Mec 281

MEC281
MATERIALS
SCIENCE
EDITED BY
AZNIFA MAHYAM ZAHARUDIN
FIRDAUS SUKARMAN
HAZRIEL FAIZAL PAHRORAJI
ILYA IZYAN SHAHRUL AZHAR
JAMILAH TALIB
MOHD FAIZUL IDHAM MOHD ZULKIPLI
RASDI DERAMAN
SAMSIAH AHMAD
MARCH2018
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MEC 281 (MATERIAL SCIENCE)
Teaching Plan (MARCH 2018 – JUNE 2018)
Week Date Syllybus Activity(s)

1** 5/03/2018 – 11/03/2018
2** 12/03/2018 – 18/03/2018 CHAPTER 1 Tutorial 1
3 19/03/2018 – 25/03/2018 Tutorial 2
4 26/03/2018 – 1/04/2018 Tutorial 3
5 2/04/2018 – 8/04/2018 *QUIZ 1
6 9/04/2018 – 15/04/2018 CHAPTER 2 Tutorial 4
7 16/04/2018 – 22/04/2018 Tutorial 5
8 23/04/2018 – 29/04/2018 Tutorial 6 & TEST 1
9 30/04/2018 – 6/5/2018 *QUIZ 2
10 7/05/2018 – 13/05/2018 CHAPTER 3 Tutorial 7
11 14/05/2018 – 20/05/2018 Tutorial 8
12 21/05/2018 – 27/05/2018 CHAPTER 4 Tutorial 9 & *QUIZ 3
28/05/2018 – 3/06/2018 MID SEM BREAK
13** 4/06/2018 – 10/06/2018 TEST 2
CHAPTER 4
14** 11/06/2018 – 14/06/2018 Tutorial 10 & *QUIZ 4
1 week 15/05/2018 – 21/06/2018 Revision
3 weeks 22/06/2018 – 15/07/2018 Examination
Tutorial
Tutorial Topic
1 Atomic structure
2 Interatomic bonding, Crystal Structures
3 APF, Density Computation, Miller Indices.
4 Phase diagram
5 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
6 Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal
7 TTT- Diagram
8 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metal
9 Plastic and Elastomer
10 Ceramic and Composite materials
Remarks:
Tests – common tests
(Online –iLearn)
Lecture Notes, Tutorial, etc. (for students) “Folder: March2018”
* Quiz
**Entrance/Exit Survey - 5 – 18 Mac 2018/ 4 – 14 Jun 2018
SuFO - 7 Mei – 14 Jun 2018
5
RP : Aznifa Mahyam Zaharudin
Semester : March 2018 – June 2018
Lecturer
Lecturer Email UiTM
Aznifa aznifa@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
Rasdi rasdi925@ ppinang.uitm.edu.my
Aziurah aziurah623@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
MEC281 Jamilah jamilah762@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
PENANG
MATERIALS Dr Natasha natashanawawi@uitm.edu.my
SCIENCE Dr Mohd Muzafar mohdmuza433@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
En. Mohd Haris ooiaikseng@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
Dr Mohd Zaki zaki7231@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
Samsiah samsiah.ahmad@johor.uitm.edu.my PASIR GUDANG
Arzaimiruddin arzai276@tganu.uitm.edu.my BUKIT BESI
GPA Summary (MEC281)

January 2018
Penang Pasir Gudang Bukit Besi TOTAL
GRED
BIL % BIL % BIL % CUMMULATIVE
A+ 0 0 0 0 0 0
A 3 2.3% 11 13.1% 0 0.0%
A- 4 3.0% 3 3.6% 1 3.2%
B+ 11 8.3% 8 9.5% 3 9.7%
218
B 13 9.8% 13 15.5% 1 3.2%
B- 37 28.0% 14 16.7% 1 3.2%
C+ 16 12.1% 12 14.3% 8 25.8%
C 28 21.2% 17 20.2% 14 45.2%
C- 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 6.5%
D+ 1 0.8% 1 1.2% 1 3.2%
D 5 3.8% 4 4.8% 0 0.0%
29
E 7 5.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
F 6 4.5% 1 1.2% 0 0.0%
XX/YY/ZZ 1 0.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Total 132 100.0% 84 100.0% 31 100.0%
PASS 112 84.8% 78 92.9% 28 90.3%
FAIL 20 15.2% 6 7.1% 3 9.7%
1
2
Course Outline
Course Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
Subject MATERIAL SCIENCE (MEC281)
Contact hours Lectures - 3 hours/week
Tutorial - 1 hour/week
Credit Hours 3.0
Course Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:
CO1 Explain basic concepts of structure, mechanical and physical properties of engineering materials.
CO2 Apply the basics concepts to identify and predict the relationships between properties and
structure of materials.
CO3 Analyze and select the suitable material for appropriate engineering applications.
Course Description
This course covers some fundamentals of materials science, which are necessary for the understanding of
materials properties for their appropriate applications. The major families of materials such as metals,
ceramics, polymers and composite are discussed for their structures, properties and applications.
Assessment
Course Work : 40%
Test 1 : 15%
Test 2 : 15%
Quiz(s) : 10% (Quiz x 4 – iLearn)
Final Examination : 60%
Total : 100%
Recommended Textbook
William D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering and Engineering, An Introduction, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011.
Reference
1. James F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, 8th Edition, Prentice Hall,
2014.
2. Daniel P. Henkel, Alan W. Pense, Structure and Properties of Engineering Materials, 5th Edition,
McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2002.
3. Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P.Phule, The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6th Edition,
Thompson Brooks/Cole, 2011.
4. Kenneth G. Budinski,Michael K. Budinski, Engineering Materials (Properties and Selection), 9th
Edition, 2010.
3
5.
SYLLABUS
MATERIAL SCIENCE – MEC281
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA PULAU PINANG
CHAPTER 1. CONTENT/SUB-CHAPTER
1.1 Atomic Structure.
1.2 Interatomic Bonding Amorphous and Crystalline Solid.
1
1.3 Crystal Structures.
STRUCTURE
1.4 Efficiency of Atomic Packing, Density Computation, Miller
(10 HOURS)
Indices.
1.5 Relationship between Atomic Structure, Crystal Structures
and Properties of Material.
2.1 Solidification Of Pure Metal And Alloys
2 2.2 Phase Diagram: Microstructure Development,
METALLIC Microconstituent of Phases.
MATERIALS 2.3 Fe-Fe3C System: Microstructure Development,
(14 HOURS) Microconstituent of Phases.
2.4 Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals
3
THERMAL
3.1 Isothermal Transformation Diagram (TTT Diagram)
TREATMENT OF
3.2 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals
METALLIC
3.3 Hardenability
MATERIALS
(8 HOURS)
4.1 Classification of Engineering Materials
4
4.2 Plastics And Elastomer: Molecular Structures, Properties and
ENGINEERING
Applications
MATERIALS
4.3 Ceramic: Structure, Properties, and Applications
(10 HOURS)
4.4 Composite Materials: Types, Properties and Applications.
4
CHAPTER 1 : STRUCTURE
(10 hours)
SUBCONTENT :
1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID.
1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES.
1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC PACKING, DENSITY COMPUTATION,

MILLER INDICES.
1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
You should be able:
Describe an atomic structure

Configure electron configuration
Differentiate between each atomic bonding
Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic,
hydrogen and Van der Waals bonds
Relate the atomic bonding with material
properties
1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What are ATOMS?
All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
Since the atom is too small to be seen even with the most powerful
microscopes, scientists rely upon on models to help us to understand the
atom.
“Even with the world’s best

microscopes we cannot clearly see
the structure or behavior of the
atom.”
4
Is this really an ATOM?
Many of the atom models may look
like the one below which shows the
parts and structure of the atom.
Electron
Shell
This model represents the most

modern version of the atom.
Wave Mechanical Atomic Model
Nucleon or
Nucleus
Bohr Theory
5
What does an ATOM look like?
 Atoms are made of a nucleus that contains protons, neutrons and electrons
that orbit around the nucleus at different levels, known as shells.
Protons and neutrons

join together to form Neutron
Nucleon or
the nucleus – the
central part of the
Nucleus
atom Proton
+
Electron
- -
Electrons +
move
around the
nucleus
Shell @ Orbital @ Energy level
6
Fig. : A simplified diagram of atom
 These particles have the following properties:
Particle Charge Location Mass (amu) Symbol
Proton Positive (+ve) Nucleus 1.0073

+
Neutron Neutral Nucleus 1.0087
Electron Negative (-ve) Orbital 0.000549

-
To describe the mass of atom, a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu) is used.
 The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom completely

determine its properties and identity. This is what makes one atom different
from another.
7
Why are all ATOMS are ELECTRICALLY
NEUTRAL?
Most atoms are electrically neutral, meaning that they have an equal number of
protons and electrons. The positive and negative charges cancel each other out.
Therefore, the atom is said to be electrically neutral.
Neutron
-
Proton
- +
Electron
+
++ +
-
-
Fig. : Beryllium atom
Proton =
Electron =
8
If an atom gains or loses electrons, the atom is no longer neutral and
it become electrically charged . The atom is then called an ION.
cation - ion with a positive charge
- If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a cation.
Na Na+
Cations are smaller than their “parent atom” because

there is less e-e repulsion
anion - ion with a negative charge

- If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes an anion.
Cl
Cl-
Anions are larger than their “parent atom” because there is

9 more e-- e repulsion
Basics of the PERIODIC TABLE
periodic: a repeating pattern
table: an organized collection of information
PERIODIC TABLE (P.T.)

An arrangement of elements in
order of atomic number;
elements with similar
properties are in the same
group.
10
The periodic table below is a simplified representation which
usually gives the :
Period
Group
Two main classifications in P.T.

1) Period: horizontal row on the P.T.
•Designate electron energy levels
2) group or family: vertical column on the P.T.

11
ATOMIC NUMBER and ATOMIC MASS
Atom can be described using :
1) ATOMIC NUMBER 2) ATOMIC MASS
ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons
SYMBOL
ATOMIC MASS , A =
no. of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (N)
The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by

the symbol He, its atomic mass is 4 and its name is helium.
12
PERIODIC TABLE
ATOMIC NUMBER tells how many PROTONS (Z) are in its atoms which determine the
atom’s identity.
The list of elements (ranked according to an increasing no. of protons) can be looked up
on the Periodic Table. So, if an atom has 2 protons (atomic no. = 2), it must be helium(He).
ATOMIC MASS tells the sum of the masses of PROTONS (Z) and NEUTRONS (N) within the
nucleus E.g :
Lithium:
Atomic number =
Atomic mass, A =
BUT... although each element has a defined number of protons, the number of neutrons
is not fixed isotopes
14
ISOTOPES
 Atoms which have the same Different mass number
number of protons but different 1 2 3
numbers of neutrons. 1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
Same atomic no. @ no. of protons
Natural Proton Neutron Atomic

 Atoms which have the same Isotope Mass
atomic number but different Hydrogen 1
atomic mass . (hydrogen)
Hydrogen 2
 Eg : Hydrogen has 3 isotopes. (deuterium)
Hydrogen 3
(tritium)
15
EXERCISE
Number of Nucleon Number of
Element Name
Proton Number Neutron
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Lithium-6
Lithium Lithium-7
Lithium-8
Chlorine-35
Chlorine
Chlorine-37
Uranium-236
Uranium Uranium-237
Uranium-238
EXERCISE
Naturally occurring lithium consists of three isotopes, 6Li,

7Li, and 8Li. State the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in each of these lithium atoms.

6Li 7Li 8Li
3 3 3
#p _______ _______ _______
#n _______ _______ _______
#e _______ _______ _______
17
ELECTRON SHELLS
The electron cloud that surrounded the nucleus is divided into 7 shells (a.k.a energy level)
 K (1st shell, closest to nucleus) followed by L, M, N, O, P, Q.
Each of the shell, hold a limited no. of electrons.

 E.g : K (2 electrons), L (8 electrons), M (18 electrons), N (32 electrons).
N (32 electrons)
4th shell M (18 electrons)
3rd shell L (8 electrons)
2nd shell K (2 electrons)
1st shell
18
ORBITAL
• Within each shell, the electrons occupy sub shell (energy sublevels)
– s, p, d, f, g, h, i. Each sub shell holds a different types of orbital.
• Each orbital holds a max. of 2 electrons.
• Each orbital has a characteristic energy state and characteristic shape.
• s - orbital
− Spherical shape
− Located closest to nucleus (first energy level)
− Max 2 electrons
• p - orbital
− There are 3 distinct of p - orbitals (px, py, pz)
− Dumbbell shape
− Second energy level
− 6 electrons
d- orbital
- There are 5 distinct of d – orbitals
- Max 10 electrons
- Third energy level
20
d- orbital
Table : The number of available electron states in some of the electrons
shells and subshells.
The max. no. of electrons that can occupy a specific shell can be found
using the following formula:
Electron Capacity = 2n2
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Electron configuration – the ways in which electrons are arranged
around the nucleus of atoms. The following representation is used :
• The following representation is used :
Orbital
Energy level @
Principal No. of electrons
quantum no. 1s2 in the orbital
• Example: it means that there are two electrons in the ‘s’ orbital of the
first energy level. The element is helium.
Based on the Aufbau principle, which assumes that electrons
enter orbital of lowest energy first.
The sequence of addition of the

electrons as the atomic number
increases is as follows with the
first being the shell number the
s, p, d or f being the type of
subshell, the last number being
the number of electrons in the
subshell.
The electrons in their orbital are represented as follows :
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6
EXERCISE
How to Write the Electron Configuration of the Element?
3rd shell
(energy e-
level) e-
e- e-
e- e- e- e- e- e- e-
2nd shell e-
(energy
e-
e-
level)
e-
Lithium Magnesium
25
EXERCISE
Atom Symbol Atomic Electron configuration

Number
Hydrogen H
Carbon C
Chlorine Cl
Sulfur S
Scandium Sc
Vanadium V
Manganese Mn
Arsenic As
26
EXERCISE
Write the electron configuration for below element.
a) F
b) F-
a) Ca
b) Ca2+
EXERCISE
With the aid of sketches, describe the Bohr Model of the sodium
[Na] and its ion in terms of valence electron , number of electron
and shell.
TRANSITION ELEMENT
Cr [Z = 24]
Mo [Z = 42]
Cu [Z = 29]
Ag [Z = 47]
Au [Z = 79]
1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS
AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID
• The forces of attraction that hold atoms together can be divided into 2 categories :
1) Primary Interatomic Bonding 2) Secondary Atomic Bonding

Metallic, ionic and covalent Van der Waals
 Chemical reactions between elements involve either the releasing/receiving or sharing

of electrons .
PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDING
1) IONIC BONDING
How is ionic bonding formed??

 Often found in compounds composed of electropositive
elements (metals) and electronegative elements (non metals)
 Electron are transferred to form a bond
 Large difference in electronegativity required
31
• Example: NaCl
IONIC BONDING
Properties :
 Solid at room temperature (made of ions)

 High melting and boiling points
 Hard and brittle
 Poor conductors of electricity in solid state
 Good conductor in solution or when molten
EXAMPLE : IONIC BONDING
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 CsCl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Give up electrons Acquire electrons

EXERCISE
With the aid of sketches, describe how Sodium and Chlorine atoms
are joined.
EXERCISE
Draw the following ionic bonding?
IONIC BONDING :
Group 1 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : NaCl
Group 2 metal + Group 7 non metal, eg : MgF₂, BeF₂, MgBr₂, CaCl₂ or CaI₂
Group 2 metal + Group 6 non metal, eg : CaO, MgO, MgS, or CaS
2) COVALENT BONDING
How is covalent bonding formed?
• Electrons are shared to form a bond.
• Most frequently occurs between atoms with similar electronegativities.
• Often found in:
 Molecules with nonmetals

 Molecules with metals and nonmetals (Aluminum
phosphide (AlP)
 Nonmetallic elemental molecules (H₂, Cl₂, F₂, etc)
 Elemental solids (diamond, silicon, germanium)
 Compound solids (about column IVA) – (gallium
arsenide - GaAs, indium antimonide - InSb and
silicone carbide - SiC)
COVALENT BONDING
Properties
 Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)

 Poor electrical conductors in all phases
 Variable ( hard , strong, melting temperature, boiling point)
EXAMPLE : COVALENT BONDING
H2O
column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
SiC - Cl2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs
• Molecules with nonmetals

• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
• Elemental solids
• Compound solids (about column IVA)
EXERCISE
Draw the following covalent bonding?

SINGLE BOND :
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Water
DOUBLE BOND :
Oxygen
TRIPLE BOND :
Nitrogen
3) METALLIC BONDING
How is metallic bonding formed??
• Occur when some electrons in the valence shell separate
from their atoms and exist in a cloud surrounding all the
positively charged atoms.
• The valence electron form a ‘sea of electron’.
• Found for group IA and IIA elements.
• Found for all elemental metals and its alloy.

METALLIC BONDING
43
METALLIC BONDING
Properties
 Good electrical conductivity
 Good heat conductivity
 Ductile
 Opaque
Explain why are metals ductile, can conduct
electricity and has high melting point?
SECONDARY INTERATOMIC BONDING
VAN DER WAALS
• Arise from atomic or molecular dipoles

• Three hydrogen bonding mechanism
– Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
• Eg: Inert gases, symmetric molecules (H2, Cl2)
– Polar molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

• Asymmetrical molecules such as HCl
– Permanent Dipole Bonds

• Hydrogen bonding
• Between molecules
• H-F, H-O, H-N
MOLECULE
• Molecule is considered the smallest particle of a pure
chemical substance that still retains its composition
and chemical properties.
• Most common molecules are bound together by

strong covalent bonds.
• E.g. : F2, O2, H2.
• The smallest molecule : Hydrogen molecule .

Summary of BONDING
Type Bond energy Melting point Hardness Conductivity Comments
Ionic Large Very high Hard and Poor Nondirectional

bonding (150-370kcal/mol) brittle -required (ceramic)
moving ion
Covalent Variable Variable Very hard Poor Directional
bonding (75-300 kcal/mol) (diamond) (Semiconductors,
Highest – ceramic, polymer
Large -Diamond diamond chains)
Small – Bismuth (>3550)
Mercury (-39)
Metallic Variable Low to high Soft to hard Excellent Nondirectional
bonding (25-200 kcal/mol) (metal)
Large- Tungsten
Small- Mercury
Secondary Smallest Low to Fairly soft Poor Directional

bonding moderate inter-chain
(polymer)
inter-molecular
* Directional bonding – Strength of bond is not equal in all directions

49
* Nondirectional bonding – Strength of bond is equal in all directions
SUMMARY : PRIMARY BONDING
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small a
Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate a
Polymers Directional Properties

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates
small T
small E
large a
EXERCISE
Briefly describe differences between metallic bond and covalent bond.
Support your answer with an example and simple sketch.
1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Crystal
structure
Noncrsytalline
Crystalline
material
Material
(Amorphous)
Single Crystal polycrystal

* comprised of many single
crystal or grain
CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
• atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays

• typical of:
-metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
noncrystalline SiO2
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline
Structure of SOLID
Amorphous Crystal
•No recognizable long- •Atoms are disordered •Entire solid is made up •All atoms arranged on
range order of atoms in an orderly
•No lattice a common lattice
array
Polycrystalline
•Completely ordered •Different lattice

orientation for each
•In segments grain
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
--turbine blades
The single crystal turbine blades are

able to operate at a higher working
temperature than crystalline turbine
blade and thus are able to increase the
thermal efficiency of the gas turbine
cycle.
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
grain
EXERCISE
With the aid of sketches, explain the following terms :
i. Crystalline materials
ii. Amorphous materials
iii. Single crystalline
iv. Polycrystalline
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Most metals exhibit a crystal structure which show a unique arrangement of atoms
in a crystal.
A lattice and motif help to illustrate the crystal structure.

Lattice (lines network in 3D) + Motif (atoms are arranged in a repeated pattern)
= CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
+ =
lattice motif crystal structure

60
Unit Cell - When a solid
has a crystalline
structure, the atoms are
arranged in repeating
structures called unit
cells. The unit cell is the
smallest unit
that demonstrate the full
symmetry of a crystal.
+
Lattice - The three
dimensional array
formed by the unit cells
of a crystal is called
lattice.
=
A crystal is a three-
dimensional repeating
array.
Unit cell - a tiny box that
describe the crystal structure.
Fig. : The crystal structure (a) Part of the space lattice for natrium chloride (b)Unit cell for natrium
chloride crystal
 Crystal structure may be present with any of the

four types of atomic bonding.
 The atoms in a crystal structure are arranged along

crystallographic planes which are designated by
the Miller indices numbering system.
 The crystallographic planes and Miller indices are

identified by X-ray diffraction.
Fig. : The wavelength of the X-ray is
similar to the atomic spacing in crystals.
62
CRYSTAL SYSTEM AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
BRAVAIS LATTICE - describe the geometric arrangement of the lattice points and
the translational symmetry of the crystal.
•7 crystal systems :
cubic, hexagonal,
tetragonal,
rhombodhedral,
orthorhombic, monoclinic,
triclinic.
•By adding additional
lattice point to 7 basic
crystal systems –
form 14 Bravais
63 lattice.
Crystal Structure of Metals
Common crystal structures for metals:
• Simple Cubic (SC) - Manganese
• Body-centered cubic (BCC) - alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum,
tungsten, and vanadium.
• Face-centered cubic (FCC) - gamma iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, silver,
gold and platinum.
SC BCC FCC
SIMPLE CUBIC (SC)
• The atoms lie on a grid: layers of rows and
columns.
• Sit at the corners of stacked cubic
Example : Manganese
65
Body-centered Cubic Crystal
Structure
The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells
BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)
• Cubic unit cell with 8 atoms located at the corner & single atom at cube
center
Example : Chromium, Tungsten,Molybdenum,Tantalum, Vanadium

67
Face-centered Cubic Crystal
Structure
The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
Atoms are located at each of the corners and the centers of all the
cube faces. Each corner atom is shared among 8 unit cells,face
centered atom belong to 2.
Example : Cu,Al,Ag,Au, Ni, Pt
69
1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC
PACKING,DENSITY COMPUTATION
AND MILLER INDEX
70
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
•Atomic packing factor (APF) is defined as the efficiency of atomic arrangement
in a unit cell.
•It is used to determine the most dense arrangement of atoms. It is because how
the atoms are arranged determines the properties of the particular crystal.
•In APF, atoms are assumed closely packed and are treated as hard spheres.
•It is represented mathematically by :
APF = no. of atom, n x volume of atoms in the unit cell, (Vs)

volume of the unit cell, (Vc)
71
EXAMPLE
Calculate the APF for Simple Cubic (SC)?
72
EXERCISE
Calculate the APF for BCC and FCC ?
a) BCC b) FCC
73
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: FCC
74
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
R
a
75
Table : APF for simple cubic, BCC and FCC
a (lattice constant) and Atoms/unit Packing Examples
R (atom radius) cell Density
(APF)
Simple 1 52% CsCl
a = 2R
cubic
BCC 2 68% Many metals:

a = 4R/√3
α-Fe, Cr, Mo, W
FCC 4 74% Many metals : Ag,

a = 4R/√2
Au, Cu, Pt
76
EXERCISE
• Give the definition of a unit cell. Briefly describe lattice constant in the unit cell.
• Give the definition of APF for a unit cell and calculate the APF for FCC.
77
DENSITY COMPUTATIONS
• A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic
solid permits computation of its density through the
relationship :
ρ= nA
Vc NA
Where
n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell
A = atomic weight
Vc = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadro’s number (6.023 x 1023 atoms/mol)
78
EXERCISE
Calculate the density for nickel (simple cubic structure). Note that
the unit cell edge length (a) for nickel is 0.3524 nm.
79
EXERCISE
Table below show important details of Aluminium. Compute its density and compare
the answer with its measured density. (Density of solid, 20oC = 2.70 g/cm3)
Element Symbol Crystal Atomic

Structure, 20oC radius
(nm)
Aluminium Al FCC 0.143
80
QUESTION : TEST 1 [August 2012]
Platinum has a FCC structure, a lattice parameter of 0.393 nm. Determine :
i. Atomic radius [in cm]

ii. Density of platinum
Solution :
81
MILLER INDICES
Miller indices is used to label the planes and directions of atoms in a crystal.
Why Miller indices is important?

To determine the shapes of single crystals, the interpretation of X-ray
diffraction patterns and the movement of a dislocation , which may determine
the mechanical properties of the material.
Miller indices
• (h k l) : a specific crystal plane or face
• {h k l} : a family of equivalent planes
• [h k l] : a specific crystal direction
• <h k l> : a family of equivalent directions
Figure : Planes of the form {110} in cubic systems

82
POINT COORDINATES
- The position of any point located within a unit cell may be
specified in terms of its coordinates (x,y,z)
z
Example : BCC structure
Point Point
Number x axis y-axis z-axis Coordinated
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
83
MILLER INDICES OF A DIRECTION
How to determine crystal direction indices?
i) Determine the length of the vector
projection on each of the three axes,
based on .
ii) These three numbers are expressed as the

smallest integers and negative quantities
are indicated with an overbar.
iii) Label the direction [hkl]. Figure : Examples of direction
Axis X Y Z
Head (H) x2 y2 z2
Tail (T) x1 y1 z1
Head (H) –Tail (T) x2-x1 y2-y1 z2-z1
Reduction (if necessary)

Enclosed [h k l]
84
* No reciprocal involved.
EXERCISE
85
EXERCISE
1
1/3
0
1
0
1
1
86
EXERCISE
¾ ½
¾ 0
87
EXERCISE
Draw the following Miller Indices

direction.
a) [ 1 0 0 ]
b) [ 1 1 0 ]
c) [ 1 1 0 ]
d) [ 2 0 1 ]
e) [ 1 1 2 ]
MILLER INDICES OF A PLANE
How to determine crystal plane indices?
i) Determine the points at which a given crystal plane
intersects the three axes, say at (a,0,0),(0,b,0), and (0,0,c). If
the plane is parallel an axis, it is given an intersection ∞.
ii) Take the reciprocals of the three integers found in step (i).
iii) Label the plane (hkl). These three numbers are expressed
as the smallest integers and negative quantities are indicated
with an overbar,e.g : a.
Axis X Y Z
Interceptions
Reciprocals
Reduction (if necessary)

Enclosed (h k l) Figure : Planes with different Miller
indices in cubic crystals
89
(0 , 0 , 1)
+z
_
_ (1 , 0 , 0)
x
_ _
(0 , 1 , 0) y +y (0 , 1 , 0)
+x
(1 , 0 , 0) _
z _
(0 , 0 , 1)
EXERCISE. : CRYSTAL PLANE INDICES
91
EXERCISE
EXERCISE
0
EXERCISE
Determine the Miller Indices plane for the
following figure below?
EXERCISE
Draw the following Miller Indices plane.

a) ( 2 0 1 )
b) ( 0 0 1 )
c) ( 1 0 1 )
d) ( 1 1 0 )
NOTE (for plane and direction):
• PLANE
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets (…)
with no separating commas → (hkl)
• DIRECTION
Make sure you enclosed your final answer in brackets (…)
with no separating commas → [hkl]
• FOR BOTH PLANE AND DIRECTION

Negative number should be written as follows :
-1 (WRONG)
1 (CORRECT)
Final answer for labeling the plane and direction should not have fraction
number do a reduction.
96
1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
97
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Physical properties are the characteristic responses of materials to
forms of energy such as heat, light, electricity and magnetism.
The physical properties of metals can be easily explained as follows :
•Solid at room temperature (mercury is an exception)

•Opaque
•Conducts heat and electricity
•Reflects light when polished
•Expands when heated, contracts when cooled
•It usually has a crystalline structure
98
Three thin disk specimens of aluminum
Physical properties: oxide that have been placed over a
Example printed page in order to demonstrate
their differences in light-transmittance
characteristics.
• The disk on the left is transparent
(i.e., virtually all light that is
reflected from the page passes
through it),
• The one in the center is translucent
(meaning that some of this reflected
light is transmitted through the disk).
• The disk on the right is opaque—
that is, none of the light passes
through it.
These differences in optical properties

are a consequence of differences in
structure of these materials, which have
resulted from the way the materials
were processed.
Mechanical Properties
 Terminology for Mechanical Properties

 The Tensile Test: Stress-Strain Diagram
 Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test
 Hardness of Materials
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Mechanical properties are the characteristic dimensional changes in response to
applied external or internal mechanical forces such as shear strength, toughness,
stiffness etc.
The mechanical properties of metals can be easily explained as follows :
101
Tensile Test
specimen
machine
102
Tensile Test
103
Tensile Stress & Engineering Strain
• Tensile stress, s: Engineering Strain
Ft
s
Ao
original area
before loading
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2 104

Strain is dimensionless.
Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength
s UTS 3 necking
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
sy 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region fracture
4
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
Strain (  ) (DL/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
σ Eε or E
ε
σ : Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
ε : Strain (in/in)
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
• This diagram is used to determine how material will react under a certain load.
Typical regions that can

be observed in a stress-
strain curve are:
• Elastic region
• Yielding
• Strain Hardening
• Necking and Failure
Figure : Stress strain diagram
Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion
of the stress-strain curve, it is usually specific to each
material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield
point, calculated by plotting young's modulus at a
specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of
stress on the stress-strain curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length
divided by the original gauge length.
110
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Composite data based on
Graphite GFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
10
8 of aligned carbon (CFRE),
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
Polyester
4 PET fibers.
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
111
Yield Strength: Comparison
Room T values
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
112
Dislocation
113
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial

F
• Atomic bonds are stretched but not
broken.
• Once the forces are no longer
applied, the object returns to its
original shape.
• Elastic means reversible. 114
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
• Atomic bonds are broken and new linear linear

elastic elastic
.
bonds are created. 
• Plastic means permanent. plastic
115
Permanent Deformation
• Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
• Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
• A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
intended. 116
In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains
in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
117
Tensile Strength: Comparison
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
118
Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic
l f  lo
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture:
% EL  x100
lo
A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is
Ao  A f
brittle. • Another ductility measure: % AR  x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture)
or percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.
119
Toughness is Toughness
the ability to
Lower toughness: ceramics
absorb
energy up to Higher toughness: metals
fracture (energy
per unit volume of
material).
A “tough”
material has
strength and
ductility.
Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve. 120
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress, s (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, 
21
The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with
that of more ductile materials
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers
Based on the stress strain graphs
A, B and C,
i) identify the graph that show
the material with highly
elastic properties (elastomer)
ii) identify the graph that show
the material with brittle and
plastic failure
--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)

--plastic response (semi-crystalline case) 123
FRACTURE MECHANISM OF METALS
Metals can fail by brittle or ductile fracture.
Ductile fracture is better than brittle fracture because :

Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time, where as brittle fracture is fast
and can occur (with flaws) at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture.
Figure : Stress strain curve for brittle and ductile material

124
Ductile Vs Brittle Fracture
Ductile Fracture
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a

necked region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
EXERCISE
Ductility is one of the important mechanical properties. Define the ductility of a

metal. With the aid of schematic diagrams, describe elastic and plastic
deformations.
127
Hardness of Materials
 Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to

penetration by a sharp object.
 Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
 Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured
using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop
(HK).
 Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1–
10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 µN)
forces.
Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance
to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or
scratch).
• Quantitative hardness techniques have been
developed where a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material.
• The depth or size of the indentation is measured,
and corresponds to a hardness number.
• The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
129
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
130
Hardness Testers
131
Hardness Testers
Indentation Geometry for Brinnel
Testing
Figure Indentation geometry in
Brinell hardness testing: (a)
annealed metal; (b) work-
hardened metal; (c) deformation
of mild steel under a spherical
indenter. Note that the depth of
the permanently deformed zone
is about one order of magnitude
larger that the depth of
indentation. For a hardness test
to be valid, this zone should be
developed fully in the material.
Hardness
Scale
Conversions
Figure Chart for converting
various hardness scales. Note
the limited range of most scales.
Because of the many factors
involved, these conversions are
approximate.
Conversion of
Hardness Scales
Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
136
How to write hardness value?
Eg. Vickers Hardness

Correlation
between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength
• Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of
a metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation.
• For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
• Tensile strength (psi) =

500*BHR
138
EXERCISE
Hardness is one of the important mechanical properties in

engineering. Describe FOUR [4] types of hardness
measurement method in terms of name and types of
indenter.
139
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
140
CHAPTER 2
METALLIC MATERIALS
(14 hours)
1
CONTENTS
2.1 Solidification of Pure Metal and Alloys
2.2 Phase diagram: Microstructure development,
Microconstituent of phases.
2.3 Fe‐Fe3C system: Microstructure development,
2.4 Ferrous and Non‐Ferrous Metals
2
2.1 Solidification of Pure Metal
and Alloys
3
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Students should be able to :
• Understand the phase transformation during
solidification process.
• Differentiate between cooling curve for pure
metal and alloys.
4
2.1 Solidification of Pure Metal and Alloys
• Terminology • Cooling Curve
• Solution – Cooling Curve of Pure Metal
– Metal Solid Solution – Cooling Curve of Alloys
– Type of Solid Solution – Development of Phase
• Substitutional Solid Solution Diagram
• Interstitial Solid Solution – Cooling Curve for Binary
– The Solubility Limit Isomorphous
• Solidification
5
TERMINOLOGY
Solvent
In an alloy, the element or compound present in greater amount.
Solute
In an alloy, the element or compound present in lesser amount.
Solution
When two components combine to form a single phase.
Solubility
Degree to which the two components mix.
Solubility limit
The max. concentration of solute that may be added without forming
a new phase. 6
TERMINOLOGY
Components:
The elements or compounds which are mixed initially
(e.g., Al and Cu)
Phases:
The physically and chemically distinct material regions
that result (e.g.,  and ).
Example :
Liquid - 1 phase
L (liquid) + α (alpha-solid) - 2 phases
 (lighter
phase)
(darker
phase)
* Note that solid, gas and liquid is a phase. 7

Aluminum-Copper Alloy
SOLUTION
• When 2 components combined they can
either remain separate or combine to form
a single phase which is referred to as a
solution.
• i.e.
– Alcohol and water – completely soluble
– Hot choc – powder mix soluble in water but
limited extent
– Oil and vinegar – insoluble liquids can be
temporarily mixed 8
SOLUTION
9
METALLIC SOLID SOLUTION
• Most metals are combined to form alloy in order to impart
specific characteristic.
• An alloy is a combination of two or more elements (added
impurity atoms), at least one of which is a metal.
• The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the
formation of a solid solution.
• A solid solution is a solid‐state solution of one or more

solutes in a solvent.
• E.g : Steel/Cast Iron (Iron base alloys),
Bronze/Brass (Copper base alloys),
Al alloys, Ni base alloys, Mg base alloys, Ti alloys. 10
METALLIC SOLID SOLUTION
Characteristic of solid solution:
• Form when solute atoms are added to the host material.
• Crystal structure is maintained.
• No new structure formed.
• Compositionally homogeneous.
Solute
Used to denote an
element/compound present in a
minor concentration
Solvent
Element / compound that is
present in the greatest amount
(host atoms)
11
TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTION
i. Substitutional solid solution
Known as point defects

(where an atom is missing or
ii. Interstitial solid solution is in an irregular place in the
lattice structure).
12
Substitutional Solid Solution
Hume -Rothery Rules
Substitutional solid solution with complete solubility exists when :
RULE PROPERTIES CONDITIONS
1 Atomic radius Less than about ± 15% difference in atomic radii
2 Crystal structure Same crystal structure (e.g : BCC, FCC or HCP).
3 Electronegativity Similar electronegativity/ smaller diff.
4 Valence electron Similar valance electron
Note:
Not all alloys
systems that fit these rules
will form appreciable solid
solutions
Host atoms are replaced/substitute with solute/ impurity atoms. 13

EXAMPLE 1 : Cu-Ni system
• Both metals are completely soluble in each other
because all the requirement of Hume Rothery Rules
have been satisfactorily fulfilled.
• The solid phase is a substitutional solid solution.
System RULE 1 RULE 2 RULE 3 RULE 4
Atomic radius, R (nm) Crystal structure E/negativity Valences
Cu 0.128 FCC 1.90 +2
Ni 0.125 FCC 1.80 +2
14
EXAMPLE 2: Cu-Ag system
• Both metals are partially soluble in each other because
one of the requirement of Hume Rothery Rules have not
been satisfactorily fulfilled.
• The solid phase is a substitutional solid solution.
System RULE 1 RULE 2 RULE 3 RULE 4
Atomic radius, R (nm) Crystal structure E/negativity Valences
Cu 0.128 FCC 1.90 +2

Ag 0.144 FCC 1.80 +1
15
Interstitial Solid Solution
Interstitial Solid Solution exists when :
• Impurity atoms fill the voids in the solvent atom lattice.
• It interstices among the host atoms.
• Atomic diameter of an interstitial impurity must be smaller
than host atoms.
• Normal max. allowable concentration of interstitial
impurity atom is low (<10%).
The atoms of the parent or
solvent metal are bigger
than the atoms of the
alloying or solute metal. In
this case, the smaller atoms
fit into spaces between the
larger atoms.
16
THE SOLUBILITY LIMIT
• Solubility Limit: Max concentration for which only a solution
occurs. 100
Solubility
Temperature (°C)
80 Limit L
(liquid)
Ex: Phase Diagram:
60 +
Water-Sugar System L
40 (liquid solution S
i.e., syrup) (solid
20 sugar)
0 20 40 6065 80 100
Sugar
Water
Co=Composition (wt% sugar)
Pure
Pure
• Question : What is the solubility limit at 20oC?
If Co < 65wt% sugar:

If Co > 65wt% sugar:
Solubility limit increases with T:

17
SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METAL
& ALLOYS
COOLING CURVE
PHASE DIAGRAM
18
SOLIDIFICATION
• Solidification is the most important phase transformation
because most of metals/alloys undergo this transformation
before becoming useful objects.
• Solidification involve liquid-solid phase transformation,

e.g : casting process.
• The solidification process differs depending on whether

the metal is a pure element or an alloy.
19
SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification of Pure Metal and Alloys
1. The formation of stable nuclei in the melt (nucleation)
2. The growth of nuclei into crystal
3. The formation of a grain structure
Grain boundaries
Liquid (means region between crystals)
Liquid
Nucleus
Crystals growing Grain

(irregular grain)
(a) (b) (c)
Crystals Grow
Solution Nucleation Crystal Together and Form
(Liquid State) of Crystals Growth Grain Boundaries 20
& ALLOYS
COOLING CURVE
PHASE DIAGRAM
21
COOLING CURVE
• Used to determine phase transition temperature.
• Temperature and time data of cooling molten metal is
recorded and plotted.
• Produce a graph known as PHASE DIAGRAM which
shows the relationship among temperature,
composition and phases present in alloy
22
Cooling Curve of Pure Metal
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point, which is the same as its
melting point.
23
Figure : Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting
Cooling Curve of Alloys
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at
a single temperature.
Figure : a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and 24

b) Associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu composition during casting
Development of Phase Diagram
• Series of cooling curves at different metal composition are
first constructed.
• Points of change of slope of cooling curves (thermal arrests)
are noted and phase diagram is constructed.
• More the number of cooling curves, more accurate is the
phase diagram.
25
Cooling Curve For
Binary Isomorphous
• For pure metal, the cooling
curves show horizontal 1
D
thermal arrest at their C
freezes points, as seen for L9
pure A and pure B (at AB
and CD). S9
• Different composition will
give different cooling Freezing L1
zone
curves. S1
A B
• The slope changes at L1‐L9
are correspond to the
liquidus point.
• The slope changes at S1‐S9
are correspond to the
solidus points. 26
Red regions – material is liquid
Green regions – solid and liquid
2 phases are in equilibrium.
Blue regions – material is solid
By removing the time axis and
replacing it with composition
get straight lines
3
L1
Connection of points on a S1phase

diagram representing the temp. at
which each alloy in the system begins
to solidify --- obtain liquidus line
Join all the points where the liquid has
solidified is complete --- obtain solidus
line
27
& ALLOYS
COOLING CURVE
PHASE DIAGRAM
28
2.2 Phase diagram
Microstructure development,
29
Learning objective:
Students should be able to:
• Discuss the various phase regions for simple
binary phase diagrams.
• Determine the phase(s) present, composition(s)
and relative amount of phase(s).
• Discuss the development of the microstructures,
upon cooling, for several situations.
• Locate the invariant point and write reaction for
all the transformations for either heating or
cooling.
30
2.2 Phase diagram: Microstructure development,
• Phase Diagram • Invariant Equilibrium
• The Lever Rule • Terminology
• Binary Phase Diagram
– Binary Isomorphous Phase Diagram
(COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION)
– Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
– Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
(LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION)
31
PHASE DIAGRAM
What is PHASE DIAGRAM?
A graphical representations of what phases are present in a
materials system at various temperature (T), pressure (P) and
composition (C).
Why do I need to know about PHASE DIAGRAM?
1. Because there is a strong correlation between microstructure
and mechanical properties.
2. Besides, development of alloy microstructure is related to the
characteristics of its phase diagram.
Applications of PHASE DIAGRAM?
1. Casting
2. Soldering
32
Phase Diagram for Pure Water
33
PHASE DIAGRAM
Types of PHASE DIAGRAM?
1. Unary – Consists of One components in an alloy
2. Binary – Consists of two components in an alloy
3. Ternary‐ Consists of three components in an alloy
Example: Unary Phase Diagram
34
PHASE DIAGRAM
What do I need to know about BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM?
Definition : Consists two components in an alloy.
Types :
1. Complete solid solution (e.g. Cu and Ni are completely soluble)
2. No solid solution (e.g. Pb insoluble in copper)
3. Limited solid solution (e.g. Sn has limited solubility in Pb)
35
BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM
There are three(3) types of binary phase diagram :
1) Complete solid 3) No solid solution 2) Limited solid
solution solution
Alcohol and water Oil and water Salt and water
−Complete solubility in - Result in multi phase −Often soluble up to limit

liquid and solid - Result in multi phase
- Result in single phase
Cu and Ni Pb and Copper Zinc and Copper,
Sn and Pb
36
BINARY
ISOMORPHOUS
PHASE DIAGRAM
(COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION)
37
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS
PHASE DIAGRAM
Isomorphous
• Complete liquid & solid solubility
• Only one solid phase forms
• Same crystal structure
Example : Cu-Ni system

• 2 phases: L (liquid), α (FCC solid solution)
• 3 different phase fields/regions
1) Liquid phase(L)
 homogeneous liquid solution (Cu + Ni)
2) Two phases
 α (FCC solid solution) + liquid (L)
3) α phase (FCC solid solution) Figure : Cu-Ni system
 substitutional solid solution (consists both Cu-Ni)
Note that :
• Liquidus is line above which all of alloy is liquid
38
• Solidus is line below which all of alloy is solid
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS PHASE DIAGRAM:
# and types of phases
• Rule 1: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the # and types of phases present.
T(°C)
160 0
150 0 L (liquid)
u s
B(1250,35)
i d
140 0 il qu us
o lid
s Some common features of
130 0 + 
L (FCC solid phase diagrams
120 0  “α”, “β” and “γ” and etc. are used
solution)
to indicate solid solution
110 0 A(1100,60) phases.
 “L” represents a liquid.
100 0
0 20 40 60 80 10 0 wt% Ni
39
Cu-Ni system
composition of phases
--the composition of each phase (weight percent, wt%).
T(°C) Cu-Ni system
• Examples:
TA A
tie line dus
i
1300 L (liquid) liq u

B L + dus
i
TB so l

L + (solid)
1200 D
TD
20 3032 35 4043 50
CLCo C wt% Ni
Determination of phase compositions
1. Locate the temperature.
2. If one phase present, the composition
= overall composition (Co) of alloy.
40 3. If two phase present, use tie line.
weight fractions of phases
--the amount of each phase [e.g: Single phase (1.0 or 100%)].
T(°C) Cu-Ni system
• Examples: A
TA tie line dus
l iqui
1300 L (liquid)
L + s
B o lidu
TB R RS S
s
L + 
1200 D
TD (solid)
20 3032 35 4043 50
CLCo C
wt% Ni
Note
•Within single phase alloy, the alloy is completely
(100%) that phase.
•If two phase alloy exists, use Lever Rule
41
THE LEVER RULE
Let WL = fraction of liquid and Wα = fraction of solid (unknown)
• Sum of weight fractions: WL  W  1

• Conservation of mass (Ni): Co  WL CL  W C
• Combine above equations:
 C  Co  S Co  CL  R
WL W 
C  CL R  S C  CL R  S
• A geometric interpretation:
Co moment equilibrium:
CL C
WLR  WS
R S
WL W 1 W
solving gives Lever Rule
42
THE LEVER RULE
Ask yourself ?
Smaller Larger distance

distance
smaller mass
Higher mass
43
THE LEVER RULE
EXAMPLE : Consider an alloy containing 50wt% Ni – 50wt% Cu
at 1300°C, calculate the relative amounts of each phase(s).
C  50 wt .% Ni , C  44 wt .% Ni , C  57 wt .% Ni 44
o L 
45
THE LEVER RULE
EXERCISE : Determine the weight fraction
on each phase in the Cu 50% Ni alloy shown
in Figure below at 1400°C, 1300°C and
1200°C ?
Microstructure
Consider Co = 35wt% Ni
T(°C) L (liquid) L: 35wt%Ni
Microstructure
A
1300
A + 
L: 35wt%Ni L
: 46wt%Ni B
35 46
B 32 C 43
24 D L: 32wt%Ni
36
1200 +  : 43wt%Ni
C L E
L: 24wt%Ni
: 36wt%Ni

D (solid)
E 1100
20 30 35 40 50
Co wt% Ni
Figure : Cooling of Cu-Ni alloy 46
Microstructure
EXAMPLE : For an alloy containing 50wt% Ni – 50wt% Cu, draw
and label the microstructure changes during a slow cooling
process at temperatures: T1 = 1400°C,
T2 = 1300°C,
T3 = 1200°C,
T4 = 1100°C
47
Cooling Curve
EXAMPLE : For an alloy containing 50wt% Ni – 50wt% Cu,
sketch the cooling curve for the alloy.
48
BINARY EUTECTIC
PHASE DIAGRAM
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
49
BINARY EUTECTIC PHASE DIAGRAM
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Eutectic: the composition of
a mixture that has the lowest
melting point where the
phases simultaneously
crystallize from molten solution
at this temperature.
From the Greek 'eutektos',
meaning ‘easily melted’.
No solid solution where the
components are completely •Region above line ced = liquid solution
soluble in the liquid state •Line ce and ed = liquidus
but complete insoluble in •Line cfegd = solidus
•Region below line feg = mixture of solid A & B
the solid state.
•Point e = eutectic point
(the lowest temp. at which a liquid solution can exist)
Example : Pb-Cu system
50
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Determination of phase and phase composition:
Same as in binary isomorphous system.
Determination of weight fraction
HYPOEUTECTIC HYPEREUTECTIC
Weight fraction of liquid,
WL= R/(R+Q)
Weight fraction of solid A,

WA = Q/(R+Q)
Three phases in equilibrium at

eutectic point compositions and
temperature
Eutectic reaction
L A+ B
51
EUTECTIC
HYPOEUTECTIC
HYPEREUTECTIC
52
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Eutectic α Eutectic β
Figure : Lamellar eutectic structure
The eutectic microstructure forms in the alternating layers which

is known as lamellar:
→ atomic diffusion of lead and tin only occur over relatively short distances
in solid state.
53
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
Hypoeutectic alloy Hypereutectic alloy
When the composition of an When the composition of an
alloy, places it to the left of the alloy, places it to the right of
eutectic point the eutectic point
First solid to form : Primary α First solid to form : Primary β
(a.k.a. proeutectic α) (a.k.a. proeutectic β)
β
Liquid
54
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
1. Cooling curve at eutectic alloy
Same as single component (pure metal) because solidification
takes place at a single temperature.
Figure : Cooling curve at eutectic alloy
55
(No SOLID SOLUTION)
2. Cooling curve at hypo/hypereutectic alloy
Once the liquid reach TE, it will have the eutectic composition and
will freeze at that temperature to form solid eutectic mixture of
two phases.
HYPOEUTECTIC HYPOEUTECTIC
TE
TL = temperature of liquid Figure : Cooling curve at hypo/hyper
TE = temperature at eutectic point eutectic alloy 56
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
EXERCISE:
For an alloy containing 40wt% B‐ 60wt% A,
Determine the phase present, phase composition and weight fraction
of phases at a temperature slightly above eutectic temperature. 57
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
EXERCISE:
For an alloy containing 40wt% B‐ 60wt% A,
Determine the phase present, phase composition and weight fraction
of phases at 300oC. 58
(NO SOLID SOLUTION)
EXERCISE:
For an alloy containing
40wt% B‐ 60wt% A,
Sketch and label the
microstructure at a
temperature slightly above
eutectic temperature and
300oC.
59
BINARY EUTECTIC
PHASE DIAGRAM
60
Limited solid solution where the components are completely
soluble in the liquid state but limited solubility in the solid state.
E.g : Sn‐Pb system, Cu‐Ag system
• 3 single phase region = α, β, L

• Solvus cf denotes the solubility
limit of B in A
• Solvus dg shows the solubility
limit of A in B
α, β = solid solution
ae, be = liquidus
ac, cd, bd = solidus
hypoeutectic hypereutectic cf, dg = solvus
61
TM Cu
Liquidus
TM Ag
Solidus
Eutectic point
Solvus
a.k.a. triple point.
Eutectic temp.
(TE) : below TE
form 2 different
solid phases.
CE
Figure : Copper-silver phase diagram Eutectic composition (CE) 62
Determination of phase and phase composition:
Same as in binary isomorphous system
Determination of weight fraction
Weight fraction of liquid,

WL= Q/(R+Q)
Weight fraction of β,
Wβ = R/(R+Q)
hypoeutectic hypereutectic
63
Ex.: Cu-Ag system T(°C)

1200
• 3 single phase regions L (liquid)
(L, ) 1000
• Limited solubility:  L +  779°C
TE 800 L+
: mostly Cu 8.0 71.9 91.2
: mostly Ni
600
• TE: No liquid below TE

• CE: Min. melting T 400
composition 200
0 20 40 60 CE 80 100
Eutectic reaction Co, wt% Ag
L α + β
(Liq.) (s.s) (s.s) Cu-Ag system
64
EXERCISE:
1) Label each phase region
X and Y.
2) Determine Tm for pure
Sn and Bi. X
α +L
β
3) Determine the eutectic

temperature and
eutectic composition.
Y
65
EXAMPLE: Pb‐Sn EUTECTIC SYSTEM
For a 40wt%Sn-60wt%Pb alloy at
150oC, find...
T(°C)
--the phases present:
300
L (liquid)
 L + 
--the compositions of
the phases: 200 183°C L+ 
18.3 61.9 97.8
150
100 
--the relative amounts
of each phase:
0 20 40 60 80 100
Co
Co, wt% Sn
Pb-Sn system
66
c) Identify the phases
present at A and B
EXERCISE:
a) State the type of the binary phase diagram
b) Identify the melting temperature of pure Aluminum and pure Silicon
67
EXERCISE:
d) Compute the weight fraction of each phase(s) for an
alloy containing 40 wt% Si at temperature slightly above
577°C
68
(LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION) : MICROSTRUCTURES
1. Consider Co < 2wt% Sn
Liquid
Liquid +  grains of solid
polycrystal of  grains

phase solid)
Pb-Sn system 69
2. Consider 2wt%Sn < Co < 18.3wt%Sn
T(°C) L: Cowt%Sn
400 Liquid
L
L
300 
L+ Liquid +  grains of solid
: C owt%Sn

200
TE


100
polycrystal of  grains
+ phase solid)
0 10 20 30
2 C o Co, wt% Sn
(sol. limit at Troom) 18.3  polycrystal + fine  crystals
(sol. limit at TE)
phase solid)
Pb-Sn system 70
3. Consider Co = CE = 61.9 wt% Sn EUTECTIC
T(°C)
L: Cowt%Sn
300 L
L+
200
TE  183°C L+ 
100 +
: 97.8wt%Sn
: 18.3wt%Sn
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
18.3 CE 97.8
Pb-Sn system 61.9 Co, wt% Sn
Eutectic reaction
L α + β
(Liq.) (s.s) (s.s) 71
Cooling Curve
4. Consider 18.3wt%Sn < Co < 61.9wt%Sn HYPOEUTECTIC
T(°C) L: Cowt%Sn  L
L
300 L 
L+
200
TE  R S L+ 
R S
100
+
primary 
eutectic 
0 eutectic 
0 20 40 60 80 100
18.3 Co 61.9 97.8
Pb-Sn system Co, wt% Sn
72
5. Consider 61.9wt%Sn < Co < 97.8wt%Sn HYPEREUTECTIC
Pb‐Sn system
73
HYPOEUTECTIC & HYPEREUTECTIC
Eutectic reaction
L α + β
(Liq.) (s.s) (s.s)
Eutectic : Co=85wt%Sn
mixture Eutectic
 mixture

Proeutectic  Proeutectic β
or Primary  or Primary
74
β
EXERCISE:
Consider Platinum (Pt) – Silver
(Ag) phase diagram for an
alloy containing 60 wt% Pt,
a)Draw the microstructure of
the alloy at temperature of
T1= 1800oC ,
T2= 1400oC
b)Sketch the cooling curve. T3=1180oC
75
INVARIANT EQUILIBRIUM
Different systems have different types of alloy transformation.
Invariant equilibrium involve :
– 3 phases co‐exist in.
– Exist only at one temperature / fixed temp.
– Composition for 3 phases co‐exist is fixed at the point.
– Zero degree of freedom.
Below are the example of alloy transformation at invariant
equilibrium :
1.Eutectic 5. Metatectic
2.Eutectoid 6. Monotectic
7. Synthectic
3.Peritectic
4.Peritectoid
76
Invariant Point Reaction Example System
Eutectic L + α L L + β Ag‐Cu,
α β
α + β Pb‐Sn
Eutectoid γ Fe‐C,
γ + α γ + β β
α
α + β Al‐C
L + α
Peritectic α β+α
L Cu‐Zn
β L + β
Peritectoid α + β
β
Al‐Ni,
α
γ + α γ γ + β Cu‐Zn
Metatectic β + α α L + α U‐Mn
β L
L + β
Monotectic L1 + α L1 L1 + L2 Cu‐Pb
α L2
L2 + α
Syntectic L1
L1 + L2 K‐Zn,
L2
L1 + α α L2 + α Na‐Zn77
Figure shows an incomplete Copper (Cu) – Zinc (Zn) phase diagram.
a) Identify X and Y regions.
b) Find invariant points.
78
Figure shows an incomplete Nickel (Ni) – Titanium (Ti) phase diagram.
a) Identify A and B regions.
79
b) Describe the phase transformation for invariant points.
TERMINOLOGY
• Liquidus : Line above which all of alloy is liquid.
• Solidus : Line below which all of alloy is solid.
• Solvus : Boundaries between solid phase regions.
• Invariant point : It is a point at which three phases are in
equilibrium.
• Eutectic structure : The resulting microstructure consists of
alternating layers, called lamellae, of α and β that form during
eutectic reaction.
• Proeutectic : Form before (higher temperature) eutectic.
• Terminal solid solutions : Phases containing the pure components
which situated at the end of the phase diagram.
• Hypoeutectic : Having a composition less than eutectic.
• Hypereutectic : Having a composition greater than eutectic.
80
2.3 Fe‐Fe3C system
Microstructure development,
81
2.3 Fe‐Fe3C system: Microstructure development,
• Fe‐Fe3C Phase Diagram
− Solid Phases
− Phase Transformation Reactions
− Allotropy Transformation
− Microstructural Changes
Eutectoid
Hypoeutectoid Steel
Hypereutectoid Steel
82
Fe-Fe3C PHASE DIAGRAM
The effect of
adding C into Fe
will introduce
various types of
steel and cast iron
which are
represented by
the iron‐iron
carbide phase
diagram.
84
Fe-Fe3C PHASE DIAGRAM
85
SOLID PHASES
Phases present in Fe-Fe3C system :
1) δ Ferrite
2) γ (Austenite)
3) α Ferrite
4) Fe3C (Cementite)
5) α + Fe3C (Pearlite)
86
SOLID PHASES
1) δ Ferrite
• This is a solid solution of carbon in iron and has a BCC crystal
structure (same structure as α‐ferrite).
• It is a phase which exists at extreme temperature (>1400°C)
and stable only at high temperature, above 1394 °C.
• It melts at 1538 °C.
• The maximum solubility of C in Fe is 0.09% at 1495°C. This has
no real practical significance in engineering.
87
Figure : δ Ferrite crystal structure
SOLID PHASES
2) Austenite (γ Iron)
• It is also known as (γ) gamma‐iron, which is an interstitial solid
solution of carbon dissolved in iron with a face centered cubic
crystal (FCC) structure.
• Transforms to BCC δ‐ferrite at 1394°C.
• The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, 2.14%.
• Austenite is normally unstable below eutectoid temperature
unless cooled rapidly.
• It is a non magnetic material.
88
Figure : Austenite (γ iron) crystal structure
SOLID PHASES
3. α Ferrite
• It is also known as alpha(α) iron, which is an interstitial solid
solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in iron with a Body
Centered Cubic (BCC) crystal structure.
• It is the softest structure on the iron‐iron carbide diagram.
• Stable form of iron at room temperature.
• The maximum solubility of C is 0.022 wt%.
• Ferrite dissolves considerably less carbon than austenite.
• Transforms to FCC γ‐austenite at 912°C.
• α ‐ferrite is magnetic (below 768°C).
Figure : Ferrite (α iron) crystal structure 89

SOLID PHASES
3) Cementite (Fe3C)
• Cementite is also known as iron carbide which has a chemical formula,

Fe3C.
• Crystal structure: orthorhombic
• Fe3C is an intermetallic compound. It is because a fixed amount of C
and a fixed amount of Fe are needed to form cementite (Fe3C).
• It is a hard and brittle material, low tensile strength and high
compressive strength.
• It contains 6.70 wt% C and 93.3 wt% Fe.
• This intermetallic compound is metastable,
it remains as a compound indefinitely at room
temperature, but decomposes (very slowly,
within several years) into α-Fe and C
(graphite) at 650 - 700°C.
90
SOLID PHASES
5) α + Fe3C (Pearlite)
• It is resulted from transformation of austenite of eutectoid
composition on very slow cooling.
• Pearlite is a laminated structure (lamellar structure) formed of
alternate layers of ferrite (white matrix‐ferritic background) and
cementite (thin plate).
• In most steels, the microstructure consists of both α+Fe3C
(pearlite) phases.
• It has intermediate mechanical properties between α and Fe3C.
Cementite
(hard)
Figure : Pearlite microstructure

Ferrite
(Light background is the ferrite matrix,
(soft)
dark lines are the cementite network)
91
Phase Transformation Reactions
3 Invariant points:
-Peritectic (C)
 L
 
92
The iron-carbon diagram exhibits three phase transformation reactions :
Eutectic Reaction :
L ( 4.3 wt % C )   ( 2.14 wt % C )  Fe3C (6.7 wt % C )
1147 o C
Eutectoid Reaction :
 ( 0 .76 wt % C )    ( 0 .022 wt % C )  Fe 3C ( 6 .7 wt % C )
727 o C
Peritectic Reaction :
 ( 0 .1 wt % C )  L ( 0 .5 wt % C )   γ ( 0 .18 wt % C )
1493 o C
Note :
γ = gamma (austenite);
α = alpha (ferrite);
L = liquid;
Fe3C = cementite 93
Peritectic
HYPO HYPER HYPO HYPER

%
94
EUTECTOID EUTECTIC Carbon
ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATION
• A material that can exist in more than one lattice structure
(depending on temperature‐heating@cooling) allotropic.
• An allotropic material is able to exist in two or more forms having
various properties without change in chemical composition.
• E.g : Upon heating, pure iron experiences two changes in crystal
structure:
– At room temperature, it exists as ferrite,or α iron (BCC).
– When we heat it to 912°C, it experiences an allotropic
transformation to austenite,or γ iron (FCC).
– At 1394°C, austenite reverts back to a BCC phase called δ ferrite.
95
ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATION
Allotropy of iron(Fe)
Delta iron Austenite Alfa iron
(BCC) (FCC) (BCC)
1538°C
High Temp
Moderate
Temp
912°C
768°C
Low Temp
96
MICROSTRUCTURAL CHANGES
• Microstructure that exists in those reactions depends on :
− Composition(carbon content)
− Heat treatment
• Three significant regions can be made relative to the steel portion of the
diagram which known as:
1) Eutectoid
− Carbon content 0.76% and temperature 727°C.
− It entirely consists of pearlite (α + Fe3C).
2) Hypoeutectoid
− Carbon content from 0.022 to 0.76%.
− It consist of pearlite and primary (proeutectoid) ferrite.
3) Hypereutectoid
− Carbon content from 0.76 to 2.14%.
− It consist of pearlite and primary (proeutectoid) cementite.
97
EUTECTOID STEEL
Pearlite
Fe3C α
γ α + Fe3C
austenite pearlite
Note :
• Many cementite layers are so thin
that adjacent phase boundaries are
indistinguishable (appear dark). Figure : Photomicrograph of a
• Alternating layers of α and Fe3C eutectoid steel showing the pearlite
form pearlite. microstructure consisting of
alternating layers of α ferrite
(thick layers, light phase) and
Fe3C (thin layers most of which
appear dark). 98
EUTECTOID STEEL
The layers of alternating phases in
pearlite are formed for the same
reason as layered structure of eutectic
structures:
Redistribution C atoms
between ferrite (0.022 wt%)
and cementite (6.7wt%) by
atomic diffusion.
The pearlite exist as grains,
often termed as colonies.
99
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
γ
(Austenite)
α’ + γ
(proeutectoid ferrite) + (Austenite)
α’ + α + Fe3C
(proeutectoid ferrite) + (pearlite)
Note :
Eutectoid α = Ferrite that is present in the
pearlite.
Proeutectoid (meaning pre- or before
eutectoid) = Formed above eutectoid
temperature.
Figure : Microstructures for Fe-Fe3C system of
hypoeutectoid composition Co
100
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
101
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
EXERCISE
Consider an Fe – C alloy containing 0.25 wt% C, Determine
the mass fractions of
a) proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite
b) total ferrite and cementite.
c) eutectoid ferrite
102
HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL
γ
(Austenite)
Fe3C’ + γ
(proeutectoid cementite) + (Austenite)
Fe3C’ + α + Fe3C
(proeutectoid cementite) + (pearlite)
Note :
Eutectoid Fe3C= Cementite that is present in
the pearlite
Figure : Microstructures for Fe-Fe3C system of

hypereutectoid composition
103
104
EXERCISE
The weight fraction of total cementite in the iron‐iron carbide
phase diagram is 0.13. Determine either the steel is hypoeutectoid
or hypereutectoid? Justify your answer.
105
HYPO vs HYPER EUTECTOID STEEL
Hypoutectoid steel Hypereutectoid steel
+Fe3C (pearlite) +Fe3C (pearlite)
+ +
proeutectoid ferrite(α) proeutectoid cementite(Fe3C)
Figure : Photomicrograph of a 1.4wt% C steel

Figure : Photomicrograph of a 0.38wt% C having a microstructure consisting of a white
steel having a microstructure consisting of proeutectoid cementite network surrounding
pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite. the pearlite colonies. 106
2.4Ferrous and
Non‐Ferrous Metals
107
2.4 Ferrous and Non‐Ferrous Metals
• Introduction • Non‐Ferrous Alloys
• Classification of Metal Alloys – Aluminium and its alloys
• Classification of Ferrous Alloys – Copper and its alloys
– Steel – Magnesium and its alloys
• Plain Carbon Steel – Titanium and its alloys
• Low Carbon Steel – The Noble Metal
• Medium Carbon Steel – The Refractory Metals
• High Carbon Steel
• Stainless Steel
• Tool Steel
– Cast Iron
• Gray Cast Irons
• Nodular (Ductile) Cast Irons
• White Cast Irons
• Malleable Cast Irons
108
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
• Differentiate the differences between ferrous
and nonferrous metals.
• Describe the characteristics of white, gray,
ductile and malleable cast irons.
• Understand the properties and applications of
metals and its alloys.
109
INTRODUCTION
Metal alloys can be divided into two categories :
1. Ferrous 2) Nonferrous
• Metal alloys that • Metal alloy contain less
contain iron as a prime @ no iron.
constituent. • E.g : Cu, Al, Mg, Ti and
• E.g : steels, cast iron. its alloys
• Tend to have a higher • Have a much higher
chance of corrosion. resistance to corrosion.
Note :
The word ferrous is derived from the Latin term "Ferrum" which means
"containing iron".
110
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of Ferrous Advantages of Non‐Ferrous
alloys over Non‐Ferrous alloys over ferrous alloys:
alloys:
– Generally greater strength. – Good resistance to corrosion.
– Generally greater stiffness. – Casting and cold working
– Better for welding processes and are often
easier.
– High ductility.
– Higher thermal and electrical
conductivities.
– Colors.
111
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL ALLOYS
Al Cu Mg Ti
Noble
Metal
Refractory
metal
112
CLASSIFICATION OF FERROUS ALLOY
 Definition : Those of which iron is the prime constituent.
 Advantages :
1. Iron ores exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s
crust.
2. Produced from economical process : Extraction, refining,
alloying and fabrication techniques are available.
3. Versatile material : Wide range of mechanical and physical
properties.
 Disadvantages :
1. Tends to corrode.
2. High density.
3. Low electrical conductivity.
113
• The ferrous alloys are classified based on the
percentage of carbon present in the ferrous.
(steel <2.14 %C, cast iron 2.14 ‐ 4.3%C)
• Carbon is the most important commercial
steel alloy (↑C, ↑hardness, ↑ strength,
↑bri leness, ↓ weldability)
114
115
Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C
heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
116
Steels
• Are iron carbon alloys that may contain carbon
less than 2.14%.
• Classification by carbon content
– Low, medium and high carbon type
• Subclasses by concentration of other alloying
elements :
– Plain carbon steel
– Alloy steel
• The microstructures of steel are normally ferrite
and relatively soft and weak but good ductility
and toughness.
117
Steels
First digit indicates the family to which the steel belongs (a.k.a. the major alloying elements) :
Second digit indicate % of major alloying elements (1 means 1%).
Last two digits(3rd and 4th number) indicate amount of carbon in steel (10 means 0.10% C).
Example
• SAE 5130 means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and 0.30% of Carbon.
• AISI 1020 which means 10 indicates plain carbon steel with 0.2% amount of Carbon.
118
*SAE : Society of Automotive Engineers *AISI : American Iron and Steel Institute
Plain Carbon Steels
• Iron with less than 1% carbon alloy contains a
small amount of manganese, phosphorous, sulfur
and silicon.
• Disadvantages of plain carbon steel:
– Hardenability is low
– Loss of strength and embrittleness
– Subjected to corrosion in most environments
• 3 groups:
– Low carbon steels
– Medium carbon steels
– High carbon steels
119
Low Carbon Steels (< 0.25%C )
High‐strength low alloy (HSLA)
Plain carbon steels steels
• unresponsive to heat treatments • Low Carbon Steel combine with 10
intended to form martensite. wt% of alloying elements, such as
• Microstructures consist of ferrite Mn, Cr, Cu, V, Ni, Mo
and pearlite • Properties:
• Properties: – higher strength than plain low
carbon steels.
– Relatively soft and weak, but
possess high ductility and toughness – ductile, formable and machinable
– Good formability, Good weldability – More resistance to corrosion
– Low cost • Strengthening by heat treatment.
– Rated at 55‐60% machinability • Application : bridges, towers,
• Application: Auto‐body support columns in high rise
components, structural shapes, building, pressure vessels.
sheets for pipelines, building,
bridges, tin cans, nail, low
temperature pressure vessel. 120
Medium Carbon Steel
• Composition: 0.25 ‐ 0.6% C • Plain medium carbon steel
• Advantages: −Low hardenability
– Machinability is 60‐70%. − Heat treatment:
Both hot and cold rolled quenching and tempering
steels machine better
when annealed. • Heat treatable steel
– Good toughness and −Containing Cr, Ni and Mo
ductility − Heat treated alloy stronger
than Low Carbon Steel, lower
– Fair formability ductility and toughness than
– Responds to heat Low Carbon Steel
treatment but often used
in natural condition.
Applications : Couplings, forgings, gears, crankshafts other high‐strength
structural components.
: Steels in the 0.40 to 0.60% C range are also used for rails,
railway wheels and rail axles. 121
High Carbon Steels
• Composition: 0.6% ‐ 1.4% C • Advantages:
• Properties: – Hardness is high
– hardest – Wear resistance is high
– strongest – Fair formability
– least ductile of the carbon • Disadvantages:
steels
• Application: – Low toughness, formability
– Used for withstanding wear. – Not recommended for
– A holder for a sharp cutting welding
edge. – Usually joined by brazing with
E.g : drills, woodworking tools, low temperature silver alloy
axes, turning and planning tools, making it possible to repair or
milling cutters, knives. fabricate tool steel parts without
affecting their heat treated
– Used for spring materials, condition.
high‐strength wires, cutting
tools, and etc. 122
Stainless Steels
• Primary alloying element is chromium (>11%)
• Others element : Nickel, Manganese, Molybdenum.
• Called stainless because in the presence of oxygen, they develop a
thin, hard, adherent film of chromium oxide (Cr2O3) that protect the
metal from corrosion.
• Highly resistance to corrosion.
• 3 basic types of stainless are
– Martensite
– Ferritic
– Austenitic
• Applications
− Decorative trim, nozzles.
− Springs, pump rings, aircraft fittings.
− Cookware, chemical and food processing equipment.
− Turbine blades, steam boilers, parts in heating furnaces.
− Temporary implant devices such as fractures plates, screw and hip nails.
− The best choice for the walls of a steam boiler because it is corrosion resistant
to the steam and condensate.
123
Tool Steels
• High carbon steel alloys (containing Cr, V, W and Mo)
that have been designed to prevent wear resistance
and toughness combined with high strength.
• Have excess carbides (carbon alloys) which make
them hard and wear resistant.
• Most tool steels are used in a heat treated state
generally hardened and tempered.
• Applications:
– gauges, shear knives, punches, chisels, cams, mould for
die casting.
– Best choice for a drill bit because it is very hard and wear
resistant and thus will retain a sharp cutting edge.
124
Cast Irons
• Carbon contents : Greater than 2.14wt% C.
• Si content : 0.5‐3wt%Si
(used to control kinetics of carbide formation)
• Commercial range : 3.0‐4.5 wt% C + other alloying elements.
• The differences between cast irons and steels :
– Carbon content.
– Silicon content.
– Carbon microstructure (stable form and unstable form).
• Properties :
– Low melting points (1150‐1300°C).
– Some cast iron are brittle.
• Microstructure:
– Most commonly graphite (C) & ferrite.
125
Cast Irons
• Properties of cast iron is controlled by three main factors:
– The chemical composition of the iron
– The rate of cooling of the casting in the mould
– The type of graphite formed
• Advantages:
– Low tooling and production cost
– Ready availability
– Good machinability without burring
– Readily cast into complex shapes
– High inherent damping
– Excellent wear resistance and high hardness
• Types of cast irons :
• Gray Cast Irons
• Nodular (Ductile) Cast Irons
• White Cast Irons
• Malleable Cast Irons
126
Gray Cast Irons
• Composition : Carbon content : 2.5 ‐ 4.0 wt% C and
Silicon content : 1.0 ‐ 3.0wt% Si.
• Microstructure : Graphite flakes surrounded by α‐ferrite or
pearlite matrix.
• The formation of graphite occurs because of the cooling rate is
too slow where austenite in unstable position and brake down
to give graphite microstructure.
• Properties:
– Less hard and brittle (easy to machine)
– Very weak in tension due to the pointed and sharp end of graphite flake
– Good during compression (high compressive strength)
– Low shrinkage in mould due to formation of graphite flakes
– High damping capacity
– Low melting temperature (1140‐1200oC).
• Applications: Base choice for milling machine base because it
effectively absorbs vibration (good vibration damping).
127
THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF
GRAY CAST IRONS
Graphite flakes
Figure : Dark graphite flakes in a‐Fe matrix.
* Graphite flakes shows fracture surface (gray appearance).
128
Ductile (Nodular) Cast Irons
• Composition: Mg or Ce is added to the gray iron composition
before casting occurs (to prevent the formation of
graphite flakes during the slow cooling of the iron)
• Microstructure : Nodular or spherical‐like graphite structure in
pearlite or ferritic matrix.
• Properties :
– Significant increase in material ductility.
– Tensile strength > gray cast iron.
– Others mechanical properties ≈ steel.
• Applications : Valves, pump bodies, gear and other automotive
and machine components.
• A HT can be applied to pearlite nodular iron to give
microstructure of graphite nodules in ferrite (ferrite structure is
more ductile and weldable but less tensile strength)
129
DUCTILE (or NODULAR) CAST IRONS
Graphite nodules (a.k.a. spherical‐like)
Figure : Dark graphite nodules in α‐Fe matrix.
* Note that the carbon is in the shape of small sphere, not flakes.
130
White Cast Iron
• Composition: 2.5 < C < 4.0%C and Si<1%
• Microstructure : Pearlite and cementite
(due to rapid cooling).
• An intermediate metal for the production of malleable cast
iron.
• Properties:
– Relatively very hard, brittle and not weldable compare
to gray cast iron
– When it is annealed, it become malleable cast iron
– Not easily to machine
– Fracture surface: white appearance
131
WHITE CAST IRONS
Pearlite
Fe3C
(Light regions)
Figure : Light Fe3C regions surrounded by pearlite.
132
Malleable Cast Irons
• Is produced by the HT of white cast irons
− Heating temperature: 800oC – 900oC
− Duration : 2 or 3 days (50 hours)
− Heating environment: Neutral atmosphere
• Microstructure : A clumps (rossette) of graphite
(due to decomposition of cemmentite) surrounded by a
ferrite or pearlite matrix
• Properties:
− Similar to nodular cast iron and give higher strength
− More ductile and malleability
• Applications : Pipe fittings, valve parts for railroad, marine
and other heavy duty.
133
MALLEABLE CAST IRONS
Graphite rosettes
Figure : Dark graphite rosettes in α‐Fe matrix.
134
Summary:
Cast Iron
From
the iron–carbon
phase diagram,
composition ranges
for commercial cast
irons. Also shown
are schematic
microstructures that
result from a variety
of heat treatments.
Gf, flake graphite;
Gr, graphite rosettes;
Gn, graphite nodules;
135
Non‐Ferrous Alloys
• Definition: Used for alloys which do not have iron as
the base element.
• Examples: Al alloys, Cu alloys, Mg alloys, Ti alloys,
Noble metals, Refractory metals, etc.
• Advantages of Ferrous alloys over Non‐Ferrous alloys:
– Generally greater strength
– Generally greater stiffness ( ↑E)
– Better for welding
• The advantages of Non‐Ferrous alloys over ferrous
alloys:
– Good resistance to corrosion
– Much lower density
– Casting is often easies ( ↓ mel ng points)
– Cold working processes are often easier (ductility)
– Higher thermal and electrical conductivities
– colors 136
Copper and its alloys
Copper and copper‐based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of physical properties, have
been utilized in quite a variety of applications since antiquity. Unalloyed copper is so soft and
ductile that it is difficult to machine; also, it has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked.
Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient
atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion‐resistance
properties of copper may be improved by alloying. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or
strengthened by heat‐treating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid solution
alloying must be utilized to improve these mechanical properties.
The most common copper alloys are the brasses, for which zinc, as a substitutional
impurity, is the predominant alloying element. As may be observed for the copper–zinc phase
diagram, the α phase is stable for concentrations up to approximately 35 wt% Zn. This phase has
an FCC crystal structure, and
α‐brasses are relatively soft, ductile, and easily cold worked. Brass alloys having a higher zinc
content contain both α and β’ phases at room temperature. The β’ phase has an ordered BCC
crystal structure and is harder and stronger than the α phase; consequently, α + β’ alloys are
generally hot worked.
Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass; muntz metal; and
gilding metal. Some of the common uses for brass alloys include costume jewelry, cartridge
casings, automotive radiators, musical instruments, electronic packaging, and coins.
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin, aluminum,
silicon, and nickel. These alloys are somewhat stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high
degree of corrosion resistance. Generally they are utilized when, in addition to corrosion
resistance, good tensile properties are required. 137
Wrought Copper and Brasses:
Properties and Applications
Wrought Bronzes: Properties and
Applications
Aluminium and its alloys
Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3
as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities,
and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the
ambient atmosphere. Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high
ductility; this is evidenced by the thin aluminum foil sheet into which the
relatively pure material may be rolled. Because aluminum has an FCC crystal
structure, its ductility is retained even at very low temperatures. The chief
limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature [660oC ], which restricts
the maximum temperature at which it can be used.
The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work
and by alloying; however, both processes tend to diminish resistance to
corrosion. Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and zinc. Non heat‐ treatable alloys consist of a single phase, for
which an increase in strength is achieved by solid‐solution strengthening.
Others are rendered heat treatable (capable of being precipitation hardened)
as a result of alloying. In several of these alloys, precipitation hardening is due
to the precipitation of two elements other than aluminum, to form an
intermetallic compound such as MgZn2.
143
The All Aluminum
Audi A8
(a) The Audi A8 automobile
which has an all‐aluminum
body structure.
(b) The aluminum body
structure, showing various
components made by
extrusion, sheet forming,
and casting processes.
Aluminium and its alloys
Disadvantages :
• Difficult to weld.
• Prone to severe spring back.
• Abrasive to tooling.
• Expensive than steel.
• Low melting point 660oC.
Applications :
• Used in applications that required lightness, high
corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal conductivities.
• E.g : cooking utensil, container, appliances, building
materials and etc.
146
Aluminum Alloy Properties and
Applications
Magnesium and its alloys
• Atomic weight 24.302, Appearance: Silver‐white
• Density 1.7 g/cm3, Tm = 627oC
• Light, malleable, ductile metallic element
• Low TS, relatively soft, low E.
• At Troom difficult to deform. Most fabrication is by casting or hot working.
• Corrosion resistance in natural atmosphere. On the other hand relatively
unstable especially susceptible to corrosion in marine environments.
– E.g. Mg anode provide effective corrosion protection for water heaters,
underground pipelines, ship hulls and ballast tanks.
• Mg alloys are used in applications where lightness is primary consideration,
e.g. aircraft components, missile application.
• Replaced engineering plastics that have comparable densities since Mg are
stiffer, more recyclable and less costly to produce. Example
– in a variety of handheld devices (chain saws, power tools, hedge clippers),
– in automobiles (steering wheel and column, seat frames, transmission cases) and
– in audio‐video‐computer‐communications equipment (laptop computers, cam
recorders, TV sets, cellular telephones)
148
Wrought Magnesium Alloys:
Properties and Forms
Titanium and its alloys
• Relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3)
• High Tm = 1668oC, E= 107 GPa
• Low strength when pure but alloying gives a considerable
increase in strength, highly ductile and easily forged and
machined
• Expensive metal: excellent corrosion resistance (immune
to air, marine and a variety of industrial environment);
high cost reflecting the difficulties in extraction and
formation of material.
• Limitation: chemical reactivity with other materials at
elevated temperature
• Applications:
– pure Ti – chemical plant components, surgical implants, marine
and aircraft engine parts.
– Ti alloys – steam turbine blades, rocket motor cases
150
Wrought Titanium Alloy Properties and
Applications
The Noble Metals
• Characteristics/Properties:
– Expensive (precious)
– Soft, ductile
– Resistant to corrosion and oxidation
– Good electrical conductivity
• A group of 8 elements:
– The precious metal group: silver (Ag) and gold (Au).
– The six platinum metals: platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd),
iridium (Ir), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), and
osmium (Os).
152
The Noble Metals
Element Properties Application
Ag ↑electrical & themal jewelry, dental restoration materials, brazing solder,

conductivity coins, silver coatings (reflectors), electrical contact
Au ↑ corrosion resistance, jewelry, electric wiring, colored‐glass production,
nontarnishing characteristics, dentistry, electronics, brazing solder, heat shielding
good electrical conductivity foil in the engine compartment
Pt ↑ corrosion resistance, thermocouple, thermometer elements, electrical
↑ Tm, contact, electrodes, jewelry, catalyst in the
ductility production of sulfuric acid
Pd properties ≈Pt telephone relay contacts, catalyst to remove oxygen
however lower cost from heat treating atmosphere
Ir most corrosion resistant, crucibles, extrusion dies
↑temperature
Rh ↑ reflec vity, reflector for motion picture projectors and aircraft
↑corrosion resistance searchlight, alloying addition to Pt and Pd
Ru corrosion resistant catalyst for synthesis of hydrocarbon, a hardener
for Pt and Pd
Os ↑ hardness, fountain‐pen nibs, phonograph needles, electrical
↑wear resistance, contacts instrument pivots
good corrosion resistance 153
The Refractory Metals
• Five elements widely used: niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo),
tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), and rhenium (Re).
• Properties:
– Tm above 2000 °C
– High hardness at room temperature.
– Chemically inert
– Relatively high density
– Resistance to heat and wear
– Resistant to corrosion (ability to form a protective layer), although
they do readily oxidize at high temperatures.
– Resistance to creep (the tendency of metals to slowly deform under
the influence of stress)
– Resistant to thermal shock (repeated heating and cooling will not
easily cause expansion, stress and cracking).
– Good electrical and heat conducting properties
• Applications include tools to work metals at high temperatures, wire
filaments, casting molds, and chemical reaction vessels in corrosive
154
environments.
The Refractory Metals
Element Properties Application
↑ Tm, immune to attack by Superconducting alloys for electronic applications;
most acids, a wide variety High strength alloys for aerospace applications;
Nb of strengths and elasticity Moderately strengthened alloys for nuclear applications;
aircraft gas turbines, aerospace rocket engines, insulators
↑ Tm, Missile and rocket engine components, Die‐casting dies,
↑ resistance to arc erosion Alloying additions; Electric furnace heating elements,
Mo boats, heat shields
corrosion resistant, Crucibles for handling molten metal and alloys,
high temperature strength, Electrolytic capacitors, Heat exchangers, Cutting tools,
Ta low vapor pressure Surgical implants, Aerospace engine components,
Vacuum tube filaments,
↑ Tm (3410oC), Lamp filaments, Anodes and targets for x‐ray tubes,
↑ density Electrodes for inert gas arc welding, Forming dies,
W Catalysts in chemical and petrochemical processes,
Lubricants, Cutting tools for metal machining
↑ Tm, Catalysts for reforming in conjunction with platinum,
↑ density, nuclear reactors, semiconductors, electronic‐tube
Re ductile to brittle transition components, thermocouples, gyroscopes, miniature
temperature rockets, electrical contacts, thermionic converters,
aerospace applications. 155
NON‐FERROUS ALLOYS
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be:
NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
-very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
156
Exercise: Distinguish the characterizations of
magnesium in natural atmosphere and in marine
environments. List two (2) examples of the typical
application of magnesium.
157
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
CHAPTER 3
Thermal Treatment
of Metallic Material
(8 hours)
1
HEAT TREATMENT
3.1 Time-Temperature Transformation Diagram (TTT)
◦ Products of cooling austenite
◦ Factors affecting position of the TTT diagram
3.2 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals

◦ Annealing
◦ Normalizing
◦ Spheroidizing
◦ Quenching/Hardening
◦ Tempering
3.3 Hardenability of Steel

◦ Hardenability curve
◦ Martensite microstructure
2
OBJECTIVE
After completing this chapter, students
should be able to :
• Explain the principles of heat treatment.
• Explain the differences among the various

kinds of heat treatment processes.
3
3.2 Time-Temperature-
Transformation (TTT) diagram
4
Learning Outcomes
1. understand the TTT diagram

2. to sketch the time-temperature paths
to produce the specific microstructures
5
What is TTT diagram?
 Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram is also known as isothermal
transformation (IT) diagram or Bain S Curve.
 TTT diagrams give the kinetics of isothermal transformations.
3.1 TTT DIAGRAM
 It shows the effect of time and temperature on the microstructure of steel.
 Generated from the % transformation vs log. times measurements.
 A point on a curve tells the extent of transformation in a sample that is
transformed isothermally at the temperature.
 Plot as temperature vs. the log. of time for a steel alloy of definite composition.
(why log. of time so that times of 1 min, 1 day or 1 week can be fitted into a reasonable space).
 Knowledge of the TTT diagram of steels is important in the processing of
steels.
Why used TTT diagram?

 Because the iron-iron carbide phase diagram shows no time axis.
 To show the transformation of the microstructure especially for martensite,
bainite structure.
 To determine the microstructure produced in a steel at various rates of
cooling.
6
Consider:
• The Fe-Fe3C system, for Co = 0.76 wt% C
• A transformation temperature of 675°C.
2 solid curves are plotted:
 one represents the time
required at each temperature
for the start of the
transformation;
 the other is for transformation
completion.
 The dashed curve corresponds
to 50% completion.
The austenite to pearlite

transformation will occur only
if the alloy is supercooled to
below the eutectoid
temperature (727˚C).
Time for process to complete
depends on the temperature.
 Curves on a TTT diagram have a characteristic
“C” shape that is easily understood using phase
transformations concepts.
 It is easy to see the temperature at which the

transformation kinetics are fastest; this is called
the “nose” of the TTT diagram.
8
• Eutectoid iron-carbon alloy; composition, Co = 0.76 wt% C
• Begin at T > 727˚C
• Rapidly cool to 625˚C and hold isothermally.
Austenite-to-Pearlite
• Line AB indicate the rapid cooling of austenite.

• Horizontal line C‐D marks the beginning and end of isothermal
transformations (isothermal means temperature stay constant).
• At point C, the transformation of austenite to pearlite begins.
• At point D, the transformation is complete.
Products Of Cooling Austenite
PEARLITE MORPHOLOGY
Two cases:
• Ttransf just below TE • Ttransf well below TE
--Larger T: diffusion is faster --Smaller T: diffusion is slower
--Pearlite is coarser. --Pearlite is finer.
10m
- Smaller T: - Larger T:
colonies are colonies are
larger smaller
10
Example
11
Bainite:
•  lathes (strips) with long rods of Fe3C
• diffusion controlled.
Fe3C
(cementite)
(ferrite)
800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A TE
P
600 100% pearlite
100% bainite
pearlite/bainite boundary 5 m
100% bainite
400 A B
200
10
0%
50
0%
%
10-1 10 103 105

time (s)
Bainite:
• Bainite consists of acicular (needle-like)
ferrite with very small cementite particles
dispersed throughout.
• The carbon content is typically greater than
0.1%.
• Bainite transforms to
iron100%
andbainite
cementite with Fe3C
(cementite)
sufficient time and (ferrite)
temperature
(considered semi-stable 5 m
below 150°C).
Example :
Specify the nature of
the final microstructure
(% bainite, martensite,
pearlite etc) for the
alloy that is subjected
to the following time–
temperature
treatments:
Alloy begins at 760˚C
and has been held long
enough to achieve a
complete and
homogeneous
austenitic structure.
Example :
 Iron-carbon alloy with Austenite,
eutectoid composition. 100%
 Specify the nature of the final
microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the
alloy that is subjected to the
following time–temperature
treatments:
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has
been held long enough to
achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.
Treatment
 Rapidly cool to 650˚C
 Hold for 20 seconds
 Rapidly cool to 400˚C
 Hold for 103 seconds
 Quench to room temperature
Martensite
Martensite needles
 single phase
Austenite
 body centered tetragonal (BCT) crystal structure
 BCT if C0 > 0.15 wt% C
 Diffusionless transformation
 BCT  few slip planes  hard, brittle
 % transformation depends only on T of rapid cooling
Martensite
• (FCC) to Martensite (body centered tetragonal -BCT)

•  to M transformation.. (involves single atom jumps)
-- is rapid! x
-- % transf. depends on T only. Fe atom x x
potential
sites x x C atom sites
• BCT if C0 > 0.15 wt% C
x
• Diffusionless transformation
• BCT  few slip planes  hard, brittle
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram
800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A TE
P
600
S
60 m
400 A B
10
0%
0%
50
0%
%
200 M+A 50%
M+A 90%
Martentite needles M+A
Austenite 10-1 10 103
11
105 time (s)
17
Example
18
Example :

 Specify the nature of the
final microstructure (%
bainite, martensite, pearlite
etc) for the alloy that is
subjected to the following
time–temperature
treatments.
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and
has been held long enough
to achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.
Treatment
Rapidly cool to 250 ˚C
Hold for 100 seconds
Quench to room
temperature
Example
20
Unit Cells
The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of
percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown
in (d).
Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms. Also note, the increase in
dimension c with increasing carbon content: this effect causes the unit cell of
martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.
In TTT diagram for iron-carbon alloy, there are 5 regions to observe :
1. Stable austenite
2. Unstable austenite (to the left of the transformation start curve)
3. Pearlite and austenite region (upper side inside nose-shaped curve)
4. Austenite and bainite region (lower side inside nose-shaped curve)
5. Martensite region (below ≈ 200˚C)
◦ Below 200 down to -20°C = Martensitic start temperature (Ms)
◦ Below -20°C = Martensitic finish temperature (Mf)
22
Iron-carbon
alloy with
eutectoid
composition.
 A: Austenite
 P: Pearlite
 B: Bainite
 M: Martensite
24
25
Example
26
Tempered Martensite
• Immediately after quenching, sample is heated (about 250-650˚C)

• Held at that temperature for about 2 hours.
• Lastly removed from the bath and cooled in air (at room
temperature).
Microstructure produced :
 Tempered martensite - This microstructure consists of extremely small
and uniformly dispersed cementite particle embedded with a matrix of
ferrite. 27
Spheroidite
Products Of Cooling Austenite  Fe3C particles within an -ferrite matrix
 diffusion dependent
 heat bainite or pearlite at temperature just below eutectoid for
long times
 driving force – reduction of -ferrite/Fe3C interfacial area

800
(ferrite) Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A
TE
P
Fe3C 600 100% spheroidite
Spheroidite
(cementite)
100% spheroidite
400 A B
60 m 200
10
0%
50
0%
%
10-1 10 103 105 time (s)
Example
1. Using the time-temperature-
transformation diagram given in of
eutectoid composition, sketch the time-
temperature paths to produce the
following microstructures at room
temperature:
a) 100% Bainite,
b) 100% Martensite,
c) 50% Pearlite and 50% Martensite, and
d) 25% Pearlite and 75% Bainite.
29
TIME-TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM
30
Example
Using the Time-Temperature Transformation diagram given in
for eutectoid steel, draw and label time-temperature cooling
paths that will produce the following microstructures. In each
case assume that the specimen begins at 850°C.
a) 100% tempered martensite,

b) 75% pearlite, 25% lower bainite,
c) 25% fine pearlite, 37.5% upper bainite and 37.5 austenite.
d) 80% upper bainite, 5.00% lower bainite, 15% martensite.
e) 12.5% bainite, 37.50% martensite, 50% pearlite.
31
32
Example
Using the Time-Temperature Transformation diagram for iron-carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition, specify the nature of the final microstructure (in term of
micro constituents present and approximate percentage) of a small specimen
that has been subjected to the following heat treatment :
a) Heated up to temperature 780°C and held until the microstructure
completely transformed to austenite. Quenched rapidly to room
temperature.
b) Reheated specimen (a) to temperature 55O°C, held for 20 s, then
quenched to room temperature.
c) Reheated specimen (a) to temperature 700°C and held for 24 hrs.
Then, left to cool to room temperature, naturally.
d) Reheated specimen (a) to temperature 800°C and held for 24 hrs.
Cooled rapidly at temperature 600°C, held for 100 s, then quenched
to room temperature.
e) Reheated specimen (a) to 350°C, held for 2 hrs, then cooled to room
temperature in normal air.
33
34
Example
Based on isothermal transformation diagram, specify the microstructure of a
small specimen that has been subjected to the following time-temperature
treatments.
a. Cool rapidly 350°C , hold for 103 s and then quench to room temperature.
b. Cool rapidly to 625°C , hold for 10 s and then quench to room
temperature.
c. Cool rapidly to 600°C , hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450°C, hold for 10 s
and then quench to room temperature.
d. Cool rapidly to 575°C , hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350°C, hold for 100 s
and then quench to room temperature.
e. Cool rapidly to 350°C, hold for 150 s and then quench to room
temperature.
35
36
Factors affecting position of the TTT
diagram
◦ The addition of carbon, nickel, manganese, silicon and
copper move the nose-shaped curve to the right
◦ Molybdenum, chromium and vanadium move the
pearlite C-curve to the right and also displace it
upwards to high temperature.
37
Effect of Adding Other Elements
 Plain carbon steel: primary alloying element is
carbon.
plain
nose
carbon
steel
Effect of Adding Other Elements
4340 Steel
Other elements (Cr, Ni, Mo, Si and W) may cause significant

changes in the positions and shapes of the TTT curves:
 Change transition temperature;
 Shift the nose of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation to
longer times;
 Shift the pearlite and bainite noses to longer times (decrease
critical cooling rate);

 Form a separate bainite nose.
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous
Metal
40
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Learning Outcomes
1. understand the purpose of heat

treatment for ferrous metal
2. classify heat treatment types and the
usage of each treatment
3. understand the process of each heat
treatment and microstructure produced
41
WHY WE NEED TO DO WHEN WE NEED TO DO
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal HEAT TREATMENT? HEAT TREATMENT?
Heat treatments are usually Most parts will require heat
applied to : treatment either after or
• Change the mechanical during the processing for
properties e.g : increase proper in-service
or decrease the strength/ properties. Example :
hardness/ machinability • Before shaping
etc. of metal. – To softening a metal for
• Relieve the internal stress forming.
Several problems may occur • After forming
if heat treatment process is – To relieve strain
not carefully performed. hardening.
eg : cracking, distortion. • Final finish
– To achieve final strength
and hardness.42
General purpose of heat treatment
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal
 Main purpose of heat treatment is to
enhance the quality of products
◦ Improvement in ductility
◦ Relieving internal stress
◦ Increase of strength and hardness
◦ Improvement in machinability and toughness
 Most heat treating operations begin with
heating the alloy into austenitic phase field
to dissolve the carbide in the iron
43
Factors involved in heat treatment
 Classification
◦ Heating and slow cooling
◦ Heating and rapid cooling (quenching)
 Temperature up to which material is
heated
 Length of time that the material is held at
the elevated temperature
 Rate of cooling
 The surrounding atmosphere under the
thermal treatment
44
The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
45
Types of heat treatment
The most common heat treatment:
1. Annealing
• Process Annealing
• Full Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Spheroidizing
4. Quenching/Hardening
5. Tempering
These heat treatments differ mainly in the way

material is cooled from an elevated temperature
46
47
1. ANNEALING
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal A heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated
temperature for an extended time period and then slowly
cooled.
When it should be done :
Annealing is done between process steps to allow further
working or for final stress relief.
Three stages of annealing :
1. Heat to the specified temperature.
2. Hold or “soaking” at that temperature for a specified time.
3. Cool slowly, usually to room temperature.
(applicable for all heat treatment under annealing)
Types: Time and Temperature are important
at all 3 steps
◦ Process Annealing
◦ Full Annealing
48
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Purposes of Annealing
1. Relieve Internal Stresses
• Internal stresses can build up in metal as a
result of processing.
o such as welding, cold working, casting,
forging, or machining.
• If internal stresses are allowed to remain in
a metal, the part may eventually distort or
crack.
• Annealing helps relieve internal stresses and
reduce the chances for distortion and
cracking.
49
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Purposes of Annealing
2. Increasing Softness, Machinability, and
Formability
• A softer and more ductile material is easier
to machine in the machine shop.
• An annealed part will respond better to
forming operations.
3. Refinement of Grain Structures
 After some types of metalworking
(particularly cold working), the crystal
structures are elongated.
 Annealing can change the shape of the grains
back to the desired form.
50
a. Process Annealing
 A heat treatment used to soften and increase the ductility
of a previously strain-hardened metal
 In process annealing, parts are not as completely softened
as they are in full annealing, but the time required is
considerably lessened.
 Process annealing is frequently used as an intermediate
heat-treating step during the manufacture of a part.
Purpose :
 Used to treat parts made out of low carbon steel (<0.25%
Carbon) which allow the parts to be soft enough to
undergo further cold working without fracturing.
 Commonly employed for wire & sheets steels because it
restores the ductility to cold-worked materials and permit
further cold working to achieve the required deformation.
51
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal a. Process Annealing
 Internal residual stresses may develop in metal

pieces due to:
• Plastic deformation processes (machining and
grinding)
• Non-uniform cooling of a piece that was
processed or fabricated at an elevated
temperature (welding or casting)
 Distortion and warpage may result if these
residual stresses are not removed.
52
a. Process Annealing
Process
 Heat to below upper critical temperature about
500ᵒC to 650ᵒC to cause recrystallisation of ferrite
phase
 Cool very slowly in still air.
Microsturucture produced:
Fine grain structure Pearlite (α+Fe3C)
 Structure will now be equi-axed pearlite.

 Used to maximise the ductility of low carbon steels
and other materials after cold working.
53
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal b. Full Annealing
Used in low and medium carbon steels to improve the

properties of cast and forged steels prior to machining
Process
 Heat the steel above the austenite temperature either 15-
40˚C above line A3 [hypo] – to form austenite or line A1
[hyper] – to form austenite and cementite phases.
 Cool very slowly in furnace.
Structure will now be large-grained
Coarse pearlite (soft and ductile)
54
Hypoeutectoid & Hypereutectoid
Annealing
• Hypoeutectoid steels (less
than 0.83% carbon) are
heated above upper critical
temperature, soaked and
cooled slowly.
• Hypereutectoid steels(above
0.83%) are heated above
lower critical temperature,
soaked and allowed to cool
slowly.
55
2. Normalizing
 The name “normalizing” comes from the original
intended purpose of the process — to return
steel to the “normal” condition it was in before it
was altered by cold working or other processing.
 To refine the grains and produce a more uniform
and desirable size distribution for steels that have
been plastically deformed
 Normalizing does not soften the material as much
as full annealing does.
 The cooling process does not leave the material as
ductile or as internally stress-free.
 A normalized part will usually be a little stronger,
harder, and more brittle than a full-annealed part. 56
2. Normalizing
UC‐Upper critical temperature
LC‐Lower critical temperature
RT‐Room temperature
Process:
• Heat the steel above the austenite temperature (either 55-
80˚C above line A3 [hypo] or line ACM [hyper]) .
• After sufficient time has been allowed for the alloy to
completely transform to austenite - austenitizing
• Removed from the furnace and cool it in air (at room
temperature).
57
2. Normalizing
 Used to restore the ductility of cold or hot worked
materials whilst retaining other properties.
Structure will now be fine equi-axed pearlite.
Fine pearlite
Properties :
 Faster cooling provides higher strength and hardness
but lower ductility if compared to full annealing.
58
3. Spheroidizing
Purpose :
• Used for medium and high carbon steels (Carbon>0.6%) that will be
machined or cold formed.
 Medium & high carbon steel - too hard to conveniently machine or
plastically deform (even having a microstructure of coarse pearlite).
• Applied when more softness is needed.
Used to improve the properties (toughness) of medium and high carbon
steels prior to machining or cold working.
Process :
• Heat the part to a temperature just below the eutectoid temperature
(line A1 at 727°C) or at about 700°C in the α + Fe3C region for several
hours (about 20 hours or more) and followed by slow cooling.
59
3.SPHEROIDIZING
Microstructure produced :
Cementite transforms into soft globes/spheroids which
dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix.
(Structure will now be spheroidite, in which the Iron
Carbide has ‘balled up’)
* the rate at which spheroidite forms depends on prior
microstructure.
e.g. slower for pearlite, and finer the pearlite more rapid rate
Properties :
• Result in a more ductile material.
• Improve machining in continuous operations such as
lathe and screw machined. These spheroids act as chip-
breakers –easy machining.
60
Effect of treatment
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal ( pearlite vs spherodite)
61
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):

stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25h.
• Full Anneal (steels):
Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
cold working by • Normalize (steels):
(recovery/ Deform steel with large
recrystallization) grains, then normalize
to make grains small.
62
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal 4. Quenching/Hardening
 It is the act of rapid cooling of alloy from an elevated
temperature to harden the steel in any quenching media
 Hardening of steels done to increase the strength and wear
resistance. The quicker the steel is cooled, the harder it would
be.
Process
Heated to 30°C to 50°C above
the upper critical temperature
and then quenched
Martensite
63
4. Quenching/Hardening
64
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Pearlite vs martensite
• Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:
• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.
65
Metals
Ferrous metals Non-Ferrous metals
Steels Cast Irons
Plain carbon steels Grey Iron
Low Carbon Steels White Iron
Medium Carbon Steels Malleable & Ductile

Irons
High Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
High Alloys Steels

Stainless & Tool steels
 The steels shown in blue can be heat treated to harden them by hardening.
66
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Hardening Temperatures
 The temperatures for hardening depend on the
carbon content.
 Plain carbon steels below 0.4% will not harden by
heat treatment.
 The temperature decreases from approx 820 °C
to 780 °C as carbon content increases from 0.4%
up to 0.8%.
 Above 0.8% the temperature remains constant at
780 °C.
 Hardening temperature same as that for
normalizing
67
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal 4. QUENCHING/HARDENING
To produce microstructure of martensite
throughout the cross section need to
consider:
1. Composition alloy,
2. Type & character of quenching medium,
3. Geometry of specimen
68
4. QUENCHING/HARDENING
1. Composition of alloy
– Higher carbon content gives higher hardenability.
– Alloying element gives higher hardenability
compare to plain carbon steel.
69
2.Type & character of quenching medium
Four commonly used quenching media:
 Brine (salt solutions) – the fastest cooling rate
 Water – moderate cooling rate
 Oil – slowest cooling rate
 Gas – used in automatic furnaces, usually liquid
nitrogen, can be very fast cooling.
Too rapid cooling can cause cracking in
complex and heavy sections.
70
2. Type & character of quenching medium
Oil
Water
◦ Lower efficiency quenching
• Advantages
media than water
– Most efficient quenching
◦ Oil such as mineral & cotton
media in commercial use
seed are used
where maximum hardness is
required ◦ Less cracking and distortion
compare to water
• Disadvantage:
◦ Safety factors is required
– Liable to cause distortion
and cracking the sample Air
– Not suitable for higher ◦ Cooling with air pressure
carbon steel. ◦ Less efficiency quenching
– Form soft spot media
– Corrosion
71
2. Type & character of quenching medium
Medium Severity of quench Hardness
Air Small Small
Oil Moderate Moderate
Water Large Large
The severity of quench: Water > Oil > Air
 During annealing, material is cooled in air and/or in

heating furnace itself
 For hardening, material is immersed in water or oil
quench bath
72
3. Effect of geometry
 When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
◦ cooling rate increases
◦ hardness increases
diameter size hardness value

Position Cooling rate Hardness
center small small
surface large large
73
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Effects of Heat Treatment
Annealing & Normalizing Hardening or Quenching
Air Oil Water
Furnace Cooling
Cooling Quenching Quenching
Softer, less strong Harder, stronger

More ductile More brittle
Less internal stress More internal stress
Less distortion, More distortion, cracking
cracking
74
5. Tempering
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal • It is a process of heating a martensitic steel at a temperature below
the eutectoid temperature to make it softer and more ductile.
• Used to reduce brittleness on martensite (tempered martensite).
• Precipitation of fine carbide particle.
• BCT to BCC
Purpose :
• To increase ductility and toughness of martensite.
• To relieve the internal stress caused by quenching.
• .
Procedure :
• Immediately after quenching, sample is heated (normally below A1
line at about 250-650˚C)
• Held at that temperature for about 2 hours.
• Lastly removed from the bath and cooled in air (at Troom) 75
• A – Normalizing
• B – Annealing or Hardening
• C – Spheroidizing
• D - Tempering 76
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal 5. Tempering
Microsturucture produced
Tempered martensite
(Hard but more malleable and ductile)
 This microstructure consists of extremely small and
uniformly dispersed cementite particle embedded
with a matrix of ferrite
77
Tempering Temperature
COLOUR HARDEST APPROXIMATE USES
TEMPERATURE
(ᵒC)
Pale straw 230 Lathe tools, scrapers, scribers
Straw 240 Drills, milling cutters
Dark straw 250 Taps & dies, punches, reamers
Brown 260 Plane blades, shears, lathe
centres
Brown /purple 270 Scissors, press tools, knives
Purple 280 Cold chisels, axes, saws
Dark purple 290 Screwdrivers, chuck keys
Blue TOUGHEST 300 Springs, spanners, needles
Steel will oxidize (oxygen in air react with iron to form iron oxide)as it is
reheated and begin to show colors.The higher the temperature, the thicker the
oxide layer and the darker the colors.These temper colors sometimes used as a
guide to temperature. 78
TEMPERING MARTENSITE
TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800
1600 TS
YS
9 m
1400
1200 60
1000 50
%AR %AR
40
800
30
200 400 600
Tempering T (°C)
• produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by 
• decreases TS, YS but increases %AR
Adapted from Fig. 10.24, Callister 6e. (Fig. 10.24

copyright by United States Steel Corporation, 1971.)
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Summary : Processing Options
Austenite (γ)
Slow cool Moderate Cool Rapid Quench
Pearlite Bainite Martensite

(α + Fe3C layers + a (α + Fe3C plates/needles) (BCT phase
proeutectoid phase) diffusionless
transformation))
Martensite Reheat
T Martensite
Strength
Ductility
Bainite Tempered
Fine pearlite Martensite
Coarse pearlite (α + very fine
Spheroidite Fe3C particles)
General Trends
80
EXERSICE
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Describe the required heat treatment that Tony Stark should do on his mask after
he has finished cold forging process.
81
EXERSICE
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Explain the influence of quenching medium and specimen size
on the hardenability of steel.
82
EXERSICE
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Compare between normalizing process and full annealing
process in terms of microstructure, cooling rate, properties,
cooling medium and purpose of those heat treatments.
83
EXERSICE
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal Describe the following heat treatment process in terms of the purpose,
temperature, cooling medium, microstructure produced and properties for
eutectoid steel. a)Normalizing b) Annealing
84
EXERSICE
3.2 Heat treatment of Ferrous Metal a) Heat treatment is used to change the microstructure and properties of
materials. Differentiate between coarse pearlite and fine pearlite in terms of
the type of heat treatment and the properties of material that may be
obtained from the microstructures.
b) Briefly describe the hardening in terms of the purpose, process,

microstructure and effect to the properties of materials.
85
3.3 Hardenability
86
Learning Outcomes
1. Differentiate the concept of hardness

and hardenability
2. Develop the hardenability @ Jominy
End Quench Test
87
Hardenability:
 A measure of the depth to which the metals of an alloy may
be hardened by the formation of martensite as a result of a
given heat treatment.
 Hardening process (e.g: quenching) for steels consist of heating and
rapid cooling form martensite.
 The cooling rate depends on the medium used for the quenching, e.g:
water gives a faster cooling rate than oil and air cooling.
 Generally, the faster steel cools, the harder it will be.
The Jominy Test is used to measure the hardenability of a steel.
88
Jominy test:
 used to measure the hardenability of steels by heat treatment which
shows the effects of cooling rate on steel hardness.
Jominy Process:
 Heating a standard test piece of the steel to a standard austenite state.
 Fixing it in a vertical position and then quenching it with a jet of water at
one end only, thus producing a range of cooling rates along the steel bar.
 After the quenching, a flat portion is ground along one side of the test
piece, 0.38mm deep, and hardness measurements are made along the
length of the test piece from the quench end.
Jominy distance:
 the distance from the quenched end of a Jominy bar which is related to
the cooling rate.
89
Hardenability Curve
 Hardenability curve is the graph showing the effect of

the cooling rate on the hardness of as-quenched steel.
 The cooling rate at the quench end is very fast but

becomes slower as the distance from the quench end
increases.
 Therefore, the distance from the quench end is an

equivalent measure of the cooling rate, and can be used
to give the hardenability of the steel.
90
Hardenability Curve
 At quenched end – steel cools most rapidly, therefore it

contains most martensite.
 Cooling rate decrease with distance from quenched end:
greater C diffusion- more pearlite/bainite, lower hardness.
91
End-Quench
Hardenability Test
(a) End‐quench test and
cooling rate.
(b) Hardenability curves for
five different steels, as
obtained from the end‐
quench test. Small
variations in composition
can change the shape of
these curves. Each curve is
actually a band, and its
exact determination is
important in the heat
treatment of metals for
better control of
properties.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.

ISBN 0‐13‐148965‐8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Hardness Vs Hardenability
HARDNESS
HARDENABILITY
 Resistant of the material to
 Ability of an alloy to be
penetration/plastic
hardened by the
deformation/scratching
formation of martensite
as a results of heat
HARDNESS TEST treatment
 Measures the resistance of a HARDENABILITY TEST
material to penetration by a sharp
object  Measure the
hardenability of a steel
apply known force
e.g., (1 to 1000g)
measure size
of indent after
by heat treatment
10mm sphere removing load process which shows the
Smaller indents
effect of cooling rate on
D d mean larger the steel hardness
hardness.
*Kitchen tiles has higher hardness compared to eraser

EXERSICE
Hardenability can be defined as the ability of an alloy to be hardened
by the formation of martensite.
a) Explain THREE (3) factors that influence the hardenability of
steel.
b) Figure below shows a sample that has been preceded to Jominy

End-Quench Test. Identify the microstructure at point A, B, C and
D.
94
EXERSICE
Hardenability is a term used to describe the ability of metals to be
hardened where in the case of ferrous alloy it is represented by the
formation of martensite.
i. Develop step by step sample preparation procedures for
hardenability test
ii. With the aid of diagram, discuss the hardenability curve
95
Hardness Vs Hardenability
HARDNESS HARDENABILITY
DEFINITION
NAME OF TESTING
Sketch
CHAPTER 4
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
(10 hours)
CONTENT:
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

4.2 PLASTICS AND ELASTOMER: MOLECULAR,
STRUCTURES, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
4.3 CERAMIC: STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATIONS
4.4 COMPOSITE MATERIALS: TYPES, PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATIONS.
4.1 Classification of
Engineering Materials
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROPERTIES,
STRUCTURE AND PROCESSING
(METALS)
Metals can be further classified as Ferrous & Non-Ferrous, and
some examples include:
Ferrous Non-Ferrous
Steels Aluminium
Stainless Copper
Steels
Cast Irons Titanium

(POLYMERS)
Polymers can be further classified as
Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers

Acrylics Epoxy resins Rubbers
Nylons Phenolic Silicones
PVC Polyesters Polyurethanes
Polyethylene
(CERAMICS)
Ceramics are compounds of metallic and
non-metallic elements, examples include;
• Oxides (alumina – insulation and
abrasives, zirconia – dies for metal
extrusion and abrasives)
• Carbides (tungsten-carbide tools)
• Nitrides (cubic boron nitride, 2nd in

hardness to diamond)
4.2 PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS:
Molecular structures,
properties and applications
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Define the polymeric structure
 Describe the polymer chain
 Differentiate between thermoset, thermoplastic and

elastomer
POLYMER - INTRODUCTION
 Polymers are either naturally occurring or synthetic.

 Naturally (those derived from plants, animals)
- wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, silk.
 Other natural polymer
- proteins, enzymes, starches, cellulose.
 Synthetic polymer
- plastics, rubbers, fibers
POLYMER MOLECULES
 To understand the chemistry of the polymer, we need
to understand the definition of hydrocarbon,
 Hydrocarbon
 Composed of hydrogen and carbon.
 Has covalent bonds for the intramolecular/interatomic
bonds but for intermolecules exist secondary bond, thus
these hydrocarbons have relatively low melting and
boiling points (p’).
 Saturated and unsaturated
Hydrocarbon may have different atomic arrangements
eventhough have same composition  isomerism
Normal butane
(boiling temperature = -0.5 oC)
Isobutene
(boiling temperature = -12.3 oC)
SATURATED HYDROCARBON
Saturation just refers to the fact that each carbon bonded to four
other atoms.
All bonds are single and no new atoms may be joined without the
removal of others that are already bonded.
H H
H
CnH2n+2 (Molecular formula)
C C
H H
H
Example : Single bond
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON
 Molecules that have double or triple covalent bonds are
termed unsaturated.
 Double or triple bonds between 2 C atoms involve
sharing of 2 or 3 pairs of electrons, respectively.
 Within molecule, atoms are bonded together by
covalent interatomic bonds.
CnH2n CnH2n-2
POLYMER MICROSTRUCTURE
Mer
• A structural entities or part
• A single mer is called a monomer
Bifunctional mer
Functionality
 No. of bonds that a given monomer can form
 Bifunctional mer – 2 covalent bonds with other monomer
forming 2D chainlike molecular structure
OH
 Trifunctional mer – 3 active bonds, form 3D
molecular network structure CH2 CH2
CH2
trifunctional mer
• Mer – a repeat unit (repeated along the chain)
• Monomer – small molecule from which polymer is

synthesized.
• Polymer – many monomer that held together by covalent

bond in a long chain.
* POLYMERIZATION : a chemical reaction process of linking together of monomers

( )n
• The repeat units are enclosed in parentheses (), subscript n

indicate the number of times it repeats.
• R depicits either atoms i.e. H, Cl or an organic group i.e. CH3
(methyl), C2H5 (ethyl), C6H5 (phenyl)
• Vinyl or ethenyl is the functional group −CH=CH2, namely the
ethene molecule (H2C=CH2) minus one hydrogen atom
Polymer = many mers
( )n
CHEMISTRY OF POLYMER
Polymers
• Consist of many mers

• Are gigantic/ macromolecules
• Mostly these molecules are long and flexible chain, the
backbone of the chain is a string of carbon atoms.
• A large molecule (macromolecule) built up by repetitive
bonding (covalent) of smaller molecules (monomers)
• Generally not a well defined structure, or molecular weight.
(A A A A )n n, degree of polymerization
POLYMER
STRUCTURE
Basic structure of some polymer

molecules:
(a) ethylene molecule;
(b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many
ethylene molecules;
(c) molecular structure of various
polymers.
These molecules are examples of the

basic building blocks for plastics.
Name(s)/Tradename Formula Monomer
Poly(vinylidene chloride) vinylidene chloride

–(CH2-CCl2)n–
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2
Polystyrene styrene
–[CH2-CH(C6H5)]n–
(PS) CH2=CHC6H5
Polyacrylonitrile acrylonitrile
–(CH2-CHCN)n–
(PAN, Orlon, Acrilan) CH2=CHCN
Polytetrafluoroethylene tetrafluoroethylene
–(CF2-CF2)n–
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2
Poly(methyl methacrylate) methyl methacrylate
–[CH2-C(CH3)CO2CH3]n–
(PMMA, Lucite, Plexiglas) CH2=C(CH3)CO2CH3
Poly(vinyl acetate) vinyl acetate
–(CH2-CHOCOCH3)n–
(PVAc) CH2=CHOCOCH3
cis-Polyisoprene isoprene
–[CH2-CH=C(CH3)-CH2]n–
natural rubber CH2=CH-C(CH3)=CH2
Polychloroprene (cis + trans) chloroprene

–[CH2-CH=CCl-CH2]n–
(Neoprene) CH2=CH-CCl=CH2
EXERCISE :
Draw a MER structure to the following polymeric

materials.
i. Polypropylene [PP]
ii. Polytetrafluoroethylene [PTFE]
POLYMER STRUCTURE
• Physical characteristics of a polymer depends on its
molecular weight, shape, differences in the structure of
the molecular chains.
• Covalent chain configurations and strength:
secondary
bonding
Linear Branched Cross-Linked Network
Direction of increasing strength

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
i. Linear polymers
 The repeat unit are joined together end to end in
single chain
 May have extensive van der Waals and hydrogen
bonding between the chains
 Uninterrupted straight chain, spagetti
 These long chains are flexible
 Extensive van de waals and hydrogen bonding
between the chains
 E.g. :
- Polyethylene secondary
- Poly(vinyl chloride) bonding
- Nylon
Linear
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
ii. Branched polymer
 Occasional branches off longer chain
 Which the side-branch chains are connected to the
main chain
 Lowering of the polymer density
 The branches may result from side reactions that
occur during the synthesis of polymer
 Branches considered to be part of the main chain
molecule
 E.g. : Low density polyethylene (LDPE) – short chain
branches
B ranched
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
iii. Crosslinked polymer

 The adjacent linear chains are joined one to
another at various positions by covalent bond
 of crosslinking is achieved either during synthesis
or by a non-reversible chemical reaction
 Many in rubber elastic materials
Cross-Linked
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
iv. Network polymer

 Having three active or more covalent bond, form
three dimensional network
 Highly crosslinked
 Distinctive mechanical and thermal properties
 E.g. :
- Epoxies
- Phenol formaldehyde
Network
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER
 Thermoplastics - Linear or branched polymers in

which chains of molecules are not interconnected to
one another.
 Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are heavily
cross-linked to produce a strong three dimensional
network structure.
 Elastomers - These are polymers (thermoplastics or
lightly cross-linked thermosets) that have an elastic
deformation > 200%.
Thermoplastic Thermoset Elastomer
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS
Characteristics: Properties:
 Soften when heated  Soft
 Harden when cooled  Lower thermal
 Reprocessable resistance
 Melt processability  Higher creep
 High viscosity at processing  Higher moisture
temperatures absorption
 Difficult to process
Examples:
 Polyethylene
 Polypropylene
 Polystyrene
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
FOR COMMON THERMOPLASTIC
Polymer Major application characteristic Typical application
Polyethylene Chemically resistant and electrically Flexible bottle, toys,
(HDPE, LDPE) insulating, tough and relatively low tumblers, battery part, ice
coefficient of fraction, low strength trays, film wrapping
and poor resistance to weathering materials
Polypropylene Resistant to heat distortion, excellent Sterilizable bottles,
electrical properties and fatigue packaging film, tv
strength, chemically inert, relatively cabinets, luggage, Tanks,
inexpensive, poor resistance to uv rope
light
Polyvinyl Good low cost, general purpose Floor coverings, pipe,
chloride (PVC) materials, ordinarily rigid, but may be electrical wire insulation,
made flexible with plasticizer, garden hose, valve, fitting
susceptible to heat distortion
Polystyrene Excellent electrical properties and Packaging, wall tile,
optical clarity, good thermal and battery cases, toys,
dimensional stability, relatively appliance housing
inexpensive
THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
(THERMOSETS)
Characteristics:
• Do not melt on heating
• Ease of their processing
• Low cost
• Lose their stiffness properties at the heat
distortion temperature
• Become permanently hard during their
formation and do not soften upon heating.
Examples : Rubbers, epoxies, polyester, phenolics
Properties:
• Harder, stronger, better dimensional stability and
more brittle than thermoplastics.
Characteristics and typical applications for
common thermoset
Polymer Major application characteristic Typical application
Epoxies Excellent combination of Electrical moldings, sinks,
mechanical adhesives, protective
properties and corrosion resistance; coatings,
dimensionally stable; used with fiberglass
Good adhesion; laminates
relatively inexpensive;
good electrical properties
Polyesters Excellent electrical properties and Helmets, fiberglass boats,
low cost; can be formulated for auto body components,
room- or high-temperature use; chairs, fans
often fiber reinforced
Phenolics Excellent thermal stability to over Motor housings,
150C (300F); may be telephones, auto
compounded with a large number distributors,
of resins, fillers, etc.; inexpensive electrical fixtures
THERMOPLASTICS VS THERMOSETS
ELASTOMER (RUBBER)
Characteristics :
• Soft
• Low elastic modulus values
• Show great dimensional change when
stressed but it will return to its original
dimensions immediately after the
deforming stress is removed Figure : (A) is an unstressed
polymer; (B) is the same polymer
• Low glass transition temperature. under stress. When the stress is
removed, it will return to the A
configuration.
(The dots represent cross-links)
ELASTOMER (RUBBER)
Two types of rubber:
i. Natural rubber
ii. Synthetic rubber (SBR, NBR)
Characteristic and typical application for
common Elastomers
COMMON PLASTIC
COMMON PLASTIC
LOAD-ELONGATION CURVE AND TENSILE-TEST
SPECIMEN
(a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic.

(b) High-density polyethylene tensile-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long,
narrow region in the specimen).
PLASTIC PRODUCT RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY: POLYMER CHAINS
Schematic illustration of polymer chains.

(a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have
linear structures.
(b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene.
(c) Cross-linked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber
produces this structure.
(d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics
such as epoxies and phenolics.
EXERCISE :
With the aid of sketches, differentiate between

thermoplastic, thermoset and elastomer in terms of
their general structure.
4.3 CERAMICS :
Structure, properties and
applications
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Define and classify ceramic materials including traditional

and engineering ceramics.
 Describe the mechanical properties of ceramics.
 Describe various ceramic applications.

CERAMICS
 Ceramic (burnt stuff) - desirable properties a high temp. heat
treatment process (firing)
 An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semimetal)

and one or more nonmetals
 Crystal structure more complex than metals
 Most ceramics – metallic & nonmetallic element – ionic or

predominantly ionic but having some covalent character
 Types of ceramic materials:

 Oxide
 Aluminum oxide/Alumina (Al203),
 Zirconium oxide/ Zirconia (ZrO2),

 Non-oxide
 Carbide, Silicate 48
Class of ceramics
(based on engineering applications)
Traditional Ceramics: Engineering Ceramics :

primary raw materials is clay Contain more of pure compounds of oxides,
Example: porcelain, bricks, tiles, sewer, carbides, nitrides, etc.
glasses, pipe, whiteware, high
temperature ceramics Example: refractory tubing, crucibal, spark
plung insulator, advance ceramic,
electroceramic
Oxygen sensor
49
CERAMICS
Properties :
 Generally electrical and thermal insulators exceptions: graphite, diamond,
Aluminium nitride (AlN)
 Thermal expansion - somewhat less than for metals, but effects are more damaging
because of brittleness.
 Hard and brittle. The strength of ceramics higher than metals because their
covalent and ionic bonding types are stronger than metallic bonding.
 Can be optically opaque, semi-transparent, or transparent
 Better compressive strength than tensile (5-10 times)
 Tmelt for glass is moderate, but large for other ceramics. (Some ceramics
decompose rather than melt)
 Density - in general, ceramics are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers
51
CERAMICS
 Thermal expansion coefficient: the ratio that a material

expands in accordance with changes in temperature
 Thermal conductivity : the property of a material that

indicates its ability to conduct heat
 Thermal shock resistance: the name given to cracking as a

result of rapid temperature change
EXERCISE :
1. List the differences between metal, polymer and

ceramic in term of density, ductility and hardness.
2. List the disadvantages of ceramic compare with

metal.
BRITTLE FRACTURE OF CERAMICS
 At room temperature, both crystalline and

noncrystalline ceramics almost always fracture
before any plastic deformation can occur in
response to an applied tensile load.
 The brittle fracture process consists of the
formation and propagation of cracks through
the cross section of material in a direction
perpendicular to the applied load.
 Crack growth in crystalline ceramics may be

either transgranular (i.e., through the grains) or
intergranular (i.e., along grain boundaries); for
transgranular fracture, cracks propagate along
specific crystallographic (or cleavage) planes,
planes of high atomic density.
For brittle ceramic materials,
schematic representations of
crack origins and
configurations that
resultfrom
 (a) impact (point contact)
loading,
 (b) bending,
 (c) torsional loading, and
 (d) internal pressure.

CLASS OF CERAMICS
(based on specific applications)
Ceramic Materials
- - - -
-
-
Glasses Clay Refractories Abrasives Cements Advanced
-
products ceramics
-optical -whiteware -bricks for -sandpaper -composites -engine
-composite -structural: high T -cutting structural -rotors
reinforce bricks (furnaces) -polishing -valves
-containers/ -bearings
household -sensors
57
Functional classification of ceramics
GLASSES
Glasses are a familiar group of ceramics –
containers, windows, mirrors, lenses,
etc.
They are non-crystalline silicates containing

other oxides, usually CaO, Na2O, K2O and
Al2O3 which influence the glass properties
and its color.
Typical property of glasses that is important

in engineering applications is its response to
heating.
• Glasses
• Glass-Ceramic
60
GLASSES
• Non crystalline silicates containing network modifiers; Na2O,

CaO, K2O and Al2O3
• Typical example of glass;

soda-lime silica glass  70% SiO2 + soda (Na2O) and lime (CaO)
• Glass is transparent and easy to be fabricated
61
APPLICATIONS : GLASSES
Borosilicate, 81% Silica, 3.5%
Na2O, 2.5% Al2O3 and 3%
B2O3
Pyrex
Laboratory ware/oven ware
96% Silica
Laboratory ware
Containers,
windows
62
GLASS CERAMICS
• Most glass are amorphous (non crystalline)
• But can be transformed to crystalline by heat treatment  fine grained
polycrystalline material – glass-ceramics
• The heat treatment process  devertification process
• During the heat treatment process, a nucleating agent is required to initiate
crystallization or devertification process
• Easy to fabricate; mass production.
• Glass ceramic commercially under trade names of Pyroceram, Corning
Ware, Cercor, Vision
• Applications: ovenware, tableware, oven windows, range top – primary coz
of their strength & excellent resistant to thermal shock
High temp heat treatment (process is called crystallization)

Cooling rate 100oC/min –glass, less than this –some glass ceramic materials will form
Nucleation agents (Titanium oxide) to promote crystalization – shift the begin & end
transformation curve to shorter time.
63
APPLICATIONS : GLASS CERAMICS
Properties/characteristics
High strength (stronger than glass)
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
(to avoid thermal shock)
high temperature capabilities
Good biological compatibility
Some optical transparent;
others are opaque
Electrical insulator
Other Applications
Glassware
Electrical insulator
Substrate for printed circuits board
Architectural cladding
Heat exchangers
Generator
64
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON COMMERCIAL GLASSES
65
CLAY
PRODUCTS
- Structural clay products
- Whitewares
66
CLAY PRODUCT
- Widely used as ceramic raw materials
- Inexpensive ingredient
- Found naturally in great abundance
• Adding water to clay

-- very amenable to shaping (form a plastic mass)
-- enables extrusion
-- enables slip casting
• The formed piece is dried to remove moisture
• Fired at elevated temp to improve its mechanical strength
• 2 broad classification
1) structural clay product - structural integrity is important
2) whitewares
67
CLAY COMPOSITION
A mixture of components used
(50%) 1. Clay
Clay facilitates the forming operation since, when mixed with water,
the mass may be made to become either hydroplastic or form a
slip. Also, since clays melt over a range of temperatures, the
shape of the piece being fired will be maintained .
(25%) 2. Filler – e.g. quartz (finely ground)
(25%) 3. Fluxing agent (Feldspar) aluminosilicates + K+, Na+, Ca+

binds it together
The flux facilitates the formation of a glass having a relatively low
melting temperature
68
CLAY PRODUCT:
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCT
used mainly in construction sewer pipe
Properties :
load-bearing strength, resistance to wear, resistance to chemical
attack, attractive appearance, and an ability to take a decorative finish.
Products :
facing buildings, surfacing highways, making containers for corrosive
acids, as aggregate for low-density concrete, as conduits for sewage, as
structural arches supporting bridges, as roofs, and as chimney liner
Tiles bricks 69
CLAY PRODUCT :WHITEWARES
- ceramic products that are white to off-white in appearance
- become white after high temp firing
- frequently contain a significant vitreous, or glassy,
component.
Properties :
imperviousness to fluids, low conductivity of electricity,
chemical inertness, and an ability to be formed into
complex shapes.
Products :
china dinnerware, lavatory sinks and toilets,
dental implants, and spark-plug insulators, 70
Application : Whiteware
china dinnerware (Porcelain, pottery, tableware)
lavatory sinks and toilets, plumbing

fixture (sanitary ware)
dental implants
spark-plug insulators
71
REFRACTORIES CERAMICS
72
Characteristic of Refractory Ceramics
 Can withstand high temperature without melting or

decomposing
 Can remain inert even at sever conditions
 Can provide thermal insulations
 In a form of bricks (most common)
 Use as furnace linings for metal refining, glass
manufacturing heat treatment and power generation
73
REFRACTORIES CERAMICS
Several classification
• fireclay-used in furnace construction, to confine hot atm & to
thermally insulate structural members from excessive temp (alumina
& silica)
• Silica (asid refractories) – high temp load bearing capacity (used in
arched roofs of steel & glass making furnace),
• basic – magnesia(MgO) + Ca, Cr, Fe + silica (used in some steel
making furnace)
• special refractories – e.g. (SiC) cruciable material & electrical
resistance heating elements & internal furnace component
Raw ingredients – (both) large & fine particles
• Upon firing, fine particles –formation of bonding phase –increased
strength of the brick
• Control the porosity – porosition reduction incred strength, load
bearing capacity, resistance to corrosive materials
• However, diminished the thermal insulation characteristic and
resistance to thermal shock
APPLICATION: REFRACTORIES CERAMICS
• Need a material to use in high temperature furnaces.
• Fireclay bricks, crucible material, internal furnace
components
internal furnace components
crucible
Fireclay bricks 75
ABRASIVE CERAMIC
76
ABRASIVE CERAMICS
• Used to wear, grind and cut away other material

• Hardness and wear resistance important
• High degree of toughness – do not want material
which deform or facture during cutting!
• Diamond is the best but expensive
• Other examples; Tungsten carbide (WC) , Alumina
(Al2O3) and Silica(SiO2), SiC, silica sand
77
APPLICATION: ABRASIVE CERAMICS
• Abrasive are used in several forms-Bonded to grinded wheels
- as coating abbrasive – the abrasive particles/powder is
coated on some type of paper or cloth material; sand
paper, wood, metal ceramics & plasric
- loose grains – grinding, lapping & polishing wheels often
employ loose abrasive grain that are delivered in some
type of oil or water based vehicles (diamods, SiC, iron
oxide) grinding wheel, sandpaper
grinding wheel 78
APPLICATION: ABRASIVE CERAMICS
• Tools:
--for grinding glass, tungsten, carbide, ceramics
--for cutting Si wafers
--for oil drilling
blades oil drill bits
5
CEMENTS
80
Cements
• Inorganic cements : cement, plaster of paris and lime
• known as binder,
• When mixed with water, forms a paste which harden as a
results of complex hydration reactions
• substance that sets and hardens independently
• can bind other materials together
• The role of cement is similar to glassy bonding when clay
product & refractory brick are fired.
•The different is cementitious bond develop at room temp.
•Lime involved in hardening reaction
81
APPLICATION : CEMENTS
• as an ingredient in the production of mortar in masonry, and
concrete
concrete
Mortar
82
CEMENTS
• Produced in extremely large quantities.
• Portland cement:
--mix clay and lime bearing materials
--calcinate (heat mixture to 1400°C in rotary kiln)
--primary constituents:
tri-calcium silicate
di-calcium silicate
• Adding water
--produces a paste which hardens
--hardening occurs due to hydration (chemical reactions
with the water).
• Forming: done usually minutes after hydration begins.
16
CEMENTS
 Hydration reactions begin just as soon as water is

added to the cement
1) Setting i.e. stiffening of once plastic phase (several
hours)
2) Hardening –water actually participates in a chemical
bonding reaction
 Porland cement- its hardness develops by
chemical reaction with water
 Used in mortar & concrete to bind aggregated of
inert particles (sand) into cohesive mass
(composite materials)
ADVANCED CERAMICS
85
ADVANCED CERAMIC: MEMS
 Microelectromechanical systems (abbreviated MEMS) are
miniature “smart” systems consisting of a multitude of
mechanical devices that are integrated with large numbers of
electrical elements on a substrate of silicon.
 The mechanical components are microsensors and
microactuators.
 Microsensors collect environmental information by measuring
mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical, and/or magnetic
phenomena.
 The microelectronic components then process this sensory
input, and subsequently render decisions that direct
responses from the microactuator devices—devices that
perform such responses as positioning, moving, pumping,
regulating, and filtering.
86
ADVANCED CERAMIC: MEMS
 These actuating devices include beams, pits, gears, motors,
and membranes, which are of microscopic dimensions, on the
order of microns in size.
 One example of a practical MEMS application is an
accelerometer (accelerator/ decelerator sensor) that is used
in the deployment of air-bag systems in automobile crashes.
 For this application the important microelectronic component
is a free-standing microbeam.
 Compared to conventional air-bag systems, the MEMS units
are smaller, lighter, more reliable, and are produced at a
considerable cost reduction.
87
MEMS
ADVANCED CERAMIC: OPTICAL FIBER
 One new and advanced ceramic material that is a critical component in our modern
optical communications systems is the optical fiber.
 The optical fiber is made of extremely high-purity silica, which must be free of even
minute levels of contaminants and other defects that absorb, scatter, and
attenuate a light beam.
 Very advanced and sophisticated processing techniques have been developed to
produce fibers that meet the rigid restrictions required for this application.
Ceramic cannula in fibre optics
88
ADVANCED CERAMIC: BEARING
 Another new and interesting application of ceramic materials is in bearings.
 A bearing consists of balls and races that are in contact with and rub against one
another when in use.
 In the past, both ball and race components traditionally have been made of bearing
steels that are very hard, extremely corrosion resistant, and may be polished to a
very smooth surface finish.
 Over the past decade or so silicon nitride (Si3N4) balls have begun replacing steel
balls in a number of applications, since several properties of Si3N4 make it a more
desirable material.
 Some of the applications that employ these hybrid bearings include inline skates,
bicycles, electric motors, machine tool spindles, precision medical hand tools (e.g.,
high-speed dental drills and surgical saws), and textile, food processing, and
chemical equipment.
89
ADVANCED CERAMIC: CERAMIC ARMOR
 The most critical quality of effective body armor
strike faces is hardness, meaning resistance to
permanent shape change when a focused
compressive force is applied. Hardness is the
key to preventing the armor from flowing out of
the way when struck by high-speed projectiles.
 Energy from the bullet damages the armor, but
stops the bullet. The armor plate must be
replaced, but has protected its wearer.
90
Advanced Ceramics: Electronic Packaging
 Modern electronics are based on the integrated

circuit, an assembly of millions of interconnected
components such as transistors and resistors
that are built up on a tiny chip of silicon. In order
to maintain their reliability, these circuits depend
on insulating materials that can serve as
substrates (that is, the bases on which the
microscopic electronic components and their
connections are built) and packages (that is, the
structures that seal a circuit from the
environment and make it a single, compact unit).
 The insulating properties of ceramics are well
known, and these properties have found
application in advanced ceramic materials for
substrates and packages.
91
Advanced Ceramics: Electronic Packaging
 Among the ceramics employed as electronic substrates and

packages, the dominant material is alumina (aluminum oxide,
Al2O3). The advantages of alumina include high resistivity, good
mechanical and dielectric strength, excellent thermal and corrosion
stability, and the ability to provide hermetic seals. Its major
disadvantages are a relatively high dielectric constant (which delays
signal propagation) and low thermal conductivity (which makes it
inefficient at drawing away heat).
 Materials currently used include:
 Boron nitride (BN)
 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 Aluminum nitride (AlN)
- thermal conductivity 10x that for Alumina

- good expansion match with Si
92
CERAMIC : SUMMARY
CERAMIC TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
EXERCISE :
1. Describe the main difference between traditional ceramics and
engineering ceramics.
2. List two example of applications for traditional ceramics and

engineering ceramics.
3. Investigate the application of ceramics in the electronic industry.

a) List two (2) important characteristics required of a materials to be used
for this application.
b) What are this application?
95
4.3 COMPOSITE MATERIALS :
Types, properties and applications
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Explain the components of composite.
 Understand the classification of composite materials.
 Explain the differences among the various types of composites

matrix (PMC, MMC and CMC).
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
• Consists of two or more physically and/or

chemically distinct, suitably arranged or distributed
phases with an interface separating them.
• Composite – multiphase materials (metal alloys, ceramics
& polymers) artificially made
• Has characteristics that are not represent by any of
the components in isolation.
• Material have specific & unusual prop in i.e. aerospace,
underwater, bio-engineering & transportation industries.
• e.g. low density, strong, stiff, abrasion, impact resistance &
do not easily corrode.
COMPONENTS OF COMPOSITE
INTERFACE
MATRIX
Composite composed of 2 phases

1) Matrix –continuous & surround the other phase
2) Dispersed phases – shape of particles, particle
size, distribution and orientation Dispersed phases @
REINFORCEMENT
MATRIX
• A bulk phase, which is continuous

• Surrounds the reinforcements
• Providing uniform load distribution to the reinforcing
constituents
• General polymer and metal – ductility is desirable
• Ceramic matrix to improve fracture toughness
• Examples:
metal-, polymer- and ceramic- matrix
MATRIX
Purpose of Matrix :
 it binds the fibers together and acts as the medium by
which an externally applied stress is transmitted and
distributed to the fibers; only a very small proportion of an
applied load is sustained by the matrix phase.
Furthermore, the matrix material should be ductile. In
addition, the elastic modulus of the fiber should be much
higher than that of the matrix.
 to protect the individual fibers from surface damage as a
result of mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with
the environment. Such interactions may introduce surface
flaws capable of forming cracks, which may lead to failure
at low tensile stress levels.
MATRIX
Purpose of Matrix :
 the matrix separates the fibers and, by virtue of its relative
softness and plasticity, prevents the propagation of brittle
cracks from fiber to fiber, which could result in catastrophic
failure; in other words, the matrix phase serves as a barrier
to crack propagation. Even though some of the individual
fibers fail, total composite fracture will not occur until large
numbers of adjacent fibers, once having failed, form a
cluster of critical size.
DISPERSED PHASES /REINFORCEMENT
 Dispersed phase geometry” in this context means
the shape of the particles and the particle size,
distribution, and orientation.
DISPERSED PHASES /REINFORCEMENT
• Fiber reinforcement are classified as follows

a) Fibers – normally polymer or ceramics (amorphous or
polycrystalline) i.e glass, carbon, boron, aluminum
oxide, SiC
b) Whiskers – thin single crystals that have very small
diameters) i.e. Graphie, SiC, Al2O3
c) Wires – metal/alloys that have relatively large
diameters. . i.e. steel, Molybdenum, W, graphite, silicon
carbide, silicon nitride, and aluminum oxide
• provide superior levels of strength and stiffness to the
composite.
• provide thermal and electrical conductivity, controlled
thermal expansion, and wear resistance in addition to
structural properties.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS FOR REINFORCEMENT
• Diameter size
 strength decreases with an increases of diameter
• A high aspect ratio (l/d)

 allows a very large fraction of the applied load to be
transferred via the matrix to stiff and strong fiber
• High degree of flexibility

 it is a characteristic of material having a high
modulus and a small diameter.
 Permits a variety of techniques for making
composites
INTERFACES
• can be defined as a bounding surface where a

discontinuity of some kind occurs (between matrix
and reinforcement).
• the interface is an essentially two-dimensional region

through which material parameters such as
 concentration of an element, crystal structure,
atomic registry, elastic modulus, density and
coefficient of thermal expansion, change from one
side to another
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
composites
1. Particle-reinforced 2. Fiber-reinforced 3.Structural
b) Dispersion-
a) Continuous b) Discontinuous
a) Large- particle strengthened a) Laminates b) Sandwich panel
(aligned) (short)
(0.01 and 0.1 µm)
aligned
Randomly
Dispersed phase for oriented
Particle-reinforced
composite is equiaxed
Fiber-reinforced – the Structural composite –
(i.e. particles dispersed phases has combinations of
dimension are the the geometry of a fiber composites &
same in all direction) (i.e. a large length to
homogeneous materials.
diameter ratio)
1. PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
1a) Large - Particle
• The particle diameter is typically a few microns (μ)
• Particle reinforced composites are much easier and less
costly than making fiber reinforced composites.
• Particulate phase is harder & stiffer than the matrix.
• Particulate –same dimension in all direction
Particulate Flake Filler

1a) Large - Particle (cont.)
Based on reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.
Example:
• concrete composed of cement (matrix) and sand & gravel
(particulates). Cerment (ceramic metal composite) matrix
“metal” such as Co, Ni, particles “ceramic” such as WC or
TiC.
Concrete is a mixture of cement

and aggregate, giving a robust,
strong material that is very
widely used
Example:
• Used as cutting tools for hardened steel – carbide is brittle.
toughness is enhanced by inclusion in the ductile metal
matrix. Withstand high temp generate during cutting.
Example:
• automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a
matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer. Carbon
black evenly distributed though out the rubber (inexpensive
material) – enhanced TS, toughness, tear & abrasion
resistance
1b) Dispersion Strengthen
• The particle diameter is small particles between
0.01 and 0.1 μm(10–100nm)
• An example : metal matrix composite with a fine
distribution.
Metal & metal alloys + dispersed phases
(metallic/ nonmetallic/oxide materials)
• The strengthening mechanism involve the
interactions between the particles dislocation
between the matrix. Particle matrix interaction
leads to strengthening
2. FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE
•The fibers can be in the form of long continuous fibers, or

discontinuous fibers, particles, whiskers and even weaved
sheets, wires.
•Fiberglass is likely the best know fiber reinforced composite.
(b) (c)
(a)
Discontinuous and aligned discontinuous and
Continuous and aligned
randomly oriented
2a) Aligned Continuous fibers
• Examples:
--Metal: '(Ni3Al)-(Mo) --Glass w/SiC fibers

by eutectic solidification. formed by glass slurry
Eglass = 76GPa; ESiC = 400GPa.
matrix: (Mo) (ductile)

(a)
fracture
surface
2m
(b)
fibers:’ (Ni3Al) (brittle)
2b) Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:

--process: fiber/pitch, then very stiff
very strong
burn out at up to 2500C. C matrix:
--uses: disk brakes, gas less stiff
turbine exhaust flaps, nose view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
cones. in plane
• Other variations:
--Discontinuous, random 3D
--Discontinuous, 1D
Factor that influence composites properties
1. Fiber length
- short fiber --- less significant improvement in strength
- more effective if continuous fiber
2. Fiber orientation
- parallel alignment - align direction, reinforcement and strength are
max; perpendicular to alignment, they are minimum
- random alignment -Able to support multiple direction forces
3. Fiber concentration
- Better properties when fiber distribution is uniform
3. STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
3a) Laminar Composites

• Composed of 2D sheets or panels.
• Sheets (panels) with different orientation of high strength
directions are stacked and glued together
• Examples : plywood and modern ski, application more in
aircraft
The layers are stacked & cemented

together such that the orientation of high
strength direction varies with each
Laminate composite successive layer
3a) Laminar Composites (cont.)

• # of laminated – varies
• joined by plastic adhesive ( for glass, effect from adhesive more
importance)
• improve corrosion resistance with low cost , high strength & light
weight
• improve thermal expansion characteristic
• improve fatigue failure
• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness
Plywood is used widely

A small sample of Aerospace grade
in construction
Carbon-fibre/Epoxy laminate
3b) Sandwich Panels

• Consist of two strong and stiff sheet (faces) separated by a layer of less-
dense material (core materials) or structure for instance honeycomb which
provides strength to shear.
• Benefit: These structure combine relatively high strength and stiffness with
low density.
• Application
 roofs, walls, and aircraft structures (wings, fuselage, tailplane skin).
3b) Sandwich Panels (cont.)
Diagram of an assembled composite sandwich (A), and its
constituent face sheets or skins (B) and honeycomb core (C)
(alternately: foam core)
• Faces – support all load (relatively stiff & strong materials)
- example : Al alloy, fiber reinforce plastic,
titanium, steel, plywood
- thick enough to withstand tensile & compressive
stresses from loading
• Core –lightweight, low modulus of Elasticity.
-Rigid polymeric foams (phenolics, epoxy,
polyurethanes), synthetic rubber
 Wood (balsa wood)
 Honeycomb ( thin foils that have been formed
into interlocking hexagonal cells)
- Function:
1) provide continuous support for faces
2) have sufficient shear strength to withstand
transverse shear stresses
3) thick enough to provide high shear stiffness(to
resist buckling of the panel) shear rigidity
COMPOSITE SAILBOARD CROSS-SECTION
Cross-section of a composite sailboard, an example of advanced materials construction.

SUMMARY:
METHODS OF REINFORCING PLASTICS
Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with (a) particles, (b)
short or long fibers or flakes, and (c) continuous fibers. The laminate structures shown in
(d) can be produced from layers of continuous fibers or sandwich structures using a foam
or honeycomb core.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES (MATRIX)
Polymer Matrix
Composite
(PMC)
composite
Ceramic-Matrix Metal-Matrix
Composite Composite
(CMC) (MMC)
POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)
 PMCs consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with fibers as the

reinforcement medium
 They may be reinforced with glass, carbon and aramid fibers, etc.
 Polymer Matrix
 The most widely used (least expensive) polymer resins are
polyesters and vinyl ester.
 Epoxies (more expensive)
 PMCs for aerospace applications
 Better mechanical properties and resistance to moisture than
polyesters and vinyl ester.
 Polyimide resins for high temperature applications
 aerospace application – polyetheretherketone, polyphenylene
sulfide, polyetherimide
EXERCISE :
Summarize the article in the text book page 647-650

Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMC).
16.8 POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES
Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with fibers as the
reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest diversity of composite applications, as
well as in the largest quantities, in light of their room-temperature properties, ease of fabrication, and
cost. In this section the various classifications of PMCs are discussed according to reinforcement type
(i.e., glass, carbon, and aramid), along with their applications and the various polymer resins that are
employed.
Glass Fiber–Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites

Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or discontinuous,
contained within a polymer matrix; this type of composite is produced in the largest quantities.The
composition of the glass that is most commonly drawn into fibers (sometimes referred to as E-glass) is
contained in Table 13.1; fiber diameters normally range between 3 and 20 µm. Glass is popular as a
fiber reinforcement material for several reasons:
1. It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.
2. It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced plastic economically using a
wide variety of composite-manufacturing techniques.
3. As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic matrix, it produces a composite
having a very high specific strength.
4. When coupled with the various plastics, it possesses a chemical inertness that renders the composite
useful in a variety of corrosive environments.
The surface characteristics of glass fibers are extremely important because even minute surface flaws
can deleteriously affect the tensile properties. Surface flaws are easily introduced by rubbing or
abrading the surface with another hard material. Also, glass surfaces that have been exposed to the
normal atmosphere for even short time periods generally have a weakened surface layer that interferes
with bonding to the matrix. Newly drawn fibers are normally coated during drawing with a size, a thin
layer of a substance that protects the fiber surface from damage and undesirable environmental
interactions.
This size is ordinarily removed prior to composite fabrication and replaced with a coupling agent or
finish that produces a chemical bond between the fiber and matrix.
There are several limitations to this group of materials. In spite of having high strengths, they are not
very stiff and do not display the rigidity that is necessary for some applications (e.g., as structural
members for airplanes and bridges). Most fiberglass materials are limited to service temperatures below
200oC (400oF); at higher temperatures, most polymers begin to flow or to deteriorate. Service
temperatures may be extended to approximately 300oC (575oF) by using high-purity fused silica for the
fibers and high-temperature polymers such as the polyimide resins.
Many fiberglass applications are familiar: automotive and marine bodies, plastic pipes, storage
containers, and industrial floorings. The transportation industries are using increasing amounts of glass
fiber–reinforced plastics in an effort to decrease vehicle weight and boost fuel efficiencies. A host of
new applications are being used or currently investigated by the automotive industry.
Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites

Carbon is a high-performance fiber material that is the most commonly used reinforcement in
advanced (i.e., nonfiberglass) polymer-matrix composites.The reasons for this are as follows:
1. Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus and specific strength of all reinforcing fiber
materials.
2. They retain their high tensile modulus and high strength at elevated temperatures; high-temperature
oxidation, however, may be a problem.
3. At room temperature, carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of solvents, acids,
and bases.
4. These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical characteristics, allowing composites
incorporating these fibers to have specific engineered properties.
5. Fiber and composite manufacturing processes have been developed that are relatively inexpensive
and cost effective.
Use of the term carbon fiber may seem perplexing because carbon is an element, and, as noted in
Section 12.4, the stable form of crystalline carbon at ambient conditions is graphite, having the structure
represented in Figure 12.17. Carbon fibers are not totally crystalline, but are composed of both graphitic
and noncrystalline regions; these areas of noncrystallinity are devoid of the three-dimensional ordered
arrangement of hexagonal carbon networks that is characteristic of graphite (Figure 12.17).
Manufacturing techniques for producing carbon fibers are relatively complex and will not be discussed.
However, three different organic precursor materials are used: rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and
pitch. Processing technique will vary from precursor to precursor, as will also the resultant fiber
characteristics.
One classification scheme for carbon fibers is by tensile modulus; on this basis the four classes are
standard, intermediate, high, and ultrahigh moduli. Furthermore, fiber diameters normally range
between 4 and 10 µm; both continuous and chopped forms are available. In addition, carbon fibers are
normally coated with a protective epoxy size that also improves adhesion with the polymer matrix.
Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are currently being used extensively in sports and recreational
equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs), filament-wound rocket motor cases, pressure vessels, and aircraft
structural components—both military and commercial, fixed-wing and helicopters (e.g., as wing, body,
stabilizer, and rudder components).
Aramid Fiber–Reinforced Polymer Composites

Aramid fibers are high-strength, high-modulus materials that were introduced in the early 1970s.They
are especially desirable for their outstanding strength-to-weight ratios, which are superior to those of
metals. Chemically, this group of materials is known as poly(paraphenylene terephthalamide). There
are a number of aramid materials; trade names for two of the most common are Kevlar and Nomex. For
the former, there are several grades (Kevlar 29, 49, and 149) that have different mechanical behaviors.
During synthesis, the rigid molecules are aligned in the direction of the fiber axis, as liquid crystal
domains (Section 15.19); the repeat unit and the mode of chain alignment are represented in Figure
16.10. Mechanically, these fibers have longitudinal tensile strengths and tensile moduli (Table 16.4)
that are higher than other polymeric fiber materials; however, they are relatively weak in compression.
In addition, this material is known for its toughness, impact resistance, and resistance to creep and
fatigue failure. Even though the aramids are thermoplastics, they are, nevertheless, resistant to
combustion and stable to relatively high temperatures; the temperature range over which they retain
their high mechanical properties is between 200 and 200oC (330 and 390oF). Chemically, they are
susceptible to degradation by strong acids and bases, but they are relatively inert in other solvents and
chemicals.
The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having polymer matrices; common matrix
materials are the epoxies and polyesters. Because the fibers are relatively flexible and somewhat ductile,
they may be processed by most common textile operations. Typical applications of these aramid
composites are in ballistic products (bulletproof vests and armor), sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile
cases, and pressure vessels and as a replacement for asbestos in automotive brake and clutch linings
and gaskets.
The properties of continuous and aligned glass, carbon, and aramid fiber–reinforced epoxy composites
are included in Table 16.5. Thus, a comparison of the mechanical characteristics of these three materials
may be made in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
Other Fiber Reinforcement Materials

Glass, carbon, and the aramids are the most common fiber reinforcements incorporated in polymer
matrices. Other fiber materials that are used to much lesser degrees are boron, silicon carbide, and
aluminum oxide; tensile moduli, tensile strengths, specific strengths, and specific moduli of these
materials in fiber form are contained in Table 16.4. Boron fiber–reinforced polymer composites have
been used in military aircraft components, helicopter rotor blades, and some sporting goods. Silicon
carbide and aluminum oxide fibers are used in tennis rackets, circuit boards, military armor, and rocket
nose cones.
CROSS-SECTIONS OF FIBER-REINFORCED
MATERIALS
(a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers.
(b) Cross-section of boron fiber-reinforced composite material
Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMC)
POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)
Advantages:
 found widespread applications.
 can be easily fabricated into any large complex

shape, do not involve high pressures and temp.
(less degradation of reinforcement)
 Equipment required may be simpler; (hand lay-

up)
Disadvantages:
• low maximum working temperatures.

• high coefficients of thermal expansion and hence
dimensional instability (except: carbon fibre-
reinforced polymers )
• sensitivity to radiation (except: epoxies) and
moisture.
• The absorption of water from the environment may
have many harmful effects which degrade mechanical
performance, including swelling.
• formation of internal stresses and lowering of the
glass transition temperature.
Properties
• improve strengths and stiffnesses,
• Ease of molding for complex shapes,
• high environmental resistance all coupled with low densities
• Make the resultant composite superior for many

applications
Fibre Reinforced Polymer

Application in general:
• Aramid and carbon fibers have strengths and low
densities and are used in many applications,
particularly aerospace, in spite of their higher
cost.
• In electronic applications, glass fiber from E-glass
type is used as reinforcement in substrate
application because the fibers have very desirable
and stable electrical properties.
BOEING 757-200
Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial aircraft.

METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITE (MMC)
Examples of metal-matrix composite parts.

METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMC)
 The matrix is a ductile metal

 The most common metals employed in MMC are
aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium.
 Typical fibers used in the composite systems are
carbon and silicon carbide
 Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease
their properties to suit the needs of the design.
 Reinforcement
- may improve sp stiffness, sp strength, abrasion resistance,
creep resistance, thermal conductivity, dimensional stability
- Particulate, fibers (continuous & discontinuous), wiskers
- E.g. Boron aluminum oxide, refractory metals
Advantages :
• higher application temperature ranges,
• higher transverse stiffness and strengths,
• high electric and thermal conductivities and can be fabricated with
conventional metal working equipment
• high toughness values. higher strength-to-density, stiffness-to-density ratios as
well as better fatigue resistances, lower coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE)
and better wear resistances as compared with monolithic metals
Disadvantages:
 most metals are heavy
 Susceptible to interfacial degradation at
the reinforcement and matrix interface
 susceptible to corrosion
 high material and fabrication costs
 exhibit degradation of properties at very
high temperatures
EXAMPLE MMC
• Automotive
• Al alloy MMC; reinforced with aluminum oxide
and carbon fibers
• drive shaft ( higher vibration rotational speed)
• Extruded stabilizer bars
• Forged suspension and transition

components
• Aerospace (MMC is light in weight)
• Al alloys MMC;
• boron fibers – space shuttle orbiter
• Continuous graphite fibers – Hubble Space

telescope
METAL MATRIX AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE CALIPER
Aluminum-matrix composite brake caliper

using nanocrystallyne alumina fiber
reinforcement
METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND
APPLICATIONS
CERAMIC-MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMC)
• Contains a ceramic matrix such as alumina and

calcium alumino silicate reinforced by fibers such as
carbon or silicon carbide.
• The main objective is to increase the toughness,
strength and stiffness of the material.
• High temp & severe stresses applications –
automobile & aircraft gas turbine engines
• Fracture toughness value for ceramic materials are
low.
• Reinforced – particulates, fibers, whiskers of one
ceramics
• Matrix- another ceramics
Advantages:
• a very high application temperature range (>2000ºC).
• provide advanced heat engine applications
• low density and usually have very high elastic modulus
values
• chemical inertness.
Disadvantages:
 brittleness which makes them easily susceptible to flaw
 Only employed high temperature reinforcement
 High temperature for processing (High production costs)
 lack uniformity in properties and have low thermal and mechanical
shock resistances as well as low tensile strengths
EXAMPLE OF CMC
• SiC wiskers reinforced Al2O3

 cutting tool material replacing the metallic carbide
cutting tool
 Cutting tool insert for machining hard metal alloys
 Resistance to thermal shock
 Improve strength, fracture toughness
• C/C composite
 Disc brake, hot pressing mold
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
COMPOSITE BENEFITS
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/
Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa) PMCs
10 2
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10-4 Density,  [Mg/m3]
ss (s-1)
6061 Al
• MMCs: 10-6
Increased
creep 6061 Al
10-8
resistance w/SiC
whiskers (MPa)
10-10
20 30 50 100 200
SUMMARY: COMPOSITE
• Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
• Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance y, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, y, TS, creep performance
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
• Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.
EXERCISE :
1. What is a composite material?
2. Name the two (2) classifications of structural composites and

briefly describe for each type.
3. Explain the role of reinforcement in composite materials.
149
SUMMARY:
EM/DEC16/MEC281

MEC281 MATERIAL SCIENCE
Chapter 1: Structure
TUTORIAL 1: Atomic Structure
1. Define :
i. Atomic Mass
ii. Atomic Number
iii. Isotopes
2. Give the electron configurations for the following ions :
i. Oxygen
ii. P5+
iii. Ni2+
iv. Br-
v. Cu
EM/DEC16/MEC281

TUTORIAL 2: INTERATOMIC BONDING, CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
1. Specify the type of atomic bonding for each of the following materials:
a. Magnesium oxide (MgO)

b. Tungsten (W)
2. Describe the types of primary bonds and differentiate between these primary
bonds.
3. Sketch the bonding between Mg and O and identify the possible properties for the
elements.
4. Briefly describe the principal types of bond which exist between Fe atoms and
discuss the influences of this bond on the electrical properties of Fe.
5. Explain why silicon carbide (SiC) has a higher melting point (Tm) than polyvinyl
chloride (PVC). The Tm was given in Figure 1.
Materials Melting point (Tm)(oC)
SiC 2730
PVC 100-260
Figure 1
EM/DEC16/MEC281

TUTORIAL 3 : Density, Atomic Packing Factor (APF) and Miller Indices
1. If Nickel (FCC) has an atomic radius of 0.124nm, calculate the volume of unit
cell. Compute its density and compare theoretical answer with actual answer.
State at least TWO reasons why those answers are different.
Given that:
Avogadro’s Number : 6.023 x 1023 atom/mol
Theoritical density of Nickel : 8.90 g/cm3
2. Calculate the radius of Palladium atom, given that Pd has a FCC crystal
structure, a density of 12.00g/cm3.
3. Listed below are the atomic weight, density and lattice constant of metal A.
Determine whether the crystal structure of metal A is face centered cubic (FCC),
body centered cubic (BCC) or simple cubic (SC) and justify your answer.
Metal Atomic weight Density Melting point Lattice constant

(g/mol) (g/cm3) (°C) (nm)
A 91.6 9.60 1432 0.316
4. What are the indices of the directions shown in the unit cubes of figure Q4?
Z
2/3
1/2 b
1/2
a
1/2
c
(0,0,0) 1/2
Y
e
1/2
d
X Figure Q4
5. Determine the Miller indices of the cubic crystal planes in the following figures:
1/3
(a) (b)
6. Draw the following direction and plane indices in a cubic unit cell.
a. [ 121 ]
b. ( 210 )
EM/DEC16/MEC281

Chapter 2: METALLIC MATERIALS

TUTORIAL 4 : PHASE DIAGRAM [CO2:PO3] {C2}
1. A 50wt% Ni-50wt% Cu alloy is slowly cooled from 1400ºC to 1200ºC (Figure 1).
a) At what temperature does the first solid phase form?
b) What is the composition of this solid phase?
c) At what temperature does the last liquid solidify?
d) What is the composition of this last remaining liquid phase?
2. Consider an alloy containing 50wt% Ni and 50wt% Cu (Figure 1). At 1300ºC and 1500ºC,
make a phase analysis assuming equilibrium conditions. In the phase analysis, include the
following:
a) What phases are present?
b) What is the composition of each phase?
c) What amount of each phase is present?
d) Sketch the microstructure of the alloy at each of these temperatures.
Figure 1
3. Hypothetical metal A and metal B are completely soluble in liquid and solid state. The
melting temperature for metal A and metal B are 660ºC and 1700ºC, respectively. For alloy
containing 30wt% B and at a temperature 1200ºC, the composition for a solid phase is
70wt% B.
a) Based on the above statements, construct a phase diagram in a graph paper. Label
completely the lines and areas in the phase diagram.
b) Determine the composition and the weight fraction of phases for alloy containing 60wt%
A at a temperature 1000ºC.
c) Sketch and label completely the microstructure of 30wt% B at a temperature when the
first liquid solidified and at a temperature 200ºC.
4. Consider the binary eutectic Pb-Sn phase diagram in Figure 2. Make phase analysis at
55wt% Pb in term of phase present, phase composition and relative amount of phases at
temperature 300oC, 184oC and slightly below 183oC, respectively.
5. Figure 2 shows the portion of the Pb-Sn phase diagram. Based on the diagram, consider a
25w% Pb- 75wt% Sn alloy, determine ;
a) If the alloy is hypoeutectic or hypereutectic.
b) The temperature and phase composition of the last liquid solidified
c) Draw the microstructure changes at T1= 300oC, T2= 185oC and T3 =180oC
d) Draw and label the cooling curve.
Figure 2
6. Figure 3 shows the phase diagram of Magnesium-Lead (Mg2Pb). Based on the diagram,
answer all the following question:
a) Name the phase regions A and B.
b) Name the lines C and D.
c) Name two (2) invariant points and write the chemical reaction for both points.
d) Determine the temperature of initial and final solidification for alloy containing 10wt% Mg.
Figure 3
EM/DEC16/MEC281


TUTORIAL 5: IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM [CO2:PO3] {C3}
1. State differences between hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid. Name THREE (3) invariant
points and write the chemical reaction for those points.
2. Answer the following questions.

a) Determine the composition carbon for eutectoid steel.
b) Determine the temperature for eutectoid steel.
c) Determine the composition carbon for maximum solubility of ferrite and austenite solid
solution.
d) With a neat of sketch, explain why the solubility of Carbon into austenite is higher than
ferrite?
3. Explain austenite and cementite phases present in Fe-Fe3C system.
4. Compute the weight fractions of phase(s) that form in Fe – C alloy containing 1.5 wt% C at a
temperature just below the eutectoid temperature. Identify whether the alloy is hypoeutectic
or hypereutectic, state a reason.
5. Compute the amount of phases of pearlite and proeutectoid microstructure that form in Fe –
C alloy containing 0.50 wt% C. Identify the proeutectoid phase present.
6. Draw the microstructure changes for hyporeutectoid steel from 900oC to room
temperature.
EM/DEC16/MEC281


TUTORIAL 6: FERROUS AND NON FERROUS ALLOY
1. List four classifications of steels and briefly describe the properties and typical
applications of each class .
2. On the basis of microstructure, briefly explain why gray iron is brittle and weak in
tension.
3. Is it possible to produce malleable cast iron in pieces having large cross-sectional

dimensions? Why or why not?
4. Cast iron can be divided to four types; gray cast iron, white cast iron, mallable cast iron
and nodullar cast iron. Compare the differences between them in term of microstructure,
and properties.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of aluminium as compared to copper as a

conductor of electricity.
6. Describe the imprortant properties of magnesium that make it usefull as engineering

materials.
7. Describe the properties of titanium. Explain why it is classified as expensive material and
suggest its common application.
8. Explain the important characteristics of nobel metals. Give one example and its
application.
9. Tantalum (Ta) and Tungsten (W) are two example of refractory metals. For each,
highlight the important characteristics and suggest its application.
EM/DEC16/MEC281

Chapter 3: THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIALS

TUTORIAL7: TTT- DIAGRAM
1. Based on the time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram of eutectoid steel, answer

the following questions:
a) Estimate the temperature at which the transformation of austenite has been occurred.
b) What are meant by line 0% and 100%?
c) Give two (2) possible effects on the TTT diagram, when we increase the amount of
carbon to the steel.
2. Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron-carbon alloy of eutectoid

composition, specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents
present and approximate percentages) of a small specimen that has been subjected to
the following time-temperature treatments. In each case, assume that the specimen
begins at 760ºC and that it has been held at this temperature long enough to have
achieve a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
a) Rapidly cool to 350ºC, hold for 104 s, and quench to room temperature.
b) Rapidly cool to 250ºC, hold for 100 s, and quench to room temperature.
c) Rapidly cool to 650ºC, hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 400ºC, hold for 103 s, and quench
to room temperature.
d) Rapidly cool to 600ºC, hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450ºC, hold for 10 s, and quench to
room temperature.
e) Reheat the specimen in part (d) to 700ºC for 20 hours.
f) Rapidly cool to 300ºC, hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature in water.
Reheat to 425ºC for 103 s, and slowly cool to room temperature.
3. Using the time-temperature-transformation diagram of eutectoid composition given,

sketch the time-temperature paths to produce the following microstructures at room
temperature.
a) 100% Bainite
b) 100% Martensite
c) 50% Pearlite and 50% Martensite
d) 25% Pearlite and 75% Bainite
e) 100% Coarse Pearlite
f) 50% Fine Pearlite, 25% Bainite and 25% Martensite
EM/DEC16/MEC281

Chapter 3: THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIALS

TUTORIAL 8: HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METAL
1. Give the temperature range to perform full annealing heat treatment for each of the
following iron-carbon alloys.
a. 0.25 wt%C
b. 0.45 wt% C
c. 1.10 wt% C
2. Based on the following table, identify the type of heat treatments.
Sample Carbon Heating Soaking Cooling Heating Soaking Cooling

steel content Temperature (hr) medium Temperature (hr) medium
(wt%) (oC) (oC)
A 0.4 810 1 Furnace - - -
B 0.4 810 1 Still air - - -
C 0.4 810 1 Oil - - -
D 0.4 810 1 Oil 300 2 Air
3. Differentiate between hardness and hardenability.
4. Describe a best heat treatment method to produce product that have maximum strength
and reasonable ductility such as milling cutter.
5. By using a sketch, describe the process to perform Jominy quench end test.
6. List the three factors that influence the degree to which martensite is formed throughout
the cross section of a steel specimen. For each factor, describe how the level of
martensite formation may be increased.
7. What is the purpose of a spherodizing heat treatment? On what classes of steel is it

normally used and why?
8. State the similarities and the differences between full annealing and spherodizing
process.
EM/DEC16/MEC281

Chapter 4: ENGINEERING MATERIALS
TUTORIAL 9 : POLYMER
1. Polystyrene (PS) is a thermoplastic polymeric material.

a) Sketch the mer and polymer structure for PS.
b) Using sketch, describe the possible molecular structure for PS.
c) Explain its behavior upon heating and cooling.
2. Explain four (4) types of polymer molecular structure. Based on your answer, which
one can be used in a high temperature application? Justify your answer.
3. Differentiate between thermoplastic, thermoset and elastomer in terms of their

properties, molecular chains and give one (1) example for each polymer.
4. Describe three (3) characteristics of elastomer.
5. Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers in terms of

mechanical characteristics upon heating and cooling, possible molecular structures and
example.
6. Tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles,
trucks, heavy equipment and aircraft.
a) State a material that can be used for making a tyre.
b) Explain the elastic behaviour for this material.

EM/DEC16/MEC281

Chapter 4: ENGINEERING MATERIALS
TUTORIAL 10: CERAMIC AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1. What are the general features and properties which can be used to characterize ceramic
materials and how do these influence the manufacturing routes which can be used?
2. What are some of the properties of glasses that make them crucial for many engineering
designs?
3. List three engineering ceramics applications, and, for each, note its important characteristic.
4. Name four different ceramic meterials that are commonly used as abrasives. Cite three
important requirements that normally must be met by this type of material.
5. Briefly explain the role of cement in a concrete mix.
6. Define composite. State the major constituents in composite materials?
7. List the properties and application of composite.
8. Briefly explain the classification and characteristics of composites.
9. List down the reinforcement materials and resins used in composite materials.
10. List the properties and usage of matrices.
11. Explain the sandwich construction.

MEC 281
PERIODIC TABLE
MEC281
IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM

MEC 281
TIME-TEMPERATURE- TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM

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MEC281

Teaching Plan (MARCH 2018 – JUNE 2018)

Week Date Syllybus Activity(s)

Semester : March 2018 – June 2018

GPA Summary (MEC281)

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE.

1.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLID.

1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES.

1.4 EFFICIENCY OF ATOMIC PACKING, DENSITY COMPUTATION,

1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC STRUCTURE, CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Describe an atomic structure

“Even with the world’s best

This model represents the most

Wave Mechanical Atomic Model

Protons and neutrons

Shell @ Orbital @ Energy level

Proton Positive (+ve) Nucleus 1.0073

Neutron Neutral Nucleus 1.0087

Electron Negative (-ve) Orbital 0.000549

 The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom completely

Cations are smaller than their “parent atom” because

anion - ion with a negative charge

Anions are larger than their “parent atom” because there is

PERIODIC TABLE (P.T.)

Two main classifications in P.T.

2) group or family: vertical column on the P.T.

1) ATOMIC NUMBER 2) ATOMIC MASS

ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons

The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by

Natural Proton Neutron Atomic

Naturally occurring lithium consists of three isotopes, 6Li,

electrons in each of these lithium atoms.

Each of the shell, hold a limited no. of electrons.

• The following representation is used :

The sequence of addition of the

The electrons in their orbital are represented as follows :

Atom Symbol Atomic Electron configuration

1) Primary Interatomic Bonding 2) Secondary Atomic Bonding

 Chemical reactions between elements involve either the releasing/receiving or sharing

How is ionic bonding formed??

 Electron are transferred to form a bond

 Large difference in electronegativity required

 Solid at room temperature (made of ions)

• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Draw the following ionic bonding?

 Molecules with nonmetals

 Gases, liquids, or solids (made of molecules)

• Molecules with nonmetals

Draw the following covalent bonding?

• The valence electron form a ‘sea of electron’.

• Found for group IA and IIA elements.

• Found for all elemental metals and its alloy.

 Good electrical conductivity

 Good heat conductivity

VAN DER WAALS

• Arise from atomic or molecular dipoles

– Polar molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds