4.

Multiple Access Techniques and Wireless Standard

“Multiple access techniques” : Additional methods are required to ensure

proper communication among multiple users.
The complexity of wireless systems mandates that they conform to a
“standard”.
Wireless standard includes modulation and multiple access techniques, a such
details as frequency bands, timing, and data coding, while defining precise
tests for the performance of transceivers.
Brief overview of three general multiple access techniques of mobile
communication systems that are commonly used in RF systems:
1)FDMA
2)TDMA
3)CDMA
Popular wireless standards: North American Digital Communication(NADC),
Global System for Mobile Communication(GSM), Qualcomm CDMA,
Digital European Codeless Telephone(DECT).

Chonbuk National University 1 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
A mobile system is one in which users can physically move
while communicating with one another.
[Ex.] Pagers, Cellular Phone, Codeless Phone

Mobility has made RF communications powerful and popular.

The transceiver carried by the user is called “mobile unit” (or simply the
“mobile”), the “terminal”, or the “hand-held unit”.

The complexity of the wireless infrastructure demand that the mobiles

communicate through “base station”.

Mobile receives and transmits information from and to the base station via two
RF channels “forward channel” or “downlink” and “reverse channel” or
“uplink”.

Most of our treatment in this book relates to mobile unit because of a much
larger portion of the market and design similarity against to basestation.

Chonbuk National University 2 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Cellular System
With the limited available spectrum (e.g., 25MHz around 900MHz), how do
hundreds of thousands of people communicate in crowded metropolitan area?
Hint.) Thousands of FM radio broadcasting stations may operate in a
country in the 88~108MHz.Î “Frequency reuse”
In mobile communication, frequency reuse is implemented in a “cellular”
structure, where each cell is configured as a hexagon and surround ed by six
other cells.
If the center cell uses a frequency f1 for communication, the six neighboring
cells can’t utilize this frequency but the cells beyond the immediate
neighbors may. In practice, more efficient frequency assignment leads to the
“7-cell” reuse pattern shown in Fig.4.1(b).

Chonbuk National University 3 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Note that in reality each cell utilizes a group of frequencies.
The mobile units in each cell are served by a base station, and all of the
base stations are controlled by a “mobile telephone switching office”
(MTSO).

Co-Channel Interference(CCI)
An important issue in a cellular system is how much two cells that use the
same frequency interfere with each other.
This effect depends on the ratio of the distance between two co-channel
cells to the cell radius and is independent of the transmitted power.
Given by the frequency reuse plan, this ratio is approximately equal to 4.6
for the 7-cell pattern. It can be shown that this value yields a signal-to-co-
channel interference ratio of 18 dB.

Chonbuk National University 4 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Handoff
What happens when a mobile unit “roams” from cell A to cell B?
Since the power level received from the base station in cell A is insufficient
to maintain communication, the mobile must change its server to the
base station in cell B. Since adjacent cells do not use the same group of
frequencies, the channel (of RF frequency) must also change.
ΓHandoff” : This process is performed by the MTSO.
ÎFrequently results call droppings.
To improve the handoff process, second-generation cellular systems allow
the mobile unit to measure the received signal level from different base
stations, thus performing handoff when the path to the second base station
has sufficiently low loss [1].

Chonbuk National University 5 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Path Loss and Multipath Fading
Signals propagating through free space experience a power loss proportional
to the square of the distance, d, from the source.
In reality, the signal travels through both a direct path and an indirect,
reflective path.
The loss increases with the fourth power of the distance.
In crowded areas, the actual loss profile may be proportional to d2 for some
distance and d4 for another.

Chonbuk National University 6 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Since the two signals shown in Fig.4.4 generally experience different
phase shifts, possibly arriving at the receiver with opposite phases and
roughly equal amplitudes, the net received signal may be very small.
Î “Multipath fading”
ÎThis phenomenon introduces enormous variations in the signal level as
the receiver moves by a fraction of the wavelength.
In reality, since the transmitted signal is reflected by many buildings and
moving cars, the fluctuations are quite irregular.

Chonbuk National University 7 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
The overall received signal can be expressed as
xR (t ) = a1 (t ) cos(ω c t + θ1 ) + a2 (t ) cos(ω c t + θ 2 )
+ L + an cos(ω c t + θ n ) (4.1)
n  n 
= ∑ a j (t ) cosθ j  cos ω c t − ∑ a j (t ) sin θ j  sin ω c t. (4.2)
 j =1   j =1 
Note that for large n, each summation has a Gaussian distribution.
xR = A cos ω c t − B sin ω c t
= A2 + B 2 cos φ cos ω c t − A2 + B 2 sin φ sin ω c t
= A2 + B 2 cos(ω c t + φ ) = Am cos(ω c t + φ ) (4.3)
where φ = tan −1 ( B / A)

The amplitude, Am, has a Rayleigh distribution,

exhibiting losses greater than 10 dB below
the mean for approximately 6% of the time.

Chonbuk National University 8 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
In an RF system, the transmitter output power and the receiver dynamic
range must be chosen so as to accommodate signal level variations due
to both the overall path loss and the deep multipath fading effects.
While it is theoretically possible that multipath fading yields a zero
amplitude (infinite loss) at a distance, the probability of this event is
negligible, because moving objects tend to “soften” the fading.

Diversity
The effect of fading can be lowered by adding redundancy to the
transmission or reception of the signal.
“Space diversity” or “antenna diversity” employs two or more antennas
spaced apart by a significant fraction of the wavelength so as to achieve a
higher probability of receiving a nonfaded signal.
“Frequency diversity” refers to the case where multiple carrier frequencies
are used, with idea that fading is unlikely to occur simultaneously at two
frequencies sufficiently far from each other.
“Time diversity” is another technique whereby the data is transmitted or
received more than once to overcome short-term fading.
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4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Delay Spread
Suppose two signals in a multipath environment experience roughly equal
attenuation but different delays. Addition of two such signals yields
x(t ) = A cos ω (t − τ 1 ) + A cos ω (t − τ 2 )
= 2 A cos[(2ωt − ωτ 1 − ωτ 2 ) / 2]cos[ω (τ 1 − τ 2 ) / 2]
where the second cosine factor relates the fading to the “delay spread”,
∆τ = τ 1 − τ 2 .
An important issue here is the frequency dependence of fade.
ÎSmall delay spreads yield flat fade, whereas large delay spreads introduce
considerable variation in the spectrum.
Serious effect

Not serious effect

Chonbuk National University 10 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.1 Mobile RF Communication
Many signals arrive at the receiver yield rms delay spreads as large as
several microseconds and fading bandwidths of several hundreds of
kilohertz.
Î An entire communication channel may be suppressed during such a fade.
If the delay spread is comparable with the bit period of the digital
modulating waveform, then multiple replicas of the signal are received with
different delays, giving rise to considerable intersymbol interference(ISI).

Interleaving
To lower the effect of errors due to the nature of multipath fading, the
baseband bit stream in the transmitter undergoes “interleaving” before
modulation to occur in clusters of bits.
An interleaver scrambles the time order of the bits according to an algorithm
known by the receiver [1].

Chonbuk National University 11 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2 Multiple Access Techniques
4.2.1 Time- and Frequency-Division Duplexing
The simplest case of multiple access is the problem of two-way communication
by a transceiver, a function called “duplexing”.
Walkie-talkie is a simple form of “time-division duplexing”(TDD). TX and
RX utilize same frequency band.Î Not perfect duplexing.
TDD is usually performed fast enough to be transparent to the user.

“Frequency-division duplexing”(FDD) is to employ two different frequency

bands for the transmit and receive paths.
Incorporates bandpass filters to isolate the two paths, allowing simultaneous
transmission and reception.
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4.2.1 Time- and Frequency-Division Duplexing
TX band must be translated to the RX band at some point. In wireless
networks, translation is performed in the base station.

The merits and drawbacks of TDD

RF switch with a loss less than 1 dB Í I.L. of duplexer of mobile
Transmitter output power may be 100 dB above the receiver input signal,
two paths do not interfere because the transmitter is disabled during
reception.
Allow direct (“peer-to-peer”) communication between two transceivers,
an especially useful feature in short-range LAN.

Chonbuk National University 13 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.1 Time- and Frequency-Division Duplexing
The strong signals generated by all of the nearby mobile transmitters fall in
the receive band, thus desensitizing the receiver.

The merits and drawbacks of FDD

Two front-end bandpass filters are combined to form a “duplexer filter”.
(Duplexer filter = T.X bandpass filter + R.X bandpass filter)
The receiver can be interfered by the strong signals transmitted by other
mobile units. So FDD sufferes from number of issues.
1)Components of the transmitted signal that leak into the receive band are
attenuated by about 50 dB.
2)The loss of duplexer (2~3dB typ.) is typically quite higher than that (1dB
typ.) of a TDD switch because of Q-factor.
ÎA loss of 3 dB in the RX path of the duplexer raises the overall noise
figure by 3 dB.
ÎA loss of 3 dB in the TX path of the filter means that only 50% of the
signal power reaches the antenna. Î Heat dissipation!!
Chonbuk National University 14 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.2.1 Time- and Frequency-Division Duplexing

3)The spectral leakage to adjacent channels in the transmitter output when

power amplifier is turned on and off to save energy or when local
oscillator driving the modulator undergoes a transient.

FDD is employed in many RF systems, because it isolates the receivers from

the signals produced by mobile transmitters.

Chonbuk National University 15 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.2 Frequency-Division Multiple Access
In order to allow simultaneous communication among multiple transceivers, the
available frequency band can be partitioned into many channels.

Frequency-division multiple access familiar within the context of radio and

television broadcasting. ÎThe channel assignment does not change with time.
In multiple-user, two-way communications, the channel assignment may remain
fixed only until the end of the call. After the user hangs up the phone, the
channel becomes available to others.
In FDMA with FDD, two channels are assigned to each user, one transmit and
another for receive.

Chonbuk National University 16 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.2 Frequency-Division Multiple Access

The relative simplicity of FDMA made it the principal access method in early
cellular networks, called “analog FM” or “analog cellular”.
The minimum number of simultaneous users
=(The total available frequency band)/(The width of each channel)
ÎInsufficient capacity in crowded areas.

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4.2.3 Time-Division Multiple Access
The same band is available to each user but at different times (time-division
multiple access).
TDMA periodically enables each of the transceivers for a time slot (Tsl).
The overall period consisting of all of the time slots is called a frame (TF). In
other words, every TF seconds, each user finds access to the channel for Tsl
seconds.
TF

Chonbuk National University 18 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.3 Time-Division Multiple Access

What happens to the data (e.g., voice) produced by all other users while only
one user is allowed to transmit? To avoid loss of information, the data is stored
(“buffered”) for TF — Tsl seconds and transmitted as a burst during one time
slot (hence the term “TDMA burst”).
ÎSince buffering requires the data to be in digital form, TDMA transmitters
perform A/D conversion on the analog input signal. Digitization also allows
speech compression and coding.
Advantages over FDMA
1)Because each transmitter is enabled for a only one slot in every slot, the
power amplifier can be turned off during the rest of the frame.
ÎSaving considerable power
ÎSettling issues require that the PA be turned on slightly before the actual
time slot begins.
2)The required communication bandwidth can be smaller and hence the
overall capacity larger.
3)Even with FDD, the TDMA bursts can be timed such that the receive and
transmit paths in each transceiver are never enabled simultaneously.
Chonbuk National University 19 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.2.3 Time-Division Multiple Access

The need for A/D conversion, digital modulation, time slot and frame
synchronization, etc., makes TDMA more complex.
ÎWith the advent of VLSI DSPs, however, this drawback is no longer a
determining factor.
In most actual TDMA systems, a combination of TDMA and FDMA is
utilized. Each of the channels is time shared among many users.

Chonbuk National University 20 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access

Our discussion of FDMA and TDMA implies that the transmitted signals in
these systems avoid interfering with each other in either the frequency or time
domain. In essence, the signals are orthogonal in one of these domains.

A third method of multiple access allows complete overlap of signals in both

frequency and time, but employs “orthogonal messages” to avoid
interference.

[Ex.]1)Suppose many conversations are going on in a crowded party. To

minimize crosstalk, different groups of people can be required to speak in
different pitches (or different speech speed) (FDMA), or only one group can be
allowed to converse at a time (TDMA).
2)Alternatively, each group can be asked to speak in a different language. If
the languages are orthogonal (at least in nearby groups) and the voice levels are
roughly the same, then each listener can “tune in” to the proper language and
receive information while all groups talk simultaneously.

Chonbuk National University 21 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
Direct-Sequence CDMA
In “code-division multiple access,” different languages are created by means
of orthogonal digital codes.
At the beginning of communication, a certain code is assigned to each
transmitter/receiver pair, and each bit of the baseband data is “translated” to
that code before modulation.
Fig. 4.12(a) is an example, where each baseband pulse is replaced with an 8-
bit code by multiplication.

Orthogonal digital code

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4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
A method of generating orthogonal codes is based on Walsh’s recursive
equation: W1 = 0 (4.4)
Wn Wn 
W2 n =  , (4.5)
Wn Wn 
where Wn is derived from Wn by replacing all the entries with their
complements.
[Ex.] 0 0 
W2 =   (4.6)
 0 1 
Fig. 4.12(b) shows examples of 8-bit Walsh codes ( i.e., each row of Ws).

In the receiver, the demodulated signal is decoded by multiplying it by the

same Walsh code. In other words, the receiver correlates the signal with the
code to recover the baseband data.

Chonbuk National University 23 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
How is the received data affected when another CDMA signal is present?
Suppose two CDMA signals in the same frequency band.
x1 (t ) = xBB1 (t ) ⋅ W1 (t ) x2 (t ) = xBB 2 (t ) ⋅ W2 (t )
where W1 (t ), W2 (t ) : Walsh functions
The output of the demodulator as
y (t ) = [ xBB1 (t ) ⋅W1 (t ) + xBB 2 (t ) ⋅W2 (t )] ⋅W1 (t )
= xBB1 (t ) ⋅ W1 (t ) (QW1 (t ) and W2 (t ) are exactly orthogonal.)
In reality, however, x1(t) and x2(t) may experience different delays, leading to
corruption of y(t) by xBB(t). Nevertheless, for long codes the result appears as
random noise.
The encoding operation of Fig.4.12(a) increases the bandwidth of the data
spectrum by the number of pulses in the code. This may appear in
contradiction to our emphasis thus far on spectral efficiency.
However, since CDMA allows the widened spectra of many users to fall in the
same frequency band, this access technique has no less capacity than do
FDMA and TDMA. In fact, CDMA can potentially achieve a higher capacity
than the other two.

Chonbuk National University 24 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access

CDMA is a special case of “spread spectrum” (SS) communications, whereby

the baseband data of each user is spread over the entire available bandwidth.
In this context, CDMA is also called “direct-sequence” SS(DS-SS)
communication, and the code is called the “spreading sequence” or “pseudo-
random noise.”
To avoid confusion with the baseband data, each pulse in the spreading
sequence is called a “chip,” and the rate of the sequence is called the “chip
rate.” Thus, the spectrum is spread by the ratio of the chip rate to te baseband
bit rate.
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4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
It is instructive to reexamine the above decoding operation from a spread
spectrum point of view. Upon multiplication by W1(t), the desired signal is
“despread,” with its bandwidth returning to the original value. The unwanted
signal, on the other hand, remains spread even after multiplication because
of its low correlation with W1(t). For a large number of users, the spread
spectra of unwanted signals can be viewed as white Gaussian noise.

An important feature of CDMA is its soft capacity limit. While in FDMA

and TDMA the maximum number of users is fixed once the channel width
or the time slots are defined, in CDMA increasing the number of users only
gradually (linearly) raises the noise floor [1].
Chonbuk National University 26 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
A critical issue in DS-CDMA is power control.
1)Suppose, as illustrated, the desired signal power received at a point is much
lower than that of an unwanted transmitter, for example, because the latter
is at a shorter distance. Even after despreading, the strong interferer greatly
raises the noise floor, degrading the reception of the desired signal.
2)For multiple users, this means that one high-power transmitter can virtually
halt communications among others, a problem much less serious in FDMA
and TDMA. For this reason, when many CDMA transmitters communicate
with a receiver, they must adjust their output power such that the receiver
senses roughly equal signal levels.

Chonbuk National University 27 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
3)To this end, the receiver monitors the signal strength corresponding to each
transmitter and periodically sends a power adjustment request to each one.
Since in a cellular system users communicate through the base station, rather
than directly, the latter must handle the task of power control.
4)The received signal levels are controlled to be typically within 1 dB.

While adding complexity to the system, power control generally reduces the
average power dissipation of the mobile unit. To understand this, note that
without such control, the mobile must always transmit enough power to be able
to communicate with the base station, whether path loss and fading are
significant or not. With power control, on the other hand, the mobile can
transmit at low levels whenever the channel conditions improve.
ÎThis also reduces the average interference seen by other users.

Chonbuk National University 28 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access
Frequency-Hopping CDMA
Another type of CDMA that has begun to appear in RF communications is
“frequency hopping” (FH). This access technique can be viewed as FDMA
with pseudorandom channel allocation.
The carrier frequency in each transmitter is “hopped” according to a chosen
code (similar to the spreading codes in DS-CDMA).
Thus, even though the short-term spectrum of a transmitter may overlap with
those of others, the overall trajectory of the spectrum, i.e., the PN code,
distinguishes each transmitter from others.

Chonbuk National University 29 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.2.4 Code-Division Multiple Access

Nevertheless, occasional overlap of the spectra raises the probability of

error.
Due to rare overlap of spectra, frequency hopping is somewhat similar to
FDMA and hence more tolerant of different received power levels than is
direct-sequence CDMA.
However, FH may require relatively fast settling in the control loop of
the oscillator, an important design issue studied in Chapter 8.

Chonbuk National University 30 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3 Wireless Standards
The existence of nonidealities such as noise and interference mandates a precise
specification of communication parameters, for example, SNR, BER, occupied
bandwidth, and extraneous emissions.

A wireless standard defines all the details and constraints that govern the design
of transceivers used in a wireless system.
While providing the “boundary conditions,” such a standard does not specify
how the actual transmit and receive paths must be implemented, allowing some
flexibility in the choice of transceiver architectures(Ch5).

In this section, we study the “air interface” of a number of standards used in

cellular and cordless phone systems.

Chonbuk National University 31 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.1 Advanced Mobile Phone Service
Among the earliest wireless standards, Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
employs FDMA with analog FM and FDD.
Partitioned into 30-kHz channels, the transmit and receive bands of the mobile
phone are 824-849 MHz and 869-894 MHz, respectively.
Thus, the system can support
approximately 830 users
simultaneously.
The 20-MHz separation
between the two bands allows
the use of relatively low loss
duplexer filters.
In addition to the voice channel,
AMPS requires control and
supervisory signals to initiate,
maintain, and terminate a call.
Chonbuk National University 32 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.3.2 North American Digital Standard
As the first digital cellular system in the United States, North American Digital
Cellular (NADC) system employs TDMA with pi/4-DQPSK and FDD.
Designed to be compatible with AMPS, NADC uses the same transmit and
receive bands with 30-kHz channel spacing while proving six times the capacity
of AMPS.
The bit rate in each channel is 48.6 kb/s.

Chonbuk National University 33 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.2 North American Digital Standard
The TDMA frame structure used in NADC is illustrated in Fig. 4.18(b).
Each frame is 1944 bits (40 ms) long and consists of 6 time slots, and each
time slot carries approximately 260 bits of data along with 64 bits of control
and synchronization information.Í(260+64)*6=1944
The transmit and receive time slots are offset by 1.85 ms. This significantly
relaxes transceiver design issues such as leakage of the transmitted signal to
the receive band and desensitization of the low-noise amplifier by the power
amplifier.

Most first-generation digital phones in the United States actually operate with
both AMPS and NADC to provide a wider coverage for users.

Called dual-mode AMPS/NADC systems, these phones are designed according

to Interim Standard 54 (IS-54), developed by the Electronic Association(EA)
and the Telecommunication Industry Association(TIA).

Details of control signals and interleaving are shown in IS-54.

Chonbuk National University 34 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.3 Global System for Mobile Communication
Originally developed as a unified wireless standard for Europe, GSM has
become the most widely used cellular standard in the world. In addition to
regular phone calls, GSM supports many other services such as facsimiles and
ISDN, making the mobile phone a versatile communicator.
The GSM standard is a TDMA/FDD system using GMSK modulation, with a
transmit band of 890-915 MHz and a receive band of 935-960 MHz.

Chonbuk National University 35 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.3 Global System for Mobile Communication
Accommodating eight time-multiplexed users, each channel is 200 kHz wide,
and the data rate per user is 270 kb/s.
Each frame of TDMA is 4.615 ms long and consists of 8 time slots each
carrying 114 bits of data along with other control and training bits.
The TX and RX time slots are offset by three time slots so that the transmitter
and the receiver do not operate simultaneously.
The total capacity of the system is given by the number of channels in the 25-
MHz bandwidth and the number of users per channel, approximately 1000.
Í 25MHz/0.2MHz*8Chs=1000Chs

Chonbuk National University 36 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.4 Qualcomm CDMA
A wireless standard on direct-sequence CDMA has been proposed by
Qualcomm, Inc., and adopted for the North America as IS-95.
In the mobile unit, the 9.6 kb/s baseband data is spread to 1.23 MHz and
subsequently modulated using OQPSK whereas the link from the base station to
the mobile unit, incorporates QPSK modulation.
The mobile must use a power-efficient modulation scheme, whereas the base
station transmits many channels simultaneously and must therefore employ a
linear power amplifier regardless of the type of modulation.
In both directions, IS-95 requires coherent detection, a task accomplished by
transmitting a relatively strong “pilot tone” (e.g., unmodulated carrier) at the
beginning of communication to establish phase synchronization.

Chonbuk National University 37 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.4 Qualcomm CDMA
IS-95 is substantially more complex than other standards, incorperating many
techniques to increase the capacity while maintaining a reasonable signal quality.
Power control
In CDMA the power levels received by the base station from various mobile
units must differ by no more than approximately 1 dB.
In IS-95, the output power of each mobile is controlled by an open-loop
procedure at the beginning of communication. Subsequently, the power is set
more accurately by a closed-loop method.
For open-loop control, the mobile measures the signal power it receives from
the base station and adjusts its transmitted power so that the sum of the two is
approximately –73 dBm.
If the receive and transmit paths entail roughly equal attenuation, k dB, and the
power transmitted by the base station is Pbs, then the mobile output power Pm
satisfies the following: Pbs – k + Pm = – 73 dBm
Since the power received by the base station is Pm – k, we have Pm – k = – 73
dBm – Pbs, a well-defined value because Pbs is usually fixed.
The mobile output power can be varied by approximately 85 dB in a few msec.
Chonbuk National University 38 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.3.4 Qualcomm CDMA
In reality, the two paths may experience different fading because they
operate in different frequency bands.
For closed-loop power control, the base station measures the power level
received from the mobile unit and sends a feedback signal requesting power
adjustment.
This command is transmitted once every 1.25 ms to ensure timely
adjustment in the presence of rapid fading.

Frequency and Time Diversity

Multipath fading is often frequency selective, causing a notch in the channel
transfer function that can be several kilohertz wide. Since IS-95 spreads the
spectrum to 1.23 MHz, it provides frequency diversity, exhibiting only 25%
loss of the band for typical delay spreads.
IS-95 also employs time diversity to use multipath signals to advantage. This
is accomplished by performing correlation on delayed replicas of the
received signal.

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4.3.4 Qualcomm CDMA
Called a “rake receiver”, such a system combines the delayed replicas with
proper weighting factors, α j , to obtain the maximum signal-to-noise ration
at the output.
Since the chip rate is much higher than the fading bandwidth, and since the
spreading codes are designed to have negligible correlation for delays
greater than a chip period, multipath effects do not introduce intersymbol
interference.

Chonbuk National University 40 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory

4.3.4 Qualcomm CDMA
Variable Coding Rate
In IS-95, the data rate can vary in four discrete steps: 9600, 4800, 2400, and
1200 b/s.
The arrangement allows buffering slower data such that the transmission still
occurs at 9600 b/s but for a proportionally shorter duration.
If the speech rate is 4800 b/s, then data can be accumulated for 50% of the
time and transmitted only for the other 50%.
This approach further reduces the average power transmitted by the mobile
unit, both saving battery and lowering interference seen by other users.
Soft Handoff
In CDMA, all of the users in one cell communicate on the same channel.
Thus, as the mobile unit moves farther from one base station and closer to
another, the signal strength corresponding to both stations can be monitored
by means of a rake receiver. When it is ascertained that the nearer base
station has a sufficiently strong signal, the hand-off is performed.
Î “make-before-break” method
Lower probability of dropping calls
Chonbuk National University 41 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.3.5 Digital European Cordless Telephone
The Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) standard was originally
adopted as a cordless phone framework in Europe and can be allowed connection
to other system such as GSM.

When connected with GSM, DECT provides mobility to LAN users in building.

Using TDMA/FDMA, DECT operates with TDD in the frequency band 1880
MHz to 1900 MHz. Time-shared among eight users, each channel is 1.73 MHz
wide, yielding a total capacity of 120.

Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK), a type of GMSK.

DECT TDMA frame structure: 24 time slots (12 for transmit and 12 for receive)
with a total duration of 10 ms.

Each time slot contains 32 preamble bits, 388 data bits, and 60 guard bits.

DECT aims at low cost and low power in the design of the portable phone rather
than spectral efficiency.
Chonbuk National University 42 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory
4.3.5 Digital European Cordless Telephone

Chonbuk National University 43 Microwave Circuits Design Laboratory