Human Body Structure & Function

Outcome 5 – The Digestive System

Outcome 5: What you need to know!
By the end of Outcome 5 you are expected to be able to:

Describe the structure and function of the gastrointestinal tract

and explain its role in digestion.

Describe the structure and function of the accessory glands and

explain their role in digestion.

Describeand explain the control of digestion by the nervous

and endocrine systems.

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Overview of the Digestive System
 Two groups of organs make up the digestive system:

 The Alimentary Canal (GI tract) [Mouth, Pharynx,

Oesophagus, Stomach, Small intestine and Large
intestine]

 Accessory Organs [Teeth, Tongue, Salivary Glands, Liver,

Gallbladder and Pancreas]

 Gastrointestinal tract is 5-7 meters in length

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Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion – taking in foods and liquids through the
mouth
2. Secretion – release of water, acid, buffers,
enzymes into the GI tract
3. Mixing and Propulsion – food is mixed with
secretions and moved along GI tract
4. Digestion – breakdown of the food
5. Absorption – absorption of the broken down food
into the blood stream
6. Defecation – elimination of wastes and indigestible
material from the GI tract
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Part 1: Describe the structure and function of
the gastrointestinal tract and explain its role
in digestion.

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Alimentary Canal Structure
 GI Tract is composed of 4 layers of tissue organised
into Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis and Serosa

 Mucosa is the inner lining of the GI tract and is

composed of:
 Epithelium – plays an role in protection, secretion and
absorption. Tight junctions seal neighboring cells.
Exocrine cells that secrete mucus and fluid.
Enteroendocrine cells that secrete hormones.
 Lamina Propria – connective tissue containing blood and
lymph vessels
 Muscularis Mucosae – introduces small folds in the
mucosa to increase surface area

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 A connective tissue layer. This contains a
Submucosa blood supply, glands and nerves.
Skeletal muscle at both ends – control
over swallowing and defecation
Middle contains smooth muscle (inner
circular and outer longitudinal) which mix
Muscularis and propel the food. The myenteric plexus
is also found here, this is the major nerve
supply to the gut and is controlled by the
autonomic nervous system.
A layer of epithelium and connective
Serosa tissue responsible for linking the
alimentary canal to the peritoneum.

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Villi
 The gut is very often highly folded into structures
called villi.
 This allows an increased surface area for digestion
and absorption to take place on.

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Digestion
 The process of digestion beings in the mouth during
ingestion of food.

 This stage is voluntary (skeletal muscle) compared

to the involuntary stage of digestion after the food is
swallowed and moves down the alimentary canal
(smooth muscle).

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The Mouth
 The teeth and tongue begin the process of digestion
by physically breaking down the food into smaller
pieces (mechanical digestion).
 Saliva mixes with the food in order to lubricate it, this
also allows chemical digestion to begin.
 Starch (polysaccharide)  Maltose
(monosaccharide)
 This process uses the enzyme amylase (salivary
amylase is also known as ptyalin).

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Salivary glands
Saliva contains
 bicarbonates and
phosphates which act as
buffers
 chlorides which activate
amylase
 mucin, which forms
mucus when dissolved in
water
 lysozyme, which destroys
bacteria
Approximately 1L/day produced and is under autonomic nervous
system control.
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Oesophagus
 The food moves from the mouth into
the oesophagus - swallowing.
 It is a thin, collapsible muscular tube
and no digestion or absorption
occurs here.
 It passes through the diaphragm
 There is a sphincter at each end of
the oesophagus (UES and LES)
 This allows control over entry and
exit of food.
 The food travels through the
oesophagus by peristalsis and exits
into the stomach.

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJS-Kh5wCQU

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Stomach
 The stomach is a J-shaped enlargement of the GI
tract

 It sits directly below the diaphragm in the abdominal

cavity

 It serves as a mixing and holding chamber

 Digestion of carbohydrates and triglycerides

continues here and protein digestion continues

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 Mucosal folds are called Rugae (ROO-ge)
There are four areas in the stomach
 Cardia, fundus, body, pylorus
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 Cell Type Function
Secrete pepsinogen which is the
Zymogenic (peptic/chief) cells precursor of the protease, pepsin.
Also secretes gastric lipase.
- Secrete HCl which converts
pepsinogen into pepsin.
Parietal (oxyntic) cells - Secrete intrinsic factor which is
required for the absorption of vitamin
B12.
Secrete mucus which prevents the
Mucus (goblet) cells wall of the stomach from being
digested.
Secrete gastrin, a hormone, which
stimulates gastric secretion; increases
Enteroendocrine cells (G cell) motility of the stomach; contracts the
oesophageal sphincter (entry) and
relaxes the pyloric sphincter (exit).

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Stomach Muscle
 In addition to these cell types, the stomach
contains 3 layers of smooth muscle: circular,
longitudinal and oblique.
 These allow multidirectional contractions which
mixes and churns what is now known as
chyme.
 Chyme then moves from the stomach into the
first section of the small intestine where most
chemical digestion and absorption occurs.

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Small Intestine
 Most digestion and absorption occurs here

 Long structure with large surface area

 It is split into 3 sections

 Duodenum (first 10 inches) (means “12”)
 Contains Brunners glands which secrete alkali in order to
protect the wall from the acidic chyme from the stomach.

 Jejunum (3 feet) (means “empty”)

 Ileum (12 feet) (means twisted)

Small Intestine Structure
 The small intestine is a highly folded structure
forming villi.
 The epithelial cells that compose the small intestine’s
mucosa have a highly folded cell membrane. These
are known as microvilli.
 When this is seen under a microscope, it is known
as a brush border.
 Both villi and microvilli serve to increase surface
area.

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Small Intestine Structure
 The villi contain lacteal glands which contain a small
lymphatic vessel.
 The products of fat digestion are absorbed into this
vessel and transported around the body via the
lymphatic system.
 The lymphatic system empties into the subclavian
vein.
 Intestinal glands (Crypts of Lieberkühn) secrete a
slightly alkaline fluid containing water, mucus and
enzymes (2-3L per day).

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Peristalsis and Segmentation - 1
 The chyme is propelled through the small intestine
by normal peristalsis.

 The small intestine can also contracts in a different

way to that seen in peristalsis.

 Alternate sections of the small intestine contract and

then relax.

 These contractions are known as segmentations

and allows for a thorough mixing of chyme and
digestive juices.
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Peristalsis and Segmentation - 2
 Segmentations also allows the chyme to come into
contact with the intestinal wall where brush border
enzymes are found.
 Segmentations also play an important role in
propelling food along the small intestine

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Chemical Digestion
 Enzymes secreted by the intestine or the pancreas
are involved in chemical digestion.
 Bile is also required for digestion. It is synthesised in
the liver and is stored in the gall bladder.
 Bile emulsifies fats, increasing the surface area,
which allows pancreatic lipase to break them down
easier into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
 The pancreatic duct and the common bile duct from
the gall bladder both enter the duodenum via the
hepatopancreatic ampulla (aka. Ampulla of Vater)

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Chemical Digestion Pathways
 Proteins  peptides  amino acids

 Triglycerides  monoglycerides + fatty acids

 Starch  maltose  glucose

 DNA/RNA  sugar + base + phosphate

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Indigestible Compounds
 Humans do not contain enzymes to break down all
large molecules.

 A good example of this is cellulose.

 Some people are unable to produce the enzyme to

digest lactose sugar which is found in milk.

 These people are termed ‘lactose-intolerant’.

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Large Intestine
 The large intestine is the terminal portion of the GI
tract
 It is approx. 5 feet long and contains no villi.
 Contains Caecum, Colon, Rectum and Anal canal
 The mucosa is mostly columnar epithelial cells for
water absorption and goblet cells for mucus
secretion.
 Chyme leaves the small intestine and enters the
large intestine via the ileocaecal sphincter.
 After travelling through the large intestine, the
resulting material reached the sigmoid colon.
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 Sigmoid Colon

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Sigmoid Colon

 This is the very last part of the colon and leads to the
rectum.
 Very little digestion occurs here, any that does is
carried out by bacteria that ferment undigested
carbohydrates.
 The main function of the sigmoid colon is
reabsorption of water and storage/concentration of
faecal material.
 Vitamins B6 and K can be synthesised by bacteria
here and absorbed.

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Haustral Churning
 Passage along the colon involved haustral churning,
peristalsis and mass peristalsis (a strong wave of
peristalsis stimulated by food in the stomach).
 Haustra are pouches in the large intestine where
material accumulates while relaxed.
 When full, each haustrum contracts to move material
from one haustrum to another.

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Part 2: Describe the structure and function of
the accessory glands and explain their role
in digestion.

1. PANCREAS

2. LIVER

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Pancreas
 Both an Endocrine and Exocrine gland.
 Endocrine function is carried out by the cells of the
Islets of Langerhans (secretes hormones insulin
and glucagon directly into blood).
 The exocrine function is carried out by the cells of
acini - secrete fluid into small intestine via
pancreatic duct.
 They make up the bulk of the organ and secrete a
mixture of digestive enzymes (to digest
proteins/fats/carbs) which forms pancreatic juice.

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 Accessory
Duct

Hepatopancreatic
Ampulla

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Release of Pancreatic Juice
 Under both nervous and hormonal control.

 Parasympathetic impulses via the vagus nerve

 Acid in duodenum  secretin released  pancreatic

juice rich in bicarbonate

 Fats in small intestine cholecystokinin released 

pancreatic juice rich in digestive enzymes

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Liver
 Synthesises bile salts and metabolises the products
of digestion.
 These products enter the liver via the hepatic portal
vein.
 The liver is comprised of 2 lobes, made up of
lobules.
 Hepatocytes form the bulk of the liver and synthesise
bile salts from cholesterol as well as many proteins.
 Bile is responsible for emulsifying fats which makes
them easier to break down.

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 Sheets of hepatocytes are separated by sinusoids.
 Sinusoids are blood capillaries responsible for
transporting blood through the liver.
 Bile is transported through bile capillaries, these are
called canaliculi.
 The liver makes between 250-1200mL bile/day. Any
excess is stored in the gall bladder.
 Bile enters the gall bladder when the sphincter of
oddi (a valve controlling the hepatopancreatic
ampulla) is closed.

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 Oxygen, nutrients and poisons are extracted as
blood moves through the sinusoids of the liver.

 Other nutrients are added by the hepatocytes.

 The liver plays a major role in digestion by

processing the products of digestion as follows:

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The liver and digestion
 Carbohydrates
 The liver stores excess glucose as glycogen (glycogenesis) when
glucose levels are high, and vice versa when glucose levels are low
(glycogenolysis). It can also convert certain amino acids and lactic acid
to glucose (gluconeogenesis). Glucose can also be converted to
triglycerides.
 Proteins
 Deamination of excess amino acids to form ammonia (very toxic) and
then to urea (much less toxic)
 Transamination to convert one amino acid to another that is needed
 Lipids
 Stores some triglycerides, converts fatty acids to acetyl CoA, and
converts excess acetyl CoA to ketone bodies.
 Remove toxins and drugs by secreting them into
bile.

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Part 3: Describe and explain the control of
digestion by the nervous and endocrine
systems.

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Phases of Digestion
 The process of digestion can be split into three
overlapping processes.

1. Cephalic Phase

2. Gastric Phase

3. Intestinal Phase

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+ Saliva release

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1. Cephalic Phase
 Initiated by the sight, smell, taste or thought of
food – prepares the digestive system to receive
food

 Salivary glands are stimulated and begin to

release saliva

 Also leads to the stimulation of parasympathetic

impulses via the vagus nerve which causes
increased gastric secretions and increased
gastric motility

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2. Gastric Phase
 Initiated by
 Distension of stretch receptors in the stomach

 Chemoreceptors which detect an increase in pH due to

food entering and buffering some of the stomach acid

 Neural and Hormonal mechanisms regulate the

Gastric phase to promote gastric secretion and
gastric mobility

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Gastric Phase – Neural Regulation
 Stretch receptors and chemoreceptors become
activated when food enters the stomach

 This leads to the stimulation of parasympathetic and

enteric neurons

 These nerve impulses stimulate gastric secretions

from cells in gastric glands and cause waves of
peristalsis which help gastric emptying

 When food enters the duodenum and the pH of the

stomach drops the receptors are no longer active
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Gastric Phase – Hormonal Regulation
 A hormone called Gastrin is released from G cells
into the blood stream in response to:
 Distension of the stomach
 High pH (release of gastrin is inhibited by low pH)
 Acetylcholine released by Parasympathetic neurons

 Gastrin:
 Stimulates the release of Gastric juices
 Strengthens the contraction of the Cardiac sphincter
 Increases mobility of the stomach and promotes gastric
emptying (relaxes pyloric sphincter)

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3. Intestinal Phase
 Initiated by chyme containing fatty acids and glucose
entering the duodenum

 Functions or the intestinal phase of digestion:

 Regulate (slow down) the release of chyme from the
stomach into the duodenum to prevent overloading
 Promote continued digestion of food

 Controlled by both neural and hormonal mechanisms

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Intestinal Phase – Neural Regulation
 The presence of food in the small intestine initiates a
neural reflex called the enterogastric reflex

 Stretch receptors in the duodenum send signal to the

medulla oblongata to inhibit parasympathetic
stimulation and stimulate sympathetic nerves to the
stomach

 This slows down gastric mobility and leads to

stronger contraction of the pyloric sphincter to slow
gastric emptying

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Intestinal Phase – Hormonal Regulation
 2 Hormones are mainly responsible for the
regulation of the intestinal phase
 Secretin (released by S cells)
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) (Released by I or CCK cells)

 There are about 10 other hormones involved in the

control of digestion

 GIP will be briefly discussed here

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CCK – promotes digestion
 CCK is released in response to chyme containing
undigested material entering the duodenum

 CCK causes the release of digestive enzymes and

bile into the duodenum by:
 Stimulating the release of pancreatic juices
 Causing contractions of the gall bladder
 Relaxing the Sphincter of Oddi

 CCK slows gastric emptying by promoting

contraction of the pyloric sphincter

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Secretin – controls pH
 Secretin is released in the duodenum in response
the drop in pH caused by the acidic chyme

 Secretin:
 Stimulates the flow of pancreatic juices rich in bicarbonate
ions to raise the pH

 Inhibits the secretion of gastric juices (which contain HCl)

 Enhances the effect of CCK

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Glucose dependent Insulinotropic Peptide
 Glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) is
released from K cells in the small intestine

 Originally identified as Gastric inhibiting peptide it

was incorrectly thought to play a role similar to
secretin and CCK

 It is now known to play a role in Insulin secretion

following a meal allowing the body to respond to
sugar even before it is absorbed into the blood
stream

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Gastric Emptying
 Gastric emptying is stimulated by nerve impulses in
response to distension of the stomach and the hormone
gastrin (which contracts lower oesophageal sphincter and
relaxes pyloric sphincter).

 Gastric emptying is inhibited by distension of the

duodenum and presence of acidic chyme (partially
digested food in duodenum) because these stimulate
enterogastric reflex and the release of CCK which inhibit
gastric emptying.

 The rate at which the stomach empties depends on the

amount of chyme the small intestine can process.

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Nervous Control of Digestion
 Parasympathetic impulses will:
 increase the motility of the small intestine
 stimulate the secretion of pancreatic enzymes
 increase the production of bile

 Sympathetic impulses will have the opposite effects to

these.

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 Major
location of Stimuli for Response in
Response in Response in Response in Response in
hormone hormone small
stomach pancreas liver gall bladder
producing release intestine
cells
Acid in small Stimulates
Stimulates
intestine, Inhibits acid bicarbonate Stimulates
fluid and
Duodenum partially secretion rich secretion of
Secretin bicarbonate None
(S cells) digested and gastric secretion, intestinal
secretion in
carbs, motility potentiates juice
bile
proteins, fats CCK action
Stimulates
Inhibits Stimulates Stimulates
secretion of
gastric juice enzyme rich gall bladder
Duodenum Amino acids or Potentiates intestinal
and gastric secretion, contraction,
CCK (I or CCK fatty acids in secretin juice
motility potentiates opens
Cells) small intestine action Induces
secretin sphincter of
felling of
action oddi
satiety

Small Monosacchar- None

Release of
GIP intestine ides in small None None None
Insulin
(K Cells) intestine

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