-level security.
13. What does the command /checkupgradeonly do?

A. It instructs the Setup program that the procedure is an upgrade, not a full
installation.
B. It checks the computer for upgrade compatibility with Windows 2000 and
generates a report.
C. There is no such a command.
D. It instructs the Setup program to thoroughly scan the hard drive only dur-
ing the upgrade process.

14. During a routine installation of Windows 2000, Setup detected a problem dur-
ing the partition check. After rebooting and reattempting setup, the problem
continues. What should you do?
A. Nothing, Windows 2000 Setup is designed to fix any problem
encountered.
B. Reboot the computer, access the system BIOS, change the boot sequence
to boot from the CD-ROM, and reboot. The problem will go away.
C. Install Windows 2000 to an alternate partition.
D. Terminate Setup and run a full scandisk.
15. After a successful upgrade to Windows 2000, what should you do with the
temporary files generated during the setup process?
A. Nothing, all temporary files saved to your hard drive and used during
setup are automatically removed.
B. Nothing, these temporary files are actually needed, as they contain all user
settings from the previous operating system.
C. Emptying your Recycle Bin will remove these temporary files from your
hard drive.
D. If you install Windows 2000 from a CD-ROM, no temporary files are cre-
ated, so there is nothing to delete.
16. You are preparing a computer for a dual-booting between Windows 98 and
Windows 2000. Your drive is partitioned, and Windows 98 is already
installed. Which of the following must you also consider?
A. You must choose NTFS for the Windows 2000 partition for file-level security.
B. You must choose FAT for the Windows 2000 partition. NTFS is not com-
patible with Windows 98 dual-boot configurations.
C. Choose either FAT or NTFS, as long as you install Windows 2000 into a
different partition than Windows 98.
D. You cannot create a dual-boot configuration between Windows 98 and
Windows 2000.
17. Which of the following is NOT a part of the graphical phase of Win-
dows 2000 Setup?
A. Date and Time settings
B. Partitioning the hard drive
C. Networking Setting/Installing Components
D. Regional Setting

18. Driver Signing is an option new to Windows 2000. What exactly does driver
signing do?
A. It controls access to the Internet.
B. It minimizes the risk involved with installing new hardware drivers.
C. It has to do with the pre-determined times certain system tasks are per-
formed, such as disk defragmenting, virus checking, and so on.
D. It has to do with which folder drivers are stored.
19. What is the key difference between a workgroup and a domain, as defined in
this chapter?
A. A workgroup consists of several computers sharing a single security
authority. A domain allows each computer to handle its own security.
B. A workgroup and a domain handle security in much the same way. There
is no difference.
C. In a workgroup, each computer is responsible for security. In a domain,
there is a single authority for managing security.
D. A workgroup can only include Windows 9x machines, while a domain can
include Windows 2000 workstations.
20. Which of the following is not a Windows 2000 Key Boot file?
A. AUTOEXEC.BAT
B. NTLDR
C. BOOTSECT.DOS
D. BOOT.INI


1. A, C, D. Windows 2000 includes the Computer Management tool, which
combines many Windows-based administrative tools into a single interface.
The three basic classes of tasks available from the Computer Management
console are System Tools, Storage, and Services and Applications.
2. C. During the Windows 2000 Setup, you are shown a list of current partitions.
If you wish to create a new partition, you can do so from within the Setup pro-
gram. There is no need to exit Setup.
3. A. There are three subheadings under the Advanced tab: Performance,

Environment Variables, and Startup and Recovery. The Performance button
allows you to change the size of your virtual memory and Registry.
4. D. A Pentium 133, 64MB of RAM, and a 2GB hard drive are minimum
hardware requirements for the installation of Windows 2000. However, VGA
is the minimum for video. While SVGA will enhance the performance of
Windows 2000, it is only recommended.
5. B. The virtual memory settings tell the user how much hard drive space is
allocated to the system as a swap file. With minimum RAM on the system
illustrated in this question, this setting may need to be modified.
6. A. The Disk Defragmenter is located within the Storage tab. This program
checks for drive errors, as well as defragmenting the hard drive.
7. C. The Hardware Compatibility List (HCL), while comprehensive, does not

include every legacy driver ever made. It may thus be necessary to contact the
vendor for compatibility information.
8. C. Windows 2000 cannot exist in the same partition as Windows 98. It is thus
necessary to partition the hard drive, install Windows 98 first, and then Win-
dows 2000. Installing Windows 98 after Windows 2000 is not supported as a
dual-boot option.
9. A, B, C, D. Setup performs a thorough check, or test of all hardware and

software. The upgrade report details those issues that may require upgrading.
Hardware, Software, Program Notes, and General Information are the four
topics listed.
10. B. There are several advanced boot options available when pressing F8
during the boot process. Last Known Good Configuration works when a con-
figuration setting in the Registry is changed, causing a problem. This option
will not restore a corrupt or deleted file, however.
11. A, C. While there are other login options available for logging into a
Windows 2000 system, at the very least, a user needs a username and a
password.

12. B. NTFS is a more sophisticated file system. However, it is not compatible

with DOS.
13. B. There are many Setup commands with various options associated with
them. /checkupgradeonly does exactly what it says it does. It checks a com-
puter for upgrade compatibility with Windows 2000 and generates either a
.log or a .txt report.
14. D. Although Setup will detect and attempt to fix any problem encountered
during installation, persistent drive problems need to be fixed before installa-
tion can be continued.
15. A. One of the final tasks performed by the Setup program is the removal of
any temporary file saved to the hard drive at the start of the setup.
16. B. During a Windows 2000 Setup, you must choose which file system to use.
Only a FAT file system is compatible with a Windows 98, Windows 2000
dual-boot configuration.
17. B. The graphical phase of Windows 2000 Setup begins after the hard drive is
formatted and/or partitioned. Thus, partitioning the hard drive occurs before
the graphical phase begins.
18. B. Installing new hardware drivers can cause system problems. To minimize
this, Windows 2000 has pre-tested most drivers. Thus, you can install only
those drivers that have “signed” or screened for reliability.
19. C. A domain is a group of tightly connected computers managed by a domain

controller that handles security for the entire group. In a workgroup, however,
each computer is responsible for its own security.
20. A. Almost all of the files needed to boot Windows 3.1 or 9x are unnecessary for
Windows 2000. Thus, AUTOEXEC.BAT is not a key Windows 2000 boot file.

Chapter Application Installation
and Configuration
THIS CHAPTER:

application device drivers and the necessary software for certain
devices.
Identify the procedures for installing and launching typical
Windows and non-Windows applications. (Note: there is no
content related to Windows 3.1.)
Procedures for setup and configuring Windows printing
subsystem.
Setting default printer
Installing/spool setting

B uying a computer back in the 1980s was sort of like buying a
DVD player when they came out a couple of years ago. It was so amazing that
you just had to have one, but then once you had it, you rapidly discovered the
fact that you had no movies to play on it (or at least very few). When I plunked
down my hard-earned dollars for a Commodore 64 or an IBM PC, about all I got
along with it was a manual. Because of this, one of the most under-appreciated
elements of Windows is that the system comes prepackaged with a number of
useful—and entertaining—applications. From the Address Book to WordPad,
you can find all sorts of good stuff already installed when you first start using a
Windows 9x or 2000 machine.
For complete coverage of objective 2.4, please also see Chapters 13, 14, and 16.
In most cases, though, users aren’t satisfied to only use the tools that are
provided with Windows. Either a particular tool they need isn’t included (for
example, Microsoft didn’t put a spreadsheet application into Windows), or
they need a more sophisticated version of a particular application—Wordpad
and Word 2000 are both word processors, but that’s about where the similarity
ends. This demand has led to a booming software industry, and there are lit-
erally thousands of applications available that users can install and use with
Windows. Because of this, installing and maintaining programs on user’s com-
puters is a big part of a technician’s job. In order to prepare you for this task,
we will discuss the following topics in this chapter:
Comparing Windows 9x to Windows 2000 for application support and
install methods
Common application types
Installing an application with a simple setup routine
Installing a more complex program using the new Windows Installer
Repairing and modifying installed applications
Uninstalling applications
Dealing with the issue of old DOS applications

Application Basics 631
Application Basics
I n general, any computer program that is not essential to the operation of
the operating system can be thought of as an application. Applications are pro-
gram code designed with a particular purpose in mind, and generally fall into one
of a few broad categories:
Utilities These are programs which accomplish certain tasks. The Backup
or Task Scheduler programs are good examples of utilities that come with
Windows. Other common utilities include WinZip (for compressing and
uncompressing files) or McAfee’s VirusScan software, which helps protect
a computer from malicious attack.
Productivity tools These are applications that help users get their work
done. Simple productivity tools such as WordPad and the Calculator are
included with Windows; we will also be looking at Microsoft Office (the
mother of all productivity tools) later in this chapter. Other common appli-
cations that fit into this category are the Lotus SmartSuite (which has word
processing and spreadsheet components, among others) and Intuit’s Quicken
for managing finances.
Entertainment Well, here we have it. As noted, there are thousands of pro-
grams available for Windows, and probably 90 percent of them are games or
multimedia tools. This category of application provides special challenges and
can often be among the most vexing to install and configure. Fortunately, these
are also the applications that are the least likely to be brought to a technician to
work on, because most service work is done for corporate accounts—and cor-
porations are unlikely to pay you to figure out why Age of Kings won’t install
properly! Unfortunately, this doesn’t mean you are out of the woods, since once
you become a “computer geek,” every friend and relative will soon be asking
you why their new game doesn’t work.
Comparing Windows 9x to Windows 2000 for Application

Support and Install Methods
When you start looking at installing applications on a Windows machine, the
first thing to note is that the installation is generally pretty similar regardless of
whether the program is installed on Windows 9x or Windows 2000. Even so,
there are a number of differences in applications, and as such you should take
these into account. Here are a few key things to look for.
Application Architecture
One of the first things you will want to look for when getting ready to install a
new application is what type of operating systems are supported by the product.

632 Chapter 15 Application Installation and Configuration
Not all programs install on all operating systems, and the following sections
detail the key questions you will want to ask.
Is It a DOS or a Windows Application?

In order to make it easier for third-party vendors to write applications for
Windows, Microsoft provides APIs (application programming interfaces)
for Windows 3.x, 9x, and 2000. These APIs allow programmers to write appli-
cations more easily because Windows itself provides much of the functionality.
For instance, when a programmer wants to write a routine that prints out a
result, they can simply call printing APIs, instead of writing out the entire print
process. This does two things. First, it makes programming more simple and
second, it standardizes the way that certain tasks are performed. Almost all
print or file save screens in Windows, for example, look about the same
because all of them use a standardized API set.
If a program is written for Windows, it should run on either 9x or 2000. We
will see in the next section that it may not run optimally, but generally, it will
work. If the application was written for DOS, though, it could be a different
story. Windows 9x provides an environment that allows you to use older DOS
applications, but Windows 2000 does not. Most non-Windows applications
will fail if you attempt to run them on Windows 2000! We will deal with how
Windows 9x runs DOS applications later in the chapter.
There are, of course, applications written for many operating systems other than
Windows and DOS. Most of them will not run on either Windows 9 x or Win-
dows 2000. Macintosh applications, Linux applications, and C/PM applications,
for instance, will all error if you try to use them on a Windows machine.
Is It a 32-Bit or 16-Bit Windows Application?

Windows-based applications that are written for older versions of Windows are
referred to as 16-bit applications or Windows 3.x applications. Newer applica-
tions written specifically for Windows 9x or Windows 2000 are designed for use
on more modern hardware and take advantage of the fact that Windows 9x and
2000 are 32-bit operating systems. Although both 16-bit and 32-bit Windows
applications will generally run on either of the 32-bit Windows platforms,
32-bit applications are faster and more stable and should be used whenever
possible.
Does the Application Use Any Non-Standard Windows APIs?

As I just mentioned, most 16-bit and 32-bit Windows applications will run on
either Windows 98 or Windows 2000. Unfortunately, though, this is a guideline,
not a rule. Because of the fact that there are Windows APIs which are supported
by Windows 9x but not by Windows 2000, and vice versa, you will occasionally

Application Basics 633
find that a 32-bit Windows application will work only on the 9x or the 2000
platform.
Microsoft has developed a standard for easily identifying whether an appli-
cation is compatible with a particular version of Windows. Most software writ-
ten for Windows now comes with a graphic that declares which systems it is
verified to run on.
Because they are very similar architecturally, applications written for Windows 95
will work with Windows 98, and those written for Windows NT will work with Win-
dows 2000. Those written for the newer systems, however, are not always back-
ward compatible.
Other Considerations
Aside from architecture, there are a couple of other things you should be aware
of when installing applications.
Beta Code
Pioneered by Netscape, which was one of the first companies to use the Internet
as its primary software distribution channel, the popularity of beta applications
has added an entire new chapter to the book of technician headaches. When an
application is in development, its alpha phase is the time during which the appli-
cation is being created and tested in-house. Once the application is thought to be
ready, a number of companies have taken to releasing a presales version of the
application on the Internet as a way of testing consumer response. Later versions
of the beta product are generally released as well, and eventually a “release ver-
sion” of the software is completed. Because beta software is generally released on
an as-is basis, you should avoid using this on production systems. Most beta soft-
ware is not eligible for technical support and is generally less stable than the later
release version of the software.
Licensing Issues
As the great Napster controversy of 2000 has shown, the Internet is a place
where many of the rules that govern property rights have gone out the window.
In your role as a technician, though, you are a part of the computer industry, and
protecting the copyrights and intellectual property of software developers is part
of that job. As such, you will need to familiarize yourself with licensing issues
and make certain that you don’t end up installing programs for which you don’t
have a license.
What you do at home is your own business, but if you are being paid to install
a piece of software, the people who wrote it should be getting paid, too. If a user
buys one copy of Microsoft Word from you and asks you to install it on 10

machines, that is a clear violation of the licensing agreement. This is a difficult

situation, as you don’t want to aggravate the customer, but you also can’t ethi-
cally do what they are asking. Get ready to deal with this issue, by the way,
because it almost certainly will come up eventually. Figure 15.1 shows an example
of licensing information.
FIGURE 15.1 MS Word licensing info
Installing Applications
O nce you have determined that an application is able to run on your Win-
dows machine (or you think it will!) you need to transfer the files and settings for
that application onto the computer. In Windows, this is generally done through
the use of a Setup program, although, as you will see with Windows 2000,
Microsoft has debuted a new way of installing and managing applications that
could mean the end of setup as we know it. Because of this, the installation infor-
mation in this chapter is divided into two sections: the first describes a standard
application setup, and the second describes a setup using the Windows Installer
(MSI) files. We will not divide this up in a Windows 9x/Windows 2000 fashion
because they are identical in the way they handle each setup.
Because it is the application that controls the setup procedures, both Windows 9 x and
Windows 2000 machines will be able to use the new setup method of Office 2000.
Running a Basic Setup Program

In preparing for the A+ exams, one thing you are nearly certain to need is a copy
of the objectives, as laid out on the CompTIA Web site. It isn’t just as simple as
going out and reading them, though, as the objectives are saved on the site in

Installing Applications 635
Adobe Acrobat format. Acrobat is a great utility that allows you to save docu-
ments in exactly the form they are produced and distribute them for viewing. The
only disadvantage to this is that in order for a user to see the document, they
must have a special piece of software called the Adobe Acrobat Reader. In this
first section, I will show you how to obtain the reader installation software and
run its setup routine.
Getting the Files

Applications are really nothing more than software code installed onto the hard
drive of your machine. Because of this, it shouldn’t be a big surprise to know you
have to obtain a copy of the software installation files before running setup. The
most common installation methods today are as follows:
CD-ROM Most programs are sold on CD-ROM. To install them, you sim-
ply put the disk into the disk drive, and an install routine should start up. If
it doesn’t, you may have to browse to the setup file.
Network In organizations where network installations are available, they
are generally preferred to CD-ROM installs because there is no need to carry
around the disk (or in my case, to find the disk I need). Network installs are
also generally faster than CD-ROM installs.
Internet Installing software that is downloaded directly over the Internet is
becoming increasingly popular because of its convenience and flexibility.
Installing applications acquired from the Internet can also be dangerous to the
health of your machine. Most viruses and other malicious problems are passed on
through opening and using executable files, and SETUP.EXE is one such file. Only
download and use content direct from vendor sites or respected mirror sites.
For Acrobat Reader, the best place to go is www.adobe.com, the home page
of the company that makes the Acrobat software. At Adobe you can download
a copy of the Reader for free simply by registering and providing some marketing
info; on Adobe’s Web site, just look for the icon shown in Figure 15.2.
FIGURE 15.2 The Acrobat icon
The marketing info is, unfortunately, pretty standard, as everyone wants your
name, e-mail address, and a short biography before they give you their stuff.
Once you get through this, you will come to a screen from which you are able to
download a file that has all of the setup information wrapped up inside it, as

FIGURE 15.3 The File Download window
Generally, you will save this file to a directory on your hard drive and then run
it from there.
Starting the Install

Once you have the installation CD or have downloaded the files you need, find
the installation file—it will usually be SETUP.EXE or INSTALL.EXE. In this case,
though, the file is called A40ENG.EXE. Start the setup program by double-clicking
A40ENG.EXE. The Acrobat icon will unpack the file and then start the setup pro-
gram, as shown in Figure 15.4.
FIGURE 15.4 Unpacking the Acrobat files
Nonstandard setup filenames are relatively common among software distributed

over the Internet. In this case, it simply reflects that this is the Acrobat 4.05 ENGlish
version. As updates become available and the version number changes, so will
the filename. If the numbers in the download file are higher than 405, the applica-
tion has probably been updated, and a newer version is being distributed.
Once setup begins, you will usually be presented with a number of questions
given sequentially by a setup Wizard (Figure 15.5). Your answers to one question
may determine what pages you see later in setup.

FIGURE 15.5 Choosing a destination for the Acrobat files
Once the setup routine has completed (Figure 15.6), you will find that a num-
ber of changes have been made to your system. First, there are changes to the GUI
consisting of a new group of icons in Start Programs Adobe Acrobat 4.0,
and there is an icon on the Desktop as well.
FIGURE 15.6 A note that the install is done
In addition to these changes, the setup file also makes changes under the hood.
A number of files are installed onto the hard drive in C:\PROGRAM FILES\
ADOBE\ACROBAT 4.0. These files consist of DLLs (which are code libraries) and
other informational and executable files, but there are no configuration files such
as INI text files. Rather, configuration elements are set by adding a number of
entries to the Registry, which can be found (among other places) in HKEY_LOCAL
MACHINE\SOFTWARE\ADOBE.
I have used Acrobat for years and never had to modify its Registry settings
(although it is technically possible to do so). The same can be said for most other
simple programs. Install them and upgrade them when a new version comes
out—you are generally best off if you simply leave their innards alone!

Installing Microsoft Office 2000 Using the

New Windows Installer
Most programs use a setup program similar to the one we saw with the Acrobat
Reader install. There are some significant limitations to these setup programs,
though, and Microsoft recently began using a new method of setting up appli-
cations called the Windows Installer. The installer has the following advantages
over traditional installation methods:
The ability to logically group application elements for installation
The ability to install components only when they are needed, through the
Install on First Use option
The ability to automatically detect and restore deleted or corrupt files (!)
Easier customization through the use of MST files, which are used to save
customized installation options for reuse
As an example of how these features work, let’s run through an upgrade
install of one of the most popular application suites, Microsoft Office 2000.
Office has a number of versions—it is not really a program so much as it is a col-

lection of programs, or suite. Office Standard includes Word (word processing),
Excel (spreadsheet), Outlook (personal information manager), and PowerPoint
(presentation). Office Professional adds Access, which is a database, and Office
Premium adds the FrontPage Web editor and a number of other tools.
As with other programs, Microsoft Office has a SETUP.EXE file that it uses to
start its installation routine. To start the install, simply insert the Office 2000
disk into your disk drive. Setup will begin automatically and will install Win-
dows Installer onto your machine. If you already have a current version of the
MS Installer software, the install continues, as in Figure 15.7. If not, an update
will occur, and you may need to reboot and restart the install.
FIGURE 15.7 The Installer starting setup
After this, you will be asked for a CD key, and you will need to agree to the
license agreement. Once you have typed in the ridiculously long 25-digit key and
have signed away your organs to Microsoft, you will be presented with a choice
of a standard or a custom install.

Choose the custom choice and leave the default location. On the Selecting
Features screen, you will be asked to not only decide which options you want,
but also how you want them to be installed. In Figure 15.8, for instance,
Microsoft Word Help is selected to run from CD, Wizards and Templates will
not be installed, and Text with Layout Converter will be installed only if it is
used. The Address Book and Page Border Art are the only optional Word com-
ponents that will actually be written to the disk as part of this installation.
These installation options are available because of the flexibility of the Win-
dows Installer program, which actually stays on your hard drive and can start
a small install any time you need it, as when someone wants to use the Text
with Layout converter. Not all programs support these options yet, but many
more will in the coming years.
FIGURE 15.8 The Selecting Features screen for Office 2000
Once you have selected the options you need, click the Install Now button,
and the setup program will configure your setup. Figure 15.9 displays the indi-
cator that shows you how the installation is progressing.
FIGURE 15.9 Setup verifying tasks
Once setup has completed, the Installer presents you with a parting gift in the
form of a restart notification. This is because new information has been written
to the Registry and may not be properly read until the system is reinitialized.

Some programs, such as Acrobat, do not need to reboot. Others do, though, and
generally it is best to restart immediately if asked (Figure 15.10).
FIGURE 15.10 Windows completing the install and asking if you want to restart
Repairing or Uninstalling Applications

O nce an application is installed, it is generally pretty stable as long as one
of two things does not happen. The basic categories of application problems can
be categorized as follows:
File corruption This can be caused by failing hard drives, power failures,
viruses, or even poorly written programs
User error Users… You gotta love ’em, because without them we would
make a lot less money. Users may delete critical application files, shut down
the system improperly, or introduce beta software onto the system that causes
problems to other applications, among other things.
Between them, these two problems account for pretty much all problems with
software applications. Generally, an application that has gone bad can be dealt
with by either repairing or reinstalling it. If an application is badly written or is
functioning perfectly but you no longer need it, you can also uninstall it, which
removes it completely.
Repairing an Application
For most Windows programs, file corruption or deletion is best dealt with by
running the setup program over again or by using the Add/Remove Programs
Control Panel program. In such a case, you normally have to just reinstall the
application with the same options as before, and the files will be recopied. Some
programs, such as Internet Explorer 5, will even allow you to run a limited
recopy that looks at your previous install and repairs it by recopying any files
that are missing or corrupt. The IE options are shown in Figure 15.11.

Repairing or Uninstalling Applications 641
Corrupt files can usually be detected by the repair process because their size
changes due to the corruption.
FIGURE 15.11 The Repair Internet Explorer option
Microsoft Office is able to repair itself as well because it uses the Windows
Installer (as does Internet Explorer). If Office or Internet Explorer has a prob-
lem, the Installer is able to review the installation and either download the
needed replacement files or ask the user to install a CD with the files on it, as
in Figure 15.12.
FIGURE 15.12 The Office Maintenance Mode window with Repair, Add, or Remove options
Windows Update
As more and more users are getting online and as bandwidth is becoming cheaper
and more available, many software companies are making software updates
available online. Some companies send out an e-mail to registered users noting

that an updated version of the software is available for download, while others
have mechanisms built into the software that can automatically update the soft-
ware as new versions or patches are available. Because of the security issues
involved in having new software installing itself on a PC without user knowledge
or consent, this sort of update is currently rather uncommon, but it is definitely
on the rise! As part of this, Microsoft now allows users to automatically update
Windows OS components, as well as other Microsoft applications using Win-
dows Update. We won’t look at this as it is not generally something techs need
to deal with, but you may run across it, so it’s good to know about.
Uninstalling an Application
Occasionally, you will install an application on a PC and then decide that you no
longer need it. In order to free up hard drive space, you may then want to remove
that application from the PC. This is done through a process called uninstalling.
The uninstall feature, which completely removes a program from the computer,
also goes into the Registry and other system areas and removes references to the
application. To access the uninstall feature for an application in Windows, you
generally have one of two options (or sometimes both):
Use the Uninstall icon from the application’s program group
Use Add/Remove Programs and choose to remove all or uninstall, depend-
ing on what terminology the program uses.
It is crucial to the health of your system that you do not simply go into the Win-
dows Explorer and delete the files for an application. Removing the files without
performing an uninstall will cause Registry problems and other difficulties, and
may even make the system unstable.
We’ll use Adobe Acrobat as an example of a program to uninstall.
The Uninstall Option in Its Program Group

Not all applications provide you with this handy tool, but most of the good ones
do. On the Start menu, simply click Programs Adobe Acrobat 4.0 Uninstall
Adobe Acrobat 4.0 (Figure 15.13), and the program removes the software icons
and files and cleans up after itself in the Registry as well.

Repairing or Uninstalling Applications 643
FIGURE 15.13 The Uninstall option for Acrobat
The Add/Remove Programs Control Panel Program

With this Control Panel program, you can add and remove Windows compo-
nents and third-party software. To uninstall an option, open the Control Panel,
click Add/Remove Programs, select the program you wish to uninstall , and click
the Add/Remove button, as shown in Figure 15.14. Windows will look for unin-
stall information for the application and begin the uninstall process.
FIGURE 15.14 The Windows Add/Remove Programs Control Panel program

Once you have chosen to uninstall a program, you will be presented with the
Confirm File Deletion dialog box as displayed in Figure 15.15.
FIGURE 15.15 The Confirm File Deletion dialog box
Some applications, such as Office, have literally hundreds of possible compo-

nents. These larger applications usually present an intermediate screen asking
whether you want to add or remove particular components or whether you wish
to completely uninstall the product. Acrobat has very few options and simply
starts the uninstall routine immediately.
If you select Yes, the Remove Programs from Your Computer window, as
shown in Figure 15.16, shows you which components are being removed, includ-
ing Registry information. Some programs are better at this than others, but it is
important to remember that few programs ever remove all of the files that they
install. There are other third-party applications (such as CleanSweep) that go out
and find leftover elements of deleted applications, but generally the uninstall fea-
ture does a good enough job. Once the uninstall routine completes, you will see
the Uninstall successfully completed message.
FIGURE 15.16 Completing the uninstall

Dealing with Older DOS/Windows 3.x Applications 645
In the case of Acrobat, for instance, a post-uninstall Registry and drive

search shows that the files have all been removed properly, but a few references
to Acrobat remain in the Registry. If I wanted to, I could manually search and
destroy these as well, but it is rarely worth it to be that compulsive. For general
intents and purposes, the application is completely uninstalled.
Sometimes you need to uninstall an older (or beta) version of an application

before reinstalling a newer or full version of the product. In such cases, the setup
routine for the newer application may search the Registry for earlier installations
of the product, and you may have to physically delete leftover Registry informa-
tion before your reinstall will work properly.
Dealing with Older DOS/Windows 3.x

Applications
T here are two ways to install DOS programs onto a Windows 9x machine.
Many older DOS programs can simply be copied; newer, more complex DOS
programs will have to be installed with a setup routine specific to that applica-
tion. In either case, Windows 9x has the ability to let you configure the DOS
environment to allow DOS applications to run as well as, well, a DOS applica-
tion is going to run.
The process for installing and using DOS applications is the same in Windows 2000
as it is in Windows 9x. That said, there is one critical difference: DOS applications
generally run pretty well under Windows 9x and generally won’t run at all under
Windows 2000. If you are thinking of installing a 16-bit DOS application on Win-
dows 2000 Professional, you need to test it carefully to make certain it will function
properly.
Windows 3.x 16-bit applications setup routines look similar to the Windows
32-bit applications we looked at earlier except that they use INI and other con-
figuration files and are generally completely ignorant of the Registry.
Installing an Application by Copying

Many years ago, DOS applications were simple executable COM or EXE files that
could be run from a floppy. Copying these files to the hard drive was a common
practice (if the computer had a hard drive) because programs run faster from a
hard drive than they do from a floppy drive. As programs became larger, with

many pieces and added-in drivers, it became more than just practical to copy the
files to the hard drive; it became necessary.
Figure 15.17 shows a list of files on a floppy disk being copied to a directory
on the hard drive. Two of these files are DOS executables, INTERLNK.EXE and
INTERSVR.EXE. (These files are required to establish an interlink connection
between two computers.)
FIGURE 15.17 Copying DOS program files
Installing an Application with a Setup Routine

More complex DOS programs need to be installed, rather than just copied, to
work properly. One example is PC Tools from Central Point Software. PC Shell
is a DOS shell with a bit of a graphical look and feel that can be used for file man-
agement. It’s made up of a collection of files that fit onto several floppies but can
work together only on a larger drive. Some of the utilities included in this suite
can be run from the floppy, but others require the presence of overlay files and
device drivers that span more than one floppy disk.
Although PC Tools (in its early versions, at least) can be copied onto the hard
drive, it comes with an installation program that aids in the copying process by
locating or creating a subdirectory for the files to be copied to. The install pro-
gram also prompts you to insert each floppy disk as it is needed.
More complex programs require a more intricate installation procedure, usu-
ally meaning that you’ll have to make decisions throughout the setup process.
DOS programs generally use device drivers that are specific to that program, so
when you load WordPerfect for DOS, you’ll need to select a printer, even though
you may have already selected the printer for Lotus 1-2-3. Likewise, you may
have to select a display driver for fitting more text or typed data on a screen.
As shown in Figure 15.18, early installation routines primarily copy files and
offer a few options on how to configure the files and computer after the appli-
cation has been installed. Notice that this screen is a little bit graphical but not

Dealing with Older DOS/Windows 3.x Applications 647
to the extent that modern Windows screens are. This PC Tools installation
screen is actually built up out of DOS ASCII characters.
FIGURE 15.18 Installing PC Tools version 6
If you have questions about installing a DOS-based programs in a DOS environ-

ment, refer to the user guide that comes with the software.
Launching an Application
Launching an application in DOS usually means typing in its name or the name
of its main executable file at a DOS command prompt. For example, you could
start the Central Point Software program PC Shell by typing pcshell at the DOS
command prompt. Generally, programs are put into their own subdirectories, so
a path must exist pointing to that subdirectory, or you must already be in that
subdirectory.
Alternatives include typing the complete path at the command prompt along
with the startup command or launching the application with a batch file that
has the complete path as part of the startup command. For example, an
AUTOEXEC.BAT file could include the following command line in order to start
the PC Tools shell when the computer starts up:
C:\PCTOOLS6\PCSHELL6
The PC Shell utility provides file list and directory tree windows similar to Windows
File Manager (in Windows 3.x) or Windows Explorer (in Windows 9x or 2000).

Uninstalling an Application
With DOS programs, the uninstall process is the reverse of copying: you simply
erase all the files associated with the program.
Of course, sometimes an installation will have made modifications to the
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files. Depending on the nature of these config-
uration modifications, there may be no side effects to the removal of a program,
or there may be some error messages about files not being found.
Rarely are these configuration changes harmful if left in, although many times
the changes will leave extra and unneeded drivers loaded or memory configura-
tions that are not optimized for the applications left on the hard drive. If you edit
the CONFIG.SYS and the AUTOEXEC.BAT files, remarking out suspicious state-
ments, it will usually fix things up.
Summary
I n this chapter, we looked at how you can extend the functionality of a
Windows-based computer by installing additional software on it. The installa-
tion and configuration of applications and utilities is a big part of a technician’s
daily work.
We looked at the different types of software available and at the different
ways in which that software can be obtained and installed. We also looked at
removing programs that are no longer used and examined the increasingly
uncommon case of installing DOS/Windows 3.x applications on a Windows 9x
or 2000 machine.
Key Terms
alpha productivity tool

beta uninstall
file corruption Windows Installer

Review Questions
1. Programs that are used to accomplish certain tasks are referred to as:
A. Utilities
B. Productivity tools
C. Entertainment
D. Control panels
2. Common examples of a utility program are: (Select all that apply.)

A. WinZip
B. Backup
C. Virus scan software
D. WordPad
E. Calculator
3. Applications that help users get their work done are referred to as:
A. Utilities
B. Productivity tools
C. Entertainment
D. Control panels
4. When purchasing an application, which of the following would be listed as

logical questions to ask? (Select all that apply.)
A. Is the application a DOS or a Windows application?
B. Is it a 32-bit or 16-bit application?
C. Is it a third-party or first-party vendor?
D. Does the application use any nonstandard Windows APIs?
5. If a program is written for Windows it should run on either:

A. Windows 9x or Windows 2000
B. Windows 2.x or Windows 95
C. Windows 3.x or Windows NT
D. Windows 3.x or Windows 98
6. APIs allow programmers to do all of the following except:

A. Write applications more easily
B. Accept nonstandard applications
C. Standardize the way certain tasks are performed
D. Make programming more simple

7. Windows 9x and Windows 2000 are what type of operating systems?

A. 12-bit operating systems
B. 8-bit operating systems
C. 16-bit operating systems
D. 32-bit operating systems
8. Applications written for Windows 95 will work with which operating systems?
A. Only Windows 98
B. Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000
C. Windows 98 and Windows NT
D. Windows 98 and Windows 2000
9. Applications written for Windows 2000 are pretty certain to run on which of
these operating systems? (Select all that apply.)
A. Windows 95
B. Windows 98
C. Windows NT
D. Windows 2000
E. All of the above
10. When an application is in the early stages of development, it’s referred to as

being in the ___________________ phase:
A. Alpha
B. Beta
C. Testing
D. Developmental
11. Protecting the copyrights and intellectual properties of software developers is

referred to as:
A. Coding
B. Licensing
C. Copying
D. Developing
12. Windows Installer files can be easily identified by the extension:

A. EXE
B. BAT
C. MSI
D. DAT

13. Applications can be installed from all of the following devices except:
A. Backup drives
B. CD-ROM
C. Network
D. Internet
14. In starting the installation you must activate the installation file. Most
installation files have which extension? (Select all that apply.)
A. EXE
B. BAT
C. DAT
D. TMP
15. Which of the following is not an advantage of the Windows Installer over
traditional installing methods?
A. The ability to individualize application elements for installation
B. The ability to install components only when they are needed
C. The ability to detect and restore deleted or corrupt files
D. Easier customization through the use of MST files
16. Which is the recommended choice for install for new beginners?
A. Custom
B. Typical
C. Express
D. Advanced
17. The basic categories of application problems can be categorized as: (Select all
that apply.)
A. File corruption
B. User error
C. Application error
D. Program error
18. How many options are there to uninstall an application?

A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four

19. The Windows 98 Add/Remove Programs icon is located in:

A. Control Panel
B. Network Neighborhood
C. My Computer
D. The Recycle Bin
20. DOS applications generally run under all of the following except:
A. Windows 95
B. Windows 98
C. Windows NT
D. Windows 2000
E. Both C and D


1. A. Utilities provide a way for a user to control the provisions and use of hard-
ware resources and are a subcategory of system software designed to enhance
the operating system.
2. A, B, C. Utility programs, when activated, accomplish specific tasks. For

Example, Norton Utilities troubleshoots problems with a computer’s disk
drives, makes data more secure by encrypting it, and helps to retrieve data
from damaged disks.
3. B. A productivity tool is a graphical user interface. Tools help users get their
work done by making it easier for users to interact with a software program.
4. A, B, D. Whether it’s a first- or third-party vendor usually doesn’t matter. The

main issue when purchasing an application is compatibility. Most software
written for Windows now comes with a graphic declaring which systems it is
verified to run on; this is an easy way to identify whether an application is
compatible with a particular version of Windows.
5. A. If a program is written for Windows, it should run on either 9x or 2000—it

may not run optimally, but generally it will work. However, most non-Windows
applications will fail if you attempt to run them on Windows 2000.
6. B. APIs allow programmers to write applications more easily because Windows

itself provides much of the functionality. For instance, when a programmer
wants to write a routine that prints out a result, they can simply call printing
APIs, instead of writing out the entire print process. This makes programming
simpler and standardizes the way that certain tasks are performed.
7. D. Although both 16-bit and 32-bit Windows application will generally run
on either of the 32-bit Windows platforms, 32-bit applications are faster and
more stable and should be used whenever possible.
8. A. Because the operating systems are very similar architecturally, applications

written for Windows 95 will work with Windows 98. Those written for newer
systems, however, are not always backward compatible.
9. D. Although Windows 2000 applications may run well on Windows NT or

Windows 9x as well as on 2000, this is not always the case and should be ver-
ified, not assumed.
10. A. When an application is in development, its alpha phase is the time during
which the application is being created and tested in-house.
11. B. Protecting the copyrights and intellectual properties of software developers

is referred to as licensing. A software license is a legal contract that defines the
ways in which you may use a computer program.
12. C. The Windows Installer service has files with the extensions MSI and MST.

13. A. Backup brings back files from an existing install. It cannot be used to per-
form an initial installation.
14. A, B. Most installation files have the file extension EXE and BAT. EXE stands
for execution; BAT stands for batch.
15. A. Windows Installer has the ability to logically group application elements
for installation, install components only when they are needed though the
Install on First Use option, and automatically detect and restore deleted or cor-
rupt files. The Installer also provides easier customization through the use of
MST files, which are used to save customized installation options for reuse.
16. B. It is recommended that beginners use the typical install because settings are
chosen for them automatically, and the most commonly used options are
installed.
17. A, B. File corruption and user error account for almost all of the problems with
software applications. File corruption can be caused by failing hard drives,
power failures, viruses, or even poorly written programs. Examples of user
errors are deleting critical application files, shutting down the system improp-
erly, or introducing beta software onto the system that causes problems with
other applications.
18. B. To uninstall an application you can either uninstall from the application’s
program group or use Add/Remove Programs. It is crucial to the health of
your system that you do not go into the Windows Explorer and delete the files
for an application by hand. Removing the files without performing an unin-
stall will cause Registry problems and other difficulties and may even make the
system unstable.
19. A. The Windows 98 Add/Remove Programs icon is located in Control Panel,

which you can access either by selecting Start Settings Control Panel, or
opening My Computer and double-clicking Control Panel.
20. E. DOS applications do not generally run under Windows NT and Win-
dows 2000.

Chapter Using and Configuring
Additional Peripherals
THIS CHAPTER:

application device drivers and the necessary software for certain
devices.
Identify the procedures for installing and launching typical
Windows and non-Windows applications. (Note: there is no
content related to Windows 3.1)
subsystem.

J ust as there are many different types of peripherals, there are
many types of peripheral connection methods. The A+ exam will test your
knowledge of these different types of methods, including
Serial
Parallel
SCSI
USB
FireWire (IEEE 1394)
For complete coverage of objective 2.4, please also see Chapters 13, 14, and 15.
Peripheral Connection Methods

I n this section, you'll learn about the different types of peripheral connec-
tion methods. You'll also learn how to differentiate them from one another by
their properties.
Serial
Of all the peripheral connection methods, none is as popular as serial. It’s a
simple, effective way to connect a peripheral to a PC. It is also cheap to man-
ufacture, which is probably the main reason it's so popular. Serial connections
transfer data one bit at a time, one right after another. The maximum speed of
a serial connection is 128Kbps, so it isn't good for large amounts of data trans-
fer, but it works great for synchronizing two data sources. The most popular
application of a serial connection is connecting an external modem to a PC.

Peripheral Connection Methods 657
Parallel
The next most popular peripheral connection method is parallel. Parallel con-
nections transfer data 8 bits at a time as opposed to 1 bit at a time (as serial con-
nections do). The most common peripheral connected via a parallel connection
is a printer. Hence, parallel ports are often called printer ports. Additionally,
newer parallel ports can connect devices like scanners and Zip drives to com-
puters. Unfortunately, this doesn't work as well as other types of connection
methods such as USB work because the parallel connection wasn't designed for
connecting devices other than printing devices. Parallel was only designed to
connect one peripheral at a time.
SCSI
The Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is another method of connecting
peripherals. It is the best choice for peripherals that require high-speed connec-
tions, as well as those that transfer large amounts of data, because it can transfer
data either 16 or 32 bits at a time. For example, you could use a SCSI connection
to connect a scanner, which might have to transfer megabytes of image data in
a short period of time. The most popular use for SCSI is to connect disk drives
to computers.
Although it is most often found in server systems, SCSI can be added to desk-
top systems through the use of an expansion card.
USB
In the last few years, a high-speed bus has been developed specifically for periph-
erals. That bus is the Universal Serial Bus, or USB. The serial bus could only con-
nect a maximum of two external devices to a PC. USB, on the other hand, can
connect a maximum of 127 external devices. Also, USB is a much more flexible
peripheral bus than either serial or parallel. USB supports connections to print-
ers, scanners, and many other input devices (such as joysticks and mice).
When connecting USB peripherals, you must connect them either directly to
one of the USB ports on the PC or to a USB hub that is connected to one of those
USB ports. Hubs can be chained together to provide multiple USB connections.
Although you can connect up to 127 devices, it is impractical in reality. Most
computers with will support around 12 USB devices.
Here are the steps to connect a USB digital camera to a PC to download the
images from the camera:
1. With the PC powered on, connect the USB cable from a digital camera to
an open USB port, either on a hub or a USB port on the back of the com-
puter. Windows Plug and Play will recognize that there is a new device
attached and will automatically start the Add New Hardware Wizard.

658 Chapter 16 Using and Configuring Additional Peripherals
2. Follow the prompts on the screen to install the driver for your digital
camera.
3. Install the image manipulation software that came with your digital
camera.
As you can see, the combination of USB and Windows Plug and Play allows
devices to be configured very easily.
FireWire (IEEE 1394)

With the advent of digital video, a new peripheral connection method was
needed in order to download large video files into a PC. IEEE-1394 was the stan-
dard developed to meet this need. This standard was developed from work done
by Apple and others. The standard is more commonly known as FireWire, after
the moniker given to it by Apple. FireWire was a leap in technology over USB
because it could transfer data at a maximum of 400MB per second. It became the
peripheral connection method of choice for connecting digital video cameras to
PCs. IEEE 1394 ports can be found on many different types of computers, but
they are most commonly found on Apple iMac computers. As a matter of fact,
Apple has made a special version of the iMac, called the iMac DV, that is spe-
cifically set up for digital video.
Windows Printing Configuration

P robably the most troublesome aspect of a technician's job is configuring
Windows printing properly. As such, the A+ exam will test your ability to do so.
There are two ways to configure Windows printing: with a local printer or a net-
work printer. In this section, you will learn about topics related to each.
When it comes to configuring a printer, the steps for both Windows 9 x and 2000
are essentially the same.
Local Printing Configuration

One of the most common devices to add to computer system is a printer.
Whether you are installing a dot-matrix printer or laser printer, the configura-
tion is basically the same. In this section, we’ll examine how to set up a Windows
computer to print to a locally attached printer. Setting a workstation to print to
a network printer is covered later in this chapter.

Windows Printing Configuration 659
Adding a Printer
Microsoft was thoughtful enough to provide a wizard to help us install printers.
The name of this wizard is the Add Printer Wizard (neat, huh?). It will guide you
through the basic steps of installing a printer by asking you questions about how
you would like the printer configured.
To start the Add Printer Wizard (APW for short), you must first open the
PRINTERS folder by either going to Start Settings Printers or double-clicking
the Printers icon in the Control Panel. Once you get to the PRINTERS folder, you
can double-click the Add Printer icon. Doing so will display a screen that tells
you the wizard is going to help you install your printer “quickly and easily.”
Let’s hope so. Click Next to begin the configuration.
The first question the APW will ask you is where this printer is (Figure 16.1).
If it is connected to the network, click the button next to Network Printer. If the
printer is connected to your PC, click Local Printer. We will discuss using net-
work printers later, so for right now, click Local Printer and click Next.
FIGURE 16.1 Telling the APW where the printer is
In Windows 2000, there is an extra option to allow Windows to automatically

detect and install the printer for you. If you want, you can leave this option
selected (which is the default), and Windows will automatically install the driver
and configure the printer. The rest of these steps will then be moot.
The next screen that the APW presents allows you to choose the driver for your
printer by simply selecting the manufacturer from the list on the left and the model
from the list that appears on the right (Figure 16.2). You may need to scroll on
either side because the lists can get rather long. If your printer is not listed, or if you
would like to install a more current driver, you can click the Have Disk button and

APW will prompt you to insert the disk and type in the path to the directory where
the driver is located. Either way, select your driver and click Next.
FIGURE 16.2 Selecting a printer driver to install
Make sure you select the correct driver for your model of printer. Most printing
problems can be traced to a corrupt or out-of-date printer driver.
Some printer drivers can’t be installed using the Add Printer Wizard. You must run
SETUP or INSTALL from the disk to install the printing software. These programs
will not only install the correct printer drivers, they will also set up the printer for
use with Windows. In this case, you won’t have to run the APW (in fact, it won’t
work because you can’t select the right driver).
The next screen (Figure 16.3) allows you to choose which port the printer is
hooked to. It will present you with a list of ports that Windows knows about,
including parallel (LPT), serial (COM), and infrared (IR) ports, and ask you to
choose which port the printer is hooked to. Simply click the port name on the list
and click Next. If necessary, you can click Configure Port to configure any spe-
cial port settings the printer may require.

FIGURE 16.3 Picking the printer port
In the next step, APW asks you to give the printer a name (Figure 16.4) so that
you can choose the printer by name when you select Print from any program. By
default, the APW will supply the name of the print driver in this field. You can
change it by simply clicking in the field and typing in a new name. Additionally,
you can select whether or not you want this printer to be the default that Win-
dows selects when you don’t select a specific printer. If you want this printer to
be the default, click the button next to Yes. If not, click No. When you’re finished
changing these settings, click Next.
FIGURE 16.4 Naming the printer

The final step in setting up a new printer is to indicate to the APW whether or
not you’d like to print a test page (Figure 16.5). If you say Yes and click Finish,
Windows will copy the driver and any support files and then try to print a test
page. When the test page is printed, Windows will present you with a screen ask-
ing you if the page printed correctly. If you click Yes, the APW is finished and
you know the printer works. If you select No, APW will launch Windows Help
and bring you to the Printing Troubleshooting page. If you don’t want to print
a test page, select No (from the APW screen) and APW will simply copy the files
and bring you back to the desktop.
FIGURE 16.5 Finishing setting up a printer
Managing an Existing Printer

If you have a printer installed on your Windows computer, there will be times
where you need to change the way the printer functions. For this reason, you
should know how to manage an existing printer under Windows. Managing a
printer involves knowing how to configure the printer object after you have used
the APW to set it up.
First, most of what you need to configure is centered around the printer icon
(in the PRINTERS folder) that represents the printer you want to configure. You
can configure most items from the property page of the printer by double-click-
ing the icon of the printer you want to configure.
If you right-click a printer’s icon in the PRINTERS folder and choose Proper-
ties, you will see a screen similar to the one in Figure 16.6. There may be more
options, depending on the type of printer it is. Each tab is used to configure dif-
ferent properties. Table 16.1 lists the tabs and a description of the function of
each one.

You can print a test page from this page at any time by simply clicking the Print
Test Page button.
FIGURE 16.6 The property page for a printer
TABLE 16.1 Printer Properties Tabs and Functions
Tab Description
General Displays the printer’s name as well as any comments

you want to enter to describe the printer’s functions (or
eccentricities).
Details Used to configure how Windows communicates with the

printer.
Sharing Used to share the printer on the network to which the

machine is connected.
Paper Used to configure what kind of paper the printer is using

(size-wise) as well as its orientation when printing.

TABLE 16.1 Printer Properties Tabs and Functions (continued)
Tab Description
Graphics Used to configure the resolution of the printer. Lower

resolutions use less toner.
Fonts Displays the installed fonts. Also used to install other fonts.
Device Options Changes depending on what kind of printer it is. Used to set
the device-specific settings for the printer.
If you select the Details tab, you will see a screen similar to the one in Fig-
ure 16.7. From here you can configure how Windows communicates with the
printer. For example, you can select a different port to print to for this printer.
Additionally, you can install a new or updated driver from this screen. Simply
click on the New Driver button. Windows will present you with a driver selec-
tion screen (similar to the one shown in Figure 16.2 earlier in this chapter).
FIGURE 16.7 The Details tab of the property page of a Windows 9 x printer
One of the most important options on this screen is the Spool Settings button.
This button allows you to configure whether or not Windows will spool print
jobs. If print jobs are spooled, every time you click Print in a program, the job is

printed to a spool directory (usually a subdirectory of the C:\WINDOWS\SPOOL

directory) by a program called SPOOL32.EXE. Then the job is sent to the printer
in the background while you continue to work. If you don’t want print jobs to
be spooled (it is the default), click the Spool Settings button. From the screen
shown in Figure 16.8, you can choose either Spool Print Jobs… or Print Directly
to the Printer. Choose the appropriate option and click OK. Once you have made
changes to a printer, click OK on the property page to save them.
FIGURE 16.8 Changing a printer’s spool settings
The other way to configure a printer is through the printer item in the System
Tray (Figure 16.9). When you print a document, an icon of a printer will appear
in the System Tray. By double-clicking it, you can open it so that you can manage
the print jobs.
FIGURE 16.9 The printer icon in the System Tray
When you double-click the printer icon, you will see the screen shown in
Figure 16.10. From here you can see any pending print jobs listed as well as their
statistics. Notice that there is one print job currently being printed. If you want
to stop the printer, you can choose Printer Pause Printing and Windows will

stop sending print jobs to the printer. If you want to delete a job, click the job in
the list of jobs and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
FIGURE 16.10 Printer job list
If you want to delete all jobs in this list, choose Purge Print Jobs from the Printer
menu. All jobs that are currently spooled will be deleted.
Network Printing
Network printing is a lot like local printing except that with network printing,
you are introducing a degree of separation between the computer and the printer.
That degree of separation is a network. Configuring network printing is very
similar to configuring local printing except you must configure the Windows
printer driver to print to the network instead of to a local printer port. Usually,
this involves installing network software that comes with the printer; the soft-
ware will make a virtual printer port that points to the specified network printer.
For the A+ exam, you will not be expected to know everything about con-
necting network printers (after all, that is what the Network+ exam is for). How-
ever, you should know the basic steps.
Installing a Network Printer

To set up the printer on your workstation, you most likely will use the Point
and Print option for Windows printing. This option allows you to click and
drag a printer to the PRINTERS folder and run a shorter version of the Add
Printer Wizard, which will set up the printer icon and set up the right drivers
on your machine automatically. Follow these steps:
1. Browse to the computer that hosts the printer you want to set up and
double-click the computer name. You’ll see a window with a list of
resources the computer is hosting.
2. Open up the PRINTERS folder (choose Start Settings Printers). Arrange
these windows so you can see both at the same time (Figure 16.11).

FIGURE 16.11 Preparing for the Point-and-Print process
3. To start the Add Printer Wizard, drag the printer you want to set up from
the list of resources the computer is hosting to the Printers window. As
soon as you release the mouse button, you will see the wizard start, and
it will display the window shown in Figure 16.12.
FIGURE 16.12 Starting the Add Printer Wizard
4. The wizard will ask you a series of questions that will help you to config-
ure the printer. The first question it will ask you is “Do you print from
MS-DOS–based programs?” The reasoning behind this question is similar
to the reason we map drive letters. Most older DOS programs (and to a
lesser extent, Windows programs) don’t understand the UNC path syntax
for access to a shared resource. Instead, they understand a name for a local
hardware resource (like LPT1, for the first local parallel port). So, you
must point a local printer port name out to the network in a process
known as capturing. If you need to capture a printer port, answer “Yes”

to this question; otherwise leave it set to the default (“No”). For our
example, click Yes and click Next to move to the next step of the wizard.
5. The next step in the Add Printer Wizard is to capture the printer port,
assuming you chose Yes in the preceding step. If you did, you will see the
screen in Figure 16.13. This screen allows you to capture a printer port so
that DOS programs can print to the network printer. Click the Capture
Printer Port button to bring up the screen (shown in Figure 16.14) that
allows you to choose which local port you want to capture.
FIGURE 16.13 Capturing a printer port
FIGURE 16.14 Picking which local port to capture

6. From the drop-down list shown, choose the local port you want to capture
(any port from LPT1 to LPT9). Remember two things about capturing
ports:
The port doesn’t physically have to be installed in your computer in
order to be captured. The capture process just associates a port name
with a shared printer.
If the port you capture is installed in your computer and you capture
it, all print jobs sent to that port name will be sent to the network
printer, not out the local port (which is the way it is supposed to
work). If you have a printer attached to that port, you would not be
able to print to it.
7. Pick the LPT port you want to capture and click OK to accept the choice
and return to the wizard screen. Then, click Next to continue running the
wizard.
8. The next step is to give the printer instance a name. You should give a net-
work printer a name that reflects what kind of printer it is and which
machine is hosting it. In this example, the printer is labeled HP LaserJet III
(the default name of the driver), but it could have been named Laser on
Bob’s PC. Type in the name that makes sense to you in the screen that the
wizard presents (Figure 16.15). You also have the choice as to whether or
not you want the printer to be the default printer that gets used by all Win-
dows applications.
From here on, printer installation is exactly the same as installing a local
printer. We covered this earlier, so we won’t discuss it further here.

Installing and Configuring Peripheral Drivers

I n order to make Windows recognize a particular piece of hardware, you
must install a driver for it. Each driver is written for the hardware it supports.
Not only do you need to install the driver for it, it must be the correct driver.
It is possible to install a similar driver that may function but is not the correct
one. In this section, you will learn how to install a piece of hardware in both
Windows 9x and 2000.
Windows 95/98
Adding new hardware devices is very simple under Windows. When you start
Windows after installing a new hardware device, it will normally detect the new
device using Plug and Play and automatically install the software for it. If not,
you need to run the Add New Hardware Wizard.
To start adding the new device, double-click the My Computer icon. Then
double-click the Control Panel. To start the wizard, double-click Add New
Hardware icon in the Control Panel window (Figure 16.16).
FIGURE 16.16 The Control Panel window
You can also bring up this window by choosing clicking the Start Settings
Control Panel.

Installing and Configuring Peripheral Drivers 671
Once you have started the Add New Hardware Wizard, you will see a screen
similar to the one in Figure 16.17. This is the introduction to the wizard. To start
the configuration of the new hardware, click Next.
FIGURE 16.17 Add New Hardware Wizard
The next screen that is presented (Figure 16.18) allows you to select whether
the wizard will search for the hardware. If you choose Yes, then in the next step,
Windows will search for the hardware and install the drivers for it automatically.
It is the easiest method (especially if the hardware is Plug and Play compliant)
and is the least complex. If you choose No, the wizard will present a screen from
which you will have to select the type, brand, and settings for the new hardware.
For our example, choose Yes and click Next.
FIGURE 16.18 Telling Windows to search for the new hardware

The next screen will tell you that Windows is ready to search for the new
hardware. To begin the detection, click Next again. Windows will make an
intensive scan of the hardware (you should notice that the hard disk light will be
on almost constantly and you will hear the hard disk thrashing away during the
detection). During this scan, you will see a progress bar at the bottom of the
screen (Figure 16.19) that indicates Windows’s progress with the detection. You
can stop the detection at any time by clicking the Cancel button.
FIGURE 16.19 Detecting new hardware
When the progress indicator gets all the way to the right, Windows will tell
you that it found some hardware that it can install (Figure 16.20). You can see
which hardware it found by clicking the Details button. To finish the setup of the
new hardware, click the Finish button. Windows will copy the drivers from the
installation disks or CD for the device. Once it has done that, it may ask you for
configuration information, if necessary. To finish the hardware setup, it will ask
you to reboot Windows so that the changes take effect and Windows can recog-
nize (and use) the new hardware.

Installing and Configuring Peripheral Drivers 673
FIGURE 16.20 Finishing new hardware installation
Windows 2000
Again, just like adding printers, there are very few differences between adding a
new piece of hardware in Windows 9x and in Windows 2000. However subtle
the differences, though, they are important to note. First, Windows 2000 relies
very heavily on Plug and Play. Installing a piece of hardware in a Windows 2000
computer basically involves physically installing the device, booting the com-
puter, and letting Windows 2000 automatically install the driver for that device.
If it can’t find the driver, it will ask you for the location. Additionally, the screens
have the Windows 2000 “look and feel.” Finally, you can use the Add New
Hardware Wizard to both add new hardware and update drivers for existing
hardware.
Just as with Windows 9x, you can begin the by double-clicking the Add
New Hardware icon (found in Start Settings Control Panel). This will start
the Add New Hardware Wizard, which is similar to the one in Windows 9x.
However, after clicking Next past the first screen, you will be asked if you want
to either add/troubleshoot a device or uninstall/unplug a device. The latter
choice will allow you to prepare Windows to completely remove a device or
temporarily disable a device. To continue adding a hardware device, choose
Add/Troubleshoot a Device and click Next.

At this point, Windows 2000 will try to search for any uninstalled Plug and
Play devices. It will also search for a list of currently installed devices that may
or may not need new drivers. The wizard will then present you with a list of
devices so that you can choose which device you want to install a new driver for
(either a new device or an existing one), as shown in Figure 16.21. If you are
installing a new device, choose Add a New Device. If you are updating a driver
for an existing device, choose the device you want to update the driver for. When
you’ve made your choice, click Next.
FIGURE 16.21 Choosing a device to install a driver for
From this point on, the Add New Hardware Wizard works almost exactly the
same as the Windows 9x wizard. You choose whether you want Windows to
search for the hardware or whether you’ll select from a list. The wizard will then
install the hardware driver or ask you for the appropriate driver and the instal-
lation will be finished.
One final difference between installing new hardware on 9x and installing it
on 2000 is that, if the device driver can’t be found or won’t install correctly,
Windows 2000 will start a troubleshooting wizard to help you finish installing
the new hardware.

Summary 675
Summary
I n this chapter, you learned how to use and configure additional peripherals.
A peripheral is any device that is not part of the computer itself. Examples of
peripherals include modems, printers, scanners, and so on.
In the first section of this chapter, you learned about the most popular meth-
ods of connecting peripherals to host computers. These methods include serial,
parallel, USB, FireWire, and SCSI. We discussed the advantages and disadvan-
tages of each connection method as well as the best application for each.
In the final section, you learned about the proper methods of setting up
Windows printing for both locally connected printers and network-connected
printers. We showed you how to use the Add Printer Wizard to connect both of
these types of printers as well as how to add printer drivers and configure print-
ing properties for each type of printer.
Key Terms
FireWire
IEEE-1394
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

Review Questions
1. You’ve successfully completed an upgrade to Windows 2000 Professional.
Several days later, you add your old printer, using the driver that originally
came with it. Now the printer, which has never had a problem, won’t print.
What do you need to do to fix the problem?
A. Older printers are often not compatible with Windows 2000. You
may need to replace the printer.
B. Your printer driver is out-of-date. Contact the vendor or visit its Web
site for an updated driver.
C. Uninstall, then reinstall the printer using the original driver.
D. None of the above.
2. You’ve set up a network printer. However, you cannot print from your
DOS-based programs. What did you do wrong during printer setup?
A. Nothing. You cannot print from DOS-based programs within
Windows 2000.
B. You have an incorrect printer driver and need an update.
C. During setup, you did not “capture” the printer port. Rerun the Add
Printer Wizard and make the appropriate changes.
D. Run the Add Printer Wizard again and accept all defaults.
3. When you print in Windows 2000, you cannot perform any other task until
the print job is complete. What can you do?
A. Your printer driver is corrupt. Replace it.
B. There is nothing you can do. That is the normal printing mode.
C. Change your printer settings back to the default mode.
D. Your computer needs more RAM.
4. Which of the following methods correctly adds new hardware to a Windows 9x

system if Plug and Play does not work? (Select all that apply.)
A. Choose Start Settings Control Panel and then click the Add New
Hardware icon.
B. Exit to DOS and use the software that came with the device to run the
installation.
C. If Plug and Play does not work, there is no way to get the hardware
working in the Windows 9x environment.
D. On the desktop, double-click the My Computer icon, double-click the
Control Panel icon, then double-click the Add New Hardware icon.

5. The most popular connection method is serial. Which of the following are
characteristics of a serial connection? (Select all that apply.)
A. Transfer rate of one data bit at a time.
B. Maximum speed of 128Kbps.
C. Though popular, it is expensive to manufacture.
D. All of the above.
6. Which of the following is a difference between installing new hardware on a

Windows 9x system versus a Windows 2000 system?
A. There is no difference.
B. With Windows 9x, if the proper device driver cannot be found or
won’t install properly, a troubleshooting wizard helps finish the task.
C. With Windows 2000, if the proper device driver cannot be found or
won’t install properly, a troubleshooting wizard helps finish the task.
D. With Windows 9x, if the proper device driver cannot be found or
won’t install properly, then the device cannot be installed at all.
7. The Small Computer System Interface (commonly known as SCSI) is yet

another method for connecting peripherals. Which of the following are
characteristics of SCSI? (Select all that apply.)
A. SCSI is the best choice for high-speed connectivity.
B. SCSI, when properly linked, can support up to 127 peripheral devices.
C. SCSI can transfer either 16 or 32 bits of data at a time.
D. SCSI can be added to desktop systems with an expansion card.
8. Which of the following are peripheral connection methods for Windows 9x

and Windows 2000? (Select all that apply.)
A. Parallel
B. Serial
C. SCSI
D. USB
E. IEEE 1394

9. You’re using your USB port for your scanner. What is the preferred method
for swapping your scanner with a previously configured digital camera?
A. Shut the computer down, disconnect the scanner, connect the digital
camera, and then turn your computer back on.
B. With USB, you can hot-swap devices. Therefore, just disconnect the
scanner, hook up the digital camera, and you’re done.
C. Turn off the scanner and disconnect it. Connect the digital camera.
Reboot. You can now use your digital camera.
D. None of the above. Digital cameras will not work on a USB port.
10. Which of the following are accepted methods for initiating the Add Printer
Wizard (APW, for short)? (Select all that apply.)
A. Choose Start Settings Printers and double-click the Add Printer icon.
B. Type APW.EXE at the DOS prompt.
C. Double-click the Printers icon in the Control Panel and double-click
the Add Printer icon.
D. Choose Start Run, type APW.EXE, and click OK.
11. Serial connections are very popular. One of the most popular applications of
a serial connection is ___________________ .
A. Synchronize two data sources
B. Link multiple peripherals
C. Transfer large amounts of data at high speeds
D. All of the above
12. What is the final step in setting up a newly installed printer?

A. Configure the port settings.
B. Create a unique printer identification name.
C. Configure the Graphics setting.
D. Print a test page.
13. FireWire, or IEEE 1394, is a relatively new peripheral connection method.

What is FireWire used for?
A. It is primarily used to download large video files to a PC.
B. It is the preferred method for linking multiple peripherals.
C. It provides direct access to the Internet, bypassing the modem.
D. It is used to activate explosives via computer.

14. A previously installed Windows 9x printer needs to be modified for higher

resolution. How can this be accomplished?
A. Uninstall, then reinstall the printer, making your changes during the
installation process.
B. Right-click the printer icon, choose Properties, click the Graphics tab,
and make your changes.
C. Right-click the printer icon, choose Change Graphics, and make your
changes.
D. Right-click the printer icon, choose Properties, click Change Graphics,
click Resolution, and make your changes.
15. One of the most popular connection methods is parallel. Which of the follow-
ing are characteristics of a parallel connection? (Select all that apply.)
A. Transfer rate of 8 data bits at a time
B. Usually used to connect printers
C. New parallel ports can connect scanners and Zip drives
D. Can connect multiple devices at the same time
16. Plug and Play includes a troubleshooting wizard on which operating system?
A. Windows 95
B. Windows 98
C. Windows NT
D. Windows 2000
17. Which icon will allow you to manage print jobs as well as printer properties?
A. PRINTERS folder
B. Printer icon in PRINTERS folder
C. Printer icon in System Tray
D. Spooler control panel
18. In addition to the Add Printer Wizard, which other method(s) can be used to
configure a printer?
A. Copy the new driver to the C:\WINDOWS\PRINTERS directory
B. INSTALL on manufacturer’s disk
C. PSETUP in C:\WINDOWS directory
D. SETUP on manufacturer’s disk

19. The Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a relatively new connection device. Which
of the following are characteristics of USB?
A. Can connect a maximum of 127 external devices
B. Supports printers, scanners, joysticks, digital cameras, and mice
C. Faster data transfer rate than a serial port
D. All of the above
20. You’ve installed a printer for network use, but no one on the network is able
to print to it. Which of the following would be a viable solution to fixing the
problem?
A. Right-click the Printer icon, click Network, and configure the printer
as needed.
B. Right-click the Printer icon, click Properties, click the Sharing tab, and
configure the printer as needed.
C. Open the Control Panel, double-click the Printer icon, click Network,
and configure the printer as needed.
D. Only a reinstall of the printer will enable it for network use.


1. B. When installing a printer, you must always be sure to have an updated
driver. Many printing problems originate with out-of-date printer drivers.
2. C. During setup, you must point a local printer port name out to the network.
This process is known as capturing. During normal setup, the default to cap-
ture a printer port is No. If the Add Printer Wizard is run again and the answer
to the Capture Printer Port question is changed to Yes, your printer should
then be able to print from DOS-based programs.
3. C. The default setting for printing enables a program called SPOOL32.EXE.

That program allows your printing to be done in the background while you
can work on other tasks. Spool Print Jobs is a property of most printers.
4. A, D. Plug and Play will automatically detect new hardware and install the
proper software. If it is not successful, the Add New Hardware program can
be used. That program can be accessed by the methods indicated in answers A
and D.
5. A, B. Serial connections have a transfer rate of one data bit at a time, a max-
imum speed of 128Kbps, and are very inexpensive to manufacture.
6. C. One major difference between installing new hardware on a Windows 9x

system versus a Windows 2000 system is that, if the proper device driver can-
not be found or won’t install properly, a Windows 2000 troubleshooting wiz-
ard helps to finish the task.
7. A, C, D. SCSI offers an array of benefits, including high speeds, 16- or 32-bit

data transfer rates, and ease of use via an expansion card, but it cannot sup-
port 127 peripheral devices. Only USB can do that.
8. A, B, C, D, E. All of the options are peripheral connection methods.
9. B. With USB, you can hot-swap devices. With the PC powered on, disconnect
the scanner from the USB cable and connect the cable to the digital camera.
There is no need to shut the computer down or reboot.
10. A, C. As with most functions within Windows, there is more than one way to
accomplish a task. To initiate the Add Printer Wizard, options A and C are
equally correct.
11. A. Serial connections are popular because they are so inexpensive to manufac-
ture. But their transfer rate is slow and only one peripheral can be connected
to a serial port. They are, however, an excellent way to synchronize two data
sources.
12. D. Option D, print a test page, is the final step in setting up a new printer.

13. A. With a maximum data transfer rate of 400MB per second, FireWire is pri-
marily used to download large video files.
14. B. It is relatively easy to make changes to installed printers. Right-clicking the

printer icon and choosing Properties opens a series of printer property pages
and functions. Thus, B is the correct answer.
15. A, B, C. Parallel connections have a transfer rate of 8 data bits, they are pri-
marily used to connect printers, and new parallel ports can connect other
devices. However, they can connect only one device at a time.
16. D. When Plug and Play does not work, Windows 2000 has a troubleshoot-
ing wizard to assist the user. Also, the Add New Hardware Wizard in Win-
dows 2000 can be used to add new hardware and update drivers for
existing hardware.
17. C. While a document is printing, a printer icon will appear in the System Tray.
By double-clicking it, you can open it and manage your print jobs as well as
the printer properties from menus within it.
18. B, D. There are printers for which the APW does not work. In such instances,
you will need to run SETUP or INSTALL from the vendor printer disk to
install the appropriate printing software.
19. D. The Universal Serial Bus (USB) connects up to 127 external devices, sup-
ports most peripherals (including printers, scanners, digital cameras, mice,
etc), and provides a high data transfer rate.
20. B. One of the tabs on the printer property page is Sharing. That tab is used to
share the printer on the network. The Sharing function can be accessed as indi-
cated in option B.

Chapter Preventative
Maintenance
THIS CHAPTER:
2.3 Identify the basic system boot sequences and boot methods,
including the steps to create an emergency boot disk with utilities
installed for Windows 9x, Windows NT, and Windows 2000.
Startup disk
Safe Mode
MS-DOS mode
3.2 Recognize common problems and determine how to resolve them.
Eliciting problem symptoms from customers
Having customer reproduce error as part of the diagnostic
process
Identifying recent changes to the computer environment from
the user
Troubleshooting Windows-specific printing problems
Print spool is stalled
Incorrect/incompatible driver for print
Incorrect parameter
Other Common problems
Illegal operation
Invalid working directory
System lock up

Option (Sound card, modem, input device) or will not
function
Application will not start or load
Cannot log on to network (option—NIC not functioning)
TSR (Terminate Stay Resident) programs and virus
Applications don’t install
Network connection
Viruses and virus types
What they are
Sources (floppy, e-mails, etc.)
How to determine presence

B ecause of their very nature, computers can and do fail. Preven-
tative maintenance involves performing certain practices on a computer so that
the computer will function reliably and not fail as often.
For complete coverage of objective 2.3, please also see Chapters 13 and 14. For
complete coverage of objective 3.2, please also see Chapter 19.
Thankfully, Microsoft has included a few pieces of software with their oper-
ating systems that allow us to perform preventative maintenance fairly easily. No
fuss, no muss. The three preventative maintenance procedures we’re going to dis-
cuss in this chapter are:
Backing up your data
Guarding against virus attacks
Creating and using an emergency disk
With these procedures, you should be able to recover most of the common
problems.
Backing Up Your Data

A backup is a duplicate copy of all the files and software on your hard
disk. This copy is usually stored in a safe place (like a safe) in case of a system fail-
ure. When a system failure occurs, the backup can be copied back onto the sys-
tem, restoring the system to the state it was in at the time of the last backup. This
process of restoring the system is known as a restore.
Most backups are done the same way: select what you want to back up, then
select where you want to back up to, then finally begin the backup. The files
and directories you want to back up (and, subsequently, the drive they are
stored on) are called the backup source. The device that you are backing up to
is called the backup target. Once you have selected these items, some backup
software will let you save these selections in a file known as a backup set so that

686 Chapter 17 Preventative Maintenance
you can reselect them later for restore by simply retrieving the backup set file
from the backup media.
Backup Devices
There are several pieces of backup hardware that are currently available. You can
back up your information to magnetic tape, Digital Audio Tape (DAT), Digital
Linear Tape (DLT), optical disk, removable hard disk, and many other removable
media. The key here is that all of these media can be removed from the drive and
stored in a safe place.
It’s a common misconception that if you back up your data to a second, non-
removable hard disk in your computer, your data is safe. But what happens if
your computer is in a fire? What happens is that you lose your data. On the other
hand, if the backup media are stored in a fireproof safe, you can purchase a new
computer (assuming you have insurance), restore the data from the backup, and
be working again in a short time.
Of all the backup media that are available, the most popular is magnetic tape
(including reel-to-reel, DAT, DLT, and any backup system that uses a magnetic
tape in a cartridge). There are a few reasons it is the most popular:
First, it’s inexpensive. Magnetic tape costs around $.01 to $.02 per MB
(around $30 to $40 to back up 2GB), and the price is going down.
Second, magnetic tapes are small and each holds several hundred MB
of data.
Finally, it’s reliable. Magnetic tape is a proven technology that has been
around for several years and will continue to expand in capacity and speed
in the future.
Backup Types
There are four major types of backup that most backup software will use when
backing up files. The four types are Full, Differential, Incremental, and Custom.
Each type differs in the amount that it backs up, the time it takes to perform the
backup and the time it takes to restore the system to its pre-backup condition.
Full Backup
A Full backup, as its name suggests, backs up everything on the entire disk at
once. It simply copies everything from the disk being backed up to the backup
device. The backup takes a long time to perform (relative to the other types of
backup), but the advantage is that the backup (and, subsequently, the restore)
will use only one tape (assuming the tape capacity is large enough to handle
backing up the hard disk in one shot).

Backing Up Your Data 687
Full backups are most often performed on systems that require that there be
very little down time. Insurance computer systems are one such example. Their
administrators will perform a Full backup every night so that if there is a failure,
the system can be brought up quickly and the data will be as current as the time
of the last backup.
Differential
A Differential backup backs up the files on a disk that have changed since the last
Full backup, regardless of whether a Differential or Incremental backup has been
done since the last Full backup. The Full backup is done usually once a week (i.e.,
on Friday) and copies all the files from the disk to the backup device. The Dif-
ferential backup is done every day.
The size of a Differential backup increases every day following the Full
backup. For example, if you do a Full backup on Friday night, then start your
Differential backups on Monday, the Monday Differential tape will only have a
small amount of information on it. When you get to Thursday, the Thursday
tape will have all of the information on the disk that has changed since last Fri-
day (including Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday’s information).
The advantage to a Differential backup style is that during the week, the back-
ups don’t take very long (although the time it takes to back up increases as the
week goes on). In addition, you don’t have to buy many backup tapes or media.
You can use the same backup media you use for the Differential backup (not the
one for the Full backup) over and over again each day.
When you restore from a Differential backup, you will need two tapes: the
Full backup from the previous week and the current Differential backup. You
will need to restore the Full backup first, then restore the Differential backup to
restore the changes made since the last Full backup.
Incremental
What kind of backup strategy would you use with a terabyte (1,024 gigabytes)
of data? A Full backup every day would be impractical because it would take too
long and use several tapes. A Differential backup would use even more tapes.
Given these limitations, an Incremental backup would be the best choice.
The Incremental backup works similarly to the Differential backup but uses
fewer tapes in a large backup situation. An Incremental backup does a Full
backup once a week, then the backup software backs up all the files that have
changed since the previous backup (not necessarily the last Full backup). Each
day the backup software backs up a different amount of data, depending on the
amount of data that was created that day.
The upside to the Incremental backup is that only the files that have changed
that day will be backed up. If only three files changed today, then only three files
will be backed up. Incremental backups tend to be very quick. Additionally,
there is very little wasted effort because you aren’t backing up files that haven’t

changed since you last backed them up. The downside to Incremental backups is
the number of tapes needed for a restore. To restore from an Incremental
backup, you need the last Full backup tape and all the Incremental backup tapes
from the day of the failure back to the day of the last Full backup.
Custom
The last type of backup that is performed is the Custom backup. A Custom
backup is any combination of the above three types. A Custom backup involves
selecting the files you want backed up as well as when you want them backed up.
Most backup software programs have the ability to perform this type of backup.
An example of a time when you might need to perform a Custom backup is the
end of the year. Accountants will need to back up the previous year’s accounting
data before finishing the year’s accounting, just in case they make any mistakes
and need to restore and start over.
There are some computer systems that can’t afford any “down time” (i.e., bank-
ing, flight control, and certain high-volume sales systems). These systems back
up all the data in real time and are called “high-availability data solutions.” They
will use various techniques to ensure that as soon as the data is written to disk,
another copy is written to a second disk. If the system goes down, the backup
system takes over automatically.
As you can imagine, these systems are usually impractical for home users, but
they are found quite commonly in the network world on servers.
Backing Up in MS-DOS: Using MSBACKUP.EXE

Because of the importance of backing up your data, there are many different backup
programs to choose from. Microsoft has ensured that you will have one to use by
including one with each of its major operating systems: DOS, Windows 3.x and
Windows 95 (a backup utility is also included with Windows 98, NT, and 2000).
We will assume that you will be backing up to floppy for these examples, but it
should be noted that most computers can be fitted with tape drives that can be
used by some of these programs (the Windows 9 x/NT/2000 Backup, for example).
If you have a tape drive in your computer and want to use the following guidelines
to back up your data, just ignore the steps where you need to swap disks.
The MS-DOS backup program MSBACKUP is a very simple, very powerful

program. It can be run in either command line mode or with a menu-driven

interface. In either mode it can copy files to any DOS device (including floppy
drives and redirected network drives—tape drives aren’t supported). It can per-
form any of the types of backups including Full, Incremental, and Differential
(and Custom is an option if you select specific files to back up).
MSBACKUP uses special settings files called SET files to store the settings for
how it should run. The default SET file is called DEFAULT.SET and, if unmod-
ified by the user, will allow a user to back up their entire hard drive by simply
starting the backup program and pressing B for Backup and S for Start Backup.
To start MSBACKUP, simply type C:\>MSBACKUP at the DOS command
line and press Enter. MSBACKUP will start and present you with a menu giving
you five choices: Backup, Restore, Compare, Configure, or Quit. Because the A+
Exam doesn’t have too many questions about this menu, we’ll just give a sum-
mary of each of these options.
If you have never run MSBACKUP before, it will present you with a screen that
asks you to configure it. You will need to enter some settings and test MSBACKUP
to make sure that backups are reliable.
Configure
Because MSBACKUP is a DOS program, you may need to configure the hardware
it’s using. When you select the Configure button from the main menu, you will be
presented with a screen where you can configure the video settings (like what res-
olution and which colors you want to use), mouse settings (important if you want
the mouse to work properly in this program), and which backup devices MS
Backup is going to use (not really necessarily if you are backing up to floppy).
The final option on this screen is the Compatibility Test. This test ensures that
your system is able to backup files reliably. The test is automated (you must spec-
ify which drive you are using to back up to), but you will need to have a disk
available so that it can do a test backup. Click the button to perform this com-
patibility test. If it finishes with no errors, you can begin your backup.
You cannot perform a backup until you run a compatibility test!
Backup
To use the Backup option:
1. Click the Backup button (assuming your mouse is set up to work under
DOS) or type B. When you select this option, a menu will appear.
2. At the top of this menu, you will see a file name under “Setup File.” This
is the name of the SET file that MSBACKUP gets its settings from. If you

have saved previously configured settings, choose this option and pick the
SET file that contains the details of how backup should run. Otherwise,
leave this option set to DEFAULT.SET.
3. You can then click the Backup From box and choose which files you want
to back up. Click the drive(s) that you want to back up or use the Select
Files button underneath this window to pick specific files you want to
back up. Remember that the more you choose to back up, the longer
the backup will take and the more media (disks) you will use.
4. Choose the drop-down list under Backup To to pick which drive letter you
want to back the files up to. If you pick a floppy disk drive (A or B in most
systems), MSBACKUP will copy as many files as it can to the disk, then
ask for a new, blank disk when it is full.
As you remove disks or other backup media that are full from a drive, label them
immediately. That way you won’t lose them or get them out of order.
5. After you have chosen where you are backing up to, you should choose
whether to do a Full, Differential, or Incremental backup. (Custom back-
ups simply involve changing the settings for any of the other types.) The
default type is Full, but you can change this option by clicking on the
drop-down menu and selecting Differential or Incremental.
6. When you have finished setting up the backup, you can click Start Backup.
During the backup, MSBACKUP will display how long the backup will
take, how many disks it will take, and how much data is being backed up.
When the backup is complete, it will display a screen telling you all the sta-
tistics about the backup that was performed, including any files that were
skipped and the speed (in KB per minute) at which the backup took place.
Compare
Once you have performed a backup, you should use the Compare option on the
MS Backup main menu to compare the files you just backed up to the originals
that are currently on the disk. This option, when selected, will allow you to per-
form one of two operations:
You can check the integrity of the current backup.
You can check to see how many files have changed on your computer
since the backup was performed.
The second of these two operations is useful before performing an Incremental or
Differential backup because it will give you an idea of how many files have changed
and thus of how many will be backed up during either an Incremental or Differential.

Restore
Hopefully, you will never need to restore. If you have to restore, that usually
means there was a disk failure of some kind and you’ve lost some (or all) of your
data. Before you can restore, you must have DOS, as well as the MSBACKUP
program installed on the computer. Then, follow these steps:
1. Run MSBACKUP and select Main Restore.
2. Place the backup media that contains the files you want restored into its
appropriate drive.
3. Choose the location you want to restore from by clicking Restore From
and choosing the drive letter of the disk you are restoring from.
4. Select Restore To Original Locations so that the files will be restored
along with the directories they came from.
5. Next, you must choose which files to restore (you can’t proceed with the
restore otherwise):
To restore the entire backup of the drive, just make sure that [-C-] All
Files is selected in the Restore Files window.
If you want to restore a particular file or files, choose Select Files and
pick the file(s) you want to restore.
6. When you are finished with your selections, click the Start Restore button
to begin the restoration. During the restoration, MS Backup will ask you
for several disks, in the same order it did when you performed the backup.
Insert each disk when MS Backup asks for it.
When the restore is finished, you will see a status screen informing you of how
long it took and how many files were restored.
Quit
Select this option when you have finished performing your backup, configure,
or restore. When selected, this option will exit the program and leave you at a
DOS prompt.
Backing Up in Windows 3.x: Using MWBACKUP.EXE

Now that we have discussed the MSBACKUP program for DOS, we need to dis-
cuss the available, built-in backup for Windows 3.x. There is a Windows version
of MSBACKUP.EXE that comes with MS-DOS. It is called MWBACKUP.EXE,
and it runs basically the same as the MS-DOS version, except all screens now
have the Windows “look and feel” to them. Additionally, the main menu has
been replaced by a menu bar at the top of the Microsoft Backup window. The
four buttons are the same choices you have with the DOS version, and they per-
form the same functions.

Using the Microsoft Backup for Windows is basically the same as using the
DOS version. This is mainly because they are based on the same backup engine.
Generally speaking, you can follow the same steps to back up with Microsoft
Backup for Windows that you did with MSBACKUP.EXE for DOS. The only
difference is that you will see Windows windows and menus instead of DOS win-
dows and menus.
Backing Up in Windows 95: Using Backup for Windows 95

The third backup utility we’re going to discuss is Microsoft Backup for Win-
dows 95. It is basically the old Microsoft Backup, with a new interface and a few
new features. It can support backing up to both floppies and other types of
backup devices (like tape drives). However, the types of tape drives it can use are
somewhat limited. Table 17.1 lists the tape drives that are compatible with Win-
dows 95 and the ones that aren’t.
TABLE 17.1 Windows 95 Backup Tape Drive Compatibility Chart
Tape Drive Compatible
Archive (any) No
QIC 40 Yes
QIC 80 Yes
QIC 3010 Yes
QIC 40, 80, and 3010 Yes
Irwin (any) No
Mountain (any) No
QIC Wide No
QIC 3020 No
SCSI tape drives (any) No
Summit (any) No
Travan (any) No
Wangtek (QIC 40, 80, and 3010) Yes

As you can see, basically only a QIC 40, 80, or 3010 tape drive will really
work properly with Backup for Windows 95 (as well as any floppy drive).
Installing Windows 95 Backup

In Windows 95, Backup can sometimes be found under Start Programs
Accessories System Tools. I say “sometimes” because it is not installed by
default. You must specifically install it (either after Windows 95 has been
installed or during a custom install) in order to use it.
To install Backup after Windows 95 has been installed, follow these steps:
1. Proceed to the Windows 95 Control Panel under Start Settings Con-
trol Panel.
2. Select Add/Remove Programs and choose the Windows Setup tab
(Figure 17.1).
3. Click the check box next to Disk Tools. Doing so will tell the Windows 95
Setup program that you want to install the disk tools (including Backup).
4. To finish the installation, click OK.
Windows will copy the files from the installation location (either floppy or
CD-ROM) and update the System Tools program group with an icon for Backup.
FIGURE 17.1 Installing Windows 95 Backup using Add/Remove Programs

Starting Backup
To start the Windows 95 Backup, choose Start Programs Accessories
System Tools Backup. The first time you run Backup, you will see a screen
similar to the one shown in Figure 17.2. As you can see, this window explains,
in a very broad sense, how to use Backup to back up your files. If you haven’t
used Backup before, you might want to click the Help button. This will bring
up a Windows Help screen that will allow you to browse and search for help
on how to use Backup. Once you have read the help file, or if you already know
how to use Backup, you can click OK.
FIGURE 17.2 You will see this screen the first time you run Backup.
If you don’t want to see this screen again, check the box next to Don’t Show
This Again.
The nice thing about the Windows 95 Backup program is that it automatically
makes a backup set for you, to get you started. This backup set is a full backup
of the hard disk, including the Registry files (which some backup programs can’t
back up). After you click OK to the screen in Figure 17.2, Backup will present
you with the screen shown in Figure 17.3, which tells you it has made this
backup set and what you can use it for.
Do not use this backup set (called Full System Backup) to base your Incremental
or Differential backups on. They may not work correctly if based on this particular
backup set.

FIGURE 17.3 Backup automatically creates a backup set called Full System Backup for you the
first time you run it.
To start using Backup, mark the check box (if you don’t want to see this warn-
ing again) and click OK.
Layout of Backup
Backup is a rather simple yet powerful program. There are two panes in the main
window (Figure 17.4). These two panes work very similarly to the Windows
Explorer program. If you double-click on an item in the right pane, it will open
and allow you to see what’s inside. You can also use the right pane and click on
the + signs next to items to “tree them out” and show the directory structure.
These two panes allow you to select items to be backed up or restored depending
on which tab is selected above. In Figure 17.4, the Backup tab is forward, mean-
ing that selections you make will be for files and directories to be backed up.
FIGURE 17.4 The Windows 95 Backup main window

In addition to the two panes, you will notice that there are menus at the top
of the screen. The most important of these menus is Help. If you don’t under-
stand how to do something in Backup, press the F1 key or choose Help Help
Topics. Doing so will open the Windows 95 Help topics for Backup.
Backing Up Files
Backing up files in Windows 95 Backup works very similarly to the Windows
MWBACKUP.EXE program. First you select what you want to back up, then
where to want to back up those files and directories to, and then you initiate the
backup:
1. To start the backup process, select the Backup tab (if it’s not already
selected).
2. Then select the directories you want to back up by clicking the check boxes
next to them (you may need to click the + sign next to a directory if the sub-
directory you want is inside it). If you want to back up the entire C drive,
simply click the check box next to the drive icon labeled “C:” When you
make a selection, a window will appear that shows you it is counting the
files and determining how much space they will take up (Figure 17.5).
FIGURE 17.5 Selecting files to back up
3. Once Backup finishes counting files, you will be able to click the button
marked Next Step to start the Backup Wizard.
If you make an icon on your desktop for Backup and you have a preconfigured
backup set (SET file), you can start the backup by dragging the SET file onto the
Backup icon.

4. The next step in the backup process involves selecting where you want to
back the files up to (Figure 17.6).
If you have a compatible tape drive installed, it will show up in the list
on the left. You can then select it as the target device and click Start
Backup to begin the backup.
If you don’t have a tape drive (or don’t want to use it), you can select
one of the floppy drives as the target device by clicking on its name.
The name of the device will appear under Selected Device or Location
as the device that has been specified as the target. In either case, select
the device you want to back up to and click Start Backup to continue.
FIGURE 17.6 Selecting a backup target device
5. Now that you have selected what you want to back up, chosen the target
backup device, and begun the backup, Backup will ask you what you want
to call the backup set (Figure 17.7). Type in a name that describes what
you are backing up. You can use any character except \, /, :, or > in the
backup set name. For example, if you are backing up the entire C drive,
you might call the backup of the C drive “Full Backup.” To start the
backup, type the name of the backup set, then click OK.

FIGURE 17.7 Entering a backup set name
You can protect sensitive backup data by entering a password for the backup set.
Simply click the Password Protect button to enter a password. This password will
be required during the restore process in order to restore the data.
6. As soon as you click OK, Backup will present you with a screen similar to
the one shown in Figure 17.8. As you can see, this screen shows you how
many files it is backing up, how much space they occupy, and how far along
the backup is. When the backup is finished, it will present you with a screen
telling you that the backup is finished (Figure 17.9). Click OK to acknowl-
edge this screen, and you will see the backup statistics screen that shows you
how many files were backed up, how much data (in KB) was backed up,
and how long it took. Click OK and you are finished with the backup.
FIGURE 17.8 Backup progress screen

FIGURE 17.9 The Backup Finished window
Restoring Files
It’s amazing: There are some customers I’ve done work for who have had a com-
puter company come in, set up their backup system for them, and only show
them how to change tapes! When the customers have a problem, they feel help-
less and don’t know if their backup is any good until the computer company
comes in and does their restore for them.
In order to ensure that your backups are good, you should perform a test
restore every once in a while. If you used the Windows 95 backup program to
back up your files, you will need to know how to use it to restore, as well:
1. To begin a restore, run Backup and insert the first disk (or tape) of the
backup into the drive.
2. Once Backup is up and running, you must click on the Restore tab to start
the restore process.
3. In the screen that appears (Figure 17.10), you will see a list of the possible
backup devices on the left. From this list, you must select the device you
want to restore from by clicking on it.
4. Once you select a backup device, a list of the backup sets on that device
will appear in the right-hand window. To continue, you must select the
backup set that contains the files you want to restore and click Next Step.
5. If there is a password on the backup set, Backup will prompt for it. You
must enter the correct password before Backup will let you continue with
the restore.

FIGURE 17.10 The Windows 95 Backup Restore window
6. The next step in the restore is to select the files and directories you want
to restore. The screen shown in Figure 17.11 works the same as the file
selection screen for backing up files earlier in the chapter: simply place a
check mark next to the file(s) you want to restore and click Start Restore.
On the other hand, if you want to restore the whole backup set, click the
check box next to the name of the backup set in this window. All files
from the backup set will be restored with this selection.
FIGURE 17.11 Selecting files to restore

Once you have clicked Start Restore, Backup will review the backup set and
count how many files there are to restore. It will then display a status window
(very similar to the backup progress window in Figure 17.8) that will show how
far along the backup is. (See Figure 17.12.) This screen will display how many
files have been restored (out of the total number of files to be restored), how long
you have been restoring files, and how much data has been restored (in KB).
FIGURE 17.12 Restore progress screen
When Backup finishes restoring all the files you have selected, it will present
you with a summary of the restore (Figure 17.13) detailing how much data was
restored and how long it took. Click OK to complete the restore and return to the
Backup main screen.
FIGURE 17.13 Restore summary screen

In most situations, the backup software that comes with most operating systems
is adequate. However, you can buy backup software that has more features than
the included software. Some of those features include data compression, backup
scheduling, and greater hardware device support.
For home computers, the Microsoft backup products are more than adequate.
However, for business users, I would recommend looking at products like
Norton Backup or Central Point backup. The features they add will make a
computer administrator much happier in the end.
Guarding against Virus Attacks

A computer virus is a small, deviously genius program that replicates
itself to other computers, generally causing the computers to behave abnor-
mally. Generally speaking, a virus’s main function is to reproduce. A virus
attaches itself to files on a hard disk and modifies the files. When these files are
accessed by a program, the virus can “infect” the program with its own code.
The program may then, in turn, replicate the virus code to other files and other
programs. In this manner, a virus may infect an entire computer.
When an infected file is transferred to another computer (via disk or modem
download), the process begins on the other computer. Because of the frequency
of downloads from the Internet, viruses can run rampant if left unchecked. For
this reason, anti-virus programs were developed. They check files and programs
for any program code that shouldn’t be there and either eradicate it or prevent
the virus from replicating. An anti-virus program is generally run in the back-
ground on a computer and examines all the file activity on that computer. When
it detects a suspicious activity, it will notify the user of a potential problem and
ask them what to do about it. Some anti-virus programs can also make intelligent
decisions about what to do as well. The process of running an anti-virus program
on a computer is known as inoculating the computer against a virus.
For a listing of most of the viruses that are currently out there, refer to Symantec’s
Anti-Virus Research Center (SARC) at www.symantec.com/avcenter/index.html.
There are two real categories of viruses, benign and malicious. The benign
viruses don’t do much besides replicate themselves and exist. They may cause the
occasional problem, but it is usually an unintentional side effect. Malicious
viruses, on the other hand, are designed to destroy things. Once a malicious virus
(i.e., the Michelangelo virus) infects your machine, you can usually kiss the con-
tents of your hard drive goodbye.

you want MS Anti-Virus to try and clean the virus from the disk or to
ignore it (Figure 17.14).
If MS Anti-Virus finds a virus and you have Detect selected, the pro-
gram will simply tell you which files are afflicted.
FIGURE 17.14 MS Anti-Virus finds a virus
4. When it has finished scanning the disk, MSAV will present you with a list
of the disks it has scanned, the file types it has scanned, the number of
viruses found on the disks, and the number of files cleaned. If it hasn’t
found any viruses, select OK to return to the main menu. Then select Exit
to quit MSAV. If it did find a virus or two, select OK and return to the
main menu, then re-run the Detect & Clean process just to make sure the
virus is gone.
There are two options left on the main menu to discuss: Options and Exit.
Both are pretty much self-explanatory. The Options menu allows you to change
how aggressively MSAV checks for viruses. The Exit menu completely exits you
from the MSAV program.
Using Microsoft Anti-Virus for Windows

If you want to use Microsoft Anti-Virus for Windows, simply open the Microsoft
Tools program group and double-click the Microsoft Anti-Virus icon. In the
window that appears, select which disk (or disks) you want to scan from the list
at the left side, then click the Detect button or the Detect & Clean button to start
the scanning for viruses.
During detection MSAV will display a screen showing which files it’s scan-
ning and the progress. If it finds a file infected with a virus, it will display a warn-
ing and give you the same options it does under MS-DOS.
Finally, once MSAV is finished running, it will present you with a status
screen that gives you a list of the number of files it scanned, the number that
were infected, and the time it took the scan (similar to the status screen for the
DOS version).

Creating and Using an Emergency Disk 705
There are several commercial anti-virus programs available. One of the best and
most widely used is Symantec Anti-Virus (SAM). It has a memory resident com-
ponent to constantly look for viruses, as well as an executable component for
scanning for viruses. SAM is available for Macintosh, Windows 3.x, Windows 9x,
Windows NT, Windows 2000, UNIX, and a few other platforms.
There are also programs like Norton Anti-Virus and Central Point Anti-Virus
available if the Symantec product isn’t your bag. And you can always just use
the ones that come with DOS and Windows (unless you have Windows 95,
which doesn’t come with one).
Creating and Using an Emergency Disk

W hat happens when your Windows computer has a problem so severe
the computer won’t boot? Often times, if the Registry is corrupt, the Windows
interface won’t come up—not even in Safe Mode. All versions of Windows after
95 come with a utility that allows you to create a disk that can be used to fix Win-
dows. This disk is often called the Windows Emergency Repair Disk (ERD). It
contains enough of the Windows startup files to boot the computer. The disk
also contains files and utilities to examine (and possibly fix) the machine, utilities
like FDISK, SCANDISK, EDIT, ATTRIB, FORMAT, DEBUG, CHKDSK, and
UNINSTAL.EXE.
Windows 9x Startup Disk

The Windows 9x emergency disk is a simple bootable disk that contains some
basic utilities, like FDISK, ATTRIB, CHKDSK, DEBUG, EDIT, FORMAT,
RESTART, SCANDISK, and SYS. These files are used to correct basic disk prob-
lems as well as file boot problems. However, the Windows 9x emergency disk
CANNOT be used to restore a corrupt Registry (apart from copying the
USER.DAT and SYSTEM.DAT files from their backup locations).
Creating a Windows 9x Startup Disk

To create a Windows 9x startup disk, select Start Settings Control Panel,
double-click Add/Remove Programs, and select the Startup Disk tab (see Fig-
ure 17.15). When you are ready to create a startup disk, insert a blank floppy
disk in your A drive and click the Create Disk icon. Windows 9x will format
the disk and make it bootable (see Figure 17.16). It will then copy the afore-
mentioned utilities to it so that you can use them to fix Windows 9x.

When Windows 9x finishes copying files to the disk, remove the disk from the
drive, label it “Windows 9x Emergency Startup Disk,” and put it in a safe place
so that you can get to it easily if there is ever a problem.
FIGURE 17.15 The Startup Disk tab of the Add/Remove Programs control panel
FIGURE 17.16 Creating a new startup disk
Using the Windows 9x Repair Disk

If you have a problem with your Windows installation and you suspect the disk
has a problem, you can boot to the repair disk and try to repair the hard disk.

Simply insert the floppy you made into your floppy drive and boot to it. This
startup disk will create a small, virtual disk drive (usually labeled D or something
similar) with all the repair utilities installed on it. You can then use these utilities
to repair the disk or files. Additionally, since you are booted up to a command
line, you can copy new files over old, corrupt ones, if necessary.
Windows NT Emergency Repair Disk (ERD)

When compared to Windows 9x, Windows NT is a much more advanced oper-
ating system that relies much more on the Registry than any of its predecessors
did. The Windows NT Emergency Repair Disk (ERD) is a special disk you can
create in Windows NT that can be used to repair the Registry as well as startup
files. One important difference between the NT ERD and the Windows 9x
Startup Disk is that the NT ERD contains only information—it is NOT a boot-
able disk. You must use some other method of booting NT (usually a startup
disk set or the NT installation CD itself).
The Windows NT ERD typically contains the following files:
System Registry hive (SYSTEM._)
Software Registry hive (SOFTWARE._)
The Security Account Manager (SAM) and Security database Registry
hives (SAM._ and SECURITY._)
Default user profile (default._)
New user profile (ntuser.da_) Windows NT version 4.0 only
The SETUP.LOG file
The AUTOEXEC.NT file
The CONFIG.NT file
These files can be used to restore a Windows NT system to proper operation.
An explanation of these files can be found in Part II, Chapter 14, “Windows 2000.”
Creating a Windows NT ERD

To create a Windows NT Emergency Repair Disk, you must use the RDISK util-
ity. This utility is installed with the default installation of Windows NT and by
default is installed to the C drive in the WINNT\SYSTEM32 directory. To create
the NT ERD using RDISK, follow these steps:
1. Go to Start Run and type RDISK.

2. The graphic below will display. At this screen, click the Create Repair
Disk button.
3. RDISK will prompt you to insert a disk. Insert a blank diskette (or one
that is okay to format) and click OK.
4. RDISK will format the diskette and copy the configuration files to it. RDISK
will present progress bars as it does so to let you know how far along the
process is.
5. When it has finished creating the disk and copying files to it, it will present
a screen telling you that this disk contains security sensitive data and to
store it only in a safe location. Click OK to finish creating the disk.
6. When RDISK returns to the initial screen, click the Exit button to exit the
program. Remove the diskette from your floppy drive and label it as Win-
dows NT ERD. You will also want to label that disk as being only for that
particular Windows NT machine.
Using the Windows NT ERD

To use the ERD, you must first boot the NT computer using either an NT Setup
Boot Disk set or the Windows NT CD-ROM. Once you get to the screen that
asks you to “Press Enter to install Windows NT or press R to repair a damaged
installation”, go ahead and press R. Insert the ERD in your floppy drive when

prompted by the setup program. Once you have started the emergency repair,
you will have four options:
Inspect Registry files
Inspect startup environment
Verify Windows NT system files
Inspect Boot Sector
Which option(s) you choose will depend on what you suspect is wrong with your
computer. To choose an option, navigate to it using the arrow keys and select or
clear the check boxes using the Enter key.
Windows 2000
In Windows 2000, if your system won’t start and either Safe Mode or the Recov-
ery Console hasn’t helped, you may need to use the emergency repair disk
option. Unlike previous versions of Windows, the “Create Emergency Repair
Disk” option is part of the Windows 2000 backup program. This program
includes a wizard to help you create a disk to repair your system. Then, like with
Windows NT, you can start the machine with either the startup disks or Setup
CD-ROM and use the ERD to restore the system files.
Creating a Windows 2000 ERD

To create an emergency repair disk in Windows 2000, use the following steps:
1. Insert a blank, formatted 1.44MB floppy disk into your floppy disk drive.
2. Select Start Programs Accessories System Tools Backup.
3. From the Welcome tab, click Emergency Repair Disk.

4. Backup prompts you to insert a disk, which you have already done. There
is a check box on this screen that, when selected, will put a copy of the
Registry in the C:\WINNT\REPAIR directory (assuming Windows 2000
was installed to C:\WINNT).
When you finish installing Windows 2000 successfully, information about the
setup is stored in the systemroot\Repair folder on the system partition. DO NOT
DELETE THIS FOLDER. It contains the information necessary to use the ERD to
restore your system to its original state.
5. Click OK to start copying ERD files. Backup will display a progress bar as
the files copy.
6. When finished, Backup will display a message that the disk was created
successfully. Remove the disk, label it as your Windows 2000 ERD and
include the name of the computer it was created for. Put it in a safe place
so it will be available when your computer has a problem.

Summary 711
Using a Windows 2000 ERD

If you want to use or test your newly created ERD, follow the following steps:
1. Boot to either the Windows 2000 Startup floppy disks or the Windows 2000
CD-ROM.
2. When prompted, choose the Repair option by pressing R.
3. When prompted, choose the emergency repair process by pressing R. You
can additionally choose to either run a manual repair (by selecting M) or
a fast repair (by selecting F).
4. Follow the prompts. During this process, the backup files of the
C:\WINNT\Repair directory are restored to the setup of Windows 2000.
5. The system will restart automatically when the repair is successfully
completed.
Summary
P reventative maintenance is a set of practices that you do to prevent prob-
lems from happening (or to prevent them from happening frequently). In this
chapter, you learned several preventative maintenance techniques to aid you in
keeping your computer functional. Some of these techniques include backing up,
anti-virus software use and installation, and making an emergency repair disk.
In this first section, you learned about the proper procedures for protecting
your data by copying it to a backup media. You learned about the different
methods of backing up (Full, Differential, and Incremental) as well as how to
perform these backups using the built-in backup software of DOS, Windows,
and Windows 9x.
In addition to protecting your data by backing up, you learned how to protect
your computer from malicious programs known as viruses. In the next section,
you learned about the built-virus protection programs, how to use them to pro-
tect against viruses, and how to eliminate any existing virus.
On occasion, your Windows software will become damaged so badly that it
can’t be booted. When that happens, you can fixed your damaged Windows
installation by booting an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD). This disk will allow
you to boot your machine. Additionally, it contains utilities to help you fix
these problems. Some of these utilities include FDISK, FORMAT, COPY,
and ATTRIB.

Key Terms
backup preventative maintenance

backup set restore
backup source target
inoculating virus

Review Questions
1. Which type of backup copies all files that have changed since the last full
backup, regardless if they have been backed up since then?
A. Full
B. Incremental
C. Differential
D. Custom
2. A computer virus is ___________________.

A. A small program
B. A small living organism
C. Something that makes you sick
D. A type of word processing software
3. What is one of the main functions of all viruses?

A. Party
B. Reproduce
C. Destroy files
D. Make strange things happen to your computer
4. To start the Windows 95 backup program the correct sequence is__________.

A. Choose Start Programs Accessories System Tools Backup.
B. Choose Programs Start Accessories System Tools Backup.
C. Choose Backup Start Programs Accessories System Tools.
D. Choose Accessories Start Programs System Tools Backup.
5. If you backed up 60MB of data using the full backup technique, how many
tapes are required to restore from a full backup (generally speaking)?
A. 4
B. 2
C. 7
D. 1
6. What is the name of the executable for Microsoft Backup for DOS?
A. MSBKUP.EXE
B. MSBACKUP.EXE
C. BACKUP.EXE
D. MWBACKUP.EXE

7. What is the name of the executable for Microsoft Backup for Windows 3.x?
A. MSBKUP.EXE
B. MSBACKUP.EXE
C. BACKUP.EXE
D. MWBACKUP.EXE
8. What kind of backup strategy would you use with a terabyte of data?
A. Full
B. Differential
C. Incremental
D. Custom
9. What would you type at a DOS command line to start the Microsoft Anti-Virus?
A. AV
B. MSANTIVI
C. MSAV
D. ANTIVIRU
10. Which program in the Control Panel can be used to create a startup disk?
A. System
B. Add New Hardware
C. Add/Remove Programs
D. Startup
11. Which type of backup involves selecting the files you want backed up as well
as when you want them backed up?
A. Full
B. Differential
C. Incremental
D. Custom
12. There are several pieces of backup hardware that are currently available. Of
the following, which are NOT valid backup hardware?
A. Digital audio tape
B. Digital linear tape
C. Optical disk
D. Stationary hard disk

13. Which type of backup backs up files on a disk that has changed since the last
full backup?
A. Differential
B. Incremental
C. Full
D. Custom
14. The final option in the Configure Screens menu is ___________________.

A. Selecting the type of backup
B. Selecting the device you are backing up to
C. The compatibility test
D. Selecting the backup option
15. The MSBACKUP program in DOS receives its settings from what file?
A. DAT file
B. BAK file
C. TDR file
D. SET file
16. Once the backup has been performed, what is the next step?
A. Compare
B. Restore
C. Quit
D. Reboot
17. The main menu of the Microsoft Anti-Virus program has how many options?
A. One
B. Two
C. Five
D. Three
18. The five options on the main menu for the Microsoft Anti-Virus program
contain all of the following except ___________________.
A. Detect
B. Detect & Clean
C. Erase
D. Select New drive
E. Exit

19. The Windows 95 Emergency Repair Disk should contain all of the following
files and utilities except:
A. CHKDSK
B. UNINSTALL.EXE
C. REGEDIT
D. MSAV
20. What is the company most readily identified with anti-virus software?
A. Symantec
B. Microsoft
C. Macintosh
D. Novell


1. C. The differential type of backup copies all files that have changed since the
last full backup, regardless if they have been backed up since then.
2. A. A computer virus is a small program that, if left unattended, can destroy an

entire hard drive and all files on the hard drive.
3. B. One of the main functions of all viruses is to reproduce and that means to
duplicate all files on the hard drive, thus taking up all hard drive space.
Although some viruses do destroy files, that is not their main function.
4. A. To start the Windows 95 backup program the correct sequence is: Start
Programs Accessories System Tools Backup.
5. D. To back up 60MB of data, one tape is required to restore from a Full

backup, as opposed to Differential or Incremental backups, which require
multiple tapes.
6. B. The name of the executable for Microsoft Backup for DOS is

MSBACKUP.EXE.
7. D. The name of the executable for Microsoft Backup for Windows 3.x is
MWBACKUP.EXE.
8. C. The Incremental backup is best suited for this situation because an Incremen-
tal only backs up the daily changed information. A Full backup every day would
be impractical, because it would take too long and use several tapes. A Differ-
ential backup would use even more tapes. Given these situations, an Incremental
backup would be the best choice.
9. C. The command to type at a DOS command line to start the Microsoft

Anti-Virus is MSAV.
10. C. The Add/Remove Programs in the Control Panel can be used to create a
Startup Disk.
11. D. Custom is the type of backup that involves selecting the files you want
backed up as well as when you want them backed up.
12. D. Of the items listed, the following are valid backup hardware: digital audio
tape, digital linear tape, and optical disk. Because hard disks are more failure-
prone than the other types listed, they make a poor backup medium.
13. A. The Differential type of backup backs up files on a disk that have changed
since the last Full backup.
14. C. The final option in the Configure Screens menu is the compatibility test.
15. D. The MSBACKUP program in DOS receives its settings from the SET file.

16. A. Once the backup has been performed, the next step is to select the Compare
option to compare the files you just backed up to the originals that are cur-
rently on the disk. That way, you know if the ones backed up are the same as
the ones on the disk and that the backup was successful.
17. C. The main menu of the Microsoft Anti-Virus program has five options.
18. C. The five options on the main menu for the Microsoft Anti-Virus program
contain all of the options listed except Erase.
19. D. To have an effective emergency repair disk, the ERD should contain all of
the files listed above except MSAV.
20. A. The company most readily identified with anti-virus software is Symantec.

Chapter Configuring Network
Software
THIS CHAPTER:
4.1 Identify the networking capabilities of Windows, including

procedures for connecting to the network.
Protocols
IPCONFIG.EXE
WINIPCFG.EXE
Sharing disk drives
Sharing print and file services
Network type and network card
Installing and Configuring browsers
Configure OS for network connection
4.2 Identify concepts and capabilities relating to the Internet and
basic procedures for setting up a system for Internet access.
Concepts and terminology
ISP
TCP/IP
IPX/SPX
NetBEUI
E-mail
PING.EXE
HTML
HTTP://
FTP
Domain Names (Web sites)
Dial-up networking
TRACERT.EXE

W hen the first version of this book appeared, we noted, “It
seems that everywhere you look today, someone is talking about the Internet.”
Well, we hadn’t seen anything at that point. Having toppled into the new mil-
lennium, we really need to modify that statement to “It seems that everywhere
you look today, someone is using the Internet.”
In the space of just a few years, computer networking has gone from an obscure
technology to a part of everyday life. Computers are being connected to networks
and to each other at a flabbergasting rate, and as a computer professional, one of
your primary jobs over the next decade may be to connect your clients’ PCs to a
network or to manage their access resources on their local network or the Internet.
Just look at the preponderance of Web site addresses on radio and television
commercials today. The Web has become a “hot button” that advertising com-
panies love to exploit. But very few people realize what the Internet actually is.
Some people think it’s a public thoroughfare for information (hence the moniker
“information superhighway”). Others believe it to be some kind of new high-
tech toy. In reality, however, the Internet is just a mesh of interconnected private
networks that spans the globe. Whether it is the Internet or a local network at
your school or place of work, the basic concepts remain the same. Because of
this, to understand the Internet, you really must understand its underlying infra-
structures: networks.
Simply put, a network is a number of devices (not just computers) connected
together for the purpose of sharing resources, such as printers or disk space. Net-
works provide the physical path upon which computers communicate. When
two networks connect to each other, they then form a single larger network
called an internetwork. The largest of these internetworks is the Internet, which
spans the globe and reaches into nearly every major business in the world, as well
as into millions of homes. Networking software is written to be used by several
people at once and to perform a variety of functions such as e-mail, collabora-
tion, and business management, whereas networking hardware includes the
machines that make that collaboration possible.
The A+ exam includes information about basic networking concepts, the
Internet, and setting up computers to access both regular business networks and
the Internet. We will discuss the installation and configuration of connecting to

Microsoft Networking Basics 721
local area networks (LANs) and to the Internet from both Windows 9x and
Windows 2000. Luckily, much of this information is similar in both systems, but
as always, there are some significant differences.
In the networking software business, there are quite a few major players (like
Novell, Microsoft, IBM, and Seagate). However, there are clearly two leaders in
the game: Novell (whose company headquarters is in Provo, UT) and Microsoft
(headquartered in Redmond, WA). Each company produces several software
products for networks, but in the following sections, we’ll focus on the different
ways that Windows 98 and Windows 2000 connect to the networking operating
systems (NOSs) made by these two companies.
Even as Microsoft was creating both clients and servers, other companies
were specializing in one or the other. One of the most successful was Novell
(www.novell.com), who has been a market leader in providing networking
and network management software for the last decade. Novell has developed
a NOS called NetWare (currently at version 5.1). NetWare has been the 800-
pound gorilla of the networking world for over a decade, but Microsoft’s
Windows 2000 Server is following on the heels of the immensely successful
Windows NT 4 Server and has made substantial gains over the last few years.
Both NetWare and Windows 2000 Server are extremely common at this time.
Other systems, such as Sun’s Solaris or the open-source Linux variants, will not
be specifically discussed.
The Internet is still very much a Unix world, though, so in fact our discussion of
how to access the Internet is in some ways a look at how to attach to everything
that isn’t NetWare or Windows.
Except that you have to know what they are, we won’t be dealing with the
NOS servers themselves. Rather, we will be looking at how Windows 98 and
Windows 2000 implement various networking elements and examine their net-
working capabilities when they’re hooked up to other systems. Also, because
the A+ exam deals only with the client side of networking (i.e., getting to
resources that are already on the network), we won’t be dealing extensively
with how Windows 98 or Windows 2000 works as a network server. None-
theless, both operating systems can act as servers, and if you are interested in
learning more about this refer to Network+ Study Guide (Sybex, 2001).
Microsoft Networking Basics

W hen MS-DOS was developed, it was designed to be a simple, stand-
alone, operating system. To that end, it didn’t contain any network software,
except SHARE.EXE. SHARE.EXE was designed as an add-on to popular networking

722 Chapter 18 Configuring Network Software
software that allowed two users to edit the same file at the same time on a network.
Without SHARE.EXE, when a second user tried to open a file that the first user had
opened, they got an error message. With SHARE.EXE installed, when the second
user tried to open the file, they received a message saying that the file was being
used by someone else and offering to provide a copy of the file.
Another aspect of networking with MS-DOS is that DOS can run client soft-
ware for Novell and Microsoft networks. Most client software for DOS (and Win-
dows 3.x) falls into the category of redirection software. This software redirects
requests bound for local resources out to network resources (Figure 18.1). For
example, with network client software installed, you could point a DOS drive let-
ter to some disk space on the network. When you saved a file to that drive letter,
you were really saving that file to a server. But, as far as DOS was concerned, it was
accessing a local drive letter.
FIGURE 18.1 Network client software redirects local requests to the network.
With client software, a computer can connect to a server and access the network
resources hosted by that server.
As discussed earlier, Windows 3.1 was little more than a pretty face sitting
on top of the MS-DOS OS, and because of this, Windows 3.1 networking was
every bit as limited as DOS networking. In an effort to help, Microsoft brought
out Windows 3.11, which has an add-on called Windows for Workgroups.
This add-on allows a machine running DOS and Windows 3.11 to participate
in a peer-to-peer network and share its files and any local printers with the rest
of the network. Windows for Workgroups also allowed a user to add 32-bit
TCP/IP networking. While far better than before, though, even Windows 3.11
was relatively limited in its networking capacities.
Microsoft was not only working on its clients, though. The Redmond Fun
Bunch had also released Microsoft LAN Manager, a relatively primitive net-
work server that would allow users to access centralized resources on the
network. LAN Manager then evolved into Windows NT, and as part of that
evolution, the LAN Manager networking software was integrated into the
Windows NT Workstation client as well, giving Microsoft its first really effec-
tive network client.

Installing Networking Hardware and Software 723
Servers are computers that offer up resources (files, printers) or services (name
resolution, time synchronization) to other machines on the network. They use
special software to detect and respond to client requests.
Windows 95 and Beyond

When Windows 95 was released in late 1995, it wasn’t the first Microsoft oper-
ating system to contain built-in networking. Both the Windows NT operating
system and, to a lesser extent, Windows for Workgroups already had provided
networking functionality. However, Windows 95 was similar to the “Monolith”
of 2001 in that it issued in a new age of PC networking by providing easy-to-use-
and-configure built-in networking. Suddenly, normal people could actually get
their modems to work, corporate users could actually use the network without
constantly getting sharing errors (SHARE.EXE was no more!), and improved sup-
port for all phases of the networking process rounded out the package.
Installing Networking Hardware and

Software
B efore you can begin with the configuration of your network, you must
have a network card installed in the machine. Installing a network card is a fairly
simple task if you have installed any expansion card before; a network interface
card (NIC) is just a special type of expansion card. To install an NIC, follow
these steps:
1. First move jumpers or flip DIP switches on the expansion card to set it to
the correct IRQ/DMA/IO port settings as per the factory instructions. If
the card uses a software set program, you can ignore this step. Most newer
NICs do not have jumpers and are entirely software configured.
2. Next, power off the PC, remove the case, and insert the expansion card
into an open slot.
3. Secure the expansion card with the screw provided.
4. Put the case back on the computer and power it up (you can run software
configuration at this step, if necessary). If there are conflicts, change any
parameters so that the NIC doesn’t conflict with any existing hardware.
5. The final step in installing an NIC is to install a driver for the NIC for the
type of operating system that you have. Windows should auto-detect the
NIC and install the driver automatically. It may also ask you to provide a

copy of the necessary driver if it does not recognize what type of NIC you
have installed. If the card is not detected at all, run the Add New Hardware
Wizard by double-clicking Add New Hardware in the Control Panel.
6. After installing an NIC, you must hook the card up to the network using
the cable supplied by your network administrator. You will need to attach
this “patch cable” to the connector on the NIC and to a port in the wall,
thus connecting your PC to the rest of the network.
Sometimes older NICs can conflict with newer Plug-and-Play (PnP) hardware.
Additionally, some newer NICs with PnP capability don’t like some kinds of net-
working software. To resolve a PnP conflict of the latter type, disable PnP on the
NIC either with a jumper or with the software setup program. In this chapter, we
will assume that your NIC is installed and the drivers are loaded. For more infor-
mation on resolving hardware issues, refer to Chapter 16.
Configuring Windows 9x as a Network Client

The configuration of Windows 9x networking centers on the Control Panel’s
Network program. From this one interface, you configure client software, pro-
tocols, network interface cards (NICs), and the network services you want this
machine to perform. To access the Network program, select Start Settings
Control Panel and double-click Network in the Control Panel window that
appears. Windows 9x will display the Network window. The Network window
has three areas of interest: the components list, the primary logon list, and the
File and Print Sharing button.
If you already have some networking components installed, you can simply right-
click the Network Neighborhood icon on your desktop and choose Properties from
the pop-up menu.
Network Components
First, let’s review the four basic types of networking components that can be
added in the Network panel, as shown in Figure 18.2. This screen can be reached
by clicking Add on the Configuration tab.

FIGURE 18.2 The Select Network Component Type window
The networking components are as follows:

Client As mentioned before, the client is software that allows your
machine to talk to servers on the network. Each server vendor uses a differ-
ent way of designing its network access, though, so if a computer needs to
get to both a Novell and a Microsoft network, the computer must have two
pieces of client software installed, one for each type of server. The three net-
work client groups supported by Windows 9x are for Microsoft, Novell,
and Banyan servers.
Adapter The adapter is technically the peripheral hardware that installs into
your computer, but in this case, it refers to the software that defines how the
computer talks to that hardware. If you do not have the proper adapter soft-
ware installed, your PC will not be able to talk properly to the NIC and you
will not be able to access the network until you change the adapter to one that
is compatible with the hardware. It is often best to simply think of an adapter
as a network driver, which is what it is. A long list of adapters are supported
by Windows 95, and Windows 98 supports even more, with support for more
recent hardware. Adapter drivers can also be downloaded from most NIC
vendors’ Web sites.
Protocol Once the client service and the adapter are installed, you have
cleared a path for communication from your machine to network servers. The
protocol is the computer language that you use to facilitate communication
between the machines. If you want to talk to someone, you have to speak their
language. Computers are no different. Among the languages available to Win-
dows 98 are NetBEUI, NWLink, and TCP/IP.
Service A service is a component that gives a bit back to the network that
gives it so much. Services add functionality to the network by providing
resources or doing tasks for other computers. In Windows 98, services include
file and printer sharing for Microsoft or Novell networks.

Installing Components
Let’s suppose you want to connect to Microsoft servers on your network (includ-
ing Windows 2000 Server, 2000 Professional, or Windows 9x with sharing
enabled). To connect to this network, you must have at least three components
(no services, the fourth component, are required at this point):
A client, such as Client for Microsoft Networks
A protocol (whichever protocol is in use on the network; generally TCP/IP)
An adapter (whatever is in the PC)
To install a client and protocol for use with your network adapter, follow
these steps:
1. Click the Add button toward the bottom of the Network window. This
will display the screen shown in Figure 18.2.
2. In this screen you can choose what type of item you are going to install.
In this example, we’re installing the Client for Microsoft Networks, so
click Client and then click Add.
3. You will see a screen similar to the one in Figure 18.3. This screen is the
standard “pick your component” screen that Windows 95 uses. On the
left, select the company whose software (or driver) you want to install
(in this example, Microsoft). When you have selected a manufacturer, a
list of the software that Windows 95 can install from that company
appears on the right.
FIGURE 18.3 Selecting the software you want to install

4. Click Client for Microsoft Networks when it appears in the right pane,
then click OK. Windows 9x will bring you back to the Configuration tab
of the Network program.
5. Once you have a client installed, you can verify that the protocol you need
is present. TCP/IP generally installs by default, but this is not always so.
If it is not present, click Add on the Configuration tab. In the Select Net-
work Component Type window, select Protocol and then click Add. In
the Select Network Client window, select Microsoft in the Manufacturers
list and TCP/IP in the Network Protocols list. Click OK to complete the
installation.
When it is first installed, TCP/IP is configured to expect that a special server,

called a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, is available on the
network to provide it with information about the network. If a DHCP server is not
available, the protocol will not function properly. Consult your administrator to
see whether the network uses DHCP or static addressing. In static addressing, all
TCP/IP settings must be manually added, and in this case, you will need addi-
tional information from the administrator. TCP/IP will be discussed in more
detail later in this chapter.
The list of components should reflect your additions and show which net-
work components are currently installed on this machine. If there are a number
of components, a scroll bar appears on the right-hand side. The scroll bar
allows you to see all the clients, network adapters, protocols, and services that
might be installed. Once the client and protocol are installed, you will have all
the software you need to connect to the network. At that point, just a few
choices remain. Don’t close that Network program yet!
Primary Logon
A Windows 9x workstation can support multiple simultaneous network types.
For example, a user can log in to both Novell and Microsoft networks, assuming
they have both network clients installed and configured correctly. The Primary
Network Logon drop-down list determines which network type you will log on
to first. If you have not yet installed a network client, this list will only give you
one option: Windows Logon.
We have installed a Microsoft network client, so select the Client for
Microsoft Networks as the primary logon, as displayed in Figure 18.4.

FIGURE 18.4 Choosing a Primary Network Logon
Once you have made this selection, click the OK button. The Network pro-
gram will close, and you will be asked to restart the computer so that the new set-
tings can take effect. Until you reboot, the network will not function. When the
machine restarts, the network should be available.
Configuring Windows 2000 Professional as a

Network Client
For the most part, the concepts behind configuring Windows 9x are the same as
the concepts for configuring in Windows 2000. You still need a client, a proto-
col, and an adapter, for instance. The difference is in how they are configured
because Microsoft has changed a few things in Windows 2000.
First, the Network program is now called Network and Dial-up Connections
(NDC hereafter) and is organized differently. When you first access the NDC
window, you will see that instead of a list of all components, you are greeted
simply by a Make New Connection icon and a Local Area Connection icon, as

FIGURE 18.5 The Network and Dial-up Connections window
If you do not see a local area connection, your NIC or modem is not present or is
not functioning properly. If you see more than one LAN connection, it means you
have multiple NICs installed (Windows 2000 can support multiple NICs).
To add client software and protocols, right-click the LAN connection and
select Properties. You should find that everything you need is in place because
the MS client and IP are installed by default on the LAN adapter.
File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks is also installed by default. To dis-
able it, click the check mark next to the service. To remove it completely, click
Uninstall.
You can also add additional clients, protocols, and services. Windows 2000
supports the same components Windows 9x supports, plus some new additions
(the only component not supported in 2000 that is in 9x is the Banyan client).
Once you have verified that the Client for Microsoft Networks and TCP/IP are
installed, click OK. You should not have to reboot after making changes to the
network settings in Windows 2000.
Configuring Clients for NetWare Network Access

Both Windows 9x and Windows 2000 handle the addition of a network client
for NetWare in similar ways. Add (9x) or install (2000) the client, and it will
automatically install the NetWare-compatible NWLink protocol for you as well
(Figure 18.6). Once you have these, you will be presented with a NetWare logon

option screen on startup, where you can choose which NetWare server or tree
you wish to log on to (Figure 18.7).
FIGURE 18.6 NDC with the NetWare client and NWLink installed
FIGURE 18.7 The NetWare default server/tree option screen
The tree is a group of machines that share security and configuration informa-
tion. Both Novell’s NetWare and Microsoft’s Active Directory use tree struc-
tures to store information and authenticate users. To access the NetWare tree
more efficiently, frequent NetWare users should download the newest version
of NetWare’s own client software for 9x/2000. It is available at www.novell.com/
download/index.htm.

Configuring Windows to Share Files and Printers 731
Configuring Windows to Share Files

and Printers
A s noted before, it is possible to set up both Windows 9x and Windows 2000
Professional to share files and printers with other users on the network.
Networking in which users share each other’s resources is called peer-to-peer
networking, where each computer acts as both a client and a server.
We have already completed the client configuration. This is a must, actually,
because file and printer sharing is only possible if the proper client and protocol
are already set up. Now they are, so all you need to do is turn on file and print
sharing and then specify which resources you wish to share. Even after file and
printer sharing is enabled, you must specifically share any directory or printer
that you want to make available on the network.
Enabling File and Printer Sharing on Windows 9x

To add file and printer sharing services, perform the following steps:
1. Open the Network program and click the File and Print Sharing button.
You will see a screen that will allow you to select which services you want
to share (Figure 18.8).
FIGURE 18.8 Enabling file and printer sharing
2. Click the box next to the top option (I Want to Be Able to Give Others
Access to My Files) if you want to share files on your machine with someone

else on the network. If you want others to be able to print to a printer

hooked to your machine, click the box next to the bottom option, I Want
to Be Able to Allow Others to Print to My Printer(s). A check mark will
appear in the box next to an option when it is enabled. To disable an option,
simply click in the box again and the check mark will disappear.
3. Once you have enabled file and printer sharing, the service called File and
Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks will appear in the list of installed
network components. In addition to specifying what you are going to
share, you must specify how security is going to be handled. There are two
options: Share-Level Access Control and User-Level Access Control. With
share-level control, you supply a username, password, and security set-
tings for each resource that you share. With user-level control, there is a
central database of users (usually administrated by the network adminis-
trator) that Windows 9x can use to specify security settings for each
shared resource. Most of the time, share-level access control is fine. There
are only a few cases where user-level control is needed (such as in a net-
work where the administrator has said you will do it this way). To specify
these settings, choose the Access Control tab in the Network window
(Figure 18.9) and choose the appropriate option.
FIGURE 18.9 Specifying the access control method

4. Click OK to save all of these new settings.

5. Windows 9x will copy some files and ask you to reboot (big surprise,
huh?). Reboot your computer to start sharing files and printers.
As described earlier, Windows 2000 automatically starts and installs File and
Printer Sharing when a network connection is created. Unless you have disabled
it, no additional configuration is required to begin sharing resources!
Sharing Folders
If you have a folder on your machine that contains information that everyone
should be able to see, you will need to enable file sharing. Sharing is generally
enabled through Windows Explorer.
Any folder can be shared (including the root of the C: drive). When you share
a folder, the person you share it with will be able to see not only the folder you’ve
shared but also any folders inside that folder. Therefore, you should be certain
that all subfolders under a share are intended to be shared as well. If they are not,
move them out of the share path.
Once you have decided what to share, simply right-click the folder that will
be the start of the share and choose Sharing from the menu that pops up. This
option will bring up the Properties window of that folder with the Sharing tab
in front.
You can also access the Sharing tab by right-clicking a folder, choosing Properties,
and clicking the tab.
To start the share, click the Shared As radio button. Two previously grayed-
out fields will become visible (Figure 18.10). The first field is Share Name. The
name you enter here will be used to access this folder. It should be something that
accurately represents what you are sharing. The second field allows you to enter
a description of the share as a comment that will help identify the contents of the
share to users. The share name is required, and the comment is optional.

FIGURE 18.10 Enabling a share
Finally, you may specify the access rights and password(s) for the share. There
are three options for access rights when you’re using the share-level security
scheme. Click the radio button next to the option you want to use:
Read-Only With this option selected, anyone accessing the share will only be
able to open and read the files inside the folder and any subfolders. You must
specify a password that users can use to access the share in read-only mode.
Full In full access mode, everyone accessing the share has the ability to do
anything to the files in the folder as well as any subfolders. This includes being
able to delete those files. You must specify a password that the users will use
to access this share.
Depends on Password This option is probably the best option of the three.
With this option, users can use one password to access the share in read-only
mode and a different password to access it in full access mode. You can give
everyone the read-only password so they can view the files and give the full
access password only to users who need to change the files.
By default, the share is a full control share in Windows NT/2000. This means that
anyone on the network can come in and view, modify, or even delete the files in
the share. Often this is just a bit too dangerous, and as such, you will probably
want to use a read-only or a depends-on password security setting. (A Windows 9x
share is read-only by default. Anyone on the network can view files in the share.)
Once you have specified the share name, comments, and access rights, click
OK to share the folder. Notice that the folder now has a hand underneath it, indi-
cating that it is being shared (Figure 18.11).

FIGURE 18.11 The REPORTS folder after being shared
In Windows 2000, sharing is enabled in exactly the same way as in Windows 9x.
The only difference is that in 2000, you can enable the NTFS file system and use
it to secure files and folders. At that point, all you have to do is create a share on
Windows 2000 Professional to the directories you wish to allow the network
access to and the permissions set at the file level will be enforced.
Sharing Printers
Sharing printers is similar to sharing folders. First, you must have the printer
correctly set up to print on the machine that will be “hosting” it. Second, you
need to right-click on a printer in the PRINTERS folder and click Sharing. The
printer property page will appear with the Sharing tab selected to allow you to
share the printer.
To share the printer, simply click Shared As and specify a name for the share
(Figure 18.12). The name will default to a truncated version of the printer
name you gave it when you installed it. Notice in Figure 18.12 that Windows 95
truncated the name HP LaserJet III to HP. The name you give this share (called
the share name) should be something that everyone will recognize when they
see it on the network and that accurately describes the printer. This one is
called DavesHP so people will know that it’s next to Dave’s workstation and
that it’s an HP printer.

FIGURE 18.12 Sharing a printer
In addition to specifying the name of the printer share, you can enter a comment
that describes the printer accurately. Finally, you should specify a password that
users must enter in order to install this printer on their workstations (they won’t
have to enter it every time they print).
To finish sharing the printer, click OK. Windows 95 will prompt you for the
password again, just to verify that you know what it is and that you didn’t mis-
spell it. Retype the password in the box that appears and click OK and the share
will be active. Notice that the printer in the PRINTERS folder in Figure 18.13 has
a hand under it, indicating that it is shared.
FIGURE 18.13 The printer is now shared.

Using Shared Resources 737
Using Shared Resources

T o access shared folders and printers, we’ll turn to the Network Neighbor-
hood icon. When you double-click this icon, you can browse the network for
resources. Figure 18.14 shows an example of a Network Neighborhood browse
window. As you can see, there are several entities on this network. The little
icons that look like computers are just that, computers on the network. However,
there isn’t a different icon for a Novell server, an NT server, or a Windows 95
machine sharing out part of its hard disk. They all look the same to Windows 95.
The one that looks like a tree is in fact an NDS tree for a Novell network.
FIGURE 18.14 A sample Network Neighborhood window
Through this screen, you can double-click any computer to see the
resources that are hosted by that computer. Once you have found the share
you require, using a shared folder is just like using any other folder on your
computer, with one or two exceptions: First, the folder exists on the network,
so you have to be connected to the network to use it. Second, for some pro-
grams to work properly, you must map a local drive letter to the network
folder. This is because the Windows 9x reference to a share on the network
uses the Universal Naming Convention path (or UNC path). The UNC path
uses the format \\machinename\share\path\. So, a directory called
JULY98 underneath a share called REPORTS on a machine called DAVELAPTOP
would be written as \\DAVELAPTOP\REPORTS\JULY98.

In Windows 9x, if you do know the name of the computer that hosts the resource
you are looking for, you can use the Find command instead of browsing. Just go
to Start Find Computer and type in the name of the computer preceded by two
backslashes (the beginning of a UNC path).
If there is a space in the name of any item, be careful. Some DOS utilities can’t
interpret spaces.
To connect to a network folder share, simply double-click the computer that’s
hosting it to view the list of shares (Figure 18.15). Notice that both the folder and
printer that were shared in the previous examples are there. Because we want to
use the folder share, we can just double-click it to see its contents (and copy files
to and from it if necessary). Or, we can map a drive letter so that all our appli-
cations will be able to use it.
FIGURE 18.15 Viewing the resources a computer is hosting
Now that you see all the resources the computer is hosting, you can map a
drive letter to it by right-clicking the folder (REPORTS in this case) and choosing
Map Network Drive. This will cause the screen shown in Figure 18.16 to appear.
You must pick a drive letter (one that is not being used) and click OK to map the
drive. Remember that most Windows applications can use UNC paths and don’t
need drive mappings, but even some newer applications still require a drive letter.

FIGURE 18.16 Mapping a drive letter to a network share
Now that you have a drive mapped, you can use the files and directories in the
share that you mapped to.
Sharing Options with Windows 2000

Windows 2000 is very similar to Windows 9x when it comes to accessing net-
work resources, but there are just a few modifications. First, Network Neigh-
borhood is renamed My Network Places in Windows 2000. Second, to search for
computers by name, you no longer go to the Find menu (now renamed Search,
anyhow). Instead, when you double-click My Network Places, you will have the
Search for Computers and Search for Files or Folders options in the left part of
the window (Figure 18.17). Click the Entire Contents link on the left, and the
network contents will be displayed. At that point, everything will be displayed as
it is in Windows 9x and you can view and map network drives.
FIGURE 18.17 The initial Entire Network window

Another option for mapping a drive in 9x and 2000 is to use the Windows Explorer.
In Explorer, click the Tools menu, and select Map Network Drive. You will need to
either enter the UNC path (\\server\share) or navigate to the folder using the
Browse button. Drives can be disconnected using the Tools Disconnect Network
Drive option.
Using a Shared Printer

In this section, we’ll discuss the way to set up a Windows 9x or 2000 client to
print to a shared printer. Accessing shared printers is very similar to accessing
shared resources; in both cases, you are accessing a resource that has been shared
on the host computer. Additionally, in both cases, you are pointing a local
resource (in this case a printer icon) to a network resource (a shared printer).
To set up the printer on your workstation, you most likely will use the Point
and Print option for Windows 9x and 2000 printing. This option allows you to
click and drag a printer to the PRINTERS folder and run the Add Printer Wizard,
which will set up the printer icon and set up the right drivers on your machine.
Follow these steps:
1. Browse to the computer that hosts the printer you want to set up and
double-click the computer name so you can see the printer you want
to install.
2. Open up the PRINTERS folder under Start Settings Printers. Arrange
these windows so you can see both at the same time (Figure 18.18).
FIGURE 18.18 Preparing to configure the Point and Print option
3. To start the Add Printer Wizard, drag the printer you want to set up from
the list of resources the computer is hosting to the Printers window. As
soon as you release the mouse button, you will see the wizard start, and
it will display the window shown in Figure 18.19.

FIGURE 18.19 Starting the Add Printer Wizard
4. The wizard will ask you a series of questions that will help you to con-
figure the printer. If you are using Windows 9x, the wizard will ask “Do
you print from MS-DOS–based programs?” The reasoning behind this
question is similar to the reason we map drive letters. Most older DOS
programs (and to a lesser extent, Windows programs) don’t understand
the UNC path syntax for access to a shared resource. Instead, they
understand a name for a local hardware resource (like LPT1: for the first
local parallel port). So, you must point a local printer port name out to
the network in a process known as capturing. If you need to capture a
printer port, answer “Yes” to this question, otherwise leave it set to the
default (“No”). For our example, click Yes and click Next to move to
the next step of the wizard.
Although Windows 2000 allows you to map LPT: ports, 2000 does not have much
interest in DOS, and so it does not make any special mention of it.
5. If you chose Yes in the preceding step, the next step is to capture the
printer port. You will see the screen in Figure 18.20. This screen allows
you to capture a printer port so that DOS programs can print to the net-
work printer. Click the Capture Printer Port button to bring up the screen
(Figure 18.21) that allows you to choose which local port you want to
capture. Select a port (generally LPT:1).

FIGURE 18.20 Capturing a Printer port
FIGURE 18.21 Picking which local port to capture
6. The next step is to give the printer instance a name. You should give a net-
work printer a name that reflects what kind of printer it is and which
machine is hosting it. In this example, the printer is labeled HP LaserJet III
(the default name of the driver), but we could have named it Laser on Bob’s
PC. Whatever name makes sense to you, type in the name that you want to
call the printer in the screen that the wizard presents (Figure 18.22). You
also have the choice as to whether or not you want the printer to be the
default printer that gets used by all Windows applications.

Networking and the Internet 743
From here on, printer installation is exactly the same as installing a local
printer (covered in Chapter 16).
Networking and the Internet

O ne of the most oft-performed procedures by today’s technicians is set-
ting up a computer to connect to the Internet. The Internet is no longer just a
buzzword, it’s a reality. It has been estimated that over 50 percent of the homes
in America have computers and that over 50 percent of those computers are con-
nected to the Internet. It’s is no wonder that most computers come with software
to connect them to the Internet.
Before we can discuss connecting Windows to the Internet, we need to discuss
the Internet itself. There are some common terms and concepts every technician
must understand about the Internet. First of all, the Internet is really just a bunch
of private networks connected together using public telephone lines. These pri-
vate networks are the access points to the Internet and are run by companies
called Internet Service Providers (ISPs). They will sell you a connection to the
Internet for a monthly service charge (kind of like your cable bill or phone bill).
Your computer talks to the ISP using public phone lines, or even using new tech-
nologies such as cable or wireless.
Types of Connections
There are several designations and types of public phone lines that range in speeds
from 56Kbps to several Megabits per second (Mbps) and that your computer

might use to talk to an ISP. Remember that these same types of phone lines connect
the ISPs to each other to form the Internet. Table 18.1 details a few of the more
common connection types and speeds.
TABLE 18.1 Common Connection Types and Speeds
Designation Speed Range Description
POTS 2400bps to Plain Old Telephone System. Your

115Kbps regular analog phone line.
ISDN 64Kbps to Integrated Services Digital Network.

1.554Mbps Popular for home office Internet
connection.
Frame Relay 56Kbps to Cheap, simple connection where

1.554Mbps you share bandwidth with several
other people.
56K Point-to-Point 56Kbps A direct connection between two points

at a guaranteed bandwidth.
T1 1.554Mbps A direct connection between two points

at a guaranteed bandwidth.
T3 44Mbps A direct connection between two

points at a guaranteed bandwidth.
Extremely fast.
DSL 256Kbps to ? Digital Subscriber Line. Shares existing

phone wires with voice service.
ATM 155Mbps Asynchronous Transfer Mode.

Fiber-optic ring network. Extremely fast.
The majority of home Internet connections use POTS (Plain Old Telephone Sys-
tem) and a modem. Most ISPs connect with each other using phone lines of T1
speeds (1.554Mbps) or faster. Certain ISPs that make up the backbone of the Inter-
net use technologies like SONET that can get the data moving at gigabit speeds.
Connection Protocols
Whichever connection type is used, there must be a plan for how to transmit data
across a network’s lines. Network connection types also use different protocols
to communicate, just as computers do, and because of this we also need to men-
tion these connection protocols. For instance, TCP/IP Internet traffic runs over

A TCP/IP Primer 745
two different analog connection protocols: Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). Both work to get you on the Internet, but PPP
is more commonly used because it is more easily configured; it’s also more stable
because it includes enhanced error-checking capabilities. Other common connec-
tion protocols include X.25 and ATM (the name is used for both the network
and the connection protocol controlling traffic across it).
A TCP/IP Primer
R egardless of which network type you choose, you will probably be run-
ning Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) over the top of
it. Because the Internet is a network, everyone on it needs to be running the same
protocol in order to communicate. The protocol of the Internet is TCP/IP, and
increasingly, the protocol of the Internet is becoming the primary protocol of all
networks. Named for two of its most commonly used components, TCP/IP is
actually a suite of protocols rather than just being a single monolithic creation.
Created in 1969 as a part of DARPAnet (the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Administration Network), TCP/IP evolved over time. The DARPAnet
evolved also, eventually moving out of government hands and becoming the
Internet that we know and love. Currently the Internet is managed by the Inter-
net Society (www.isoc.org), which develops new standards for the Internet and
for the TCP/IP suite.
When starting to work with TCP/IP, the first thing to note is that it is gen-
erally managed by using two independent hierarchical structures. The first is
the IP address hierarchy. Each computer that runs TCP/IP must have a unique
IP address assigned to it, and that address must fall within a specific range. IP
addresses are composed of a set of four numbers, each of which must be from
0 to 255. The IP address can either be automatically assigned to the machine
or an administrator can specifically assign it. Aside from its IP address, a
machine will also have a host name, which identifies it on the network. Host
names are friendly names by which computers can be more easily located, and
they are managed using a worldwide naming system called the Domain Name
System (DNS). DNS allows a user to type in http://www.yahoo.com and be
taken directly to a computer hundreds or thousands of miles away. The same
user could have used an IP address such as http://200.50.172.14, (not Yahoo!’s
actual address), but most people find that the domain name (yahoo.com) is far
easier to remember! Table 18.2 includes a list of other common Internet terms
with which you will want to be familiar.

TABLE 18.2 Internet Terminology
Term What It does
ISP Internet Service Provider. A company that provides access to the

Internet.
Host A computer on a TCP/IP network such as the Internet.
WWW A graphical extension of the Internet, the World Wide Web (or just
the Web) allows users to search for and view information easily
through the use of a browser. Users navigate the Web by jumping
from one page to the next through hyperlinks.
Hyperlink Text or an image on a Web page that, when clicked, takes the user
to another place on the page or to a different page.
Browser Software made to understand and interpret HTTP content.
HTTP A TCP/IP protocol which defines how World Wide Web content is
downloaded and displayed in your browser. HTTP stands for
Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
FTP Another TCP/IP protocol. The File Transfer Protocol is used to

transfer large files over the Internet. Users can use either a graph-
ical client or a command line.
E-mail Electronic mail is a way of sending and receiving messages over

the Internet.
DHCP The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. This is used to auto-

matically configure TCP/IP information for hosts on the network.
WINS Windows Internet Name Service. Manages Microsoft NetBIOS-

based names and makes It easier to find resources on a Microsoft
network.
DNS The Domain Name System manages Internet host and domain
names and makes it easier to find resources on TCP/IP networks.
Computer Name Resolution

This isn’t something that is in the objectives, so you can take it or leave it, but it is
incredibly important to understanding how machines communicate on Microsoft
networks. When Microsoft first started producing network-capable operating sys-
tems, such as DOS with networking, LanManager and Windows NT 3.1, the

A TCP/IP Primer 747
Internet was nothing but a group of mainframe computers connecting selected mil-
itary and university campuses. At that time, it seemed that the thing to do when
you created network software was to also create your own proprietary protocol
and assume that no one would ever connect to any network but yours. Novell had
IPX/SPX, Apple had AppleTalk, and Microsoft, sadly, came up with NetBEUI.
The NetBEUI protocol is insufficient on so many levels that discussing its
faults is too big a job for this chapter. Nonetheless, it is an extremely fast proto-
col for allowing a few computers on a single network to communicate. It just
doesn’t scale very well, which has doomed it as networks grew and started to
interconnect.
The death knell of NetBEUI wasn’t a problem, because TCP/IP and other pro-
tocols were ready to take over. The one thing that has continued to cause con-
fusion and trouble, though, is that NetBEUI was based on another Microsoft
protocol called NetBIOS, which has been far more difficult to replace.
NetBEUI and NetBIOS

NetBEUI and NetBIOS are obviously similar-looking terms, and unfortunately,
there has been a certain amount of confusion surrounding them. Here is a brief
explanation of what each does:
NetBEUI is a transport protocol. It is responsible for how data is trans-
mitted between two computers. It is not routable and is rarely used in
modern computing.
NetBIOS is a name resolution system. It allows a computer to search for
another computer on the network by its Microsoft computer name. It
must be used on every Microsoft-based network up to Windows 2000.
Computer Names and Host Names

The continuing presence of NetBIOS makes for some interesting confusion in
that a Microsoft 9x machine with TCP/IP installed actually has two distinct
names. Its NetBIOS computer name is set in the Identification tab of the
Network program (Figure 18.23), whereas its host name is set in the TCP/IP
DNS Configuration tab (Figure 18.24). In the figures, both names are set to
COYOTE, and usually the computer and host name will be the same because
they are set that way by default. If you are having trouble reaching a 9x or NT
machine, though, you may want to check this setting.

FIGURE 18.23 The NetBIOS computer name
FIGURE 18.24 The TCP/IP host name

A TCP/IP Primer 749
In Windows 2000, Microsoft has finally started to make a break from this non-
sense. Computer and host names in 2000 must be the same, and NetBIOS name
resolution has largely been replaced with DNS naming resolution.
So What Is Resolution?
In order for a computer to talk to another computer, it must be able to access it
using an IP address. Computers speak in numbers, not letters! Because of this, the
“friendly” names that we use to make computers easy to remember and find
must be resolved to find out what IP address the machine is using. There are a
number of methods of doing this, but WINS servers and DNS servers are the
most common. WINS resolves NetBIOS computer names to IP addresses, and
DNS does so for host names. More on this in a minute.
Another way of resolving names is to use either the LMHOSTS file (computer
names) or the HOSTS file (host names). These are text files into which you can
put entries that specifically tell your machine what the address of another
machine is, as in the following line:
192.168.1.250 NTSERVER
Although these files work fine, they require a lot of maintenance and are not used
regularly in modern networking.
Configuring TCP/IP
NetBEUI and NWLink are protocols that need little tuning. You can pretty much
install them and go, without needing to configure anything. Not so with TCP/IP,
which has a number of settings that must be configured so you can access net-
work resources.
First, there are two settings that are absolutely crucial. Without an IP
address and a subnet mask, TCP/IP will not function. In addition, a number of
other settings may also be needed, depending on what you are planning to
access. The settings are listed in Table 18.3 (settings needed for Internet access
are marked with an asterisk).
TABLE 18.3 TCP/IP Configuration Settings
Setting Example Purpose
IP 192.168.1.75 Uniquely identifies the computer on the

address* network.

TABLE 18.3 TCP/IP Configuration Settings (continued)
Setting Example Purpose
Subnet 255.255.255.0 Used to determine whether other IP addresses

mask* are on the same network or on another net-
work. Sadly, there is no easy explanation for
subnet masks. Suffice it to say that you need it,
and it has to be right! The network administra-
tor should give you the subnet mask setting
(and all other necessary info).
Default 192.168.1.1 The address of the router your machine will use
gateway* to access the outside world.
Host Coyote The name that the machine is referred to in DNS.
Domain Sybex.com The name of the organization you are in. Simi-
lar to a workgroup, but for TCP/IP.
DNS 192.168.1.250 The machine that resolves names for the net-
server* work. This machine will answer a question such
as “What IP address does coyote.sybex.com
have?” with an answer of “192.168.1.75.”
WINS 192.168.1.250 Serves the same purpose as DNS, but deals

server with computer names, not host names.
Answers questions such as “What IP address
does COYOTE have?”
Managing TCP/IP
There are two ways to manage TCP/IP. The manual way involves going to each
machine and setting upward of 10 separate values for TCP/IP. This would also
be known as the “hard way” of configuring IP. Another possibility is the use
of DHCP. If your network is using DHCP, all you have to do is install IP and
reboot. A special server called a DHCP server will then provide your machine
with all the values it needs when it starts up again. Machines are given “leases”
to the IP addresses that the server manages and must periodically renew these
leases. If you are using DHCP, your TCP/IP settings in the Network program
should be grayed out, as shown in Figure 18.25.

A TCP/IP Primer 751
FIGURE 18.25 TCP/IP auto-configured by DHCP
If you are wondering what the IP settings for a machine are, there are a num-
ber of utilities you can use. The primary options, though, are listed in Table 18.4.
TABLE 18.4 TCP/IP Utilities
Protocol Function
WINIPCFG A graphical utility on Windows 9x that allows you to get informa-

tion about your IP configuration. It also allows you to release a
DHCP lease and request a new one.
IPCONFIG Does the same thing as WINIPCFG, but for Windows NT and 2000.
IPCONFIG is also different in that it is a command-line utility.
PING The PING command allows you to test connectivity with another
host by just typing PING www.sybex.com or PING 192.168.1.250.
Tracert This trace route utility allows you to watch the path that infor-
mation takes getting from your machine to another one.
Using these utilities is pretty straightforward. For an example, follow these

steps to view TCP/IP information on Windows 2000:
1. Choose Start Run.
2. Type CMD and press Enter. This will bring up a command prompt.

3. At the prompt, type IPCONFIG. Basic information about your TCP/IP

configuration will be displayed.
4. Type IPCONFIG again, this time adding the /A switch: IPCONFIG /A.
The /A switch tells the system to display additional information. Other
options can be found using the IPCONFIG /? Command. The additional
options are also run using switches, and are run in the same fashion as the
/A switch, by typing them in after the command.
Configuring Internet Access Software

I f you want to connect your Windows 95 machine to the Internet, the first
step is to get an account with an Internet Service Provider. They will give you a
sheet with all the information you need to connect your machine, or in some
cases, they will give you a disk with a preconfigured connection and browser so
all you have to do is install the software and you’ll be ready to connect to the
Internet. A browser is a piece of software used to access the World Wide Web,
and a Dial-Up Networking (DUN) connection holds the settings needed to access
an ISP. In this section, we will look at how to install and use each of these.
Although in most cases you need to make a Dial-Up Networking connection to use
the Internet, it is important to note that some service providers, such as AOL or
Prodigy, create their own connections. Don’t try to make the connection for them,
and don’t delete them!
Some connections, such as cable or DSL, do not use a modem and as such are
configured through the use of network cards and standard network clients. Con-
figuring Internet access for DSL is very similar to configuring access on a company
network. You simply install TCP/IP, configure it properly, and then skip ahead to
“Connecting to the Internet.” You will need information from the ISP when con-
figuring these systems.
Creating a Windows 9x DUN Connection

To create a new DUN connection, open the Dial-Up Networking folder under
Start Programs Accessories. This will open a window that shows all the DUN
connections that are configured. You must create a new one to connect to the

Configuring Internet Access Software 753
Internet. To do so, double-click the item in this folder called Make New Connection.
This will bring up the screen shown in Figure 18.26. From this screen, you can give
the connection a name. As with other names in Windows 9x, use one that reflects
what it is (in this case, a connection to the Internet). Additionally, this screen will
allow you to select which modem you want to use to dial this connection (if you
only have one configured in Windows 9x, it will default to that one).
FIGURE 18.26 Making a new connection and naming it
The next step is to enter the phone number of the system you are dialing
(Figure 18.27). Simply type in the area code and phone number of your ISP and
click Next to continue. When it dials, Windows 9x will determine if it’s a long-
distance number automatically and either add or omit the 1 plus the area code.
FIGURE 18.27 Entering the ISP’s phone number

If you live in another country, select your country under Country Code to change
how Windows 95 interprets phone number syntax.
Finally, you are presented with the final screen that tells you that you are
basically finished setting up the connection. All you have to do is click the
Finish button to finish creating the connection.
Configuring the Properties of a Windows 9x DUN

Connection
Now that you have a DUN connection, you need to configure the settings specific
to your Internet connection. Simply right-click the connection in the Dial-Up
Networking folder (Figure 18.28). From the menu that appears, you can choose
to use the connection to connect (the Connect option), or you can choose the
Properties option to configure it. Because you aren’t ready to connect yet, choose
the Properties item from the menu.
FIGURE 18.28 Choosing the DUN connection to configure
You should now see a screen similar to the one in Figure 18.29. From this
screen, you can configure the same properties you configure in the Make New
Connection Wizard (i.e., telephone number, connection name, and modem).
This screen has two more tabs that you can use to configure the other properties
(such as protocol settings).

FIGURE 18.29 Properties of the Internet DUN connection
If you click the Server Types tab, you will see the settings for the type of server
you are dialing in to (Figure 18.30). For an Internet connection, this is usually set
to PPP: Windows 95, Windows NT 3.5, Internet (unless your ISP instructs you
to use another setting). Notice also that there are check boxes for several other
settings, including which protocol(s) this dial-up connection will use. TCP/IP
must be selected in order for an Internet connection to work. Configure these set-
tings according to your ISP’s instructions and click OK to accept them.
FIGURE 18.30 Configuring the Server Types parameter

The Scripting tab is used if your ISP doesn’t support any type of automatic user-
name and password authentication protocol like Password Authentication Protocol
(PAP) or Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP). If in doubt, ask your
ISP. This tab allows you to specify a file that will automatically enter your username
and password. The Windows 95 Help file documents how to use this feature.
You can also configure DUN parameters in the Connect screen of the Internet
connection. To access this area, double-click the connection. You will see a
screen similar to the one in Figure 18.31. In this screen, you enter the username
and password that your ISP has assigned you. Additionally, double-check the
phone number you entered to make sure it’s correct. Once you’ve finished con-
figuring the phone number, you’re ready to connect to the Internet.
FIGURE 18.31 The Connect screen
If you want to save the password so you don’t have to type it in every time, click
the check box next to Save Password. Be careful, though. If you save your pass-
word, anyone can get onto the Internet from your computer (using your user-
name) without having to enter a password.
Installing DUN on Windows 2000

With Windows 2000, wizards are used everywhere, including the creation of a
dial-up networking connection:
1. Choose Start Settings Network and Dial-up Connections.
2. In the window that appears, double-click Make New Connection.

3. If this is the first time you have created a network connection, the Loca-
tion Information window appears. You cannot escape this window
without entering an area code, so enter it and click OK. You will get
another location screen as well. Click OK again and the Network Con-
nection Wizard appears.
4. In the Network Connection Wizard, choose Dial Up to the Internet and
the Welcome to the Internet Connection Wizard (ICW) window appears
(Figure 18.32). That makes three nested wizards. A bit extreme, no?
FIGURE 18.32 The first screen of the Internet Connection Wizard
5. In the ICW, you will be led through a long series of choices. Click
through and enter the values that apply to your Internet setup. You will
be asked what type of device (modem or network) you are using, what
number you need to dial, and what your username and password are. At
the end, you can even set up your mail account, and the wizard offers to
connect you when you are finished.
6. A new icon will appear in the Network and Dial-Up Connections window
showing that your new connection has been added (Figure 18.33). You
can view the status of a connection by double-clicking it or change its set-
tings by right-clicking and selecting Properties.

FIGURE 18.33 The finished dial-up connection
The Windows 2000 Internet setup is typical of the sort of straightforward, easy-to-
use tools that we as technicians have to hope do not become common. If every-
thing gets this easy, it’s going to be tough to make a living in this business!
Connecting to the Internet

Connecting to the Internet is simple once you get the connection configured.
Simply double-click the connection, enter the password (unless you chose the
Save Password button previously), and click Connect. A window will appear
that allows you to follow the status of the connection (Figure 18.34). You
should hear the modem dial and then connect. When it connects, the status
screen will say, “Verifying Username and Password,” and then “Connected.”
Once you are connected, the status screen will go away and you will see an icon
on the taskbar (the same icon that’s on the status screen). At this point, you are
connected to your ISP and, through it, to the rest of the world. You can then
fire up your favorite Web browser and start surfin’.
FIGURE 18.34 Connection status screen

If you are configuring the system for someone who just wants to click and go, you
can also right-click the Internet Explorer icon on the desktop and use the Connec-
tion tab of the Internet Settings window to configure auto-dial. Set the connection
you have created as the default and specify that the system should “Always dial
my default connection.” Any time an application needs to access the Internet, it
can simply initiate the DUN connection automatically.
Browsers
The first, and probably the most important, thing you’ll need is a Web browser.
This piece of software will allow you to view Web pages from the Internet.
The two browsers with the largest market share are Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft Internet Explorer (also known as IE). Both work equally well for
browsing the Internet. Microsoft includes its browser, IE (Figure 18.35),
with both Windows 98 and Windows 2000, whereas Netscape Navigator (Fig-
ure 18.36), which is free, must be downloaded separately.
FIGURE 18.35 The main window of Microsoft Internet Explorer

FIGURE 18.36 The main window of Netscape Navigator
If you are looking for a newer version of Internet Explorer, you can go to
Microsoft’s Web site, www.microsoft.com/windows/ie. For Navigator, go to
www.netscape.com. Once you are there, select the version you want and specify
what type of machine you will be using it on. You can then download and install
the software.
Besides a browser, you will probably need to use at least two other critical
Internet functions: FTP and e-mail. Both are supported natively in Windows 9x
and Windows 2000.
FTP
The File Transfer Protocol is available to you either through the command-line
FTP client or through your browser. To access the Microsoft FTP site through the
command prompt, open a prompt and type FTP ftp.microsoft.com. The site will
respond with a request for your e-mail address, and you will then be given access.
You can use standard DOS navigation commands to move between directories,
and you can retrieve or send files using the GET <filename> or PUT <filename>
commands. When you are finished with your session, simply type QUIT.
Internet Explorer also supports FTP. To go to Microsoft’s Web site, you can
simply type in http://www.microsoft.com and you will be taken to a Web page.

If you change the first part of the name to ftp://, though, the system knows to
look for an FTP resource instead. Typing ftp://ftp.microsoft.com will also take
you to the Microsoft Web site, and you can then use all of the standard Explorer
GUI file management techniques, just as you would if you were connecting to
any other network drive.
Because Microsoft’s FTP site is a public site, it allows you to use a special anony-
mous account that provides access. If you go to a site where that account has been
disabled, you will need to provide another username and password, which should
be provided by the site’s administrator, or you will not be allowed into the site. Also,
most FTP sites only allow visitors to download data, so PUT commands generally
will be rejected unless you have a real (non-anonymous) account on the server.
E-Mail
Another common use of the Internet is to send and receive electronic mail. E-mail
allows you to quickly and inexpensively transfer messages to other people. To
send and receive e-mail, you need to have only two things: an e-mail account and
an e-mail client. The account can be provided by a company, or it can be asso-
ciated with your ISP account. Either way, you will have an address that looks like
username@domain.com.
The last part of this address (after the @) identifies the domain name of the
company or ISP that provides you with your e-mail account. The part before the
@ is your username. A username must be unique on each domain. Two Bill the
Cat users on a single network, for instance, might be billthecat@domain.com
and billthecat1@domain.com.
As with other TCP/IP services, e-mail needs to be configured. Nothing in TCP/
IP networking ever just works, it seems. Still, Windows provides a service called
Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) to make configuring
e-mail easier, and overall, configuring e-mail is relatively straightforward.
Your MAPI settings can be defined in Control Panel’s Mail program. Fig-
ure 18.37 shows just a few of the many Internet e-mail settings you can
define. Among these are the Post Office Protocol v 3 (POP3) and Simple Mail
Transport Protocol (SMTP) server settings, which you will need to be given by
an administrator. A POP3 server is a machine on the Internet that accepts and
stores Internet e-mail and allows you to retrieve that mail when you are online.
An SMTP server is a server that accepts mail you want to send, and forwards it
to the proper user. In order to send and receive mail, you need both!

FIGURE 18.37 Internet E-mail properties
Once you have the settings configured, you will need to simply install an e-mail
client or use the built-in client included with Windows 98 and 2000. That client is
called Outlook Express, and it’s a good basic e-mail application.
Monitoring and Disconnecting from the Internet

To see information (such as speed and quantity) about the data you have trans-
ferred during your Internet session, you can double-click the connection icon in
the system tray (lower-right portion of the screen) to bring up a status window.
From this window, you can see the number of bytes sent and received, and you
can disconnect from the Internet. You can also do disconnect by simply right-
clicking the connection icon itself and choosing Disconnect.
Summary
A t one time, computer repair technicians and computer network engineers
had distinctly different job descriptions, and techs rarely needed to deal with net-
work issues at all. As documents become larger, and networking and the Internet
become a more basic part of both home and office computer use, understanding
networking is no longer an optional part of a computer technician’s job descrip-
tion. Whether you need to access drivers on the Internet or set up a client’s machine
to share files on the network, PC techs now need to learn about networking.
In this chapter, we looked at a number of the basic issues you may come
across, including how to set up a Windows machine to use a particular protocol

Summary 763
and client software. We also looked at how a Windows client can access file or
print resources on the network and how a Windows 9x or 2000 machine can also
be configured to provide file or print services to other machines on the network.
Last, we looked at the special case of the TCP/IP protocol, and the Internet,
because configuring TCP/IP and installing and using Internet applications are
crucial tasks for both network and Internet configurations.
Key Terms
Before you take the exam, be certain you are familiar with the following terms.
browser Logon
client software Messaging Application Programming
Interface (MAPI)
default gateway network
domain network adapter
Domain Name System (DNS) peer-to-peer networking
Dynamic Host Configuration PING
Protocol (DHCP)
e-mail Post Office Protocol v 3 (POP3)
file sharing protocol
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Servers
host share name
host name Simple Mail Transport Protocol
(SMTP)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) subnet mask
Internet TCP/IP
Internet Service Provider (ISP) Tracert
internetwork Windows Internet Name Service
(WINS)
IP address WINIPCFG
IPCONFIG World Wide Web (WWW)
local resources

Review Questions
1. Using either a Windows 9x or Windows 2000 workstation, which of the
following components do you need to connect to a Microsoft network server?
A. Protocol
B. Client
C. Adapter
D. Sharing
2. Which of the following are common Internet connection types. (Select all
that apply.)
A. ISDN
B. POTS
C. T1
D. DSL
E. All of the above
3. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a collection of

protocols that help manage Internet communication. Each computer running
TCP/IP must have a unique IP address assigned to it. Which of the following
statements best describes an IP address?
A. An IP address is no more than your dial-up telephone number.
B. An IP address is a set of four numbers, each of which must be from 0 to
255. These numbers can be automatically provided or assigned by a sys-
tem administrator.
C. An IP address is a set of three numbers, each of which must be from 0 to
255. An IP address is a unique name that identifies the computer within a
network. This name can be automatically provided or assigned by a sys-
tem administrator.
D. IP addresses are composed of four numbers, each of which is between 1
and 256. These numbers can be automatically provided or assigned by a
system administrator.
4. You’ve enabled file and printer sharing on your Windows 9x system. You
must now specify how security will be handled. What are your options? (Select
all that apply.)
A. Share-Level Access Control
B. System-Wide Access Control
C. Remote-Access Control
D. User-Level Access Control

5. TCP/IP is installed on each PC within a network. You can communicate

within the network but are unable to access the Internet. Which of the
following TCP/IP settings must be properly configured for Internet access?
A. IP Address
B. Subnet Mask
C. Default Gateway
D. DNS Server
6. A Windows 9x workstation includes default support for which of the following

network types? (Select all that apply.)
A. Microsoft’s Windows Networking
B. Sun’s Solaris
C. Novell’s NetWare
D. Apple’s Macintosh Networking
7. You’ve installed an older NIC in a Windows 9x system. During the Plug-and-

Play (PnP) process, you encounter a conflict. Which of the following methods
would you use to resolve the conflict?
A. Disable PnP on the NIC either with a jumper or with the software setup
program.
B. Run PnP again. The conflict should be resolved the second time around.
C. Older NICs are prone to this problem. Remove the older NIC and buy a
new one.
8. Configuring a Windows 2000 system as a network client requires three

elements: a client, an adapter, and ___________________ .
A. A host name
B. An IP address
C. A protocol
D. A gateway
9. You’ve set up a network whereby each computer acts as a client and a server
and in which each user shares each other’s resources, including printers. What
is the correct term for such an arrangement?
A. Enterprise Services
B. Sharing & Caring
C. Server-client linking
D. Peer-to-peer networking

10. In a Windows 9x system, which of the following statements involving

NetBEUI and NetBIOS is true?
A. NetBEUI is a name resolution system, whereas NetBIOS is a transport
protocol.
B. NetBEUI and NetBIOS are subprotocols of TCP/IP.
C. NetBEUI is a transport protocol, and NetBIOS is a name resolution
system.
D. NetBEUI and NetBIOS are not used within a Windows 9x system.
11. Sending and receiving electronic mail (e-mail) is a common benefit of the Inter-
net. Assuming a user has access to the Internet on a properly configured PC,
which of the following items are required before a user can begin using e-mail?
A. An e-mail account and a domain
B. An e-mail account and an e-mail client
C. An e-mail account and e-mail permissions
12. You can map a network drive in both Windows 9x and 2000 using which of
the following commands?
A. Map Network Drive
B. Connect to Network Share
C. Connect Network Share
D. Map Network Share
13. You’ve been granted the right to use a shared folder and printer in a Win-
dows 9x system. What do you need to do to gain access to them?
A. From the desktop, double-click the Network icon. Click the Shared
Resources tab. Any resources you have access to will be listed.
B. Double-click the My Computer icon on your desktop. Click Web Folders.
Your shared resources will be listed.
C. From the desktop, double-click the Network Neighborhood icon, which
will allow you to browse for shared resources.
D. Open the Control Panel and click on the Network Neighborhood icon.
Browse for shared resources.

14. Computers communicate using IP addresses. The address can be a series of

numbers or a host name such as Bob’s PC. Obviously, it is easier for humans
to remember the host name, but computers communicate with numbers.
Which of the following methods help locate a computer’s numeric IP address
when a human searches for it using only the host name? (Select all that apply.)
A. NRP (Name Resolution Protocol)
B. WINS (Windows Internet Name Service)
C. DNS (Domain Name System)
15. Which of the following types of networking components can be added in the
Network program on a Windows 9x system? (Select all that apply.)
A. Protocol
B. Adapter
C. Client
D. Service
16. Which of the following is the correct way to use the protocol utility IPCONFIG
in a Windows 2000 environment?
A. IPCONFIG does not work with Windows 2000.
B. Choose Start Run and type IPCONFIG.
C. Open a browser window and type IPCONFIG in the address line.
D. Choose Start Run, type CMD, and press Enter. At the command
prompt, type IPCONFIG.
17. What would you need to do to create a new Dial-Up Networking (DUN) con-
nection within a Windows 9x system?
A. Open the Control Panel and click the Dial-Up Networking icon. Click
Make New Connection. Choose a name for your connection. Select which
modem you are using. Enter the dial-in telephone number. Click the Finish
button.
B. Choose Start Programs Accessories. Choose Dial-Up Networking. This
will open a window that shows all current DUN connections.
Double-click Make New Connection. Choose a name for your connection.
Select which modem you are using. Enter the dial-in telephone number.
Click the Finish button.
C. Open the Control Panel and click the Make New Connection icon.
Choose a name for your connection. Select which modem you are using.
Enter the dial-in telephone number. Click the Finish button.

18. Networks that transmit data use protocols to make communication possible.
TCP/IP, for example, uses two different analog connection protocols: Serial
Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). PPP is the
more common of the two protocols for which of the following reasons? (Select
all that apply.)
A. PPP is easier to configure.
B. PPP broadcasts all data requests, increasing the chances of a response.
C. PPP uses enhanced error-checking, making it more stable.
D. All of the above.
19. In a Windows 9x environment, if you don’t know the name of the computer
that is acting as the host for a resource you are looking for, you can use the
___________________ command.
A. Map
B. Run
C. Find
D. Search
20. You have just granted someone share-level access to a folder in your
Windows 9x system. What are the three access rights available? (Select all
that apply.)
A. Full Access
B. Depends on Password
C. Depends on IP Address
D. Read-Only


1. A, B, C. Using either Windows 9x or 2000, three initial components—
Adapter, Client, and Sharing—are required to connect to a Microsoft
network server.
2. E. Most home Internet connections use POTS (Plain Old Telephone System).
Other options include fiber optics (ATM), digital phone technology (DSL),
T1 and T3, digital phone line (ISDN), Frame Relay, and 56K point-to-point.
3. B. Every computer running TCP/IP must have a unique IP address, and that
address is in the format x.x.x.x, where x is a number from 0 to 255. These
numbers can be automatically provided or assigned by a system administrator.
The machine will also have a host name, which identifies the machine on the
network.
4. A, D. There are two security options in a Windows 9x system. Share-Level

Access Control involves supplying a username, password, and security setting
for each shared resource. User-Level Access Control means there is a central
database of users that Windows 9x uses to specify security settings for each
shared resource.
5. A, B, C, D. A proper IP address and subnet mask are essential for any sort of
network communication. However, to reach the Internet, a default gateway,
which is the IP address of the router your machine uses to access the Internet,
must be configured. You also need the Domain Name System (DNS) server, so
you can type www.yahoo.com instead of having to remember the numeric IP
address.
6. A, C. Within a Windows 9x workstation, clients are provided for both

Microsoft and Novell networks.
7. A. Conflicts between older NICs and the Plug-and-Play installation process

can occur. However, as indicated in option A, if PnP is disabled either with a
jumper or with the software program, the device can be successfully installed.
8. C. Both Windows 2000 and Windows 9x require three elements: a client, an

adapter, and a protocol. How each element is configured is slightly different
between the two operating systems, however. Host names, IP addresses, and
gateways may also be necessary, but only if the chosen protocol is TCP/IP.
9. D. Networking in which users share each other’s resources, is called peer-to-

peer networking.
10. C. NetBEUI is a transport protocol, managing data transmission between two

computers. NetBIOS is a name resolution system, allowing a computer to
search for another computer on a network by its Microsoft computer name.

11. B. To send and receive e-mail, all that is required is an e-mail account and an
e-mail client.
12. A. This is one of those “technicality” questions, but knowing proper termin-
ology is important when taking technical exams, and questions like this crop
up regularly.
13. C. The Network Neighborhood icon, located on the Desktop, provides easy
access to any shared resources. Network Neighborhood is not accessible from
the Control Panel or from My Computer.
14. B, C. Although there are a number of services available for resolving names,
the most common are WINS and DNS. WINS resolves NetBIOS computer
names to the appropriate IP address, while DNS does the same for host names.
15. A, B, C, D. There are four basic types of networking components in a Win-

dows 9x system. They are protocol, adapter, client, and service.
16. D. As indicated in option D, the IPCONFIG protocol utility is a good way to

find basic information about your TCP/IP configuration. It can be used at the
command prompt. If you type IPCONFIG /A, the system will display addi-
tional information.
17. B. You can create a new DUN as indicated in option B. The Dial-Up
Networking icon can also be accessed by double-clicking My Computer
from the desktop.
18. A, C. As indicated, what makes Point-to-Point the more popular analog

connection protocol is the fact that it is easy to configure, and due to its
error-checking capabilities, it is more stable.
19. C. The Find command can be used to search your machine for files or the
network for other machines. Search is used on Windows 2000 to do the same
tasks.
20. A, B, D. Read-Only, Full Access, and Depends on Password are the three
options for access rights. These options are accessible by right-clicking the
shared folder and choosing Sharing.

Chapter Windows and
Application
19 Troubleshooting

THIS CHAPTER:
1.2 Identify basic concepts and procedures for creating, viewing,

and managing files, directories, and disks. This includes
procedures for changing file attributes and the ramifications of
those changes (for example, security issues).
File attributes—Read Only, Hidden, System, and Archive
attributes
File naming conventions (most common extensions)
IDE/SCSI
Internal/External
Backup/Restore
Partitioning/Formatting/File System
FAT
FAT16
FAT32
NTFS4
NTFS5
HPFS
Windows-based utilties:
SCANDISK
Device Manager
System Manager
Computer Manager

MSCONFIG.EXE
REGEDIT.EXE (View information/Backup registry)
REGEDT32.EXE
ATTRIB.EXE
EXTRACT.EXE
DEFRAG.EXE
EDIT.COM
FDISK.EXE
SYSEDIT.EXE
SCANREG
WSCRIPT.EXE
HWINFO.EXE
Cvt1.EXE (Drive Converter FAT16 to FAT32)
3.1 Recognize and interpret the meaning of common error
codes and startup messages from the boot sequence, and
identify steps to correct the problems.
Safe Mode
No operating system found
Error in CONFIG.SYS line XX
Bad or missing COMMAND.COM
HIMEM.SYS not loaded
Missing or corrupt HIMEM.SYS
SCSI
Swap file
NT boot issues
Dr. Watson
Failure to start GUI
Windows Protection Error
Event Viewer—Event log is full
A device referenced in SYSTEM.INI, WIN.INI, Registry is
not found

3.2 Recognize common problems and determine how to
resolve them.
Eliciting problem symptoms from customers
Having customer reproduce error as part of the
diagnostic process
Identifying recent changes to the computer environment
from the user
Troubleshooting Windows-specific printing problems
Print spool is stalled
Incorrect/incompatible driver for print
Incorrect parameter
Other common problems:
Illegal operation
Invalid working directory
System lock up
Option (sound card, modem, or input device) will not
function
Application will not start or load
Cannot log on to network (option—NIC not functioning)
TSR (Terminate Stay Resident) programs and virus
Applications don’t install
Network connection
Viruses and virus types:
What they are
Sources (floppy, e-mails, etc.)
How to determine presence

T roubleshooting involves asking a lot of questions of yourself and
of other people. Beginners (and yes, I was a beginner once upon a time) like the
trial and error method of fixing things, but in the long run, a methodological
approach will work better. The reason that beginners often choose a trial and
error approach is that they don’t yet have a good enough background to analyze
the problem.
For complete coverage of objective 1.2, please also see Chapter 14. For complete
coverage of objective 3.2, please also see Chapter 17.
Analysis is the act of breaking down a structure or system into its component parts
and their relationships.
More than occasionally, a technician will unwittingly create new problems in

an attempt to fix a real problem. For example, if a program will not run and dis-
plays an Out of Memory error, it might seem logical to add more memory.
But certain types of memory currently on the market will not work in older
486 computers—what happens if the memory the technician installs is the wrong
type for the computer? Now there are two problems.
And what if the computer with the mismatched memory actually starts up but
eventually locks up because of the memory problem? The lock-ups could create
an interruption in writing information to the hard drive, and a program could
become corrupted. That would make three problems total.
Once the technician has sorted out all the problems, it’s time to actually repair
whatever went wrong. In the above example, it is quite likely that the source of
the original Out of Memory error was really some corrupted program code.
Many times, a Windows program with some damage to one or more components
will cause exactly that error to be displayed.

Troubleshooting Steps 775
Troubleshooting Steps
In a computer system, there are at least four main parts to be considered,
each of which is in turn made up of many pieces:
1. There is a collection of hardware pieces that are integrated into a work-
ing system. As you know, the hardware can be quite complex, what with
motherboards, hard drives, video cards, etc. Software can be equally
perplexing.
2. There is an operating system that in turn is dependent on the hardware.
Remember that the DOS and Windows operating systems have kernels,
internal commands, and external commands, which may interact with the
hardware in different ways.
3. There is an application or a software program that is supposed to do
something. Programs such as Microsoft Word and Excel are now bundled
with a great many features.
4. There is a computer user, ready to take the computer system to its limits
(and beyond). A technician can often forget that the customer user is a
very complex and important part of the puzzle.
Effective troubleshooting will require some experience just for the background
required to analyze the problem at hand, but there are also some other logical steps
that need to be remembered. Ask yourself the question, “Is there a problem?” Per-
haps it is as simple as a customer expecting too much from the computer. If there
is a problem, is it just one problem?
Step 1: Talk to the Customer

Talking to the user is an important first step. Your first contact with the com-
puter that has a problem will usually be through the customer, either directly or
by way of a work order that contains the user’s complaint. Often, the complaint
will be something straightforward, such as, “There’s a disk stuck in the floppy
drive.” At other times, the problem will be complex and the customer will not
have mentioned everything that has been going wrong.
The act of diagnosis starts with the art of customer relations. Go to the cus-
tomer with an attitude of trust: believe what the customer is saying. At the same
time, go to the customer with an attitude of hidden skepticism, meaning don’t
believe that the customer has told you everything. This attitude of hidden skep-
ticism is not the same as distrust. Most customers are not going to lie, but they
may inadvertently forget to give some crucial detail.

776 Chapter 19 Windows and Application Troubleshooting

Windows File-Related Problems 777
down. Nothing is more infuriating than knowing you did something to make the
system work but not being able to remember what it was.
Windows File-Related Problems

M any problems in Windows can be traced to missing, corrupt, or mis-
configured files. They can cause consternation to no end because they can be
troublesome to fix. Thankfully, they usually give indications of which file is the
problem in the error message.
In this section, you will learn about some of the various file-related problems
that can be found in Windows as well as their solutions. The problems you will
learn about in this section can be categorized into four main areas:
System files not found
Config file issues
Swap file issues
NT boot issues
Since the most easily fixed problems are related to missing system files, that’s
the next topic we’ll cover.
System Files Not Found

Every operating system or operating environment (such as Windows 9x or Win-
dows NT) has certain key system files that must be present in order for it to func-
tion. If these files are missing or corrupt, the operating system will cease to function
properly. Files can be deleted by accident rather easily, so it’s important to know
what these system files are, where they are located, and how to replace them.
Windows 9x system files are covered in Chapter 13, “Windows 95/98,” and Win-
dows 2000 system files are covered in Chapter 14, “Windows 2000.”
When you boot Windows 9x or Windows NT, the presence of the system files
(e.g., HIMEM.SYS, COMMAND.COM, etc.) is checked, and each file is loaded. If you’ll
remember, the computer’s BIOS first checks the hardware of the PC, then looks for
a boot sector on one of the disks and loads the operating system found in that boot
sector. However, if the computer can’t find a boot sector with an operating system
installed on any of the disks, it will display an error similar to the following:
No operating system found

This error means that the computer’s BIOS checked all the drives it knew about
and couldn’t find any disk with a bootable sector. This could be for any number
of reasons, including:
An operating system wasn’t installed.
The boot sector has been corrupted.
The boot files have been corrupted.
Thankfully, there are a couple of solutions to these problems. First of all, if the
file or files are simply missing, just copy them from the original setup diskettes
or CD-ROM, or copy them from a backup (assuming you have one). The same
holds true if you have a corrupt file, except you must delete the corrupt file(s)
first, then replace them with new copies.
When deleting and/or replacing system files, you must use the ATTRIB command to
remove the hidden, system, and read-only attributes before you replace these files.
These same concepts hold true for other system file–related problems, such as:
Bad or missing COMMAND.COM
HIMEM.SYS not loaded
Missing or corrupt HIMEM.SYS
These errors just mean that the specified (e.g., COMMAND.COM, HIMEM.SYS)
files are either missing or corrupt. Just replace them with fresh copies. The error
should go away, and the computer will function properly.
Configuration File Issues

As discussed in Chapters 13 and 14, Windows 9x and Windows NT contain
several files that hold configuration data for the Windows, such as the Regis-
try, SYSTEM.INI, WIN.INI, and the CONFIG.SYS. Because these files can be
edited by a user, the possibility for introduction of invalid configurations is
more likely. Additionally, most of the software installation programs modify
these files when a new program is installed. These files are modified so often,
in fact, that it is a wonder they aren’t corrupted more often.
Some of the more commonly seen errors in Windows that are related to con-
figuration files are:
A device referenced in SYSTEM.INI can not be found
A device referenced in WIN.INI can not be found
A device referenced in the Registry can not be found
Error in CONFIG.SYS line XX
These errors are basically the same error and mean that an item that refers to a
piece of hardware or software that wasn’t installed was placed into a configuration

Windows File-Related Problems 779
file. The difference is which file the error is contained in. Again, with missing
stuff, the solution is very simple: just add the missing item. In fact, in Error in
CONFIG.SYS line xx, the error message actually tells you which line has the
error in it. You can then go directly to that line and fix the problem. With the
SYSTEM.INI and WIN.INI file errors, you must search through the files using
your favorite text editor to try and find the invalid line. It may be something as
hard to find as an additional backslash put in the wrong place, or as easy to find
as a string of corrupt characters.
That process is the same for the Registry except that you must use the Registry
Editor (REGEDIT.EXE or REGEDT32.EXE, for Windows 9x and Windows NT/2000,
respectively) to search for corrupt or invalid entries. You will learn more about the
Registry later in this chapter.
Swap File Issues

As mentioned in earlier chapters, Windows uses swap files (called page files in
Windows NT) to increase the amount of usable memory it has by using hard disk
space as memory. However, sometimes problems can occur when a computer
doesn’t have enough disk space to make a proper swap file. Because Windows
relies on swap files for proper operation, if a swap file isn’t big enough, Windows
will slow down and start running out of usable memory. All sorts of memory-
related problems can stem from incorrect or too small swap files. Symptoms of
swap file problems include an extremely slow system speed and a disk that is con-
stantly being accessed. This condition is known as hard disk thrashing and occurs
because Windows doesn’t have enough memory to contain all the programs that
are running, and there isn’t enough disk space for a swap file to contain them all.
This causes Windows to swap between memory and hard disk.
The solution to this problem is to first free up some disk space. With IDE hard
disk sizes at tens of gigabytes for around $100, the easiest thing to do is install
a bigger hard disk. If that solution isn’t practical, you must delete enough unused
files so that the swap file can be made large enough to be functional.
Windows NT Boot Issues

Troubleshooting Windows NT boot issues is another type of Windows trouble-
shooting that is commonly performed. To understand Windows NT boot issues,
you must first understand the NT boot process, which is as follows:
1. The POST routine examines the boot sector and loads the Master Boot
Record (MBR).
2. The boot sector is loaded from the active partition.
3. NTLDR is loaded from the boot sector and initialized.
4. NTLDR loads the appropriate minifile drives for the type of file system on
the boot partition (e.g., FAT or NTFS).

5. NTLDR reads the BOOT.INI file and looks for the list of operating systems
installed on the computer. Windows NT is one of the choices, along with
any other operating system that was installed over when Windows NT
was installed.
6. A user selects an operating system to boot to.
7. If Windows NT is selected, NTLDR runs NTDETECT.COM to detect new
hardware.
8. NTLDR then loads the kernel file (NTOSKRNL.EXE), hardware abstraction
layer (HAL), and the Registry, as well as any device drivers found there.
9. NTLDR finally passes control to NTOSKRNL.EXE. At this point, the boot
process is finished and NTOSKRNL can start loading other files.
As you can see, NTLDR is heavily relied upon during the boot process. If it is
missing or corrupted, Windows NT will not be able to boot and you’ll get an
error similar to Can’t find NTLDR.
On the other hand, if you get an error such as NTOSKRNL.EXE missing or
corrupt on bootup, it may be an error in the BOOT.INI file. This is a common occur-
rence if you have improperly used the multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\
WINNT=”Windows NT Server” syntax entries. If these entries are correct, the
NTOSKRNL.EXE file may be corrupt or missing. Boot to a startup disk and replace the
file from the setup disks or CD-ROM.
Windows Printing Problems

I f a printer is not printing at all, then you should start with the DOS trou-
bleshooting method. First, reboot the computer in Safe Mode DOS Prompt. (See
the section “Windows-Based Utilities” for more information on Safe Mode.)
Then copy a file or a directory listing to the printer port. If the file or directory
listing doesn’t print, the cause is most likely a hardware failure or loose cable. If
it does print, then you can assume the printing problems are associated with the
Windows printer drivers.
One common source of printer driver errors is corruption of the driver. If a
printer doesn’t work, you can delete the printer from the printer settings window
and reinstall it. If this method fails, the problem may be that related printer files
were not replaced. Delete all printers from the computer and reinstall them. If this
second method fails, then the printer driver is not compatible with Windows 9x or
with the printer, and you will need to obtain an updated driver.
A quick way to test the printer functionality is to use the Print Test Page option.
This option is presented to you as the last step when setting up a new printer in
Windows. Always select this option when you’re setting up a new printer so you
can test its functionality. To print a test page for a printer that’s already set up,
look for the option on the Properties menu for the particular printer.

Other Common Problems 781
After the test page is sent to the printer, the computer will ask if it printed cor-
rectly. For the first few times, you’ll probably want to answer No and use the
troubleshooting Wizard that appears, but after you have troubleshot a few
printer problems, you may prefer to answer Yes and bypass the Wizard, which
is rather simplistic and annoying.
Other Common Problems

S ome common Windows problems don’t fall into any great category
other than “common Windows problems”. Some of these problems include:
General Protection Faults (GPFs) Probably the most common and most
frustrating error. A General Protection Fault (GPF) happens in Windows
when a program accesses memory that another program is using or when a
program accesses a memory address that doesn’t exist. Generally, GPFs are
the result of sloppy programming. To fix this type of problem, a simple reboot
will usually clear memory. If they keep occurring, check to see which software
is causing the GPF. Then, find out if the manufacturer of the software has a
patch to prevent it from GPFing.
Windows protection error A Windows protection error is a condition that
usually happens on either startup or shutdown. Protection errors occur
because Windows 9x could not load or unload a virtual device driver (VxD)
properly. Thankfully, this error usually tells which VxD is experiencing the
problem so you can check to see if the specified VxD is missing or corrupt. If
it is, you can replace it with a new copy. If it is one of the Windows 9x built-
in VxDs, you must re-run Windows 9x SETUP.EXE with the /p I option.
Illegal operation Occasionally, a program will quit for apparently no reason
and present you with a window that says This program has performed an
illegal operation and will be shut down. If the problem
persists, contact the program vendor. An illegal operation error usu-
ally means that a program was forced to quit because it did something Win-
dows didn’t like. It then displays this error window. The name of the program
that quit will appear at the top of the window along with three buttons: OK,
Cancel, and Details. The OK and Cancel buttons do the same thing: they both
dismiss the window. The Details button will open the window a little farther
and show the details of the error. The details of the error include which mod-
ule experienced the problem, the memory location being accessed at the time,
and the registers and flags of the processor at the time of the error.
System lock-up It is obvious when a system lock-up occurs. The system
simply stops responding to commands and stops processing completely. Sys-
tem lock-ups can occur when a computer is asked to process too many

instructions at once with too little memory. Usually, the cure for a system
lock-up is to simply reboot. If the lock-ups are persistent, it may be a
hardware-related problem instead of a software problem.
Dr. Watson Windows NT 4 includes a special utility known as Dr. Watson.
This utility intercepts all error conditions and, instead of presenting the user
with a cryptic Windows error, presents the user with a slew of information
that can be used to troubleshoot the problem. Additionally, Dr. Watson logs
all errors to log files stored in the WINDOWS\DRWATSON directory.
Failure to start GUI Occasionally, the GUI of Windows won’t appear. The
system will hang just before the GUI appears. Or, in the case of Windows NT,
the Blue Screen of Death (BSOD)—not a technical term, by the way—will
appear. The BSOD is another way of describing the blue screen error condition
that occurs when Windows NT fails to boot properly or quits unexpectedly. In
Windows 9x, instead of a BSOD, you will simply get a black screen (usually
with a blinking cursor in the upper left corner) that indicates there is a problem.
Because it is at this stage that the device drivers for the various pieces of hard-
ware are installed, if your Windows GUI fails to start properly, more than likely
the problem is related to a misconfigured driver or misconfigured hardware.
Try booting Windows in Safe Mode to bypass this problem. (See the section
“Windows-Based Utilities” for more information on Safe Mode.)
If you happen to get a Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) with a “Fatal Exception error
0D,” chances are that the culprit is a problem relating to the video card.
Option (sound card, modem, SCSI card, or input device) will not function
When you are using Windows, you are constantly interacting with some piece
of hardware. Each piece of hardware has a Windows driver that must be loaded
in order for Windows to be able to use it. Additionally, the hardware has to be
installed and functioning properly. If the device driver is not installed properly
or the hardware is misconfigured, the device won’t function properly.
TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) programs and viruses In the days of
DOS, there was no easy way of running a utility program in the background
while you ran an application. Because necessity is the mother of invention,
programmers came up with Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) programs.
These programs were loaded from the AUTOEXEC.BAT and stayed resident in
memory until called for by some key combination. Unfortunately, while that
worked for DOS, Windows 95 had its own method for using background util-
ities. If any DOS TSR programs are in memory when Windows 9x is running,
the TSR(s) can interfere with the proper operation of Windows programs.
Before you install Windows 9x, make sure that any DOS TSRs are disabled in
the AUTOEXEC.BAT.

Other Common Problems 783
Cannot log on to network (option—NIC not functioning) If your com-

puter is hooked up to a network (and more and more computers today are),
you need to know when your computer is not functioning on the network
properly and what to do about it. In most cases, the problem can be attributed
to either a malfunctioning Network Interface Card (NIC) or improperly
installed network software. The biggest indicator in Windows that some com-
ponent of the network software is nonfunctional is that you can’t log on to the
network or access any network service. To fix this problem, you must first fix
the underlying hardware problem (if one exists), then properly install or con-
figure the network software.
Networking software is covered in Chapter 18, “Configuring Network Software.”
Applications don’t install We’ve all experienced this frustration. You are try-
ing to install the coolest new program and, for whatever reason, it just won’t
install properly. It may give you one of the above-mentioned errors or a cryptic
installation error. If a software program won’t install and it gives you any pre-
viously mentioned errors (e.g., GPF or Illegal Operation), use the solutions for
those errors first. If the error that occurs during install is unique to the applica-
tion being installed, check the application manufacturer’s Web site for an expla-
nation or update. These errors generally occur when you’re trying to install over
an application that already exists, or when you’re trying to replace a file that
already exists but that another application has in use. When installing an appli-
cation, it is extremely important that you quit all running programs before
installing so that the installer can replace any files it needs to.
Application will not start Once you have an application successfully
installed, you may run across a problem getting the application to start
properly. This problem can come from any number of sources, including an
improper installation, software conflict, and system instability. If your
application was installed incorrectly, the files required to properly run the
program may not be present and the program can’t function without them.
If a shared file that’s used by other programs is installed, it could be a dif-
ferent version from what should be installed that causes conflicts with other
already-installed programs. Finally, if one program GPFs, it can cause mem-
ory problems that can destabilize the system and cause other programs to
crash. The solution to these problems is to reinstall the offending applica-
tion, first making sure that all programs are closed.
Invalid working directory Some Windows programs are extremely pro-
cessing intensive. These programs require an area on the hard disk to store
their temporary files while they work. This area is commonly known as a
working directory, and the location of it is usually specified during that

program’s installation. However, if that directory changes after installation

and the program still thinks its working directory is in the same location, the
program will receive an error that says something such as Invalid working
directory. The solution is to reinstall the program with the correct param-
eters for the working directory.
It is for this reason that many programs use the Windows TEMP directory as their
working directory. You will only see this error if the programmer chose to use a
user-settable working directory.
Bad Network Connection When troubleshooting network problems, as

with other problems, never fail to check the simple stuff. Although it could be
something difficult like weird driver conflicts, more often than not, problems
sending and receiving data with the network can often be attributed to bad
physical connections. Bad network connections are the result of some prob-
lem with the cabling system and its connections. Things to check when look-
ing for cable problems include:
Broken or loose connectors
Wires pulled free from connector
Kinked wires
Unplugged patch cables
Remember that there are two universal solutions to Windows problems: reboot-
ing and obtaining an update from the software manufacturer.
Windows-Based Utilities
I n addition to learning about the many common problems and trouble-
shooting techniques for Windows, you should know about the different
resources that Microsoft provides with Windows to troubleshoot Windows.
These resources are the best to use if you have no other troubleshooting tools
available. They can also be used as a starting point for troubleshooting a com-
puter. The built-in Windows tools that the A+ exam tests you on, include:
Safe Mode
SCANDISK
Device Manager
System Manager

Windows-Based Utilities 785
Computer Manager
MSCONFIG.EXE
REGEDIT.EXE (view information/back up Registry)
REGEDT32.EXE
ATTRIB.EXE
EXTRACT.EXE
DEFRAG.EXE
EDIT.COM
FDISK.EXE
SYSEDIT.EXE
SCANREG
WSCRIPT.EXE
HWINFO.EXE
CVT1.EXE (Drive Converter FAT16 to FAT32)
Event Viewer—Event log is full
Safe Mode
When Windows won’t start properly, it is probably due to a driver or some piece
of software that’s not loading correctly. To fix problems of this nature, you should
boot Windows in Safe Mode. In Safe Mode, Windows loads a minimal set of driv-
ers (including a VGA-only video driver) so that you can disable an offending
driver. To start Windows in Safe Mode, press the F8 key when you see the Starting
Windows display during Windows bootup. This will bring up a menu that will
allow you to choose to start Windows in Safe Mode. Once booted in Safe Mode,
you can uninstall any driver you suspect is causing a Windows boot problem.
Upon reboot, the system should go back to normal operation (non-Safe Mode).
You can also use the F8 menu to select other boot options, such as logging all
messages to a log file during boot, booting to a command prompt, or starting
Windows in Safe Mode with network support.
SCANDISK
You can use the Windows SCANDISK utility to correct corrupt file problems or
disk errors, like cross-linked files (which CHKDSK can’t do). There are two ways
you can use SCANDISK. First, if you suspect a particular hard disk is having

problems or you have a corrupt file on a particular disk, you can manually start
SCANDISK by right-clicking the problem disk and selecting Properties. This will
bring up the Properties window for that disk, which shows the current status of
the selected disk drive, as shown here.
Click the Tools tab at the top of the screen, then click the Check Now button
in the Error-Checking Status section to start SCANDISK, as shown here.
Once you start SCANDISK, you start the scanning process by selecting the
type of scan you want to perform (Standard or Thorough) and clicking Start.

SCANDISK will scan the disk looking for corrupt files and fix or delete them, as
shown here. Additionally, if you choose the Thorough option, SCANDISK will
scan the surface of the disk for defects and mark them as unusable.
You can also run SCANDISK automatically. When you turn off a Windows
computer without choosing the Shut Down command, Windows 95 OSR2 and
Windows 98 will automatically run SCANDISK when the computer is restarted.
SCANDISK will check to see if any of the Windows files are corrupt so that Win-
dows can be started.
Device Manager
With Windows 9x, Microsoft provides the Device Manager, a tool that will ana-
lyze hardware-related problems. The Device Manager displays all of the devices
installed in a computer (as shown in Figure 19.1). If a device is malfunctioning,
a yellow triangle with an exclamation point inside it is displayed (as with the
Iomega Parallel Port Interface in Figure 19.1).

FIGURE 19.1 The Windows 9x Device Manager
With this utility, you can not only view the devices installed in a system and
any of those devices that are failing, but you can also double-click on a device
and view and set its properties (as shown in Figure 19.2). On the General tab,
you will see the status of the device (i.e., whether its working or not). The other
tabs are used for configuring the individual devices, adding or updating drivers,
and verifying the version of drivers installed.
FIGURE 19.2 Properties of a network card

When troubleshooting a specific Windows-related hardware problem, you can

access the Device Manager in two different ways. First and quickest, you can right-
click on the My Computer icon and choose Properties. This brings up the General
tab by default. To access the Device Manager from here, click on the Device Man-
ager tab. You can then use the Device Manager to troubleshoot your system.
System Manager
You may be asking yourself, what is a System Manager? We asked ourselves
the same question when we looked at the CompTIA A+ objectives. There are sev-
eral options, but at the time of this writing we could find none that referred to
Windows 9x, NT, or 2000. As the A+ operating system technology evolves, per-
haps we will see a more definitive explanation as to why CompTIA included Sys-
tem Manager in their objectives.
Computer Manager
Windows 2000 includes a new piece of software to manage computer settings,
the Computer Manager. Since Windows 2000 is more advanced as a platform, the
Computer Manager can manage more than just the installed hardware devices. In
addition to a Device Manager that functions almost identically to the one in
Windows 9x, Computer Manager can also manage all the services running on
that computer. It contains an Event Viewer to show all the system errors and
events that show up, as well as methods to configure the software components
of all the computer’s hardware. Figure 19.3 shows an example of the Computer
Manager running on Windows 2000.
FIGURE 19.3 Windows 2000 Computer Manager

To access the Computer Manager, go to Start Programs Administrative

Tools Computer Manager. You will see all of the computer management tools,
including the Device Manager. You can then use Computer Manager to manage
hardware devices and software services.
Event Viewer
Windows NT, like other network operating systems, employs comprehensive
error and informational logging routines. Every program and process theoreti-
cally could have its own logging utility, but Microsoft has come up with a rather
slick utility, Event Viewer, which, through log files, tracks all events on a partic-
ular Windows NT computer. Normally, though, you must be an administrator
or a member of the Administrators group to have access to Event Viewer.
To start Event Viewer, log in as an administrator (or equivalent) and go to
Start Programs Administrative Tools Event Viewer. From here you can
view the System, Application, and Security log files. The System log file displays
alerts that pertain to the general operation of Windows. The Application log file
logs server application errors. The Security log file logs security events such as
login successes and failures. These log files can give a general indication of a Win-
dows computer’s health.
One situation that does occur with the Event Viewer is that the Event
Viewer log files get full. Although it isn’t really a problem, it can make viewing
log files confusing because there are many entries. Even though each event is
time- and date-stamped, you should clear the Event Viewer every so often. To
do this, open the Event Viewer and choose Clear All Events from the log menu.
This will erase all events in the current log file, allowing you to see new events
easier when they occur.
MSCONFIG.EXE
With the introduction of Windows 98, a new utility was introduced,
MSCONFIG.EXE (a.k.a. System Configuration Utility) that allows a user to
manage their computer system’s configuration. MSCONFIG.EXE (shown in
Figure 19.4) allows a user to boot Windows 98 in diagnostic mode, in which a
user can select which drivers to load interactively. If you suspect a certain driver
is causing problems during boot, you can use MSCONFIG.EXE to prevent that
driver from loading. Additionally, each of the major configuration files
(CONFIG.SYS, AUTOEXEC.BAT, WIN.INI, SYSTEM.INI) and the programs loaded
at startup can be reconfigured and reordered using a graphical interface.

FIGURE 19.4 MSCONFIG.EXE Screen
If you want to prevent a particular driver from loading, you can go to the tab
that represents the file from which the driver is loaded and uncheck the box in
front of the driver you want to eliminate. Or, from the General tab, you can
check Diagnostic Startup in the Startup Selection area and then reboot the com-
puter. Upon reboot, as each driver loads, you will be able to choose whether or
not a particular driver loads or not during this boot cycle.
REGEDIT.EXE
The most flexible (and possibly the most dangerous) utility in the Windows
troubleshooting arsenal is the Registry Editor, also known by its executable
names REGEDIT.EXE (for Windows 9x) and REGEDT32.EXE (for Windows NT
and 2000). The Registry stores all Windows configuration information. If you
edit the Registry, you are essentially changing the configuration of Windows.
The Registry Editor is used to manually change settings that are usually
changed by other means (such as through Setup programs and other Windows
utilities).
In addition to changing Windows settings, you can use REGEDIT to back up
and restore the Registry. To back up the Registry, choose the Export Registry
File command under the Registry menu. This command will allow you to save
the Registry file to some kind of backup media. You can restore it later by choos-
ing the Import Registry File command under the Registry menu.

ATTRIB.EXE
Every operating system since DOS provides four attributes that can be set for
files to modify their interaction with the system. These attributes are as follows:
Read-only Prevents a file from being modified, deleted, or overwritten.
Archive Used by backup programs to determine whether the file has
changed since the last backup and needs to be backed up.
System Used to tell the OS that this file is needed by the system and should
not be deleted.
Hidden Used to keep files from being seen in a normal directory search. This
is useful to prevent system files and other important files from being acciden-
tally moved or deleted.
Attributes are set for files using an external DOS command called
ATTRIB.EXE, which uses using the following syntax:
ATTRIB <filename> [+ or -][attribute]
To set the read-only attribute on the file TESTFILE.DOC, use the following
series of commands:
ATTRIB TESTFILE.DOC +r
Occasionally, it is necessary to remove various attributes and replace them
again. To do this, use the ATTRIB command.
EXTRACT.EXE
All Windows setup files come compressed in Cabinet (CAB) files. These files are
extracted during the Windows Setup process by the EXTRACT.EXE utility. This
utility can also be used to extract one or multiple files from a CAB file to replace
a corrupt file. If you have one Windows file that is corrupt, you can extract a
replacement from the Windows setup CAB files. If you don’t know which CAB file
a particular Windows system file is contained in, you can look it up in the
CABS.TXT file
For example, to extract the UNIDRV.DLL file from the Win95_10.CAB file on
a CD-ROM in drive D: to the C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM directory, use the following
command syntax:
EXTRACT D:\WIN95_10.CAB UNIDRV.DLL /L C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM
The new file will be extracted to the new location and replace the old corrupt ver-
sion in that location.
DEFRAG.EXE
When Windows is installed on a new disk, all the full clusters are contiguous.
That is, they are located one after another rotationally on the disk. However, as

files and programs get installed and deleted, the blocks of disk space get less and
less contiguous. This can hinder Windows performance as it has to constantly go
looking for more sections of different files.
To solve this problem, Microsoft has included a utility with Windows known
as DEFRAG.EXE that is used to reorganize, or defragment the hard disk. You can
access this program from the properties of the disk drive you want to fragment
(it’s found on the same option page as SCANDISK). Or, you can run it using the
Start Run command and type in DEFRAG. Finally, you can run it by going
to Start Programs Accessories System Tools Disk Defragmenter.
The utility will ask you which disk you want to defragment. Choose the
appropriate disk from the drop-down list and click OK. Defrag will start defrag-
menting the drive. This process may take several minutes or several hours,
depending on how badly the drive is fragmented.
Defragmenting a drive will increase the system’s performance because file
access times will be faster.
EDIT.COM
Occasionally, you need to quickly edit a configuration file or other text file (such
as the CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT). For this, a simple editor named
EDIT.COM has been included with all Microsoft operating systems since DOS ver-
sion 6. To edit a file, start a command line session and type in the following:
EDIT <filename>
Replace <filename> with the name of the file you wish to edit. Once EDIT
comes up, it works like any other word processor or text editor. When you are
finished editing the file, save it, and it will be saved as a standard ASCII text file.
FDISK.EXE
If you have already installed the disk drives and now need to configure unused
space on your drive for use, you will need to use the FDISK command.
FDISK.EXE is a DOS program that allows you to access and modify information
about your fixed disks (hence the name). It is used for four major tasks:
Viewing the current partition configuration
Creating DOS partitions or logical DOS drives
Setting active partitions
Deleting partitions or logical DOS drives
These functions can be used on any of the physical disks in your machine, as
long as those disks are considered to be permanent, that is, fixed, drives. Hard
drives, whether they are SCSI, IDE, or EIDE, are all fixed. Once installed, they
are expected to be permanently attached to the system, and if one is removed,
extensive reconfiguration may need to be done on the system. Floppy drives and

CD-ROM drives are designed to support removable, interchangeable media, and

as such are not configurable under FDISK.
To run the FDISK utility, boot to a bootable disk and type FDISK.
You must run FDISK from a bootable disk, NOT from within a command prompt
within Windows. This is because Windows may not represent the disk drives
correctly.
Following the prompts on screen, you can then view, add, or delete partitions.
SYSEDIT.EXE
The System Editor (SYSEDIT.EXE) is a holdover from Windows 3.x. With this
utility, you can view and edit the CONFIG.SYS, AUTOEXEC.BAT, WIN.INI,
SYSTEM.INI, PROTOCOL.INI, and MSMAIL.INI. Although it is not as efficient as
MSCONFIG.EXE, you can still use SYSEDIT to edit these files quickly and to easily
remove an offending driver entry or software configuration. To run this program
in Windows 9x, go to Start Run and type in SYSEDIT. This will bring up the
window shown in Figure 19.5 from which you can click on a window and edit
any of the particular files just as if you were using EDIT.COM. You can then save
the changes and restart the computer to make them take effect.
FIGURE 19.5 SYSEDIT screen

SCANREG.EXE
The Windows Registry Checker, SCANREG.EXE is a quick and simple utility that
you can use to check the Registry for consistency and to make a backup of the
Registry. To start SCANREG, go to Start Run, type SCANREG , and click OK. This
will start SCANREG, which will initiate an immediate scan and fix the Registry
(Figure 19.6).
FIGURE 19.6 SCANREG.EXE screen
After the Registry scan is complete, SCANREG will prompt you to back up your
Registry. You can use this backup to restore the Registry in case of a problem.
WSCRIPT.EXE
The Windows Scripting Host (WSCRIPT.EXE) is a service that allows program-
mers to write Windows scripts that can perform any number of automated tasks.
Unfortunately, because WSCRIPT can also work with Internet Explorer, if it’s
allowed to run unchecked it is a major security hole that can potentially allow
malicious scripts to be run without the user’s knowledge.
This tool is responsible for the propagation of weird Microsoft-only bugs
such as the fairly recent I Love You virus. If you see WSCRIPT present in the task
list on Windows NT, make sure it is supposed to running. Or, if you are sure you
won’t need it for any scripts of any kind, completely delete it.
HWINFO.EXE
Windows 9x and above includes a utility that can give a text report of all the
hardware configuration information for Windows. It includes the driver name,
version, company name, Registry information, and other file-related informa-
tion for the driver. You can then save or print this text report for later reference
on this system.
To view this file, you must start the HWINFO.EXE utility by selecting Start
Run, typing HWINFO /UI, and clicking OK. This will run the HWINFO utility and

produce a report similar to the one in Figure 19.7. You can then either save this
file as an ASCII text file or print the file to a printer by using either the Save or
Print command, respectively, under the File menu.
FIGURE 19.7 The HWINFO Screen
This utility is useful when trying to track down a hardware problem you sus-
pect may be due to an outdated driver. You can examine the file this utility pro-
duces for the versions of all drivers and compare them to the newest possible
drivers on the hardware vendors’ Web sites.

It never fails: eventually, you will have a driver that hangs the system on bootup.
We’ve already discussed several methods for troubleshooting this problem, and
this is yet another one. The Automatic Skip Driver (ASD.EXE) utility is used to
automatically skip loading a driver during boot that failed to load at the last boot.
To use ASD, go to Start Run, type ASD, and click OK. This will bring up the
ASD utility (Figure 19.8). From this screen, you can see which tasks failed to
respond. If you check a box next to a particular task, the next time you boot Win-
dows, that task won’t load. In this way, ASD can prevent lockups during boot.

FIGURE 19.8 ASD.EXE main screen
CVT1.EXE
With the release of Windows 95 OSR2 came a new feature: a new 32-bit FAT
table, also known as FAT32. Up until that point, the FAT system was a 16-bit
system (now known as FAT16). The new FAT32 system allowed for faster access
and larger drive sizes. With newly installed systems, FAT32 was the FAT type of
choice. However, older systems still used FAT16. The FAT32 Upgrade Wizard,
also known as CVT1.EXE, allows you to convert a FAT16 disk system to a FAT32
system. To do this, you must first run the Drive Converter by clicking Start
Run, typing in CVT1.EXE, and clicking OK. This will start the Driver Converter
Wizard (Figure 19.9). From this Wizard, you follow the prompts and continue
clicking Next to convert your drive from FAT16 to FAT32.
FIGURE 19.9 FAT32 Convert Wizard

A Few Warnings about Converting to FAT32
Once you convert to FAT32, you can’t go back to FAT16.
You may not be able to convert a compressed drive.
Removable disks formatted with FAT32 may not work with other systems.
Dual-boot to older systems will not be possible after a conversion to FAT32.
Summary
In this chapter, you were given some tips for troubleshooting the Windows
environment. Just as with troubleshooting hardware, it is important that you
know how to troubleshoot software problems. However, troubleshooting soft-
ware is actually more difficult because the problems can appear to be more
“phantom.”
In the first section, you learned the basic steps to troubleshooting software
problems. You also learned how to apply these troubleshooting steps to prob-
lems. These steps are:
1. Talk to the customer.
2. Gather information.
3. Eliminate possibilities.
4. Document the solution.
In the next section, you learned how to troubleshoot file-related problems.
You learned some of the more common file-related problems and their solutions.
Some of the problems you learned about include missing or corrupt system files,
missing application DLL files, Windows NT boot problems, and swap file issues.
In the next section, you learned about some of the printing problems that
are commonly found in the Windows environment (e.g., wrong driver
installed). You learned how to use the Windows printing troubleshooting
utilities (Print Test Page and the Troubleshooting Wizard) to troubleshoot
these problems.

Summary 799
Because Windows has some problems that don’t fall into any particular cat-
egory, you learned in the next section how to troubleshoot problems that don’t
fall into any particular category. Some of these problems include General Pro-
tection Faults, Invalid Page Faults, and applications that won’t install. You
learned how to recognize the symptoms of each of these problems and how to
solve them when they occur.
Finally, you learned how to use the various built-in Windows troubleshooting
utilities. You learned what each utility is for and how to use it. You also learned
when to apply a particular utility to a problem and when NOT to use a utility.
Key Terms
Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) Safe Mode

defragmentation thrashing
General Protection Fault (GPF) working directory
illegal operation error

Review Questions
1. All of the following are considered to be Windows-based utilities except:
A. SYSEDIT
B. PSCRIPT
C. HWINFO.EXE
D. ASD.EXE
E. CVT1.EXE
2. Some of the common problems faced in troubleshooting Windows and

applications are all of the following except:
A. General Protection Faults
B. Valid working directory
C. System lock-up
D. Application will not start or load
3. The first step in the troubleshooting process is:

A. Talk to the customer
B. Gather information
C. Eliminate possibilities
D. Document your work
4. Windows file-related problems include all of the following except:

A. System files not found
B. Config file issues
C. AUTOEXEC.BAT issues
D. Swap file issues
E. NT boot issues
5. The files that are checked upon bootup of Windows 9x or Windows NT are:
A. Config files
B. AUTOEXEC.BAT files
C. System files
D. Swap files

6. The No Operating System Found error message means that the computer’s
BIOS checked all the drives it knew about and couldn’t find any disk with a boot-
able sector. This could occur because of all of the following reasons except:
A. An operating system wasn’t installed
B. There is no problem with the boot sector
C. The boot files have been corrupted
D. The boot sector has been corrupted
7. Some of the commonly seen errors in Windows that are related to configura-
tion files include all of the following except:
A. Device referenced in Info.INI file cannot be found
B. Device referenced in WIN.INI cannot be found
C. Device referenced in the Registry cannot be found
D. Error in CONFIG.SYS line XX
8. In order to delete and/or replace system files, which command must you use to
remove the hidden, system, and read-only attributes on the file before you
replace the file?
A. UNDELETE
B. ERASE
C. ATTRIB
D. DELETE
9. Symptoms of swap file problems include extremely slow system speed and a
disk that is constantly being accessed, which is referred to as:
A. Clocking
B. Thrashing
C. Booting
D. Filtering
10. The solution to thrashing is: (Select all that apply.)

A. Formatting the disk
B. Buying a new hard disk
C. Freeing up disk space
D. Deleting all files
11. All of the following are a part of the NT boot process except:
A. The POST routine examines the boot sector and loads the MBR.
B. The boot sector is loaded from the extended partition.
C. NTLOADER is loaded from the boot sector and initialized.
D. NTLDR reads the BOOT.INI file and looks for the list of operating
systems installed on the computer.

12. The solution to a corrupt NTOSKRNL.EXE file is to:

A. Reinstall Windows NT
B. Replace the corrupt file with a new one
C. Delete the NTOSKRNL.EXE file and modify the BOOT.INI file
D. Boot to a startup disk and replace the file from the setup disks or
CD-ROM
13. After connecting to a printer and installing the print drivers, what is the best
way to test its functionality? (Select all that apply.)
A. Go to Word and print a document
B. Print a test page from Printer Properties
C. Go to the printer and run diagnostics
D. Wait until someone prints a document and complains
14. One of the most frustrating sets of problems for Windows is:
A. Hardware problems
B. Software problems
C. Printing problems
D. Windows operating system problems
15. The most common Windows printing problems are: (Select all that apply.)
A. Print spool is stalled
B. Incompatible printer model
C. Incorrect/incompatible driver for print
D. Incorrect parameter
16. A condition that usually happens on either startup or shutdown and results
because Windows 9x could not load or unload a virtual device driver properly
is called:
A. General Protection Fault (GPF)
B. Windows protection error
C. Illegal operation
D. System lock-up
17. The most common error that happens in Windows when a program accesses
memory that another program is using or when a program accesses a memory
address that doesn’t exist is called:
A. General Protection Fault
D. System lock-up

18. Which Windows error message is displayed when a program is forced to quit
because it did something Windows didn’t like?
D. System lock-up
19. What error occurs when the system stops responding to commands and stops
processing completely?
D. System lock-up
20. What error occurs when the GUI of Windows won’t appear?
A. Illegal operation
B. Dr. Watson
C. Failure to start GUI
D. Option sound card, modem, SCSI card, or input device will not
function


1. B. PSCRIPT is not considered to be a Windows-based utility. SYSEDIT,
HWINFO.EXE, ASD.EXE, and CVT1.EXE are all utilities used to troubleshoot
Windows.
2. B. Valid working directory is not a common problem faced in troubleshoot-

ing Windows and applications.
3. A. The first step in the troubleshooting process is to talk to the customer. It

is best to obtain as much information as possible from the user so you have an
idea of where to begin your troubleshooting.
4. C. Windows file-related problems do not include AUTOEXEC.BAT issues.

AUTOEXEC.BAT is a DOS batch file that is automatically executed during
boot-up if the file is present.
5. C. The files that are checked upon bootup of Windows 9x and Windows NT
are the system files. Every operating system or operating environment has
certain key system files that must be present in order for it to function.
6. B. The No Operating System Found error means that an operating system

wasn’t installed, the boot sector has been corrupted, or the boot files have
been corrupted.
7. A. Some of the commonly seen errors in Windows that are related to config-
uration files include all of the following except Device referenced in
Info.INI file cannot be found.
8. C. In order to delete and/or replace system files you must use the ATTRIB
command to remove the hidden, system, and read-only attributes on the file.
9. B. Thrashing means an extremely slow system speed and a disk that is con-
stantly being accessed. This condition occurs because Windows doesn’t have
enough memory to contain all the programs that are running.
10. B, C. The solution to thrashing is to free up some disk space. However, with
IDE hard disk sizes at tens of gigabytes available for around $100, the easiest
thing to do is install a bigger hard disk. If that solution isn’t practical, you
must delete enough unused files so that the swap file can be made large enough
to be functional.
11. B. The boot sector is always loaded from the active partition, not the
extended partition.
12. D. The solution to a corrupt NTOSKRNL.EXE file is to boot to a startup disk

and replace the file from the setup disks or CD-ROM.

13. A, B, D. You should go to Word and print a document, print a test page in
Printer Properties, or wait until someone prints a document and complains.
Printing diagnostics only tests whether the printer is able to print if it is con-
nected to a device with the correct drivers.
14. C. One of the most frustrating set of problems for Windows is printing prob-
lems.
15. A, C, D. The most common Windows printing problems are that the print
spool is stalled, there’s an incorrect/incompatible driver for print, or there’s an
incorrect parameter. Windows will support almost any type of printer model.
16. B. A condition that usually happens on either startup or shutdown and

results because Windows 9x could not load or unload a virtual device driver
properly is called a Windows protection error.
17. A. The most common error that happens in Windows when a program
accesses memory that another program is using or when a program accesses a
memory address that doesn’t exist is called a General Protection Fault. Gen-
erally, GPFs are the result of sloppy programming and can often be fixed by
clearing the memory with a simple reboot.
18. C. Illegal operation is the Windows error message displayed when a pro-
gram is forced to quit because it did something Windows didn’t like. The
details of the error include which module experienced the problem, the
memory location being accessed at the time, and the registers and flags of the
processor at the time of the error.
19. D. The system lock-up error occurs when the system stops responding to
commands and stops processing completely. System lock-ups can occur when
a computer is asked to process too many instructions at once with too little
memory. Usually, the cure for a system lock up is to simply reboot. If the lock-
ups are persistent, it may be a hardware-related problem.
20. C. If your Windows GUI fails to start properly, more than likely the problem
is related to a misconfigured driver or misconfigured hardware.

A+ Complete Glossary

808 Glossary
386 enhanced mode In Microsoft Windows, the most advanced and complex
of the different operating modes, 386 enhanced mode lets Windows access the pro-
tected mode of the 80386 (or higher) processor for extended memory management
and multitasking for both Windows and non-Windows application programs.
802.3 An IEEE standard that defines a bus topology network that uses a 50-ohm
coaxial baseband cable and carries transmissions at 10Mbps. This standard
groups data bits into frames and uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Col-
lision Detection (CSMA/CD) cable access method to put data on the cable.
802.5 The IEEE 802.5 standard specifies a physical star, logical ring topology
that uses a token-passing technology to put the data on the cable. IBM developed
this technology for their mainframe and minicomputer networks. IBM’s name
for it was Token Ring. The name stuck, and any network using this type of tech-
nology is called a Token Ring network.
80286 Also called the 286. A 16-bit microprocessor from Intel, first released in
February 1982 and used by IBM in the IBM PC/AT computer. Since then it has
been used in many other IBM-compatible computers. The 80286 uses a 16-bit
data word and a 16-bit data bus, and it uses 24 bits to address memory.
80287 Also called the 287. A floating-point processor from Intel, designed for
use with the 80286 CPU chip. When supported by application programs, a
floating-point processor can speed up floating-point and transcendental math
operations by 10 to 50 times. The 80287 conforms to the IEEE 754-1985 stan-
dard for binary floating-point operations, and it is available in clock speeds of 6,
8, 10, and 12MHz.
80386DX Also called the 80386, the 386DX, and the 386. A full 32-bit micro-
processor introduced by Intel in October 1985 and used in many IBM and IBM-
compatible computers. Available in 16-, 20-, 25-, and 33MHz versions, the
80386 has a 32-bit data word, can transfer information 32 bits at a time over the
data bus, and can use 32 bits in addressing memory. The 80386 is equivalent to
about 275,000 transistors, and can perform 6 million instructions per second.
The floating-point processor for the 80386DX is the 80387.
80386SX Also called the 386SX. A lower-cost alternative to the 80386DX
microprocessor, 80386SX was introduced by Intel in 1988. Available in 16-, 20-,
25-, and 33MHz versions, the 80386SX is an 80386DX with a 16-bit data bus.
This design allows systems to be configured using cheaper 16-bit components,
leading to a lower overall cost. The floating-point processor for the 80386SX is the
80387SX.
80387 Also called the 387. A floating-point processor from Intel, 80387 was
designed for use with the 80386 CPU chip. When supported by application pro-
grams, a floating-point processor can speed up floating-point and transcendental

Glossary 809
math operations by 10 to 50 times. The 80387 conforms to the IEEE 754-1985

standard for binary floating-point operations and is available in speeds of 16, 20,
25, and 33MHz.
80486DX Also called the 486 or i486. 80486DX is a 32-bit microprocessor
introduced by Intel in April 1989. The 80486 represents the continuing evolu-
tion of the 80386 family of microprocessors and adds several notable features,
including on-board cache, built-in floating-point processor and memory
management unit, as well as certain advanced provisions for multiprocessing.
Available in 25-, 33-, and 50MHz versions, the 80486 is equivalent to 1.25
million transistors and can perform 20 million instructions per second.
80486DX2 Also known as the 486DX2. A 32-bit microprocessor introduced by
Intel in 1992. It is functionally identical to and 100 percent compatible with the
80486DX, but it has one major difference: the DX2 chip adds what Intel calls
speed-doubling technology—meaning that it runs twice as fast internally as it
does with components external to the chip. For example, the DX2-50 operates
at 50MHz internally but at 25MHz while communicating with other system
components, including memory and the other chips on the motherboard, thus
maintaining its overall system compatibility. 50- and 66MHz versions of the
DX2 are available. The 486DX2 contains 1.2 million transistors and is capable
of 40 million instructions per second.
80486SX Also called the 486SX. A 32-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel
in April 1991. The 80486SX can be described as an 80486DX with the floating-
point processor circuitry disabled. Available in 16-, 20-, and 25MHz versions,
the 80486SX contains the equivalent of 1.185 million transistors and can exe-
cute 16.5 million instructions per second.
80487 Also called the 487. A floating-point processor from Intel, designed for
use with the 80486SX CPU chip. When supported by application programs, a
floating-point processor can speed up floating-point and transcendental math
operations by 10 to 50 times. The 80487 is essentially a 20MHz 80486 with the
floating-point circuitry still enabled. When an 80487 is added into the coprocessor
socket of a motherboard running the 80486SX, it effectively becomes the main
processor, shutting down the 80486SX and taking over all operations. The 80487
conforms to the IEEE 754-1985 standard for binary floating-point operations.
8086 This 16-bit microprocessor from Intel was first released in June 1978, and
it is available in speeds of 4.77MHz, 8MHz, and 10MHz. The 8086 was used in
a variety of early IBM-compatible computers as well as the IBM PS/2 Model 25
and Model 30. The 8086 uses a 16-bit data word and a 16-bit data bus. The
8086 contains the equivalent of 29,000 transistors and can execute 0.33 million
instructions per second.

810 Glossary
8088 This 16-bit microprocessor from Intel was released in June 1978, and it
was used in the first IBM PC, as well as the IBM PC/XT, Portable PC, PCjr, and
a large number of IBM-compatible computers. The 8088 uses a 16-bit data
word, but transfers information along an 8-bit data bus. Available in speeds of
4.77MHz and 8MHz, the 8088 is approximately equivalent to 29,000 transis-
tors and can execute 0.33 million instructions per second.
8-bit bus The type of expansion bus that was used with the original IBM PC.
The bus can transmit 8 bits at a time.
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus A type of 32-bit expansion bus that
runs at 66MHz. It is a very high-speed bus that is used primarily for video expan-
sion cards and can transfer data at a maximum throughput 508.6MBps.
access time The period of time that elapses between a request for information
from disk or memory and the information arriving at the requesting device.
Memory access time refers to the time it takes to transfer a character from
memory to or from the processor, while disk access time refers to the time it takes
to place the read/write heads over the requested data.
Active Directory The Active Directory, a new feature of Windows 2000, stores
information about users, computers, and network resources. The Active Direc-
tory is stored in databases on special Windows 2000 Server computers called
Domain Controllers.
Active hubs A type of hub that uses electronics to amplify and clean up the
signal before it is broadcast to the other ports.
active matrix A type of liquid crystal display that has a transistor for each pixel
in the screen.
active-matrix screen An LCD display mechanism that uses an individual tran-
sistor to control every pixel on the screen. Active-matrix screens are character-
ized by high contrast, a wide viewing angle, vivid colors, and fast screen refresh
rates, and they do not show the streaking or shadowing that is common with
cheaper LCD technology.
actuator arm The device inside a hard disk drive that moves the read/write
heads as a group in the fixed disk.
address bus The internal processor bus used for accessing memory. The width
of this bus determines how much physical memory a processor can access.
address The precise location in memory or on disk where a piece of informa-
tion is stored. Every byte in memory and every sector on a disk have their own
unique addresses.
Administrative Tools In Windows 2000 Professional, this is the group of util-
ities used to manage many common configuration and maintenance tasks.

Glossary 811
allocation unit An allocation unit is a portion of the hard drive that is used by
the computer when saving information to the drive. Smaller allocation units are
generally more efficient, because they result in less wasted space.
alpha Extremely early versions of computer software are called “alpha code.”
Alpha code is generally incomplete and unusable, and it is almost never released
to the public.
analog Describes any device that represents changing values by a continu-
ously variable physical property such as voltage in a circuit, fluid pressure,
liquid level, and so on. An analog device can handle an infinite number of
values within its range.
anti-static bag A bag designed to keep static charges from building up on the
outside of a computer component during shipping. The bag will collect some of
the charges, but does not drain them away as ESD mats do.
anti-static wrist strap (ESD strap) A specially constructed strap worn as a
preventive measure to guard against the damages of ESD. One end of the strap is
attached to an earth ground and the other is wrapped around the technician’s wrist.
anti-virus program An application program you run to detect or eliminate a
computer virus or infection. Some anti-virus programs are terminate-and-stay-
resident programs that can detect suspicious activity on your computer as it
happens, while others must be run periodically as part of your normal house-
keeping activities.
Application layer The seventh, or highest, layer in the International Organiza-
tion for Standardization’s Open Systems Interconnection (ISO/OSI) model for
computer-to-computer communications. This layer uses services provided by the
lower layers, but is completely insulated from the details of the network hardware.
It describes how application programs interact with the network operating system,
including database management, e-mail, and terminal emulation programs.
ASCII Acronym for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A
standard coding scheme that assigns numeric values to letters, numbers, punctu-
ation marks, and control characters, to achieve compatibility among different
computers and peripherals.
asynchronous Describes a type of communication that adds special signaling
bits to each end of the data. The bit at the beginning of the information signals the
start of the data and is known as the start bit. The next few bits are the actual data
that needs to be sent. Those bits are known as the data bits. Stop bits indicate that
the data is finished. Asynchronous communications have no timing signal.
AT bus Another name for the ISA bus. See also ISA.

812 Glossary
ATA version 2 (ATA-2) The second version of the original IDE (ATA) specifi-
cation that allowed drive sizes of several gigabtyes and overcame the limitation
of 528MB. It is also sometimes generically known as Enhanced IDE (EIDE).
Attached Resource Computer Network (ARCNet) A network technology
that uses a physical star, logical ring and token passing access method. It is typ-
ically wired with coaxial cable.
AUTOEXEC.BAT A contraction of AUTOmatically EXECuted BATch.
AUTOEXEC.BAT is a special DOS batch file, located in the root directory of a
startup disk, and it runs automatically every time the computer is started or
restarted.
auto-ranging multimeters A multimeter that automatically sets its upper and
lower ranges depending on the input signal. These multimeters are more difficult
to damage by choosing the wrong range setting. See also multimeter.
Autorun On a CD-ROM, the Autorun option allows the CD to automatically start
an installation program or a menu screen when it is inserted into the CD-ROM
drive.
“baby” AT A type of motherboard form factor where the motherboard is
smaller than the original AT form factor.
backup A duplicate copy made to be able to recover from an accidental loss
of data.
backup set A related collection of backup media.
backup software Program that is used to back up a small amount of data.
backup source The device or data being backed up.
bandwidth In communications, the difference between the highest and the

lowest frequencies available for transmission in any given range. In networking,
the transmission capacity of a computer or a communications channel stated in
megabits or megabytes per second; the higher the number, the faster the data
transmission takes place.
basis weight A measurement of the “heaviness” of paper. The number is the
weight, in pounds, of 500 11" × 17" sheets of that type of paper.
batch file File with a .bat extension that contains other DOS commands. By
typing the name of the batch file and pressing Enter, DOS will process all of the
batch file commands, one at a time, without need for any additional user input.
baud rate In communications equipment, a measurement of the number of
state changes (from 0 to 1 or vice versa) per second on an asynchronous com-
munications channel.

Glossary 813
Berg connector A type of connector most commonly used in PC floppy drive

power cables; it has four conductors arranged in a row.
Berg connectors A type of power connector that is used on floppy drives.
beta Beta code is software that has reached the stage where is usable and gen-
erally stable, but it is not completely finished. Beta code is often released to the
public for testing on an “as is” basis, and user comments are then used to finish
the release version of the product.
bias voltage The high-voltage charge applied to the developing roller inside an
EP cartridge.
binary Any scheme that uses two different states, components, conditions, or
conclusions. In mathematics, the binary (base-2) numbering system uses combi-
nations of the digits 0 and 1 to represent all values.
BIOS (basic input/output system) The ROM-based software on a mother-
board that acts as a kind of “interpreter” between an operating system and a
computer’s hardware.
BIOS CMOS setup program Program that modifies BIOS settings in the
CMOS memory. This program is available at system startup time by pressing a
key combination such as Alt+F1 or Ctrl+F2.
BIOS shadow A copy of the BIOS in memory.
bit Contraction of BInary digiT. A bit is the basic unit of information in the
binary numbering system, representing either 0 (for off) or 1 (for on). Bits can be
grouped together to make up larger storage units, the most common being the
8-bit byte. A byte can represent all kinds of information including the letters of
the alphabet, the numbers 0 through 9, and common punctuation symbols.
bit-mapped font A set of characters in a specific style and size, in which each
character is defined by a pattern of dots. The computer must keep a complete set
of bitmaps for every font you use on your system, and these bitmaps can con-
sume large amounts of disk space.
Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) A typical way of describing the blue screen
error condition that occurs when Windows NT fails to boot properly or quits
unexpectedly.
boot The loading of an operating system into memory, usually from a hard
disk, although occasionally from a floppy disk. This is an automatic procedure
begun when you first turn on or reset your computer. A set of instructions con-
tained in ROM begin executing, first running a series of power on self-tests
(POSTs) to check that devices, such as hard disks, are in working order, then
locating and loading the operating system, and finally passing control of the
computer over to that operating system.

814 Glossary
bootable disk Any disk capable of loading and starting the operating system,
although most often used when referring to a floppy disk. In these days of larger
and larger operating systems, it is less common to boot from a floppy disk. In
some cases, all of the files needed to start the operating system will not fit on a
single floppy disk, which makes it impossible to boot from a floppy.
BPS (bits per second) A measurement of how much data (how many bits) is
being transmitted in one second. Typically used to describe the speed of asyn-
chronous communications (modems).
bridge This type of connectivity device operates in the Data Link layer of the
OSI model. It is used to join similar topologies (Ethernet to Ethernet, Token Ring
to Token Ring) and to divide traffic on network segments. This device will pass
information destined for one particular workstation to that segment, but it will
not pass broadcast traffic.
broadcasting Sending a signal to all entities that can listen to it. In networking,
it refers to sending a signal to all entities connected to that network.
brouter In networking, a device that combines the attributes of a bridge and a
router. A brouter can route one or more specific protocols, such as TCP/IP, and
bridge all others.
brownout A short period of low voltage often caused by an unusually heavy
demand for power.
browser A piece of software used to access the Internet. Common browsers are
Netscape’s Navigator and Microsoft’s Internet Explorer.
bubble-jet printer A type of sprayed ink printer, this type uses an electric
signal that energizes a heating element, causing ink to vaporize and get pushed
out of the pinhole and onto the paper.
bug A logical or programming error in hardware or software that causes a mal-
function of some sort. If the problem is in software, it can be fixed by changes to
the program. If the fault is in hardware, new circuits must be designed and con-
structed. Some bugs are fatal and cause the program to hang or cause data loss,
others are just annoying, and many are never even noticed.
bug-fix A release of hardware or software that corrects known bugs but does
not contain additional new features. Such releases are usually designated only by
an increase in the decimal portion of the version number; for example, the revi-
sion level may advance from 2 to 2.01 or 2.1, rather than from 2 to 3.
bus A set of pathways that allow information and signals to travel between
components inside or outside of a computer.

Glossary 815
bus clock A chip on the motherboard that produces a type of signal (called a
clock signal) that indicates how fast the bus can transmit information.
bus connector slot A slot made up of several small copper channels that grab
the matching “fingers” of the expansion circuit boards. The fingers connect to
copper pathways on the motherboard.
bus mastering A technique that allows certain advanced bus architectures to
delegate control of data transfers between the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
associated peripheral devices to an add-in board.
bus mouse A mouse connected to the computer using an expansion board
plugged into an expansion slot, instead of simply connected to a serial port as in
the case of a serial mouse.
bus topology Type of physical topology that consists of a single cable that
runs to every workstation on the network. Each computer shares that same data
and address path. As messages pass through the trunk, each workstation checks
to see if the message is addressed for itself. This topology is very difficult to
reconfigure, since reconfiguration requires you to disconnect and reconnect a
portion of the network (thus bringing the whole network down).
byte Contraction of BinarY digiT Eight. A group of 8 bits that, in computer
storage terms, usually holds a single character, such as a number, letter, or other
symbol.
cable access methods Methods by which stations on a network get permis-
sion to transmit their data.
cache Pronounced “cash.” A special area of memory, managed by a cache con-
troller, that improves performance by storing the contents of frequently accessed
memory locations and their addresses. When the processor references a memory
address, the cache checks to see if it holds that address. If it does, the information
is passed directly to the processor; if not, a normal memory access takes place
instead. A cache can speed up operations in a computer in which RAM access is
slow compared with its processor speed, because the cache memory is always
faster than normal RAM.
cache memory Fast SRAM memory used to store, or cache, frequently used
instructions and data.
capacitive keyboard Keyboard designed with two sheets of semi-conductive
material separated by a thin sheet of Mylar inside the keyboard. When a key is
pressed, the plunger presses down and a paddle connected to the plunger presses
the two sheets of semi-conductive material together, changing the total capaci-
tance of the two sheets. The controller can tell by the capacitance value returned
which key was pressed.

816 Glossary
capacitive touch screen Type of display monitor that has two clear plastic
coatings over the screen, separated by air. When the user presses the screen in a
particular spot, the coatings are pressed together and the controller registers a
change in the total capacitance of the two layers. The controller then determines
where the screen was pressed by the capacitance values and sends that informa-
tion to the computer in the form of x,y coordinates.
capacitor An electrical component, normally found in power supplies and
timing circuits, used to store electrical charge.
card services Part of the software support needed for PCMCIA (PC Card)
hardware devices in a portable computer, controlling the use of system inter-
rupts, memory, or power management. When an application wants to access a
PC Card, it always goes through the card services software and never communi-
cates directly with the underlying hardware.
carpal tunnel syndrome A form of wrist injury caused by holding the hands in
an awkward position for long periods of time.
carriage motor Stepper motor used to move the print head back and forth on
a dot-matrix printer.
cathode-ray tube See CRT.
CCD (charge-coupled device) A device that allows light to be converted into

electrical pulses.
CCITT Acronym for Comité Consultatif Internationale de Téléphonie et de
Télégraphie. An organization, based in Geneva, that develops worldwide data
communications standards. CCITT is part of the ITU (International Telecommu-
nications Union). The organization has been renamed ITU-T (ITU Telecommuni-
cations Standardization Sector).
CD-ROM Acronym for compact disc read-only memory. A high-capacity,
optical storage device that uses compact disc technology to store large amounts
of information, up to 650MB (the equivalent of approximately 300,000 pages of
text), on a single 4.72" disk.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) The computing and control part of the com-
puter. The CPU in a mainframe computer may be contained on many printed cir-
cuit boards, the CPU in a mini computer may be contained on several boards,
and the CPU in a PC is contained in a single extremely powerful microprocessor.
centralized processing A network processing scheme in which all “intelligence”
is found in one computer and all other computers send requests to the central com-
puter to be processed. Mainframe networks use centralized processing.

Glossary 817
Centronics parallel interface A standard 36-pin interface in the PC world

for the exchange of information between the PC and a peripheral, such as a
printer, originally developed by the printer manufacturer Centronics, Inc. The
standard defines eight parallel data lines, plus additional lines for status and
control information.
CGA Acronym for Color/Graphics Adapter. CGA is a video adapter that pro-
vided low-resolution text and graphics. CGA provided several different text
and graphics modes, including 40- or 80-column by 25-line, 16-color text
mode, and graphics modes of 640 horizontal pixels by 200 vertical pixels with
2 colors, or 320 horizontal pixels by 200 vertical pixels with 4 colors. CGA has
been superseded by later video standards, including EGA, VGA, SuperVGA,
and XGA.
Charge-coupled device See CCD (charge-coupled device).
charging corona The wire or roller that is used to put a uniform charge on the
EP drum inside a toner cartridge.
checksum A method of providing information for error detection, usually cal-
culated by summing a set of values.
checksumming An error checking routine the runs a mathematical equation
against a set of data and comes up with a result, called a checksum. The data is
then transmitted, and the receiver then runs the same formula against the data
transmitted and compares the result to the checksum. If they are the same, the
transmission is considered successful.
chip creep The slow self-loosening of chips from their sockets on the system
board as a result of the frequent heating and cooling of the board (which causes
parts of the board—significantly, the chip connector slots—to alternately
expand and shrink).
chip puller A tool that is used on older (pre-386) systems to remove the chips
without damaging them.
cleaning step The step in the EP print process where excess toner is scraped
from the EP drum with a rubber blade.
client A network entity that can request resources from the network or server.
client computers A computer that requests resources from a network.
client software Software that allows a device to request resources from a

network.
clock doubling Technology that allows a chip to run at the bus’s rated speed
externally, but still be able to run the processor’s internal clock at twice the speed
of the bus. This technology improves computer performance.

818 Glossary
clock rate See clock speed.
clock signal Built-in metronome-like signal that indicates how fast the compo-
nents can operate.
clock speed Also known as clock rate. The internal speed of a computer or
processor, normally expressed in MHz. The faster the clock speed, the faster the
computer will perform a specific operation, assuming the other components in
the system, such as disk drives, can keep up with the increased speed.
clock tripling A type of processor design where the processor runs at one speed
externally and at triple that speed internally.
cluster The smallest unit of hard disk space that DOS can allocate to a file, con-
sisting of one or more contiguous sectors. The number of sectors contained in a
cluster depends on the hard disk type.
CMOS Acronym for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. An area
of nonvolatile memory that contains settings that determine how a computer is
configured.
CMOS battery A battery used to power CMOS memory so that the computer
won’t lose its settings when powered down.
COMMAND.COM Takes commands issued by the user through text strings or
click actions and translates them back into calls that can be understood by the
lower layers of DOS. It is the vital command interpreter for DOS.
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor See CMOS.
computer name The name by which a Microsoft computer is known on the

network. This is a NetBIOS name (up to 15 characters in length) which must be
unique on the network. In Windows 2000, the computer name is always the
same as the machine’s host name, while in Windows 9x the two can be different.
conditioning step The step in the EP print process where a uniform charge is
applied to the EP drum by the charging corona or charging roller.
conductor Any item that permits the flow of electricity between two entities.
CONFIG.SYS In DOS and OS/2, a special text file containing settings that con-
trol the way that the operating system works. CONFIG.SYS must be located in the
root directory of the default boot disk, normally drive C, and is read by the oper-
ating system only once as the system starts running. Some application programs
and peripheral devices require you to include special statements in CONFIG.SYS,
while other commands may specify the number of disk-read buffers or open files
on your system, specify how the disk cache should be configured, or load any spe-
cial device drivers your system may need.

Glossary 819
connectivity devices Any device that facilitates connections between network

devices. Some examples include hubs, routers, switches, and gateways.
Control Program for Microcomputer (CP/M) A computer operating system that
was an early competitor of Microsoft’s DOS system. CP/M was a command-line
system that was developed by Gary Kildall.
conventional memory The amount of memory accessible by DOS in PCs using
an Intel processor operating in real mode, normally the first 640K.
cooperative multitasking A form of multitasking in which all running appli-
cations must work together to share system resources.
corona roller Type of transfer corona assembly that uses a charged roller to
apply charge to the paper.
corona wire Type of transfer corona assembly. Also, the wire in that assembly
that is charged by the high voltage supply. It is narrow in diameter and located
in a special notch under the EP print cartridge.
CPU (Central Processing Unit) See Central Processing Unit (CPU).
CPU clock Type of clock signal that dictates how fast the CPU can run.
crosstalk Problem related to electromagnetic fields when two wires carrying

electrical signals run parallel and one of the wires induces a signal in the second
wire. If these wires are carrying data, the extra, unintended signal can cause
errors in the communication. Crosstalk is especially a problem in unshielded
parallel cables that are longer than 10 feet.
CRT Acronym for cathode-ray tube. A display device used in computer moni-
tors and television sets. A CRT display consists of a glass vacuum tube that con-
tains one electron gun for a monochrome display, or three (red, green, and blue)
electron guns for a color display. Electron beams from these guns sweep rapidly
across the inside of the screen from the upper-left to the lower-right of the screen.
The inside of the screen is coated with thousands of phosphor dots that glow
when they are struck by the electron beam. To stop the image from flickering, the
beams sweep at a rate of between 43 and 87 times per second, depending on the
phosphor persistence and the scanning mode used—interlaced or non-interlaced.
This is known as the refresh rate and is measured in Hz. The Video Electronics
Standards Association (VESA) recommends a vertical refresh rate of 72Hz, non-
interlaced, at a resolution of 800 by 600 pixels.
cylinder A hard disk consists of two or more platters, each with two sides. Each
side is further divided into concentric circles known as tracks, and all the tracks
at the same concentric position on a disk are known collectively as a cylinder.

820 Glossary
daisy-chaining Pattern of cabling where the cables run from the first device to
the second, second to the third, and so on. If the devices have both an “in” and
an “out,” the in of the first device of each pair is connected to the out of the
second device of each pair.
daisy-wheel printer An impact printer that uses a plastic or metal print mech-
anism with a different character on the end of each spoke of the wheel. As the
print mechanism rotates to the correct letter, a small hammer strikes the char-
acter against the ribbon, transferring the image onto the paper.
DAT See digital audio tape (DAT).
data bits In asynchronous transmissions, the bits that actually comprise the
data; usually 7 or 8 data bits make up the data word.
data bus Bus used to send and receive data to the microprocessor.
data compression Any method of encoding data so that it occupies less space
than in its original form.
data encoding scheme (DES) The method used by a disk controller to store
digital information onto a hard disk or floppy disk. DES has remained unbroken
despite years of use; it completely randomizes the information so that it is impos-
sible to determine the encryption key even if some of the original text is known.
Data Link layer The second of seven layers of the International Standards
Organization’s Open Systems Interconnection (ISO/OSI) model for computer-
to-computer communications. The Data Link layer validates the integrity of the
flow of data from one node to another by synchronizing blocks of data and by
controlling the flow of data.
data set ready See DSR.
data terminal equipment See DTE.
data terminal ready See DTR.
data transfer rate The speed at which a disk drive can transfer information
from the drive to the processor, usually measured in megabits or megabytes per
second.
daughter board A printed circuit board that attaches to another board to pro-
vide additional functions.
DB connector Any of several types of cable connectors used for parallel or
serial cables. The number following the letters DB (for data bus) indicates the
number of pins that the connector usually has.
de facto Latin translation for “by fact”. Any standard that is a standard
because everyone is using it.

Glossary 821
de jure Latin translation for “by law”. Any standard that is a standard because
a standards body decided it should be so.
debouncing A keyboard feature that eliminates unintended triggering of key-
strokes. It works by having the keyboard controller constantly scan the keyboard
for keystrokes. Only keystrokes that are pressed for more than two scans are
considered keystrokes. This prevents spurious electronic signals from generating
input.
decimal The base-10 numbering system that uses the familiar numbers 0–9.
dedicated server The server that is assigned to perform a specific application

or service.
default gateway If a user needs to communicate by TCP/IP with a computer
that is not on their subnet (the local network segment) the computer needs to use
a gateway to access this remote network. The default gateway is simply the path
that is taken by all outgoing traffic unless another path is specified.
defragmentation The process of reorganizing and rewriting files so that they
occupy one large continuous area on your hard disk rather than several smaller
areas.
DES See data encoding scheme (DES).
Desktop Contains the visible elements of Windows and defines the limits of the
graphic environment.
Desktop Control Panel Windows panel that is used to configure the system so
it is more easily usable. This control panel contains the settings for the back-
ground color and pattern as well as screen saver settings.
developing roller The roller inside a toner cartridge that presents a uniform
line of toner to help apply the toner to the image written on the EP drum.
developing step The step in the EP print process where the image written on
the EP drum by the laser is developed, that is, it has toner stuck to it.
device driver A small program that allows a computer to communicate with
and control a device.
Device Manager A utility in Windows 9x and Windows 2000 that allows the
user to view and modify hardware settings. Device drivers can be installed or
upgraded, and problems with devices can be found and dealt with here.
DEVICE= Command found in the DOS CONFIG.SYS that tells DOS which
driver to find and load into memory at boot time.
DEVICEHIGH= Command that is used to load the device drivers into upper
memory blocks, thereby freeing up space in conventional memory.

822 Glossary
diagnostic program A program that tests computer hardware and peripherals

for correct operation. In the PC, some faults are easy to find, and these are
known as “hard faults”; the diagnostic program will diagnose them correctly
every time. Others, such as memory faults, can be difficult to find; these are
called “soft faults” because they do not occur every time the memory location is
tested, but only under very specific circumstances.
differential backup Backs up files that have changed since the last full backup.
digital audio tape (DAT) A method of recording information in digital form on

a small audio tape cassette. Many gigabytes of information can be recorded on a
cassette, and so a DAT can be used as a backup medium. Like all tape devices,
however, DATs are relatively slow.
digital signal A signal that consists of discrete values. These values do not
change over time; in effect, they change instantly from one value to another.
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) Memory module that is similar to a
SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module), except that a DIMM is double-sided.
There are memory chips on both sides of the memory module.
DIN-n Circular type of connector used with computers. (The n represents the
number of connectors.)
DIP (Dual Inline Package) A standard housing constructed of hard plastic
commonly used to hold an integrated circuit. The circuit’s leads are connected to
two parallel rows of pins designed to fit snugly into a socket; these pins may also
be soldered directly to a printed-circuit board. If you try to install or remove dual
inline packages, be careful not to bend or damage their pins.
DIP switch A small switch used to select the operating mode of a device,
mounted as a Dual Inline Package. DIP switches can be either sliding or rocker
switches and are often grouped together for convenience. They are used on
printed circuit boards, dot-matrix printers, modems, and other peripherals.
direct memory access See DMA (direct memory access).
directory Directories are used to organize files on the hard drive. Another
name for a directory is a folder. Directories created inside or below others are
called “subfolders” or “subdirectories.”
Direct Rambus A memory bus that transfers data at 800MHz over a 16-bit
memory bus. Direct Rambus memory models (often called RIMMs), like DDR
SDRAM, can transfer data on both the rising and falling edges of a clock cycle.
direct-solder method A method of attaching chips to the motherboard where
the chip is soldered directly to the motherboard.

Glossary 823
disk cache An area of computer memory where data is temporarily stored on its
way to or from a disk. A disk cache mediates between the application and the hard
disk, and when an application asks for information from the hard disk, the cache
program first checks to see if that data is already in the cache memory. If it is, the
disk cache program loads the information from the cache memory rather than
from the hard disk. If the information is not in memory, the cache program reads
the data from the disk, copies it into the cache memory for future reference, and
then passes the data to the requesting application.
disk-caching program A program that reads the most commonly accessed
data from disk and keeps it in memory for faster access.
disk controller The electronic circuitry that controls and manages the opera-
tion of floppy or hard disks installed in the computer. A single disk controller
may manage more than one hard disk; many disk controllers also manage floppy
disks and compatible tape drives.
disk drive A peripheral storage device that reads and writes to magnetic or
optical disks. When more than one disk drive is installed on a computer, the
operating system assigns each drive a unique name—for example A and C in
DOS, Windows, and OS/2.
disk duplexing In networking, a fault-tolerant technique that writes the same
information simultaneously onto two different hard disks. Disk duplexing is
offered by most of the major network operating systems and is designed to pro-
tect the system against a single disk failure; it is not designed to protect against
multiple disk failures and is no substitute for a well-planned series of disk
backups.
diskette An easily removable and portable “floppy” disk that is 3.5" in diam-
eter and enclosed in a durable plastic case that has a metal shutter over the media
access window.
diskless workstation A networked computer that does not have any local disk
storage capability.
disk mirroring In networking, a fault-tolerant technique that writes the same
information simultaneously onto two different hard disks, using the same disk
controller. In the event of one disk failing, information from the other can be
used to continue operations. Disk mirroring is offered by most of the major net-
work operating systems and is designed to protect the system against a single
disk failure; it is not designed to protect against multiple disk failures and is no
substitute for a well-planned series of disk backups.
Disk Operating System See DOS.

824 Glossary
distributed processing A computer system in which processing is performed

by several separate computers linked by a communications network. The term
often refers to any computer system supported by a network, but more properly
refers to a system in which each computer is chosen to handle a specific workload
and the network supports the system as a whole.
DIX Ethernet The original name for the Ethernet network technology. Named
after the original developer companies, Digital, Intel, and Xerox.
DMA (direct memory access) A method of transferring information directly
from a mass-storage device such as a hard disk or from an adapter card into
memory (or vice versa), without the information passing through the processor.
DMA channels Dedicated circuit pathways on the motherboard that make
DMA possible.
docking station A hardware system into which a portable computer fits so
that it can be used as a full-fledged desktop computer. Docking stations vary
from simple port replicators (that allow you access to parallel and serial ports
and a mouse) to complete systems (that give you access to network connections,
CD-ROMs, even a tape backup system or PCMCIA ports).
domain 1. The security structure for Windows NT Server and Windows 2000
Active Directory.
2. The namespace structure of TCP/IP’s DNS structure.
Domain Name System (DNS) DNS allows TCP/IP-capable users anywhere in
the world to find resources in other companies or countries by using their domain
name. Each domain is an independent namespace for a particular organization,
and DNS servers manage requests for information about the IP addresses of par-
ticular DNS entries. DNS is used to manage all names on the Internet.
dongle A special cable that provides a connector to a circuit board that doesn’t
have one. For example, a motherboard may use a dongle to provide a serial port
when there is a ribbon cable connector for the dongle on the motherboard, but
there is no serial port.
dongle connection A connector on a motherboard where a dongle will connect.
DOS 1. Acronym for Disk Operating System, an operating system originally

developed by Microsoft for the IBM PC. DOS exists in two very similar versions;
MS-DOS, developed and marketed by Microsoft for use with IBM-compatible
computers, and PC-DOS, supported and sold by IBM for use only on computers
manufactured by IBM.
2. A DOS CONFIG.SYS command that loads the operating system into
conventional memory, extended memory, or into upper memory blocks on com-
puters using the Intel 80386 or later processor. To use this command, you must

Glossary 825
have previously loaded the HIMEM.SYS device driver with the DEVICE com-
mand in CONFIG.SYS.
DOS Environment Variables Variables that specify global things like the path
that DOS searches to find executables.
DOS extender A small program that extends the range of DOS memory. For
example, HIMEM.SYS allows DOS access to the memory ranges about 1024K.
DOS prompt A visual confirmation that DOS is ready to receive input from the
keyboard. The default prompt includes the current drive letter followed by a
right angle bracket (for example, C>). You can create your own custom prompt
with the PROMPT command.
DOS shell An early graphic user interface for DOS that allowed users to
manage files and run programs through a simple text interface and even use a
mouse. It was soon replaced by Windows.
dot-matrix printer An impact printer that uses columns of small pins and an
inked ribbon to create the tiny pattern of dots that form the characters. Dot-
matrix printers are available in 9-, 18-, or 24-pin configurations.
dot pitch In a monitor, the vertical distance between the centers of like-colored
phosphors on the screen of a color monitor, measured in millimeters (mm).
dots per inch (dpi) A measure of resolution expressed by the number of dots
that a device can print or display in one inch.
double-density disk A floppy disk with a storage capacity of 360KB.
DRAM See dynamic RAM (DRAM).
drawing tablet Pointing device that includes a pencil-like device (called a

stylus) for drawing on its flat rubber-coated sheet of plastic.
drive bay An opening in the system unit into which you can install a floppy
disk drive, hard disk drive, or tape drive.
drive geometry Term used to describe the number of cylinders, read/write
heads, and sectors in a hard disk.
drive hole Hole in a floppy disk that allows the motor in the disk drive to spin
the disk. Also known as the hub hole.
drive letter In DOS, Windows, and OS/2, the drive letter is a designation used
to specify a particular hard or floppy disk. For example, the first floppy disk is
usually referred to as drive A, and the first hard disk as drive C.
driver See device driver.

826 Glossary
driver signing In order to prevent viruses and poorly written drivers from
damaging your system, Windows 2000 uses a process called driver signing that
allows companies to digitally sign their device software, and it also allows
administrators to block the installation of unsigned drivers.
driver software See device driver.
D-Shell See DB connector.
DSR Abbreviation for data set ready. A hardware signal defined by the
RS-232-C standard to indicate that the device is ready.
D-Sub See DB connector.
DTE Abbreviation for data terminal equipment. In communications, any

device, such as a terminal or a computer, connected to a communications
channel or public network.
DTR Abbreviation for data terminal ready. A hardware signal defined by the
RS-232-C standard to indicate that the computer is ready to accept a transmission.
dual-booting If a single machine must be used for many tasks, it may be nec-
essary for it to have multiple operating systems installed simultaneously. To do
this a boot manager presents the user with a choice of which operating system to
use at startup. To use a different OS the user would have to shut down the
system, restart it, and select the other OS.
Dual Inline Memory Module See DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module).
Dual Inline Package See DIP (Dual Inline Package).
dumb terminal A combination of keyboard and screen that has no local com-
puting power, used to input information to a large, remote computer, often a
minicomputer or a mainframe. This remote computer provides all the processing
power for the system.
duplex In asynchronous transmissions, the ability to transmit and receive on
the same channel at the same time; also referred to as full duplex. Half-duplex
channels can transmit only or receive only. Most dial-up services available to PC
users take advantage of full-duplex capabilities, but if you cannot see what you
are typing, switch to half duplex. If you are using half duplex and you can see
two of every character you type, change to full duplex.
duplex printing Printing a document on both sides of the page so that the
appropriate pages face each other when the document is bound.
dynamic electricity See electricity.

Glossary 827
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) DHCP manages the automatic

assignment of TCP/IP addressing information (such as the IP address, subnet
mask, default gateway and DNS server). This can save a great deal of time when
configuring and maintaining a TCP/IP network.
Dynamic Link Library (DLL) files Windows component files that contain small
pieces of executable code that are shared between multiple Windows programs.
They are used to eliminate redundant programming in certain Windows appli-
cations. DLLs are used extensively in Microsoft Windows, OS/2, and in Win-
dows NT. DLLs may have filename extensions of .dll, .drv, or .fon.
dynamic RAM (DRAM) A common type of computer memory that uses capac-
itors and transistors storing electrical charges to represent memory states. These
capacitors lose their electrical charge, and so they need to be refreshed every mil-
lisecond, during which time they cannot be read by the processor. DRAM chips
are small, simple, cheap, easy to make, and hold approximately four times as
much information as a static RAM (SRAM) chip of similar complexity. How-
ever, they are slower than static RAM. Processors operating at clock speeds of
25MHz or more need DRAM with access times of faster than 80 nanoseconds
(80 billionths of a second), while SRAM chips can be read in as little as 15 to 30
nanoseconds.
Each operating system contains a standard set of device drivers for the key-
board, the monitor, and so on, but if you add specialized peripherals (such as
a CD-ROM disk drive) or a network interface card, you will probably have to
add the appropriate device driver so that the operating system knows how
to manage the device. In DOS, device drivers are loaded by the DEVICE or
DEVICEHIGH commands in CONFIG.SYS.
edge connector A form of connector consisting of a row of etched contacts
along the edge of a printed circuit board that is inserted into an expansion slot
in the computer.
EDO (Extended Data Out) RAM A type of DRAM that increases memory per-
formance by eliminating wait states.
EEPROM Acronym for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory. A memory chip that maintains its contents without electrical power,
and whose contents can be erased and reprogrammed either within the computer
or from an external source. EEPROMs are used where the application requires
stable storage without power but may have to be reprogrammed.
EGA Acronym for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. A video adapter standard that
provides medium-resolution text and graphics. EGA can display 16 colors at the
same time from a choice of 64, with a horizontal resolution of 640 pixels and a
vertical resolution of 350 pixels. EGA has been superseded by VGA and SVGA.

828 Glossary
EISA Acronym for Extended Industry Standard Architecture. A PC bus stan-

dard that extends the traditional AT-bus to 32 bits and allows more than one
processor to share the bus. EISA has a 32-bit data path and, at a bus speed of
8MHz, can achieve a maximum throughput of 33 megabytes per second.
EISA Configuration Utility (EISA Config) The utility used to configure an
EISA bus expansion card.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory See EEPROM.
electricity The flow of free electrons from one molecule of substance to

another. This flow of electrons is used to do work.
electromagnetic drawing tablets Type of drawing tablet that has grids of wires
underneath the rubberized surface. The stylus contains a small sensor that is sen-
sitive to electromagnetic fields. At timed intervals, an electromagnetic pulse is sent
across the grid. The sensor in the stylus picks up these pulses.
electromagnetic interference (EMI) Any electromagnetic radiation released
by an electronic device that disrupts the operation or performance of any other
device.
electron gun The component of a monitor that fires electrons at the back of
the phosphor-coated screen.
electrostatic discharge (ESD) When two objects of dissimilar charge come in
contact with one another, they will exchange electrons in order to standardize
the electrostatic charge between the two objects. This exchange, or discharge,
can sometimes be seen as a spark or arc of electricity. Even when it cannot be
seen it is damaging to electronic components.
e-mail Electronic mail is generally sent across the Internet using protocols
named SMTP (for sending) and POP3 (for receiving).
EMI See electromagnetic interference (EMI).
EMM386.EXE Reserved memory manager that emulates Expanded Memory in

the Extended Memory area (XMS) and provides DOS with the ability to utilize
upper memory blocks to load programs and device drivers.
encoding Process by which binary information is changed into flux transition
patterns on a disk surface.
Enhanced Graphics Adapter See EGA.
enhanced keyboard A 101- or 102-key keyboard introduced by IBM that has

become the accepted standard for PC keyboard layout. Unlike earlier keyboards,
it has 12 function keys across the top, rather than 10 function keys in a block on
the left side, has extra Ctrl and Alt keys, and has a set of cursor control keys
between the main keyboard and the numeric keypad.

Glossary 829
Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) A popular hard-disk, floppy-disk,

and tape-drive interface standard, capable of a data transfer rate of 10 to 20
megabits per second. ESDI is most often used with large hard disks.
environment variables These are used to set certain system-wide parameters
that can then be used by applications running on the system. For instance, a
system’s temporary directory can be set to a specific location using an environ-
ment variable.
EP drum Device that is coated with a photosensitive material that can hold a
static charge when not exposed to light. The drum contains a cleaning blade that
continuously scrapes the used toner off the photosensitive drum to keep it clean.
EP print process Six-step process an EP laser printer uses to form images on
paper. In order, the steps are charging, exposing, developing, transferring,
fusing, and cleaning.
EP printer (electrophotographic printer) Printer that uses high voltage, a
laser, and a black carbon toner to form an image on a page.
EPROM Acronym for erasable programmable read-only memory. A memory
chip that maintains its contents without electrical power, and whose contents
can be erased and reprogrammed by removing a protective cover and exposing
the chip to ultraviolet light.
ergonomics Standards that define the positioning and use of the body to pro-
mote a healthy work environment.
ESD See electrostatic discharge (ESD).
ESD mat Preventive measure to guard against the effects of ESD. The excess
charge is drained away from any item that comes in contact with it.
Ethernet A network technology based on the IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD standard.
The original Ethernet implementation specified 10MBps, baseband signaling,
coaxial cable, and CSMA/CD media access.
even parity A technique that counts the number of 1s in a binary number and,
if the number of 1s total is not an even number, adds a digit to make it even. (See
also parity).
exit roller Found on laser and page printers, the mechanism that guides the
paper out of the printer into the paper-receiving tray.
expanded memory page frame See page frame.
expanded memory specification (EMS) The original version of the Lotus-

Intel-Microsoft Expanded Memory Specification (LIM EMS) that lets DOS
applications use more than 640KB of memory space.

830 Glossary
expansion bus An extension of the main computer bus that includes expan-
sion slots for use by compatible adapters, such as memory boards, video
adapters, hard disk controllers, and SCSI interface cards.
expansion card A device that can be installed into a computer’s expansion bus.
expansion slot One of the connectors on the expansion bus that gives an
adapter access to the system bus. You can add as many additional adapters as
there are expansion slots inside your computer.
extended DOS partition A further optional division of a hard disk, after the
primary DOS partition, that functions as one or more additional logical drives.
A logical drive is simply an area of a larger disk that acts as though it were a sep-
arate disk with its own drive letter.
Extended Graphics Array See XGA.
Extended Industry Standard Architecture See EISA.
extended memory manager A device driver that supports the software por-
tion of the extended memory specification in an IBM-compatible computer.
Extended Memory System (XMS) Memory above 1,024KB that is used by
Windows and Windows-based programs. This type of memory cannot be
accessed unless the HIMEM.SYS memory manager is loaded in the DOS
CONFIG.SYS with a line like DEVICE=HIMEM.SYS.
extended partition If all of the space on a drive is not used in the creation of
the drive’s primary partition, a second partition can be created out of the
remaining space. Called the extended partition, this second partition can hold
one or more logical drives.
external bus An external component connected through expansion cards and
slots allows the processor to talk to other devices. This component allows the
CPU to talk to the other devices in the computer and vice versa.
external cache memory Separate expansion board that installs in a special
processor-direct bus that contains cache memory.
external commands Commands that are not contained within COMMAND
.COM. They are represented by a .COM or .EXE extension.
external hard disk A hard disk packaged in its own case with cables and an
independent power supply rather than a disk drive housed inside and integrated
with the computer’s system unit.
external modem A stand-alone modem, separate from the computer and con-
nected by a serial cable. LEDs on the front of the chassis indicate the current
modem status and can be useful in troubleshooting communications problems.

Glossary 831
An external modem is a good buy if you want to use a modem with different
computers at different times or with different types of computer.
FAQ Acronym for Frequently Asked Question. A document that lists some of
the more commonly asked questions about a product or component. When
researching a problem, the FAQ is usually the best place to start.
FAT See file allocation table (FAT).
fax modem An adapter that fits into a PC expansion slot and provides many of
the capabilities of a full-sized fax machine, but at a fraction of the cost.
FDDI See fiber distributed data interface (FDDI).
FDISK.EXE The DOS utility that is used to partition hard disks for use with DOS.
feed roller The rubber roller in a laser printer that feeds the paper into the
printer.
fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) A specification for fiber-optic net-
works transmitting at a speed of up to 100 megabits per second over a dual,
counter-rotating, Token Ring topology. FDDI is suited to systems that require
the transfer of very large amounts of information, such as medical imaging, 3D
seismic processing, oil reservoir simulation, and full-motion video.
fiber optic cable A transmission technology that sends pulses of light along spe-
cially manufactured optical fibers. Each fiber consists of a core, thinner than a
human hair, surrounded by a sheath with a much lower refractive index. Light sig-
nals introduced at one end of the cable are conducted along the cable as the signals
are reflected from the sheath.
field replacement unit See FRU (field replacement unit).
file allocation table (FAT) A table maintained by DOS or OS/2 that lists all the
clusters available on a disk. The FAT includes the location of each cluster, as well
as whether it is in use, available for use, or damaged in some way and therefore
unavailable. FAT also keeps track of which pieces belong to which file.
file compression program An application program that shrinks program or
data files, so that they occupy less disk space. The file must then be extracted or
decompressed before you can use it. Many of the most popular file compression
programs are shareware, like WinZIP, PKZIP, LHA, and StuffIt for the Macin-
tosh, although utility packages like PC Tools from Central Point Software also
contain file compression programs.
file corruption Occasionally an improper shutdown, a virus, or a random
problem will cause a file’s information to become unreadable. This unreadable
file is referred to as “corrupt” and it must be either repaired or replaced.

832 Glossary
file locking A feature of many network operating systems that prevents more
than one person from updating a file at the same time by “locking” the file.
File Manager Windows utility that allows the user to accomplish a number of
important file-related tasks from a single interface. This is a Windows 3.x feature
only; Window 9x uses Explorer.
file server A networked computer used to store files for access by other client
computers on the network. On larger networks, the file server may run a special
network operating system; on smaller installations, the file server may run a PC
operating system supplemented by peer-to-peer networking software.
file sharing In networking, the sharing of files via the network file server.
Shared files can be read, reviewed, and updated by more than one individual.
Access to the file or files is often regulated by password protection, account or
security clearance, or file locking, to prevent simultaneous changes from being
made by more than one person at a time.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP is used to transfer large files across the
Internet or any TCP/IP network. Special servers, called FTP servers, store infor-
mation and then transfer it back to FTP clients as needed. FTP servers can also
be secured with a username and password to prevent unauthorized downloading
(retrieval of a file from the server) or uploading (placing of a file on the server).
FireWire See IEEE-1394.
firmware Any software stored in a form of read-only memory—ROM,

EPROM, or EEPROM—that maintains its contents when power is removed.
fixed disk A disk drive that contain several disks (also known as platters)
stacked together and mounted through their centers on a small rod. The disks
rotate as read/write heads float above the disks that make, modify, or sense
changes in the magnetic positions of the coatings on the disk.
fixed resistor Type of resistor that is used to reduce the current by a certain
amount. Fixed resistors are color coded to identify their resistance values and tol-
erance bands.
flash memory A special form of non-volatile EEPROM that can be erased at
signal levels normally found inside the PC, so that you can reprogram the con-
tents with whatever you like without pulling the chips out of your computer.
Also, once flash memory has been programmed, you can remove the expansion
board it is mounted on and plug it into another computer if you wish.
flatbed scanner An optical device used to digitize a whole page or a large
image.

Glossary 833
flat-panel display In laptop and notebook computers, a very narrow display

that uses one of several technologies, such as electroluminescence, LCD, or thin
film transistors.
floating-point calculation A calculation of numbers whose decimal point is
not fixed but moves or floats to provide the best degree of accuracy. Floating-
point calculations can be implemented in software, or they can be performed
much faster by a separate floating-point processor.
floating-point processor A special-purpose, secondary processor designed to
perform floating-point calculations much faster than the main processor.
floppy disk A flat, round, magnetically coated plastic disk enclosed in a pro-
tective jacket. Data is written onto the floppy disk by the disk drive’s read/write
heads as the disk rotates inside the jacket. It can be used to distribute commercial
software, to transfer programs from one computer to another, or to back up files
from a hard disk. Floppy disks in personal computing are of two physical sizes,
5.25" or 3.5", and a variety of storage capacities. The 5.25" floppy disk has a
stiff plastic external cover, while the 3.5" floppy disk is enclosed in a hard plastic
case. IBM-compatibles use 5.25" and 3.5" disks, and the Macintosh uses 3.5"
disks.
floppy disk controller The circuit board that is installed in a computer to
translate signals from the CPU into signals that the floppy disk drive can under-
stand. Often it is integrated into the same circuit board that houses the hard disk
controller; it can, however, be integrated into the motherboard in the PC.
floppy disk drive A device used to read and write data to and from a floppy
disk. Floppy disk drives may be full-height drives, but more commonly these
days they are half-height drives.
floppy drive cable A cable that connects the floppy drive(s) to the floppy drive
controller. The cable is a 34-wire ribbon cable that usually has three connectors.
floppy drive interfaces A connector on a motherboard used to connect floppy
drives to the motherboard.
floptical disk A removable optical disk with a recording capacity of between
20 and 25 megabytes.
flux transition Presence or absence of a magnetic field in a particle of the
coating on the disk. As the disk passes over an area the electromagnet is ener-
gized to cause the material to be magnetized in a small area.
footprint The amount of desktop or floor space occupied by a computer or dis-
play terminal. By extension, also refers to the size of software items such as appli-
cations or operating systems.

834 Glossary
FORMAT.COM External DOS command that prepares the partition to store

information using the FAT system as required by DOS and Windows 9x.
formatter board Type of circuit board that takes the information the printer
receives from the computer and turns it into commands for the various compo-
nents in the printer.
formatting 1. To apply the page-layout commands and font specifications to a
document and produce the final printed output.
2.The process of initializing a new, blank floppy disk or hard disk
so that it can be used to store information.
form factors Physical characteristics and dimensions of drive styles.
form feed (FF) A printer command that advances the paper in the printer to the
top of the next page by pressing the FF button on the printer.
fragmentation A disk storage problem that exists after several smaller files
have been deleted from a hard disk. The deletion of files leaves the disk with
areas of free disk space scattered throughout the disk. The fact that these areas
of disk space are located so far apart on the disk causes slower performance
because the disk read/write heads have to move all around the disk’s surface to
find the pieces of one file.
free memory An area of memory not currently in use.
Frequently Asked Question See FAQ.
friction feed A paper-feed mechanism that uses pinch rollers to move the paper
through a printer, one page at a time.
FRU (field replacement unit) The individual parts or whole assemblies that
can be replaced to repair a computer.
“full” AT A type of motherboard form factor where the motherboard is the
same size as the original IBM AT computer’s motherboard.
full-duplex communications Communications where both entities can send
and receive simultaneously.
function keys The set of programmable keys on the keyboard that can perform
special tasks assigned by the current application program.
fuser Device on an EP Printer that uses two rollers to heat the toner particles
and melt them to the paper. The fuser is made up of a halogen heating lamp, a
Teflon-coated aluminum fusing roller, and a rubberized pressure roller. The
lamp heats the aluminum roller. As the paper passes between the two rollers, the
rubber roller presses the paper against the heated roller. This causes the toner to
melt and become a permanent image on the paper.

Glossary 835
fusing assembly See fuser.
fusing step The step in the EP process where the toner image on the paper is
fused to the paper using heat and pressure. The heat melts the toner and the pres-
sure helps fuse the image permanently to the paper.
game port A DB-15 connector used to connect game devices (like joysticks) to
a computer.
gateway In networking, a shared connection between a local area network and
a larger system, such as a mainframe computer or a large packet-switching net-
work. Usually slower than a bridge or router, a gateway typically has its own
processor and memory and can perform protocol conversions. Protocol conver-
sion allows a gateway to connect two dissimilar networks; data is converted and
reformatted before it is forwarded to the new network.
GDI.EXE Windows core component that is responsible for drawing icons and
windows in Windows 3.x.
General Protection Fault (GPF) A Windows error that typically occurs when a
Windows program tries to access memory currently in use by another program.
gigabyte One billion bytes; however, bytes are most often counted in powers
of 2, and so a gigabyte becomes 2 to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824 bytes.
GPF See General Protection Fault (GPF).
graphical user interface (GUI) A graphics-based user interface that allows

users to select files, programs, or commands by pointing to pictorial representa-
tions on the screen rather than by typing long, complex commands from a com-
mand prompt. Application programs execute in windows, using a consistent set
of pull-down menus, dialog boxes, and other graphical elements such as scroll
bars and icons.
graphics accelerator board A specialized expansion board containing a
graphics coprocessor as well as all the other circuitry found on a video adapter.
graphics mode A mode of a video card that allows the video card to display
graphics.
group icons A type of Windows icon that groups Windows program icons
together in the Program Manager.
GUI See graphical user interface (GUI).
half-duplex communications Communications that occur when only one

entity can transmit or receive at any one instant.
half-height drive A space-saving drive bay that is half the height of the 3" drive
bays used in the original IBM PC. Most of today’s drives are half-height drives.

836 Glossary
hand-held scanner Type of scanner that is small enough to be held in your

hand. Used to digitize a relatively small image or artwork, it consists of the con-
troller, CCD, and light source contained in a small enclosure with wheels on it.
hard disk controller An expansion board that contains the necessary circuitry
to control and coordinate a hard disk drive. Many hard disk controllers are
capable of managing more than one hard disk, as well as floppy disks and even
tape drives.
hard disk drive A storage device that uses a set of rotating, magnetically coated
disks called platters to store data or programs. A typical hard disk platter rotates
at up to 7200rpm, and the read/write heads float on a cushion of air from 10 to
25 millionths of an inch thick so that the heads never come into contact with the
recording surface. The whole unit is hermetically sealed to prevent airborne con-
taminants from entering and interfering with these close tolerances. Hard disks
range in capacity from a few tens of megabytes to several gigabytes of storage
space; the bigger the disk, the more important a well thought out backup strategy
becomes.
hard disk interfaces A connector on a motherboard that makes it possible to
connect a hard disk to the motherboard.
hard disk system A disk storage system containing the following components:
the hard disk controller, hard disk, and host adapter.
hard memory error A reproducible memory error that is related to hardware
failure.
hard reset A system reset made by pressing the computer’s reset button or by
turning the power off and then on again.
hardware All the physical electronic components of a computer system,
including peripherals, printed-circuit boards, displays, and printers.
Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)

Glossary 837
header Information that is attached to the beginning of a network data frame.
heat sink A device that is attached to an electronic component that removes

heat from the component by induction. It is often a plate of aluminum or metal
with several vertical fingers.
hertz Abbreviated Hz. A unit of frequency measurement; 1 hertz equals one
cycle per second.
hexadecimal Abbreviated hex. The base-16 numbering system that uses the
digits 0 to 9, followed by the letters A to F (equivalent to the decimal numbers
10 through 15). Hex is a very convenient way to represent the binary numbers
computers use internally, because it fits neatly into the 8-bit byte. All of the 16
hex digits 0 to F can be represented in 4 bits, and so two hex digits (one digit for
each set of 4 bits) can be stored in a single byte. This means that 1 byte can con-
tain any one of 256 different hex numbers, from 0 through FF. Hex numbers are
often labeled with a lowercase h (for example, 1234h) to distinguish them from
decimal numbers.
high-density disk A floppy disk with more recording density and storage
capacity than a double-density disk.
high-level format The process of preparing a floppy disk or a hard disk parti-
tion for use by the operating system. In the case of DOS, a high-level format cre-
ates the boot sector, the file allocation table (FAT), and the root directory.
high memory area (HMA) In an IBM-compatible computer, the first 64K of
extended memory above the 1MB limit of 8086 and 8088 addresses. Programs
that conform to the extended memory specification can use this memory as an
extension of conventional memory although only one program can use or con-
trol HMA at a time.
high-voltage power supply (HVPS) Provides the high voltages that are used
during the EP print process. This component converts house AC currents into
higher voltages that the two corona assemblies can use.
high-voltage probe A device used to drain away voltage from a monitor
before testing. It is a pencil shaped device with a metal point and a wire lead with
a clip.
HIMEM.SYS The DOS and Microsoft Windows device driver that manages
the use of extended memory and the high memory area on IBM-compatible
computers. HIMEM.SYS not only allows your application programs to access
extended memory, it oversees that area to prevent other programs from trying
to use the same space at the same time. HIMEM.SYS must be loaded by a
DEVICE command in your CONFIG.SYS file; you cannot use DEVICEHIGH.
HMA See high memory area (HMA).

838 Glossary
home page On the Internet, an initial starting page. A home page may be
related to a single person, a specific subject, or a corporation and is a convenient
jumping-off point to other pages or resources.
host The central or controlling computer in a networked or distributed pro-
cessing environment, providing services that other computers or terminals can
access via the network. Computers connected to the Internet are also described
as hosts, and can be accessed using FTP, Telnet, Gopher, or a browser.
host adapter Translates signals from the hard drive and controller to signals
the computer’s bus can understand.
host name The name by which a computer is known on a TCP/IP network. This
name must be unique within the domain that the machine is in. In Windows 2000
the computer name is always the same as the machine’s host name, while in Win-
dows 9x the two can be different.
hub A connectivity device used to link several computers together into a phys-
ical star topology. They repeat any signal that comes in on one port and copies
it to the other ports.
HVPS See high-voltage power supply (HVPS).
hybrid topology A mix of more than one topology type used on a network.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) HTTP is the protocol of the World Wide
Web, and is used to send and receive Web pages and other content from an HTTP
server (Web server). HTTP makes use of linked pages, accessed via hyperlinks,
which are words or pictures that, when clicked on, take you to another page.
I/O address Lines on a bus used to allow the CPU to send instructions to the
devices installed in the bus slots. Each device is given its own communication line
to the CPU. These lines function like one-way (unidirectional) mailboxes.
I/O ports See I/O address.
Iaser printer A generic name for a printer that uses the electrophotographic
(EP) print process.
IBM-compatible computer Originally, any personal computer compatible
with the IBM line of personal computers. With the launch of IBM’s proprietary
micro channel architecture in the PS/2 line of computers, which replaced the AT
bus, two incompatible standards emerged, and so the term became misleading.
Now, it is becoming more common to use the term “industry-standard com-
puter” when referring to a computer that uses the AT or ISA bus, and the term
“DOS computer” to describe any PC that runs DOS and is based on one of the
Intel family of chips.

Glossary 839
IBM PC A series of personal computers based on the Intel 8088 processor,

introduced by IBM in mid-1981. The PC was released containing 16K of
memory, expandable to 64K on the motherboard, and a monochrome video
adapter incapable of displaying bit-mapped graphics. The floppy disk drive held
160K of data and programs. There was no hard disk on the original IBM PC;
that came later with the release of the IBM PC/XT.
IBM PS/2 A series of personal computers using several different Intel proces-
sors, introduced by IBM in 1987. The main difference between the PS/2 line and
earlier IBM personal computers was a major change to the internal bus. Previous
computers used the AT bus, also known as industry-standard architecture, but
IBM used the proprietary micro channel architecture in the PS/2 line instead.
Micro channel architecture expansion boards will not work in a computer using
ISA. See IBM-compatible computer.
IC See integrated circuit (IC).
Icons On-screen graphics that act as doors through which programs are started
and therefore used to spawn windows. They are shortcuts that allow a user to
open a program or a utility without knowing where that program is or how it
needs to be configured.
IDE Acronym for integrated drive electronics. A hard disk technology that can
connect multiple drives together. These drives integrate the controller and drive
into one assembly. This makes them very inexpensive. Because of this, IDE drives
are the most commonly used disk technology installed in computers today.
IEEE-1394 A high-speed digital interface most commonly used to transfer data
between computers and digital video cameras. It has a maximum data transfer
rate of over 400MBps.
illegal operation error A Windows error that occurs when a program does
something that Windows wasn’t expecting or doesn’t know how to do.
impact printer Any printer that forms an image on paper by forcing a char-
acter image against an inked ribbon. Dot-matrix, daisy-wheel, and line printers
are all impact printers, whereas laser printers are not.
In a virtual memory system, programs and their data are divided up into smaller
pieces called pages. At the point where more memory is needed, the operating
system decides which pages are least likely to be needed soon (using an algorithm
based on frequency of use, most recent use, and program priority), and it writes
these pages out to disk. The memory space that they used is now available to the
rest of the system for other application programs. When these pages are needed
again, they are loaded back into real memory, displacing other pages.
incremental backup A backup of a hard disk that consists of only those files
created or modified since the last backup was performed.

840 Glossary
industry-standard architecture See ISA.
INI file Text file that is created by an installation program when a new Win-
dows application is installed. INI files contain settings for individual Windows
applications as well as for Windows itself.
initialization commands A set of commands sent to a modem to prepare it to
function.
inoculating The process of protecting a computer system against virus attacks
by installing antivirus software.
input/output addresses See I/O address.
integrated circuit (IC) Also known as a chip. A small semiconductor circuit

that contains many electronic components.
integrated drive electronics See IDE.
Integrated Services Digital Network See ISDN.
integrated system boards A system board that has most of the computer’s
circuitry attached, as opposed to having been installed as expansion cards.
Intel OverDrive OverDrive chips boost system performance by using the same
clock multiplying technology found in the Intel 80486DX-2 and DX4 chips.
Once installed, an OverDrive processor can increase application performance by
an estimated 40 to 70 percent.
intelligent hub A class of hub that can be remotely managed on the network.
interface Any port or opening that is specifically designed to facilitate commu-

nication between two entities.
interface software The software for a particular interface that translates soft-
ware commands into commands that the printer can understand.
interlacing A display technique that uses two passes over the monitor screen,
painting every other line on the screen the first time and then filling in the rest of
the lines on the second pass. It relies on the physiological phenomenon known as
persistence of vision to produce the effect of a continuous image.
interleaving Interleaving involves skipping sectors to write the data, instead of
writing sequentially to every sector. This evens out the data flow and allows the
drive to keep pace with the rest of the system. Interleaving is given in ratios. If the
interleave is 2:1, the disk skips 2 minus 1, or 1 sector, between each sector it writes
(it writes to one sector, skips one sector, then writes to the next sector following).
Most drives today use a 1:1 interleave, because today’s drives are very efficient at
transferring information.

(SYBEX) Computer - Repair - CompTIA A+

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A+ Complete

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

David Groth and Dan Newland

San Francisco • Paris • Düsseldorf • Soest • London

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

First edition copyright © 1999 SYBEX Inc.

Library of Congress Card Number: 00-111515

Some screen reproductions produced with Collage Complete.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Good luck in pursuit of your A+ certification!

SYBEX Inc. 1151 Marina Village Parkway, Alameda, CA 94501

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

For Steph, who makes everything in my life better.

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Why Become A+ Certified?

Provides Proof of Professional Achievement

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Increases Your Marketability

More service companies are becoming A+ Authorized Service Centers (AASCs).

Provides Opportunity for Advancement

Fulfills Training Requirements

Raises Customer Confidence

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

How to Become A+ Certified

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Who Should Buy This Book?

How to Use This Book and CD

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

The Exam Objectives

The A+ Core Hardware Service Technician Exam Objectives

Domain 1.0: Installation, Configuration, and Upgrading

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Domain 2.0: Diagnosing and Troubleshooting

Domain 3.0: Preventive Maintenance

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Domain 4.0: Motherboards, Processors, and Memory

Domain 5.0: Printers

Domain 6.0: Basic Networking

Operating System Technologies Exam Objectives

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Domain 1.0: Operating System Fundamentals

Domain 2.0: Installation, Configuration, and Upgrading

Domain 3.0: Diagnosing and Troubleshooting

Domain 4.0: Networks

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

Tips for Taking the A+ Exams

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

2. Which of the following components is especially dangerous to repair and

3. Which of the following information is not stored on a computer’s CMOS chip?

4. Which type of memory is typically upgraded on a computer when you are

Copyright ©2001SYBEX , Inc., Alameda, CA www.sybex.com

6. Which of the following standards is commonly referred to as a FireWire port?

8. What is the main purpose of WRAM?

9. What type of cable is used by floppy drives?

11. What type of cable is used by internal SCSI devices?