Sheet-metal forming

Subjects of interest
• Introduction/objectives
• Deformation geometry
• Forming equipments
• Shearing and blanking
• Bending
• Stretch forming
• Deep drawing
• Forming limit criteria
• Defects in formed parts
Objjectives
• Methods of sheet metal processes such as stretching, shearing,
blanking, bending, deep drawing, redrawing are introduced.
• Variables in sheet forming process will be discussed together with
formability and test methods.
• Defects occurring during the forming process will be emphasised.
The solutions to such defect problems will also be given.
 Introduction
• Sheet metal forming is a process that materials
undergo permanent deformation by cold forming
to produce a variety of complex three
dimensional shapes.
• The process is carried out in the plane of sheet
by tensile forces with high ratio of surface area to
thickness.
•Friction conditions at the tool-metal interface
are very important and controlled by press
conditions, lubrication, tool material and surface
condition, and strip surface condition.

• High rate of production and

formability is determined by
its mechanical properties.
 Sheet Metal Forming Processes
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Classification of sheet metal parts (based on contour)
1) Singly curved parts
2) Contoured flanged parts, i.e.,
parts with stretch flanges and
shrink flanges.
3) Curved sections.
4) Deep-recessed parts, i.e.,
cups and boxes with either
vertical or sloping walls.
5) Shallow-recessed parts, i.e.,
dishshaped, beaded, embossed
and corrugated parts.

1) Tekli kavisli parçalar

2) Konturlu flanşlı parçalar, yani
gerilebilir flanşlı ve daralan flanşlı
parçalar.
3) Eğri bölümler.
4) Derin girintili parçalar, diğer bir
deyişle, dikey veya eğimli duvarlara
sahip kaplar ve kutular.
5) Gömme oyuklu parçalar, örn.,
Oluklu, boncuklu, kabartmalı ve
oluklu kısımlar.
Classification of sheet metal forming (based on operations)

Blanking Stretching Deep drawing

 METALİK SACLARI ŞEKİLLENDİRME YÖNTEMLERİ

Sac şekillendirme yöntemleri ;

a- Kesme
b- Bükme
c- Sıvama
d- Gererek Şekillendirme
e- Derin Çekme
olarak sınıflandırılabilir.
Kesme işlemi dışında, tüm sac şekillendirme yöntemlerinde malzeme bir
yandan gerilerek, öte yandan sıkıştırılarak son şeklini alır. Böylece düz
saclardan, üç boyutlu çok değişik şekillerde ürünler biçimlendirilmiş olur.

Sac şekillendirme işleminde kullanılan cihazlar ;

1- Mekanik Presler
2- Hidrolik Presler
Sac şekillendirme işlemlerinde kullanılan kalıplar genellikle iki parçadan
oluşur.
1- ZIMBA ( Istampa veya erkek kalıp ) : Çıkıntılı bir şekle sahiptir.
2- KALIP ( Matris veya dişi kalıp ) :Girintili bir şekle sahiptir.

Zımba genellikle presin hareketli kısmına bağlanır, kalıp ise

sabit tutulur. Çoğu kez metalik sacı kalıp çevresine sıkıştırarak
şekillendirme sırasında kırışmasına engel olacak yardımcı bir
kalıp kullanılır. Bu kalıp “Sıkıştırma Kalıbı “ veya çember
şeklinde olduğundan “ Sıkıştırma Çemberi “ veya da “ Pot
Çemberi “ diye adlandırılır.
 Sheet Metal Forming Operations
Process Charateristics
Drawing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes, high production rates,
high tooling and equipment costs
Explosive Large sheets with simple shapes, low tooling cost, low quantity production,
forming long cycle times
Hydroforming Drawing and embossing of simple or relatively complex shapes, flexible
operation, low tooling cost
Magnetic- Shallow forming, bulging and embossing operation, low strength material,
Pulse special tooling
Rolling Long parts, usually constant simple cross sections, good surface finish, high
production rates and tooling costs
Spinning Small or large axissymmetric parts, good surface finish, low tooling costs,
high labor cost in non-automated production
Stamping Wide variety of operations (piercing, blanking, embossing, bending, coining),
simple to complex shapes, tooling and equipment costs depend on product,
relatively low labor costs
Die-Cutting Operations

(a) Punching (piercing) and blanking.

(b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on sheet metal
■ Parting
■ Notching
■ Slitting
■ Lancing
■ Perforating
 Stress state in deformation processes
• The geometry of the workpiece can be essentially three dimensional
(i.e., rod or bar stock) or two dimensional (i.e., thin sheets).
• The state of stress is described by three principal stresses, which act
along axes perpendicular to principal planes.
• The principal stresses are by convention called σ1, σ2 and σ3 where
σ1> σ2 > σ3

Principal stresses on an
element in a three-
dimensional stress state

• Hydrostatic stress state is

when σ1 = σ2 = σ3

• Shear stresses provide driving force for

plastic deformation.

• Hydrostatic stresses cannot contribute to

shape change but involve in failure processes

• Tensile
crack growth or void formation
• Compressive
hinder crack, close void.
 Stress system in (a) sheet processes and (b) bulk processes.

• In sheet deformation processes

(i.e., sheet metal forming, vacuum • In bulk deformation processes
forming, blow moulding), the (i.e. forging, rolling and extrusion),
workpiece is subjected to two the workpiece is subjected to
dimensional biaxial stresses. triaxial stresses, which are
(also depending on geometry) normally compressive.
 Deformation geometry
Plane stress
• Principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are set
up together with their
associated strain in the x-y plane.
• The sheet is free to contact (not
constrained) in the σ3 (z) direction.
There is strain in this direction but no
stress, thus σ3 = 0., resulting in biaxial
stress system.
• Since the stress are effectively
confined to one plane, this stress
Plane stress condition system is known as plane stress.

Plane strain

• Deformation (strain) often occurs

in only two dimensions
(parallel to σ1 and σ2).
• σ3 is finite, preventing deformation
(strain) in the z direction
(constrained), which is known as
plane strain.
Example: the extrusion of a thin
sheet where material in the centre is
constrained in the z direction.
Plane strain condition
 Forming equipments

Forming equipments
include
1) Forming presses
2) Dies
3) Tools

Equipments in sheet metal forming process

Forming machines
• Using mechanical or hydraulic presses.
1) Mechanical presses
- energy stored in a
flywheel is transferred to
the movable slide on the
down stroke of the press.
- quick - acting , short
stroke.
2) Hydraulic presses Shearing machine Hydraulic deep
- slower - acting, longer (mechanical) drawing press
stroke.
 Actions of presses
(according to number of slides, which can be operated independently
of each other.)
1) Single - action press
- one slide
- two slide- vertical direction
2) Double - action presses
- the second action is used to operated the hold-down, which prevents
wrinkling in deep drawing.
3) Triple - action press
- two actions above the die, one action below the die.

Example:
Press brake – single action

• A single action press with a

very long narrow bed.
• Used to form long, straight
bends in pieces such as
channels and corrugated
sheets.
 Tooling
Basic tools used with a metalworking press are the punch and the die.
• Punch → A convex tool for
making holes by shearing , or
making surface or displacing metal
with a hammer.
• Die → A concave die, which is
the female part as opposed to
punch which is the male part.

Punches and dies

Die materials:
• High alloy steels heat treated
for the punches and dies.

Punch and die in stamping

Compound dies
• Several operations can be
performed on the same piece in one
stroke of the press.
• Combined processes and create a
complex product in one shot.
• Used in metal stamping processes of Compound die
thin sheets.

Transfer dies
• Transfer dies are also called
compounding type dies.
• The part is moved from station to
station within the press for each
operation.

Transfer die
 Schematic diagram of a die set

A die set is composed of

1) Punch holder which holds punch plate connected with blanking
and piecing punches for cutting the metal sheet.
2) Die block consists of die holder and die plate which was designed
to give the desired shape of the product.
3) Pilot is used to align metal sheet at the correct position before
blanking at each step.
4) Striper plate used for a) alignment of punch and die blocks b)
navigate the punch into the die using harden striper inserts and c)
remove the cut piece from the punch.
 Forming method
There are a great variety of sheet metal forming methods, mainly using
shear and tensile forces in the operation.
• Progressive forming
• Rubber hydroforming • Shearing and blanking
• Bending and contouring • Stretch forming
• Spinning processes • Deep drawing
• Explosive forming

Progressive forming
• Punches and dies are designed so that successive stages in the forming
of the part are carried out in the same die on each stroke of the press.
• Progressive dies are also known as multi-stage dies.
Example: progressive blanking and piercing of
flat washer.
• The strip is fed from left to right.
• The first punch is to make the hole of the
washer.
• The washer is then blanked from the strip.
• The punch A is piercing the hole for the
next washer.

washers
 Progressive die

Metal sheet used in

blanking process

Progressive die

• Optimise the material usage.

• Determining factors are
1) volume of production
2) the complexity of the shape
 Flexible Pad Dies

Bulging using Rubber- and Hydroforming

(a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug.

(b)Production of fittings and bellows by expanding tubular blanks
under internal pressure.
 Rubber hydroforming
• Using a pad of rubber or polyurethane as a die.
• A metal blank is placed over the form block,
which is fastened to the bed of a single - action
hydraulic press.
• During forming the rubber (placed in the
retainer box on the upper platen of the press)
transmits a nearly uniform hydrostatic pressure
against the sheet.
• Pressure ~ 10 MPa, and where higher local
pressure can be obtained by using Guerin process
auxiliary tooling.
Hydroforming
• Used for sheet forming of aluminium
alloys and reinforced thermoplastics.

Stamp hydroforming machine setup

with a fluid supplied from one side A drawing of hydroforming
of the draw blank setup with fluid supplied from
to both sides of the materials.
Bending and contouring
(a) Three-roll bender: sometimes does not
provide uniform deformation in thin-gauge
sheet due to the midpoint of the span 
localisation of the strain. Often need the
forth roll.
(b) Wiper-type bender: The contour is
formed by successive hammer blows on the
sheet, which is clamped at one end against
the form block. Wiper rolls must be pressed
against the block with a uniform pressure
supplied by a hydraulic cylinder.
(c) Wrap forming: The sheet is compressed
against a form block, and at the same time a
longitudinal stress is applied to prevent
buckling and wrinkling.
Ex: coiling of a spring around a mandrel.

Bendmachine
Bending and contouring machines

Pipe
bending
machine
 Spinning processes
• Deep parts of circular Materials: aluminium and alloys, high
symmetry such as tank strength - low alloy steels, copper,
heads, television cones. brass and alloys , stainless steel,

• The metal blank is clamped against a form

block, which is rotated at high speed.
• The blank is progressively formed against
the block, by a manual tool or by means of
small-diameter work rolls.
Note: (a) no change in thickness but
diameter, (b) diameter equals to blank
diameter but thickness stays the same.
Parting : The simultaneous
cutting along at least two
lines which balance each
other from the standpoint
of side thrust on the
parting tool.

Slitting : Cutting or
shearing along single
lines to cut strips from
a sheet or to cut along
lines of a given length
or contour in a sheet
or workpiece.

Trimming : Operation
of cutting scrap off a
partially or fully
shaped part to an
established trim line.
Shaving : A secondary
shearing or cutting
operation in which the
surface of a previously cut
edge is finished or
smoothed by removing a
minimal amount of stock.

Ironing : A continuous
thinning process and often
accompanies deep drawing,
i.e., thinning of the wall of a
cylindrical cup by passing it
though an ironing die.

Fine blanking : Very smooth and

square edges are produced in
small parts such as gears, cams,
and levers.
 Explosive forming
• Produce large parts with a relatively low production lot size.
• The sheet metal blank is placed over a die cavity and an explosive
charge is detonated in medium (water) at an appropriate standoff
distance from the blank at a very high velocity.
• The shockwave propagating from the explosion serves as a
‘friction-less punch’
Efficient Part Nesting for Optimum Material Utilization

Efficient nesting of parts for optimum material utilization in blanking

 Piercing and Blanking

Maximum punch force

• No friction condition.
•The force required to shear a metal sheet ~ length cut, sheet thickness,
shearing strength.
• The maximum punch force to produce shearing is given by
Pmax ≈ 0.7 σu h L
where σu = the ultimate tensile strength
h = sheet thickness
L = total length of the sheared edge
by making the edges of the
The shearing force cutting tool at an inclined angle
 Fine Blanking using Cushion
Blank Details

Shear Angles and Die Clearance

Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies

> In piercing operations:

■ the shear angles are applied to the punch
> the clearance is subtracted from the punch dimension
> In blanking operations
■ shear angles are applied to the blanking die
■ the clearance is added to the die dimension
>As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled
into the die rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances
usually range between 2 and 10% of the sheet thickness.
 Shearing and bllanking
The separation of metal by the movement of two blades
Shearing
operated based on shearing forces.
•A narrow strip of metal is severely plastically deformed to the point
where it fractures at the surfaces in contact with the blades.
•The fracture then propagates inward to provide complete separation.

Clearance (normally 2-10% thickness)

• Proper → clean fracture surface.

• Insufficient → ragged fracture surface.
• Excessive → greater distortion, greater
energy required to separate metal.

Thickness  clearance 
Blanking : The shearing
of close contours, when
the metal inside the
contour is the desired
part.
Punching or piercing :
The shearing of the
material when the metal
inside the contour is
discarded.

Notching : The punch

removes material from
the edge or corner of a
strip or blank or part.

Progressive and Compound Dies

Progressive Dies Compound Dies

Simple Bending Operations

Bending Force

where
k = 0.3 for wiping die,
k = 0.7 for a U - die,
k = 1.3 for a V-die
 Bending

•A process by which a straight length is transformed into a curved length.

•produce channels, drums, tanks.
 Bending Operations
The bend radius R = the radius of curvature on the concave, or inside
surface of the bend.

Fibres on the outer surface are

strained more than fibres on the
inner surface are contracted.
Fibres at the mid thickness is
stretched.

Decrease in thickness (radius

direction) at the bend to preserve
the constancy of volume.

R thickness on
bending
Condition:
- No change in thickness
- The neutral axis will remain at the centre fibre.
- Circumferential stretch on the top surface ea = shrink on the bottom
surface, eb

R strain

R bend radius
h thickness

The minimum bend radius

• For a given bending operation, the smallest bend radius can be made
without cracking on the outer tensile surface.
• Normally expressed in multiples of sheet thickness.

Example: a 3T bend radius means the metal can be bend without

cracking though a radius equal to three times the sheet thickness T.
 Effect of b/h ratio on ductility
• Stress state is biaxial (σ2/σ1 ratio)
• Width / thickness b/h ratio b/h biaxiality

Strain,
ductility

Cracks occur near the

centre of the sheet

Effect of b/h on biaxiality and bend ductility

 Springback in Bending
Dimensional change of the formed part after releasing the pressure of
the forming tool due to the changes in strain produced by elastic
recovery.
Yield stress
Elastic modulus

Plastic strain
Spring back

Springback is encountered in all forming operations, but most easily

occurs in bending.
For aluminium alloys and austenitic stainless steels in a number of cold-
rolled tempers, approximate springback in bending can be expressed by

Where Ro = the radius of curvature before release of load

Rf = the radius of curvature after release of lead
And Ro < Rf
 Springback in Bending

Solutions: Compensating the springback by bending to a smaller radius

of curvature than is desired (overbending). By trialand-error.

The force Pb required to bend a length L about a radius R may be

estimated from;
 Advanced Bending Operations

Example:
Recommended geometry for
hemming of aluminium outer
panels

Bead Forming Operations

Single Die Multiple Die

 Tube bending

• Bending of tube and structural

material for industry, architecture,
medical, refinery.
• Heat induction and hot slap
bending require the heating of
pipe, tube or structural shapes.
• Heat Induction bending is
typically a higher cost bending
process and is primarily used in
large diameter material.

Tube bending
 Stretch forming
• Forming by using tensile forces to
stretch the material over a tool or
form block.
• used most extensively in the aircraft Stretch forming feasible for
industry to produce parts of large aluminium, stainless steel, titanium.
radius of curvature.
(normally for uniform cross section).
• required materials with appreciable
ductility.
• Springback is largely eliminated
because the stress gradient is
relatively uniform.
Stretch forming equipment

• Using a hydraulic driven ram (normally vertical).

• Sheet is gripped by two jaws at its edges.
• Form block is slowly raised by the ram to deform sheet above its yield
point.
• The sheet is strained plastically to the required final shape.
Examples: large thin panel, most complex automotive stamping
involve a stretching component.
 Diffuse necking (a limit to forming)
In biaxial tension, the necking which occurs in uniaxial tension is
inhibited if σ2/σ1 > 1/2, and the materials then develops diffuse
necking. (not visible)
The limit of uniform deformation in strip loading occurs at a strain
equals to the strain-hardening exponent n.
εu = n

Localised necking
• Plastic instability of a thin sheet will occur in the form of a narrow
localised neck → followed by fracture of the sheet.
• Normal strain along X’2 must be zero
φ ~ 55o for an isotropic material in pure tension

Localised necking in a strip in tension

Deep Drawing Operations
 DEEP DRAWING OF ROUND CUPS
Classification

Process Definition
Deep Drawing is a process in which a flat sheet metal blank is forced
into a die by means of a punch to form a hollow component in which
the thickness is substantially the same as that of the original material
DEEP
DRAWING OF Schematic of Deep Drawing
ROUND CUPS

Typical Deep Drawn Products

Cylindrical, rectangular,
oval and oblong parts

Deep
drawn cup
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS
Round Cup Tooling
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS Tooling Description (1/2)
Upper Die Shoe: Forms the base of the tooling and is clamped to
the upper part of the press (ram).
Lower Die Shoe: The base of the tooling, which is clamped to the
bottom bolster plate in the press. The lower shoe mates with the
upper using guide pins.
Punch: The punch forms the cavity in the sheet metal. Initially the
punch contacts the sheet and the sheet bends around the punch
radius. Then the punch forces the metal to flow around it to form
the cavity.
Die: The die helps to clamp the sheet and also forms the opening of
the cavity. The sheet is only restrained by frictional forces in the
round cup tooling. It flows into the cavity and strain hardens when
it bends and unbends around the die radius.
Blank Holder: The blank holder acts against the blank and die to
provide a clamping force on the sheet. In the ERC Minster press, the
blank holder pressure is provided through hydraulic cushion pins.
Cushion Pins: The cushion pins are usually driven by the hydraulic or
pneumatic action on the press. They provide the force which clamps
the sheet.
Punch Load Cell: The added feature to the round cup tooling is a
punch load cell which sits under the punch. It measures all the load
which the punch undergoes during the forming process. It is directly
connected to a data acquisition system, that records the force and the
ram displacement during the forming stroke.
Bolster: The base plate of the press. This portion of the press is
completely stationary. The lower shoe is clamped to the bolster.
Ram: The upper shoe is clamped to the ram. The ram moves up and
down, providing the velocity and force required to form the part.
 Deep drawing
The metalworking process used for shaping flat sheets
into cup-shaped articles.
Examples: bathtubs, shell cases, automobile panels.

Pressing the metal blank of

appropriate size into a shaped die
with a punch.

• It is best done with double-action press.

• Using a blank holder or a holddown ring

• Complex interaction between metal and

die depending on geometry.
• No precise mathematical description can
be used to represent the processes in
simple terms.
 As the metal
being
A cup is subjected to drawn,
three different types • Change in
of deformation. radius
• Increase in
cup wall

• Metal in the punch region is thinned down → biaxial tensile stress.

• Metal in the cup wall is subjected to a circumference strain, or hoop
and a radial tensile strain.
• Metal at the flange is bent and straightened as well as subjected to a
tensile stress at the same time.
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS
State of Stress in various zones of the sheet

A-C : Radial elongation +

Circumferential compression
(causes wrinkling)
C-D : Radial elongation +
Bending over the die corner
radius (possible fracture)
D-E : Cup wall in tension in radial
and circumferential directions
(puckering)
E-F : Bending over the punch
corner (possible fracture)
F-G : Plane strain
 Drawability (deep drawing)
Drawability is a ratio of the initial blank diameter (Do) to the diameter of
the cup drawn from the blank ~ punch diameter (DP)
Limiting draw ratio (LDR)

Where  is an efficiency term accounting for frictional losses.

Normally the average maximum reduction in deep drawing is ~ 50%.

Practical considerations affecting drawability

• Die radius – should be about 10 x sheet thickness.
• Punch radius – a sharp radius leads to local thinning and tearing.
Clearance between punch and die should be about 20-40% > sheet
thickness.
• Hold-down pressure – about 2% of average σo and σu.
• Lubrication of die side - to reduce friction in drawing.
• Material properties - low yield stress, high work hardening rates,
high values of strain, ratio of width to thickness R.
• Since the forming load is carried by
the side wall of the cup, failure
therefore occurs at the thinnest part.
• In practice the materials always fails
either at (a) the shoulder of the die and
(b) the shoulder of the punch.
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS
Limiting Draw Ratio
Limiting Draw Ratio (LDR) :
It is defined as the ratio of the maximum blank diameter to the
punch diameter that can be drawn properly without any fracture

LDR is influenced by • Material properties

• blank thickness
• Punch and die geometry
• Lubrication
Material Properties
Influence of n • High n value leads to good formability, but has little
effect on drawability
• High n strengthens the wall (good)
• It also strengthens the flange (bad)
Influence of K • K does not have much influence on the formability
• High K strengthens the wall (good)
• It also strengthens the flange (bad)
Influence of r • r indicates the ability of the material to resist thinning
• High r produces less thinning (good), reduced draw
load (good) and improved LDR (good)
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS

Geometry

The following geometric parameters affect the quality of deep drawing:

Punch Nose radius
Die Profile radius
Punch – die clearance
Blank Diameter
Blank Thickness
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS
Punch Corner Radius
• Punch corner radius
should be 3-5 times
larger than the die
radius
• By keeping the punch
nose radius above 4
times the blank
thickness, the failure
region moves higher up
the cup wall
• Punch corner radius
greater than 10 times
the blank thickness will
cause wrinkling

rp : punch corner radius

t : blank thickness
(Lange, 1985)
DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS
Die Radius

t: blank thickness (Lange, 1985)

DEEP DRAWING
OF ROUND CUPS
Punch-Die Clearance

Suggested punch-die clearance for various materials

UD: Clearance So : Blank thickness (Lange, 1985)

 Process Parameters
Lubrication conditions
• Coulomb’s law of friction
• Range of the friction
coefficient values used: 0.04 –
0.12
• Friction should be low
between the die and the blank
• Friction should be high
between the punch and the
blank to prevent the flow of
material over the punch and
resist stretching

Effect of Friction
• Increasing the binder friction tends to increase sheet tension
• Increasing the punch friction tends to reduce stretch performance,
but increases drawing performance
Blank Holder Force
• BHF control is very important to achieve a good
draw depth
• It can be a constant value or variable in time
(stroke) and/or space
• BHF should not be too low or too high
• If it is too low, wrinkles occur on the flange area
• If it is too high, fracture takes place at the die
profile radius
Functions of Blank holder
• To prevent wrinkling
• To restrain the flow of material

Blank Holder Pressure (BHF)

Pressure necessary to avoid wrinkling
(Lange, 1985)

pb = Blank holder pressure

c = Empirical factor; ranges
from 2 to 3 Depends on
DR = Drawing ratio, do/dp • Sheet material (Su)
dp = Punch diameter • Relative sheet thickness (d0/t0)
do = Blank diameter • Drawing ratio (DR)
to = Sheet thickness
Su = Ultimate tensile strength
 Optimal BHF Profile (from analytical equation

• BHF decreases as the draw – in proceeds

• BHF is increased at the very end to strain
harden the wall

Variable BHF (Temporal and Spatial)

Spatial Variable BHF

Temporal Variable BHF – applied on a Rectangular pan
 Effect of Material Properties
To investigate the effect of K and n values on the quality of the deep
drawn part, we should be able to study their effect independently. But
since no two real materials have exactly the same K values with
different n values, or the same n value with different K values, we
study the effect of material properties by conducting several
simulations in which either the K or the n value alone have been
changed. In this way, we can uncouple the interactions of the material
properties and study their influence individually.

Effect of K
Comparison of Punch Force for different Strength Coefficient values

Punch Load increases as K value increases

As strength coefficient increases;
• Punch Load required increases
• Thinning % decreases
 Effect of n
Comparison of Punch Force for different Strain hardening values

Punch Load decreases as n value increases

As Strain Hardening Coefficient increases,

• Punch Load required decreases
• Draw depth increases
 Effect of Blank Thickness

Comparison of Punch Force for different Blank Thickness

As Blank Thickness increases,

• Punch Load required increases
• Draw depth increases
 Effect of Blank Diameter
Comparison of Punch Force for different Blank Diameter’s

As Blank Diameter increases,

• Punch Load required increases
• Draw depth increases
• Thinning % increases
 Effect of Lubrication
Comparison of Punch Force for different Friction values

As friction coefficient increases,

• Punch Load required increases
• Thinning % increases for constant draw depth
 Effect of Blank Holder Force
The simulation below shows The simulation below
stretching of a blank, which shows wrinkling of a blank.
results in tearing.

High BHF prevents draw-in of Low BHF cannot overcome the

the flange resulting in out-of plane compressive
stretching at the punch radius. forces caused by flange draw-
This increases the thinning % in, resulting in wrinkles
which leads to tearing
 Effect of Process Parameters
Summary of Effects

Progressive forming sequence design for deep drawing of round

parts using DEFORM2D
Process sequence design for “progressive cup forming” involves
determination of the following parameters for each forming stage:
a) Blank holder force
b) Punch diameter and die diameter
c) Punch corner and die corner radii
d) Drawing depth
Simulation is used to determine the parameters for the satisfaction
of the thinning distribution.
To improve drawability

• To avoid failures in the

thin parts (at the punch or
flange), metal in that part
need to be strengthened,
or weaken the metal in
other parts (to correct the
weakest link).
• If sufficient friction is
generated between punch
and workpiece, more of the
forming load is carried by
the thicker parts.
• Concerning about
crystallographic texture
(slip system), degree of
anisotropy or strain ratio R.

The dependence of limiting

draw ratio on R and work
hardening rate, n
 Normal and Average Anisotropy
The plastic strain ratio R measures the
normal anisotropy, which denotes high
resistance to thinning in the thickness
direction.

Where ;
wo and w are the initial and final width Strains on a tensile-test
ho and h are the initial and final specimen removed form a piece
thickness. of sheet metal. These strains
are used in determining the
But it is difficult to measure thickness normal and planar anisotropy of
on thin sheets, therefore we have the sheet metal.

Average anisotropy:
Zinc alloys 0.4-0.6
Typical Ranges Hot-rolled steel 0.8-1.0
of Average Cold-rolled, rimmed Steel 1.0-1.4
Normal Cold-rolled, aluminum-killed steel 1.4-1.8
Anisotropy, Aluminum alloys 0.6-0.8
Ravg, for
Various Sheet Copper and brass
Titanium alloys (a)
0.6-0.9
Metals Stainless steels
3.0-5.0
0.9-1.2
High-strength, low-alloy steels 0.9-1.2
 Sheet Metal Anisotropy
Normal anisotropy in Tensile Test

Anisotropy (ASTM E 517)

Normal Anisotropy

Planar Anisotropy
(Earing Tendency)

Effects of Anisotropy

Earing Effect
Example: A tension test on a special deep-drawing steel showed a 30%
elongation in length and a 16% decrease in width. What limiting draw
ratio would be expected for the steel?

From Fig. 20-16 Dieter page 673, the limiting draw ratio ~ 2.7
Earing and Planar Anisotropy
Planar anisotropy

Note: If  R=0, no ears form.

The height of ears increases as R increases.
Earing in a drawn steel cup caused by the
planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.

Primary defects in Deep Drawing

Tearing

Wrinkling
 Forming limit criteria
• Tensile test only provides ductility, work hardening, but it is in a
uniaxial tension with frictionless, which cannot truly represent material
behaviours obtained from unequal biaxial stretching occurring in sheet
metal forming.
• Sheet metal formability tests are designed to measure the ductility of
a materials under condition similar to those found in sheet metal
forming.
The forming limit diagram

Grid analysis (a) before (b) after

• The sheet is marked with a deformation of sheet.
close packed array of circles
using chemical etching or photo
printing techniques.
• The blank is then stretched
over a punch, resulting in
stretching of circles into ellipses.
• The major and minor axes of
an ellipse represent the two
principal strain directions in the
stamping.
• The percentage changes in
these strains are compared in
the diagram.
• Comparison is done in a given
thickness of the sheet. Forming limit diagram
 Forming Limit Diagram (FLD)
To determine FLD, the
specimens are cut to varying
widths in order to develop
actual sheet forming
operations

For above figure, the

specimen farthest left is
[Kalpakjian,1997]
subjected to simple tension
while the one farthest right is
FLD for various sheet metals showing subjected to equal biaxial
the boundaries between failure and stretching.
safe regions
 Example: A grid of 2.5 mm circles is electroetched on a blank of sheet
steel. After forming into a complex shape the circle in the region of
critical strain is distorted into and ellipse with major diameter 4.5 mm
and minor diameter 2.0 mm. How close is the part to failing in this
critical region?

Major strain

Minor strain

Forming limit diagram

The coordinates indicate that the part is in imminent danger of failure.
 Erichsen cupping test
• Simple and easy.
• Symmetrical and equal biaxial
stretching.
• Allow effects of tool-workpiece
interaction and lubrication on
formability to be studied.
• The sheet metal specimen is
hydraulically punched with a 20 mm
diameter steel ball at a constant load of
1000 kg.
• The distance d is measured in
millimetres and known as Erichsen
number.

Results of cupping test on steel sheets.

 Formability

Sheet Metal Formability

Sheet metal formability is generally defined as the ability of the
metal to undergo the desired shape changes without failures such
as necking and tearing.
Part Drawability
Part Drawability, i.e., limit of deformation depends on
• Properties of the sheet metal
• Lubrication and surface conditions at various interfaces
between sheet and tooling
• Part Geometry
• Tooling and Equipment
Sheet Formability
• Uniaxial Tensile Test
• Plane Strain Test
• Biaxial Stretch Test
• Bending Tests
• Olsen Cup Test
• Limiting Dome Height Test
• Hydraulic (Viscous Pressure) Bulge Test
• Fukui Conical Cup Test
• Conical Cup Wrinkling Test
• Yoshida Buckling Test
 Sheet Formability
Bending of a Sample to 180°

Erichsen Cup Test

Stretching a rigidly held sheet strip or piece to a cup until a crack
appears.

Parameter: Depth of
the cup
Limited Dome Height (LDH) Test

Hydraulic Bulge vs. LDH

 Redrawing
• Use successive drawing
operations by reducing a cup
or drawn part to a smaller
diameter and increased
height – known as
redrawing.
Examples: slender cups such
as cartridge case and
closedend tubes.

1) Direct or regular redrawing : 2) Reverse or indirect redrawing :

smaller diameter is produced by the cup is turned inside out → the
means of a hold-down ring. The outside surface becomes the
metal must be bent at the punch inside surface, Fig (c). Better
and unbent at the die radii see Fig control of wrinkling and no
(a). Tapered die allows lower punch geometrical limitations to the use
load, Fig (b). of a holddown ring.

Punch force vs. punch stroke

Punch force = Fdeformation + Ffrictional + (Fironing)
Fdeformation - varies with length of travel
Ffrictional - mainly from hold down pressure
Fironing - after the cup has reached the maximum thickness.
 Defects in formed parts

Springback problem • Edge conditions for blanking.

• Local necking or thinning or buckling and
wrinkling in regions of compressive stress.
• Springback tolerance problems.
• Cracks near the punch region in deep
drawing minimised by increasing punch
radius, lowering punch load.
Crack near punch region
• Radial cracks in the flanges and edge of the cup due to not sufficient
ductility to withstand large circumferential shrinking.
• Wrinkling of the flanges or the edges of the cup resulting from
buckling of the sheet (due to circumferential compressive stresses) →
solved by using sufficient hold-down pressure to suppress the buckling.
• Surface blemishes due to large surface area. EX: orange peeling
especially in large grain sized metals because each grain tends to deform
independently use finer grained metals.
• Mechanical fibering has little effect on formability.
• Crystallographic fibering or preferred orientation may have a large
effect. Ex: when bend line is parallel to the rolling direction, or earing in
deep drawn cup due to anisotropic properties.

Earing in drawn can

 Other defects in Deep Drawing

Many, including…
• Orange Peel
• Draw marks
• Stretcher marks
• Scratches
 • Stretcher strains or ‘worms’ (flamelike patterns
of depressions). Associated with yield point
elongation.
• The metal in the stretcher strains has been
strained an amount = B, while the remaining
received essentially zero strain.
• The elongation of the part is given by some
Stretcher strain in intermediate strain A.
low-carbon steel. • The number of stretcher strains increase during
deformation. The strain will increase until the
when the entire part is covered it has a strain
equal to B.

Solution: give the steel sheet a

small cold reduction (usually 0.5-
2% reduction in thickness).
Ex: temper-rolling, skin-rolling to
eliminate Relation of stretcher
strain to stress yield point.

Relation of stretcher strain to

stress yield point.
 Hydraulic (Viscous Pressure) Bulge Test
•The bulge test allows to evaluate the formability of sheet material
under biaxial stretch conditions.
•This test can be used for quality control of incoming sheet coil or
blanks in production plants. The higher the bulge at fracture, the
higher is the formability of the sheet.

(a) (b)
Sheet (a) and sheet (b) are two different steel alloys. For the same
dome height sheet (a) has a better formability than sheet (b).

Test tooling
 Hydraulic (Viscous Pressure) Bulge Test

Flow stress determination for sheet materials

t0 initial sheet thickness

td thickness at top of the dome
hd dome height
Rd radius of the dome
dh diameter of the hole
Rh radius of the hole
p internal pressure
Fc clamping force
Hydraulic (Viscous Pressure) Bulge Test
Calculation of the Flow Stress

Tensile Test Vs. Viscous Bulge Test

Material : AKDQ
 DEEP DRAWING OF RECTANGULAR AND
ASYMMETRIC PARTS
Outline of the Module
• Introduction to Deep Drawing
• Defects in Deep Drawing
• Effect of Process Parameters
• Tooling and Experimental parts
• Blank Holder Force control in Rectangular pan forming

Introduction to Deep Drawing

Deformation Zone Analysis

 Practical considerations for round and rectangular shells
• Different pressures (tension,
compression, friction, bending) force
the material into shape, perhaps with
multiple successive operations.

Round shell
• Different flow patterns at sides and corners.
• Corners require similar flow as round shells
while sides need simple bending.
• The corner radii control the maximum draw
depth.
• Centre to center distance of corners ≥ 6 x
corner radius Rectangular shell
• Bottom radius ≥ corner radius
Example of Deep Drawing in Car Industry

Examples of Deep Drawn Parts

Ford Fiesta
 Deep Drawing - Rectangular Pan

Tooling for forming Kitchen Sink

 Some more examples of Tooling

Defects in Deep Drawing

There are three major defects in deep drawing of rectangular pans.

• Flange Wrinkles
• Side Wall Wrinkles (Puckering)
• Tearing (Fracture)
 Prediction of Buckling

Flange Wrinkles Side Wall Wrinkles

 Minimizing Buckling
Minimize Flange Wrinkles: • Increase Blank Holder Force
• Increase Material Thickness
• Increase Normal Anisotropy
• Decrease Planar Anisotropy

Flange Wrinkles

Minimize Side Wall Wrinkles: • Increase Material Thickness

• Increase Normal Anisotropy
• Decrease Planar Anisotropy
• Increase Blank Holder Force
• Increase Blank Diameter
• Increase Blank Holder/Sheet Friction
• Use Drawbeads

Side Wall Wrinkles

 Prediction of Wrinkling

Prediction of Wrinkling in Cabin LH Rear Inner Panel

BHF = 30 tons
BHF = 10 tons
Agrees with experimental observations

Prediction of Wrinkling in Deck Lid Outer using PAM-STAMPTM

Tearing (Fracture)
Tearing of Rectangular pan

Prediction of Fracture
 Effect of Process Parameters

Effect of Blank Holder Force (BHF)

Increasing the BHF tends to increase sheet tension and fracture, while decreasing
springback and wrinkling

Drawability Window

Variable BHF results in

improved draw depth of
the rectangular pan as
compared to constant BHF.
 Effect of Process Parameters

Effect of Blank Shape

Rectangular Blank Chamfered Blank

Decreasing the blank size tends to promote
metal flow and decrease fracture

Effect of Friction

Increasing the binder

friction tends to
increase sheet tension.
Increasing the punch
friction tends to reduce
stretch performance but
increases drawing
performance.
 Effect of Material Parameters

Effect of K-value

Increasing the K value

tends to increase
deformation stresses,
tool pressures, and
spring back.

(Zunkler, 1973)
Effect of n-value

LDR = limiting draw ratio

n = strain hardening exponent
= efficiency factor
Increasing the n-value tends to
increase strain hardening and LDR
and decrease fracture, while
decreasing deformation stresses,
tool pressures, and springback.
 Effect of Material Parameters

Effect of Normal Anisotropy (rm)

Increasing normal
anisotropy decreases flow
stress in regions of drawing
and increases flow stress in
regions of stretching, thus it
improves drawability.
 Design Issues
Tooling design include: • Binder Development (flat, sloped, curved, etc.)
• Addendum Design (die radius, drawwall, etc.)
• Pad Design (location, actuation, etc.)
• Drawbeads (location, cross section)
• Actuation (press type, nitrogen cylinders, etc.)
• Punch/Die Clearance
• Tool Material and Coatings

Dies & Tooling

Conventional Press Actions
 Drawbead Design
Drawbead Configuration in Stamping

Drawbead Configuration around Die Cavity

 Draw beads

(a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow

during the drawing of a box-shaped part while using beads to
control the movement of the material.
(c) Deformation of circular grids in the flange in deep
drawing.
 ERC Rectangular Pan Tooling

FE model of Rectangular Pan Rectangular Pan Geometry

Drawing
Experimental Rectangular Pans

AKDQ Steel, Rectangular 2” AKDQ Steel, Chamfered 2” Draw,

Draw, Plan View Plan View
 Blank Holder
Defects can be avoided in rectangular part drawing by the application
of Blank Holder Force (BHF). This BHF can be applied either by
hydraulic cushion pins or nitrogen cylinders.
The applied BHF profiles can be
• Constant in time and space
• Variable in time alone (temporal variation)
• Variable in space alone (spatial variation)
• Variable in time and space

Some Variable BHF trajectories

 Variations in BHF Application
• Constant in location, constant with stroke (current practice)
- Each cushion pin/nitrogen cylinder has same force applied that is held constant with
stroke
- Nitrogen cylinders, Force Modulator (FM) systems, single-point hydraulic cushions
• Constant in location, variable with stroke
- Each cushion pin has same force applied that is varied with stroke
- Single-point hydraulic cushions, FM systems
• Variable in location, constant with stroke
- Each cushion pin has different force applied that is held constant with stroke
- Nitrogen cylinders, FM systems, multi-point hydraulic cushions
• Variable in location, variable with stroke
- Each cushion pin has different force applied that is varied with stroke
- FM systems, Multi-point hydraulic cushions
Types of Blank Holders
 Nitrogen Cylinders at ERC
Variable spatial BHF profiles can be applied with the help of nitrogen
cushion pins, which exert force on the blank holder by deforming it
elastically.

Segmented Blank Holder

Siegert, 1995
 Flexible Blank Holder

Blank Holder Force Control

Siegert, 2000

Issues with Multi-point Cushion Systems

Problem: How to determine the variation of BHF for

each cushion pin ?
 Tube Hydroforming

(a) Schematic illustration of the tube-hydrofroming process.

(b), (c) and (d) Examples of tube-hydroformed parts.
Automotive exhaust and structural components.
Bicycle frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are
produced through tube hydroforming.

Tailor-Welded Blanks TWB

Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt-

welding and stamping.
 Tailor-Welded Blanks (TWB) in Car Body

TWB Examples

Tailor welded door inner blank

showing thicker frontal area
allowing deletion of separate
reinforcement panel
 Materials for Sheet Forming Tools
Tablo 5.1 Typical tooling materials used in main form and cutting
operations
Material type Destgnation: Use Hardness Addittonal comments
forming D1 N/Al SI HB
Grey flake cast GG 25 Main form 160-210 Low cost; localized wear soft
tooling spots' may form at ferritic zones.
Alloy flake cast GG25CrMo Form and 210-250 Alloyıng promotes more
draw uniform pearlitic structure.
Flame hardenable for added
wear resistance.
SG iron GGG 50 Cam 150-180 Graphite developed in
operations spheroidal form for improved
toughness.
Alloyed SG cast GGG 70 Form and 240- 270 Spheroidal graphite nodules
draw impart additional wear
resistance.
Steel castings GS 60, 70 Form and 175-252 More uniform structure for
draw improved surface and wear
resistance.
Cutting steels. A ISI type 01 Cutting and 229 Low alloy steel with high
Oil-hardening trim surface hardness and toughness,
tool after hardening and tempering.
Medium alloy A ISI type A2 Cutting and 240 Good combination of shock and
tool trim wear resistance.
Air-hardening AISI type D2 Cutting and 250 Excellent wear resistance,
chromium steel trim requires careful heat treatment.
Roll Forming Operations
References
• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-
100406-8.
• Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials, 1990, Butterworth
Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.